The Effect of Partial and Parallel Back Squat Exercises on Post-Activation Potentiation in Vertical Jump Performance

The Effect of Partial and Parallel Back Squat Exercises on Post-Activation Potentiation in Vertical Jump Performance | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article The Effect of Partial and Parallel Back Squat Exercises on Post-Activation Potentiation in Vertical Jump Performance İsmail İlbak, Serkan Düz, Vera Knappova, Ladislav Cepicka This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8740434/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract The squat exercise is frequently used to induce Post-Activation Potentiation (PAP) in the lower extremities, and it is well known that different squat techniques elicit distinct muscle activations. In this context, this study aimed to determine which squat depth (partial or parallel) is more effective at eliciting the PAP effect. In this cross-sectional study, 13 male volunteers regularly engaged in resistance exercise, with an average age of 21.07 ± 2.72 years, a height of 178.15 ± 3.69 cm, and a weight of 71.23 ± 5.27 kg, participated. The research comprised four sessions. During the initial session, anthropometric measurements were taken, theoretical information about the test procedures was provided, and trial sessions were conducted. In the second session, participants' baseline vertical jump performances and 1RM maximal strengths were determined. The third session involved implementing the partial squat protocol to induce the PAP effect, followed by the measurement of vertical jump performances. Lastly, the parallel squat protocol was applied in the fourth session, followed by the measurement of vertical jump performances. The study's findings revealed statistically significant improvements in vertical jump performance following both squat protocols compared to baseline, with the parallel squat protocol producing greater enhancements than the partial squat (p < 0.05). Consequently, it is understood that PAP may be effective for enhancing acute lower-extremity strength, and the parallel squat appears to be the more effective technique for inducing the PAP effect. Health sciences/Health care Health sciences/Medical research Biological sciences/Physiology PAP Squat depth Vertical jump Strength Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Introduction The squat is one of the most commonly used resistance exercises for both performance and health, due to its biomechanical and neuromuscular similarities to a wide range of athletic and daily activities 1 , 2 . As a multi-joint task, the squat exercise engages multiple muscle groups simultaneously in a complex manner during its execution 3 . While knee extensors (e.g., rectus femoris, vastus lateralis, and vastus medialis) and hip extensors (e.g., gluteus maximus, biceps femoris, and semitendinosus) are considered as primary movers during the squat exercise, other muscles (e.g., soleus and erector spinae) act in a secondary or stabilizing capacity 4 , 5 , 6 . Moreover, electromyography (EMG) studies have demonstrated that different squat variants (e.g., partial, parallel, or full squats) elicit distinct muscle activation patterns 5 , 7 , 8 . In this context, Gorsuch et al. 9 reported in their study examining the effects of partial and parallel squat exercises on runners' muscle activation (rectus femoris, biceps femoris, lumbar erector spinae, and gastrocnemius) that rectus femoris and erector spinae muscles exhibited significantly higher activity during the parallel squat compared to the partial squat. In contrast, biceps femoris and gastrocnemius muscle activities were similar. Another study by da Silva et al. 5 investigated the muscle activation between partial and full squat exercises in regularly resistance-trained individuals and found similar results in quadriceps femoris muscle activation between partial and full squats when performed with equivalent loads, whereas the full squat resulted in higher activation of gluteus maximus, biceps femoris, and erector spinae compared to the partial squat. Furthermore, in a similar study by Marchetti et al. 3 , muscle activation of the lower extremity was compared during maximal isometric back squat exercise at three knee angles (partial: 20°, parallel: 90°, and full: 140°). The study concluded that the squat performed at a 90° knee angle elicited the greatest activation of the vastus lateralis, vastus medialis, rectus femoris, and gluteus maximus. While research continues regarding the most effective squat exercise variant in terms of muscle activation, it generally involves synergistic hip, knee, and ankle flexion during descent followed by knee and hip extension during ascent across all variants 7 , 8 , indicating its biomechanical similarity to the crucial skill of vertical jumping observed in many sports disciplines. Coaches and researchers consider vertical jump height as one of the fundamental athletic skills that translates into enhanced performance in various sports 10 – 12 . One method used to improve vertical jump performance is Post-Activation Potentiation (PAP), which refers to the increase in force output following a prior contraction 13 . It is noted that PAP acutely increases muscle power and, consequently, improves sports performance 14 . Additionally, the magnitude of PAP is suggested to be greater following high levels of muscle activation 15 . Therefore, given that different squat exercise variants elicit distinct muscle activations, it is hypothesized that they may differentially impact vertical jump performance following PAP. Understanding the effects of exercises used to enhance vertical jump performance, especially squat variants, on PAP would help athletes and coaches make more informed decisions when selecting the most effective exercises. In the literature, when examining studies that directly investigate which partial or parallel squat exercise is more effective at eliciting PAP, to the best of our knowledge, there is only one study by Esformes & Bampouras16. However, in the study by Esformes & Bampouras 16 , vertical jump performance was measured after a 5-minute rest interval following the conditioning activity. This suggests that the observed performance enhancements are more likely attributable to Post-Activation Performance Enhancement (PAPE) rather than true PAP. PAP is a process that results in a short-term increase in power and speed production after high-intensity muscle activation, through the transiently more efficient functioning of intramuscular