Stream sediments geochemical and heavy metal pollution assessment of Irese, Igoba and Ilado areas (north of Akure), Southwestern Nigeria

Stream sediments geochemical and heavy metal pollution assessment of Irese, Igoba and Ilado areas (north of Akure), Southwestern Nigeria | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Stream sediments geochemical and heavy metal pollution assessment of Irese, Igoba and Ilado areas (north of Akure), Southwestern Nigeria Olusiji Samuel Ayodele, Timilehin Daniel Akande, Oladotun Afolabi Oluwajana This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6917081/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This study examines geochemical characteristics and heavymetal pollution of stream sediments and rocks in Irese, Igoba and Ilado, where no prior assessment exists. Thirty streamsediment samples were systematically collected (1 sample per 4 km², 1 m depth), along with six petrographic and twenty ICPMSanalyzed rock samples. Grapher, Surfer, SPSS and Excel facilitated evaluation of enrichment levels, pollution indices and multivariate relationships. Elevated Fe, Al, Pb, Zn, and Cu concentrations at several sites suggest derivation from mafictointermediate source rocks and potential sulphide mineralization under hydrothermal influence. Univariate statistics show negative skewness for Cu, Zn, Cd, Ba and positive skewness for Fe, Pb, Ni, Co, Mn, Cr, indicating multimodal distributions and diverse provenance. Factor analysis yielded three components: (1) CuPbZn linked to sulphide mineralization, (2) polymetallic pathfinder assemblages, and (3) weathered elements reflecting prolonged alteration. Hierarchical clustering grouped elements into aluminosilicate/siderophile (FeAl), sulphide-related (CuPbZnCd) and lithophile (NiCoMnCr) clusters, underscoring varied source contributions, including felsic and mafic rocks. Correlation patterns corroborate mixed sediment origins. Index of Geoaccumulation values show unpolluted conditions for most metals, moderate Pb pollution likely from anthropogenic activities, and localized Fe enrichment. Enrichment Factors indicate minimal enrichment for most elements, whereas Pb and Zn display moderatetosignificant enrichment, highlighting prospective lead-zinc sulphide mineralization zones in the area. The study provided a baseline geochemical dataset crucial for future environmental monitoring, landuse planning, guiding mineral exploration, and resource development strategies. Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 1.0 Introduction Stream sediment geochemistry plays a vital role in geochemical exploration by providing insights into geological and geochemical variations, thus facilitating the identification of mineralized zones (Rose et al., 1979 ). The geochemistry of urban river sediments has garnered growing attention due to the potential long-term toxicity associated with heavy metal contaminants originating from urban activities (Asowata et al., 2015 ). This form of pollution is especially problematic in developing countries, where regulatory frameworks, environmental monitoring, and remediation efforts are often inadequate (Islam et al., 2019 ). Heavy metals, which occur naturally in trace amounts, have become widespread in air, soil, and water due to anthropogenic activities such as mining, agriculture, fossil fuel combustion, and industrial discharge (Chen et al., 2022 ; Khan et al., 2018 ). While naturally occurring concentrations typically pose minimal risk, elevated levels resulting from human activity are toxic to ecosystems and human health (Sanayei et al., 2019 ; Romero et al., 2021 ). Stream sediments serve as long-term sinks for heavy metals, making them effective indicators of both natural geochemical processes and anthropogenic pollution. Their analysis provides critical information on the spatial distribution, sources, and potential ecological and health risks of heavy metal contaminants (Myangan et al., 2017 ). Globally, heavy metal contamination in sediments is increasingly recognized as a critical environmental issue, particularly in rapidly urbanizing regions and areas undergoing intensive resource exploitation. Studies of this nature play a crucial role, not only in guiding local environmental management but also in enhancing the broader scientific understanding of metal dispersion mechanisms, the ecological consequences of mineralization, and pathways toward the sustainable development of natural resources (Wong and Chadwick, 2024 ). The study areas (Fig. 1 ), which have recently experienced the establishment of quarry operations, are situated near Akure (the state capital of Ondo State) in southwestern Nigeria and are integral components of the peri-urban settlements that surround the city. Topographically, the area is gently undulating with scattered inselbergs and a notable north-south trending ridge formed by the porphyritic granite, which influences surface runoff and reduces infiltration capacity. The drainage pattern is predominantly dendritic, and the area is traversed by three main streams, namely River Ugele, River Ilado, and River Aaye. Despite increasing anthropogenic activities in the Irese, Igoba, and Ilado areas, there is a lack of documented studies focusing on their geochemical composition and heavy metal pollution status. This gap in knowledge forms the basis for the present study. This study examines the abundance, distribution, geochemical characteristics, and pollution status of heavy metals in the Aye, Igoba and Ilado areas of Akure in southwestern Nigeria, to assess the environmental impact and potential mineralisation. The study areas are located north of Akure township. 