contractile mechanisms. This effect is associated with temporary increases in myosin light chain phosphorylation and motor unit recruitment and typically reaches an optimal level within approximately 3–4 minutes, after which it rapidly declines 17 . PAPE, on the other hand, refers to a more prolonged and cumulative performance enhancement. Although the underlying physiological mechanisms are not fully elucidated, PAPE is thought to be influenced by factors such as increased muscle temperature, improved neuromuscular efficiency, and metabolic changes in circulation. While the PAP effect occurs within a few minutes, PAPE is generally observed over longer recovery periods (≥ 5 minutes) and results in more sustained performance improvements 17 . In this context, the present study employed a 3-minute rest period following the conditioning protocol, which is expected to more clearly reflect the acute effects of partial and parallel squat techniques on inducing PAP. Therefore, this study aimed to determine which squat depth (partial or parallel) is more effective at inducing PAP. Based on EMG findings reported in the literature, it was hypothesized that the parallel squat would elicit a greater PAP response in the lower extremities compared to the partial squat. Methods Participants G*Power 3.1.9.7 software (University of Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany) was utilized to determine the appropriate sample size for this study. In this context, F-tests from ANOVA: repeated measures were employed. When the effect size was set at 0.50, with a beta error probability (β) of 0.95 and an alpha error rate (α) of 0.05, it was determined that the participant group should consist of at least 12 individuals. Accordingly, 13 male participants were included in the study. All participants were informed about the purpose, procedures, potential risks, and benefits of the study, and written informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to participation. The anthropometric characteristics of the participants are presented in Table 1 . Table 1 Anthropometric characteristics of the participants Variables n Minimum Maximum Mean ± SD Age (years) 13 18.00 25.00 21.07 ± 2.72 Body Height (cm) 13 172.00 184.00 178.15 ± 3.69 Body Weight (kg) 13 60.00 80.00 71.23 ± 5.27 Experimental Design This cross-sectional study was conducted in accordance with the Helsinki Declaration, following approval from the İnonu University Scientific Research and Publication Ethics Committee (Approval Number: 2025/8771; date: 18 November 2025). Written informed consent was obtained from all participants before the commencement of the study. In the study, a free-weight one-repetition maximum (1-RM) squat was performed to determine participants' lower extremity maximal strength. The PAP protocol was then applied using partial and parallel squat protocols consisting of three repetitions at 80% of 1-RM. The study comprised four sessions in total. During the initial familiarization session, anthropometric measurements were taken, theoretical information about the test procedures was provided, and trial sessions were conducted. In the second session, participants' vertical jump performances and one-repetition maximum (1-RM) maximal strength were determined. In the third session, the Partial Squat protocol was applied to induce the PAP effect, followed by the measurement of vertical jump performances. Lastly, in the fourth session, the Parallel Squat protocol was applied, followed by the measurement of vertical jump performances. Participants were instructed to avoid engaging in any exercise on the day before the measurements, to refrain from consuming stimulant beverages such as tea, coffee, alcohol, or carbonated drinks, and to have their last meal at least 2 hours before the measurements. The experimental design of the study is presented in Fig. 1 . Anthropometric Measurements The measurements of participants in the study adhered to the recommended measurement techniques and standards outlined by the International Society for the Advancement of Kinanthropometry (ISAK) 18 . Height measurements were taken barefoot using a stadiometer (SECA, Germany) with a precision of 0.01 m, while body weights were measured with participants wearing only shorts using an electronic scale (Tanita, SC-330, Japan) with a precision of 0.1 kg. 1-RM Protocol Before the 1-RM protocol, the warm-up protocol described by Maroto-Izquierdo et al. 19 was employed. This warm-up routine consisted of 5 minutes of dynamic stretching exercises, including forward leg swings, ankle dorsiflexion and plantar flexion, side leg swings, high knees, heel kicks, squats, and forward lunges. Each exercise was performed for 20 seconds, and the entire set was repeated twice. A standardized 1-repetition maximum (1-RM) squat test was conducted to determine 1-RM performance. Free weights and a barbell (Ohio Power Bar, USA) were used during the test. Before the test, all participants underwent a standardized warm-up protocol to minimize injury risk and optimize performance. Before the test, all participants were allowed to determine their initial weight at their discretion. This initial weight was selected as a load that the participant could comfortably lift for 5–6 repetitions. After completing repetitions at the initial weight, the load was increased by 5–10% in each attempt to determine the maximum weight the participant could lift for a single repetition. During the 1-RM test, a 3–5 minute rest period was recommended between each maximal attempt. Participants performed the squat movement with a full range of motion, ensuring that the thighs reached a parallel position to the ground. After a successful lift, the load was increased; however, the test was terminated after two consecutive failed attempts. All tests were conducted under the supervision of experienced researchers and coaches, with appropriate safety measures in place. PAP Protocol Before the PAP protocol, dynamic warm-up was applied as recommended by Kurak et al. 20 . The PAP protocol was executed utilizing two distinct squat depths: partial squats with a knee joint angle of 20° and parallel squats with a knee joint angle of 90°. Knee joint angles were assessed using a goniometer (Plastic 12" Goniometer 360 Degrees ISOM), with full knee extension regarded as the baseline position for all angles. Participants maintained a consistent stance, with feet vertically aligned and hip-width apart, while the barbell was positioned across their shoulders (in the high bar position) for all participants and experimental conditions. In determining the loading intensity for PAP application, the loading intensities reported by Masel & Maciejczyk 21 were considered. According to this approach, participants completed one set of three repetitions at 50% of their 1-RM load, followed by another set at 70% of their 1-RM load, and finally a set at 80% of their 1-RM load. Following a 180-second recovery interval, participants' vertical jump performances were assessed. Vertical Jump Test Participants were instructed to distribute their body weight equally on both feet and stand with their feet shoulder-width apart. To determine the baseline, athletes were asked to touch the highest point they could reach on the Vertec device (Jump USA, USA), which was recorded as the zero reference point. During the test phase, participants were required to perform an explosive jump without taking any steps by bending their knees, hips, and ankles, and then attempt to touch the highest possible point on the Vertec. The difference between the maximum height reached during the jump and the baseline was measured and recorded in centimeters 22 . Data Analysis Statistical analyses were conducted using GraphPad Prism (version 10.3.1). Differences between conditions were evaluated using a repeated-measures analysis of variance (ANOVA). As the assumption of sphericity was violated, the Geisser–Greenhouse correction was applied. Data normality was assessed using skewness and kurtosis values. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. Results Table 2 The Effect of Different Back Squat Techniques Utilized by Participants on Vertical Jump Performance to Elicit PAP Performances Mean ± SD df Mean square F p R² Baseline 39.23 ± 1.58 2 107.2 115.0 .001** 0.905 Partial squat 41.00 ± 1.58 Parallel squat 44.84 ± 2.11 **p < 0.001 In Table 2 , the repeated-measures ANOVA revealed a statistically significant difference between the experimental conditions (F(1.433, 17.20) = 115.0, p < .001, R² = 0.9055). The model demonstrated high explanatory power, accounting for 90.55% of the variance in vertical jump performance attributable to the experimental conditions. **p < 0.001 In Fig. 2 , post hoc multiple comparisons indicated statistically significant differences among squat conditions (p < .001). The difference between the baseline and partial squat condition (MDiff = − 1.77, 95% CI [− 2.39, − 1.15]) was statistically significant but smaller in magnitude compared to other contrasts. The difference between the baseline and parallel squat condition (MDiff = − 5.62, 95% CI [− 6.77, − 4.46]) represented the largest effect. Additionally, the difference between the partial and parallel squat conditions (MDiff = − 3.85, 95% CI [− 5.01, − 2.68]) was statistically significant, indicating that the parallel squat elicited a greater enhancement in vertical jump performance than the partial squat. Discussion This study aimed to determine which partial- and parallel-squat exercise is more effective at inducing the PAP effect to enhance acute lower-extremity explosive muscle strength, and it yielded significant findings. In this context, the research findings suggest the potential role of PAP in the development of acute lower-extremity strength and indicate that the parallel squat technique may be more effective for generating PAP-related performance enhancements. These results support our hypothesis, suggesting that the parallel squat technique is more effective at inducing PAP effects in the lower extremities than the partial squat technique. EMG studies have found increased vertical jump performance and increased muscle activation following parallel squat-based exercises 23 , 24 . Although these studies have primarily focused on loading intensity, muscle activation, and power output, they support the view that muscle activation level is a significant factor in inducing PAP effects. Considering the results of studies reporting the highest muscle activation in the parallel squat technique 3 , 5 , 9 , the hypothesis of the present study that the parallel squat is more effective than the partial squat in inducing PAP effects is further supported. Another study by Anbarian & Avazzadeh Samani 25 on this topic reported a significant increase in muscle activity during vertical jump after PAP application. This increase may be associated with transient motor unit recruitment and neuromuscular adaptations, along with changes in mechanical efficiency 25 , 26 . Such mechanisms may allow muscles to produce greater power output, thereby enhancing performance in explosive movements such as vertical jumping. In the literature examining the effectiveness of partial and parallel squat exercises in eliciting PAP, to the best of our knowledge, only the study by Esformes and Bampouras 16 directly addressed this comparison. However, as discussed in the introduction, the 5-minute recovery interval used in that study suggests that the observed performance enhancement is more likely attributable to PAPE rather than PAP. PAP is a brief physiological phenomenon, lasting seconds to minutes, primarily due to myosin light chain phosphorylation in type II muscle fibers, and is characterized by an increased muscle twitch response. In contrast, PAPE occurs after several minutes and lasts longer, enhancing the rate of force development during dynamic contractions 17 . The effectiveness of the parallel squat technique in inducing post-activation potentiation (PAP) compared to the partial squat technique is likely due to differences in range of motion between the two techniques. These differences influence the work produced by the gluteus maximus and other relevant muscles 16 . The parallel squat technique may create greater muscle stimulation, enabling these muscles to generate more power, which could make it more effective than the partial squat technique in eliciting PAP. Consequently, the choice of squat technique may play a significant role in optimizing PAP effects and enhancing muscle strength. This study also has some limitations. In this regard, the lack of EMG examination of muscle activation levels in the relevant muscles during PAP protocols and vertical jump performance is considered a limitation of the study. Additionally, this study has another limitation: the use of the parallel squat technique to determine participants' 1-RM performance levels and loading intensity in both PAP protocols. Lastly, another limitation of this study is its exclusive focus on partial and parallel squat techniques, rather than the full squat technique. Therefore, future research should consider using EMG to track muscle activation, determine 1-RM using the same techniques for each squat technique, and examine the effects of the full squat technique in addition to partial and parallel squat techniques. Conclusion The results of this study indicate that both partial and parallel squat techniques can be effective in eliciting PAP-related improvements in vertical jump performance. Furthermore, the findings suggest that the parallel squat technique may be more effective than the partial squat technique in inducing PAP-related performance enhancement. These results highlight the importance of selecting appropriate squat techniques when aiming to optimize acute neuromuscular performance. Declarations Funding Declaration This research received no specific funding for this work. Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare no competing interests. Author Contribution İ.İ and S.D designed and performed the research, analyzed the data, and wrote the manuscript. V.K substantively revised the work and contributed to writing. L.C conceptualized the study, interpreted the data, and substantively revised the manuscript. Data Availability The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon request, subject to institutional and ethical considerations. References Andersen, V. et al. 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Anbarian, M. & Avazzadeh Samani, S. Comparison of the Effectiveness of Traditional and Post-activation Potentiation Warm-up Methods on EMG Variables of Selected Lower Limb Muscles During Squat Jump. Phys. Treat. Spec. Phys. Ther. J. 12 , 123–132 (2022). Kubo, K. et al. Activation of agonist and antagonist muscles at different joint angles during maximal isometric efforts. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 91 , 349–352 (2004). Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8740434","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":588848209,"identity":"fdcd5cbb-af17-42df-bb99-861c6329f5f6","order_by":0,"name":"İsmail İlbak","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Inonu University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"İsmail","middleName":"","lastName":"İlbak","suffix":""},{"id":588848210,"identity":"0c17a1fc-5f9a-4f53-a59c-d14578fcefcd","order_by":1,"name":"Serkan Düz","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Inonu University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Serkan","middleName":"","lastName":"Düz","suffix":""},{"id":588848211,"identity":"3eb5a344-5644-47d2-9f84-edd12a8627bb","order_by":2,"name":"Vera Knappova","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of West Bohemia","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Vera","middleName":"","lastName":"Knappova","suffix":""},{"id":588848212,"identity":"8ea7dab3-bb42-483a-97ff-e07913e96d53","order_by":3,"name":"Ladislav Cepicka","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA0klEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACPhCRAIT8PMRqYYNpkexhJkULSJPBGaK1sB8+9uBBTZq88ZnzxyQY/tglNrAff4BfC09aukHCsRzDbWeb2SQYeJITG3gSEvBrkeAxk0hsqGDcdp6Z2YBB4kBigwTDAQJa+L+BtNhv7gdpMQBpYWwgZAsbUEtO4gbeZsYHDAkgLQTCAegXc6Bf0pJnnDls+CDhQLJxG08afi387IefPfxRk2zb35P44MCHP3ay/YRCjAEeNSCQgMolRssoGAWjYBSMAmwAAD7MPhuoljI+AAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"University of West Bohemia","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ladislav","middleName":"","lastName":"Cepicka","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-01-30 11:23:24","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8740434/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8740434/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":102398254,"identity":"357a1a68-96aa-4226-826c-83d4a9241b79","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-11 10:21:57","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":59007,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eExperimental design of the research\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8740434/v1/4ab7e0b5d6e64c5f34d7aaff.png"},{"id":102389335,"identity":"57161fa4-a0d3-44a3-8b3f-5093e57b0292","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-11 08:28:17","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":5404,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffects of different squatting techniques\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e**p\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8740434/v1/2233b33862199a6cb3cf69fe.png"},{"id":103205361,"identity":"9b174631-78dc-4914-816f-50af6366212f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-23 07:12:14","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":546723,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8740434/v1/607fb924-2e44-4738-a24c-20a17bd695b3.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"The Effect of Partial and Parallel Back Squat Exercises on Post-Activation Potentiation in Vertical Jump Performance","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe squat is one of the most commonly used resistance exercises for both performance and health, due to its biomechanical and neuromuscular similarities to a wide range of athletic and daily activities\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. As a multi-joint task, the squat exercise engages multiple muscle groups simultaneously in a complex manner during its execution\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. While knee extensors (e.g., rectus femoris, vastus lateralis, and vastus medialis) and hip extensors (e.g., gluteus maximus, biceps femoris, and semitendinosus) are considered as primary movers during the squat exercise, other muscles (e.g., soleus and erector spinae) act in a secondary or stabilizing capacity\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoreover, electromyography (EMG) studies have demonstrated that different squat variants (e.g., partial, parallel, or full squats) elicit distinct muscle activation patterns\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. In this context, Gorsuch et al.\u003csup\u003e9\u003c/sup\u003e reported in their study examining the effects of partial and parallel squat exercises on runners' muscle activation (rectus femoris, biceps femoris, lumbar erector spinae, and gastrocnemius) that rectus femoris and erector spinae muscles exhibited significantly higher activity during the parallel squat compared to the partial squat. In contrast, biceps femoris and gastrocnemius muscle activities were similar. Another study by da Silva et al.\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e investigated the muscle activation between partial and full squat exercises in regularly resistance-trained individuals and found similar results in quadriceps femoris muscle activation between partial and full squats when performed with equivalent loads, whereas the full squat resulted in higher activation of gluteus maximus, biceps femoris, and erector spinae compared to the partial squat. Furthermore, in a similar study by Marchetti et al.\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e, muscle activation of the lower extremity was compared during maximal isometric back squat exercise at three knee angles (partial: 20\u0026deg;, parallel: 90\u0026deg;, and full: 140\u0026deg;). The study concluded that the squat performed at a 90\u0026deg; knee angle elicited the greatest activation of the vastus lateralis, vastus medialis, rectus femoris, and gluteus maximus. While research continues regarding the most effective squat exercise variant in terms of muscle activation, it generally involves synergistic hip, knee, and ankle flexion during descent followed by knee and hip extension during ascent across all variants\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, indicating its biomechanical similarity to the crucial skill of vertical jumping observed in many sports disciplines.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoaches and researchers consider vertical jump height as one of the fundamental athletic skills that translates into enhanced performance in various sports\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR11\" citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. One method used to improve vertical jump performance is Post-Activation Potentiation (PAP), which refers to the increase in force output following a prior contraction\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. It is noted that PAP acutely increases muscle power and, consequently, improves sports performance\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Additionally, the magnitude of PAP is suggested to be greater following high levels of muscle activation\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Therefore, given that different squat exercise variants elicit distinct muscle activations, it is hypothesized that they may differentially impact vertical jump performance following PAP.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnderstanding the effects of exercises used to enhance vertical jump performance, especially squat variants, on PAP would help athletes and coaches make more informed decisions when selecting the most effective exercises. In the literature, when examining studies that directly investigate which partial or parallel squat exercise is more effective at eliciting PAP, to the best of our knowledge, there is only one study by Esformes \u0026amp; Bampouras16. However, in the study by Esformes \u0026amp; Bampouras\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, vertical jump performance was measured after a 5-minute rest interval following the conditioning activity. This suggests that the observed performance enhancements are more likely attributable to Post-Activation Performance Enhancement (PAPE) rather than true PAP.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePAP is a process that results in a short-term increase in power and speed production after high-intensity muscle activation, through the transiently more efficient functioning of intramuscular contractile mechanisms. This effect is associated with temporary increases in myosin light chain phosphorylation and motor unit recruitment and typically reaches an optimal level within approximately 3\u0026ndash;4 minutes, after which it rapidly declines\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. PAPE, on the other hand, refers to a more prolonged and cumulative performance enhancement. Although the underlying physiological mechanisms are not fully elucidated, PAPE is thought to be influenced by factors such as increased muscle temperature, improved neuromuscular efficiency, and metabolic changes in circulation. While the PAP effect occurs within a few minutes, PAPE is generally observed over longer recovery periods (\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;5 minutes) and results in more sustained performance improvements\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. In this context, the present study employed a 3-minute rest period following the conditioning protocol, which is expected to more clearly reflect the acute effects of partial and parallel squat techniques on inducing PAP.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTherefore, this study aimed to determine which squat depth (partial or parallel) is more effective at inducing PAP. Based on EMG findings reported in the literature, it was hypothesized that the parallel squat would elicit a greater PAP response in the lower extremities compared to the partial squat.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eParticipants\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eG*Power 3.1.9.7 software (University of D\u0026uuml;sseldorf, D\u0026uuml;sseldorf, Germany) was utilized to determine the appropriate sample size for this study. In this context, F-tests from ANOVA: repeated measures were employed. When the effect size was set at 0.50, with a beta error probability (β) of 0.95 and an alpha error rate (α) of 0.05, it was determined that the participant group should consist of at least 12 individuals. Accordingly, 13 male participants were included in the study. All participants were informed about the purpose, procedures, potential risks, and benefits of the study, and written informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to participation. The anthropometric characteristics of the participants are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnthropometric characteristics of the participants\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariables\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003en\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMinimum\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMaximum\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge (years)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.07\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBody Height (cm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e172.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e184.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e178.15\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBody Weight (kg)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e71.23\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eExperimental Design\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e This cross-sectional study was conducted in accordance with the Helsinki Declaration, following approval from the İnonu University Scientific Research and Publication Ethics Committee (Approval Number: 2025/8771; date: 18 November 2025). Written informed consent was obtained from all participants before the commencement of the study. In the study, a free-weight one-repetition maximum (1-RM) squat was performed to determine participants' lower extremity maximal strength. The PAP protocol was then applied using partial and parallel squat protocols consisting of three repetitions at 80% of 1-RM. The study comprised four sessions in total. During the initial familiarization session, anthropometric measurements were taken, theoretical information about the test procedures was provided, and trial sessions were conducted. In the second session, participants' vertical jump performances and one-repetition maximum (1-RM) maximal strength were determined. In the third session, the Partial Squat protocol was applied to induce the PAP effect, followed by the measurement of vertical jump performances. Lastly, in the fourth session, the Parallel Squat protocol was applied, followed by the measurement of vertical jump performances. Participants were instructed to avoid engaging in any exercise on the day before the measurements, to refrain from consuming stimulant beverages such as tea, coffee, alcohol, or carbonated drinks, and to have their last meal at least 2 hours before the measurements. The experimental design of the study is presented in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eAnthropometric Measurements\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe measurements of participants in the study adhered to the recommended measurement techniques and standards outlined by the International Society for the Advancement of Kinanthropometry (ISAK)\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Height measurements were taken barefoot using a stadiometer (SECA, Germany) with a precision of 0.01 m, while body weights were measured with participants wearing only shorts using an electronic scale (Tanita, SC-330, Japan) with a precision of 0.1 kg.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003e1-RM Protocol\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBefore the 1-RM protocol, the warm-up protocol described by Maroto-Izquierdo et al.\u003csup\u003e19\u003c/sup\u003e was employed. This warm-up routine consisted of 5 minutes of dynamic stretching exercises, including forward leg swings, ankle dorsiflexion and plantar flexion, side leg swings, high knees, heel kicks, squats, and forward lunges. Each exercise was performed for 20 seconds, and the entire set was repeated twice. A standardized 1-repetition maximum (1-RM) squat test was conducted to determine 1-RM performance. Free weights and a barbell (Ohio Power Bar, USA) were used during the test. Before the test, all participants underwent a standardized warm-up protocol to minimize injury risk and optimize performance. Before the test, all participants were allowed to determine their initial weight at their discretion. This initial weight was selected as a load that the participant could comfortably lift for 5\u0026ndash;6 repetitions. After completing repetitions at the initial weight, the load was increased by 5\u0026ndash;10% in each attempt to determine the maximum weight the participant could lift for a single repetition. During the 1-RM test, a 3\u0026ndash;5 minute rest period was recommended between each maximal attempt. Participants performed the squat movement with a full range of motion, ensuring that the thighs reached a parallel position to the ground. After a successful lift, the load was increased; however, the test was terminated after two consecutive failed attempts. All tests were conducted under the supervision of experienced researchers and coaches, with appropriate safety measures in place.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003ePAP Protocol\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBefore the PAP protocol, dynamic warm-up was applied as recommended by Kurak et al.\u003csup\u003e20\u003c/sup\u003e. The PAP protocol was executed utilizing two distinct squat depths: partial squats with a knee joint angle of 20\u0026deg; and parallel squats with a knee joint angle of 90\u0026deg;. Knee joint angles were assessed using a goniometer (Plastic 12\" Goniometer 360 Degrees ISOM), with full knee extension regarded as the baseline position for all angles. Participants maintained a consistent stance, with feet vertically aligned and hip-width apart, while the barbell was positioned across their shoulders (in the high bar position) for all participants and experimental conditions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn determining the loading intensity for PAP application, the loading intensities reported by Masel \u0026amp; Maciejczyk\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e were considered. According to this approach, participants completed one set of three repetitions at 50% of their 1-RM load, followed by another set at 70% of their 1-RM load, and finally a set at 80% of their 1-RM load. Following a 180-second recovery interval, participants' vertical jump performances were assessed.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eVertical Jump Test\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eParticipants were instructed to distribute their body weight equally on both feet and stand with their feet shoulder-width apart. To determine the baseline, athletes were asked to touch the highest point they could reach on the Vertec device (Jump USA, USA), which was recorded as the zero reference point. During the test phase, participants were required to perform an explosive jump without taking any steps by bending their knees, hips, and ankles, and then attempt to touch the highest possible point on the Vertec. The difference between the maximum height reached during the jump and the baseline was measured and recorded in centimeters\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eData Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eStatistical analyses were conducted using GraphPad Prism (version 10.3.1). Differences between conditions were evaluated using a repeated-measures analysis of variance (ANOVA). As the assumption of sphericity was violated, the Geisser\u0026ndash;Greenhouse correction was applied. Data normality was assessed using skewness and kurtosis values. Statistical significance was set at p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Effect of Different Back Squat Techniques Utilized by Participants on Vertical Jump Performance to Elicit PAP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePerformances\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003edf\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean square\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ep\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR\u0026sup2;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBaseline\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39.23\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e107.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e115.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.001**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.905\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePartial squat\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParallel squat\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e44.84\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"7\"\u003e**p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, the repeated-measures ANOVA revealed a statistically significant difference between the experimental conditions (F(1.433, 17.20)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;115.0, p \u0026lt; .001, R\u0026sup2; = 0.9055). The model demonstrated high explanatory power, accounting for 90.55% of the variance in vertical jump performance attributable to the experimental conditions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e**p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, post hoc multiple comparisons indicated statistically significant differences among squat conditions (p \u0026lt; .001). The difference between the baseline and partial squat condition (MDiff\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1.77, 95% CI [\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2.39, \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1.15]) was statistically significant but smaller in magnitude compared to other contrasts. The difference between the baseline and parallel squat condition (MDiff\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;5.62, 95% CI [\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;6.77, \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;4.46]) represented the largest effect. Additionally, the difference between the partial and parallel squat conditions (MDiff\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3.85, 95% CI [\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;5.01, \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2.68]) was statistically significant, indicating that the parallel squat elicited a greater enhancement in vertical jump performance than the partial squat.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study aimed to determine which partial- and parallel-squat exercise is more effective at inducing the PAP effect to enhance acute lower-extremity explosive muscle strength, and it yielded significant findings. In this context, the research findings suggest the potential role of PAP in the development of acute lower-extremity strength and indicate that the parallel squat technique may be more effective for generating PAP-related performance enhancements. These results support our hypothesis, suggesting that the parallel squat technique is more effective at inducing PAP effects in the lower extremities than the partial squat technique.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEMG studies have found increased vertical jump performance and increased muscle activation following parallel squat-based exercises \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Although these studies have primarily focused on loading intensity, muscle activation, and power output, they support the view that muscle activation level is a significant factor in inducing PAP effects. Considering the results of studies reporting the highest muscle activation in the parallel squat technique\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, the hypothesis of the present study that the parallel squat is more effective than the partial squat in inducing PAP effects is further supported. Another study by Anbarian \u0026amp; Avazzadeh Samani\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e on this topic reported a significant increase in muscle activity during vertical jump after PAP application. This increase may be associated with transient motor unit recruitment and neuromuscular adaptations, along with changes in mechanical efficiency\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Such mechanisms may allow muscles to produce greater power output, thereby enhancing performance in explosive movements such as vertical jumping.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the literature examining the effectiveness of partial and parallel squat exercises in eliciting PAP, to the best of our knowledge, only the study by Esformes and Bampouras\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e directly addressed this comparison. However, as discussed in the introduction, the 5-minute recovery interval used in that study suggests that the observed performance enhancement is more likely attributable to PAPE rather than PAP.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePAP is a brief physiological phenomenon, lasting seconds to minutes, primarily due to myosin light chain phosphorylation in type II muscle fibers, and is characterized by an increased muscle twitch response. In contrast, PAPE occurs after several minutes and lasts longer, enhancing the rate of force development during dynamic contractions\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe effectiveness of the parallel squat technique in inducing post-activation potentiation (PAP) compared to the partial squat technique is likely due to differences in range of motion between the two techniques. These differences influence the work produced by the gluteus maximus and other relevant muscles\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The parallel squat technique may create greater muscle stimulation, enabling these muscles to generate more power, which could make it more effective than the partial squat technique in eliciting PAP. Consequently, the choice of squat technique may play a significant role in optimizing PAP effects and enhancing muscle strength.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study also has some limitations. In this regard, the lack of EMG examination of muscle activation levels in the relevant muscles during PAP protocols and vertical jump performance is considered a limitation of the study. Additionally, this study has another limitation: the use of the parallel squat technique to determine participants' 1-RM performance levels and loading intensity in both PAP protocols. Lastly, another limitation of this study is its exclusive focus on partial and parallel squat techniques, rather than the full squat technique. Therefore, future research should consider using EMG to track muscle activation, determine 1-RM using the same techniques for each squat technique, and examine the effects of the full squat technique in addition to partial and parallel squat techniques.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe results of this study indicate that both partial and parallel squat techniques can be effective in eliciting PAP-related improvements in vertical jump performance. Furthermore, the findings suggest that the parallel squat technique may be more effective than the partial squat technique in inducing PAP-related performance enhancement. These results highlight the importance of selecting appropriate squat techniques when aiming to optimize acute neuromuscular performance.\u003c/p\u003e "},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding Declaration\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research received no specific funding for this work.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003ch2\u003eDeclaration of Competing Interest\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eİ.İ and S.D designed and performed the research, analyzed the data, and wrote the manuscript. V.K substantively revised the work and contributed to writing. L.C conceptualized the study, interpreted the data, and substantively revised the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon request, subject to institutional and ethical considerations.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAndersen, V. et al. Electromyographic Comparison of Squats Using Constant or Variable Resistance. \u003cem\u003eJ. Strength. Cond Res.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e30\u003c/b\u003e, 3456\u0026ndash;3463 (2016).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKompf, J. \u0026amp; Arandjelović, O. 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Med.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e9\u003c/b\u003e, 326\u0026ndash;331 (2010).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAnbarian, M. \u0026amp; Avazzadeh Samani, S. Comparison of the Effectiveness of Traditional and Post-activation Potentiation Warm-up Methods on EMG Variables of Selected Lower Limb Muscles During Squat Jump. \u003cem\u003ePhys. Treat. Spec. Phys. Ther. J.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e12\u003c/b\u003e, 123\u0026ndash;132 (2022).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKubo, K. et al. Activation of agonist and antagonist muscles at different joint angles during maximal isometric efforts. \u003cem\u003eEur. J. Appl. Physiol.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e91\u003c/b\u003e, 349\u0026ndash;352 (2004).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"PAP, Squat depth, Vertical jump, Strength","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8740434/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8740434/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThe squat exercise is frequently used to induce Post-Activation Potentiation (PAP) in the lower extremities, and it is well known that different squat techniques elicit distinct muscle activations. In this context, this study aimed to determine which squat depth (partial or parallel) is more effective at eliciting the PAP effect. In this cross-sectional study, 13 male volunteers regularly engaged in resistance exercise, with an average age of 21.07\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.72 years, a height of 178.15\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.69 cm, and a weight of 71.23\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.27 kg, participated. The research comprised four sessions. During the initial session, anthropometric measurements were taken, theoretical information about the test procedures was provided, and trial sessions were conducted. In the second session, participants' baseline vertical jump performances and 1RM maximal strengths were determined. The third session involved implementing the partial squat protocol to induce the PAP effect, followed by the measurement of vertical jump performances. Lastly, the parallel squat protocol was applied in the fourth session, followed by the measurement of vertical jump performances. The study's findings revealed statistically significant improvements in vertical jump performance following both squat protocols compared to baseline, with the parallel squat protocol producing greater enhancements than the partial squat (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). Consequently, it is understood that PAP may be effective for enhancing acute lower-extremity strength, and the parallel squat appears to be the more effective technique for inducing the PAP effect.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"The Effect of Partial and Parallel Back Squat Exercises on Post-Activation Potentiation in Vertical Jump Performance","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-02-11 08:28:10","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8740434/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"2373af2b-4e3c-4aac-a8c7-987edfb7851c","owner":[],"postedDate":"February 11th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":62646126,"name":"Health sciences/Health care"},{"id":62646127,"name":"Health sciences/Medical research"},{"id":62646128,"name":"Biological sciences/Physiology"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-02-23T07:11:27+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-02-11 08:28:10","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8740434","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8740434","identity":"rs-8740434","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}