2.0 Geology of the study area The Precambrian outcrops of southwestern Nigeria lie within the zone of Pan African reactivation 600 ± 150 m.y., and are composed predominantly of migmatitic and granitic gneiss; quartzites; slightly migmatized to unmigmatized meta-sedimentary schists and metaigneous rocks; charnokitic, gabbroic, and dioritic rocks; and the members of the Older Granite suite mainly granites, syenites, and granodiorites (Rahaman, 1989 ). The study area lies within the southwestern part of Nigeria’s Basement Complex, which forms part of the extensive Precambrian shield of West Africa (Rahaman, 1989 ). This region is composed predominantly of crystalline rocks that have experienced multiple phases of deformation, metamorphism, and magmatism associated with several orogenic events, notably the Pan-African orogeny (Ademeso, 2010 ). The rock units observed in the study area comprise migmatite, porphyritic granite, which intrudes the migmatite and forms prominent ridges, and granite gneiss, which appears as low-lying outcrops, while quartzite occurs in isolated exposures. Charnockite, though less common in the study area, are mainly of magmatic origin and occur generally along margins of Older Granite bodies (porphyritic biotite and biotite hornblende granites) north of Akure (Rahaman, 1989 ). The lithological composition and structural framework of the area render it favourable for economically viable activities, including quarrying and civil construction. 3.0 Materials and Methods 3.1 Field study and sampling Field investigations commenced with a preliminary traverse aimed at acquiring a general understanding of the geological framework, identifying the major rock units, and delineating key structural features. To ensure systematic and comprehensive spatial coverage, a gridding system was implemented. Topographic maps, combined with Global Positioning System (GPS) technology, were used to accurately record geographic coordinates, including latitude, longitude, and elevation, as well as location-specific observations. The drainage system of the study area is dominated by three major rivers: Ugele, Ilado, and Aaye. A total of thirteen (13) stream sediment samples were systematically collected from the central portions of the river channels at a depth of approximately 10 cm to reduce the influence of surface contamination. This depth is widely regarded as the primary depositional zone for metal enrichment (Olatunji and Abimbola, 2010 ; Asowata et al., 2015 ). A consistent sampling density of one sample per 4 km² was maintained throughout the survey. On-site in-stream wet sieving was conducted using a 65 µm mesh, with flowing water facilitating the separation and removal of finer clay particles (Asowata and Akinwumiju, 2020 ). The sediment residues were stored in clearly labelled polyethene containers, air-dried under ambient conditions (~ 26°C), and subsequently pulverized using an agate mortar and pestle to ensure sample homogeneity for laboratory analysis. For chemical analysis, fifteen (15) stream sediment samples were subsequently sieved to a size of < 0.063 mm and sealed in polyethene bags for geochemical analysis. 3.2 Geochemical analysis A 0.5-gram portion of each sieved sample was digested using aqua regia (a 1:1:1 mixture of HNO₃, HCl, and H₂O) at 95°C for two hours. Following digestion, the leachate was filtered and diluted to a final volume of 10 mL with ultra-pure water in a volumetric flask. The resulting solutions were analyzed for fourteen (14) major and trace elements, including Mo, Cu, Ag, Fe, As, Sc, Au, Ca, and La, using Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS). The aqua regia digestion method was selected over other techniques due to its strong oxidizing capacity, which ensures effective dissolution of a wide range of mineral phases. Quality control protocols included the use of duplicate samples to assess data reproducibility and the application of in-house reference materials from ACME Analytical Laboratories to ensure analytical accuracy. Both the digestion and ICP-MS analyses were conducted at ACME Analytical Laboratories, Vancouver, Canada. 3.3 Statistical analysis The geochemical data were analyzed using inferential statistical techniques with the aid of Grapher 9 and SPSS Statistics 17 (2008 version). Table 1 Field description of the stream sediments Sample No Locations Latitude Longitude Elevation (m) Texture Remarks L2 Ire-akari Phase 3 7°17'19.27" 5°10'35.50" 358 Medium coarse Porphyritic granite L4 Shagari 7°17'11.67" 5°11'27.81" 357 Medium coarse No outcrop L6 Ifelodun Muyiwa Community 7°18'23.80" 5°10'58.62" 364 Fine medium No outcrop L7 Oluwa lowo, Irese 7°17'34.81" 5°11'41.73" 362 Fine medium Granite gneiss L10 Alagbado area, Orita Obele 7°18'49.83" 5°10'20.40" 362 Medium coarse No outcrop L13 Aaye/Irese road 7°19'47.61" 5°11'14.80" 367 Fine medium No outcrop L15 Abusoro, Ado Road 7°19'46.27" 5°13'37.01" 352 Fine medium No outcrop L16 Odudu Area 7°19'51.13" 5°13'59.82" 353 Fine medium No outcrop L17 Igoba Phase 3 7°18'31.94" 5°14'6.27" 348 Medium coarse No outcrop L18 Igoba/Isinigbo 7°18'47.39" 5°14'50.56" 342 Medium coarse Migmatite L20 Omoniyi Zone 1 7°16'59.69" 5°12'41.34" 358 Fine medium Migmatite L21 Omoniyi Zone 4 7°17'42.59" 5°12'28.06" 374 Fine medium No outcrop L26 Itaogbolu 7°20'32.37" 5°13'26.11" 367 Fine medium No outcrop L27 Irese Town 7°20'27.83" 5°12'18.39" 363 Fine medium Granite gneiss L30 Aaye Town 7°20'7.64" 5°11'10.84" 358 Fine medium Porphyritic granite 3.3 Pollution assessment The Geo-accumulation Index (I-geo) is a quantitative measure used to assess the degree of heavy metal contamination in sediments by comparing current concentrations with pre-industrial (background) levels (Müller, 1969). I geo ​=log 2 ​( \(\:\frac{\text{C}\text{n}}{1.5\times\:\text{B}\text{n}}\) ) Where: I geo = Geo-accumulation index, C n = Measured concentration of the element in the sediment, B n = Geochemical background value of the element (usually shale or crustal average). 1.5 = Constant in the equation, which is the background matrix correction factor (accounts for natural variability and minor anthropogenic influences). I geo is classified into 7 groups, I geo = ≤ 0 is practically unpolluted; 0 < I geo < 1 is unpolluted to moderately polluted; 1 < I geo < 1 is moderately polluted; 2 < I geo < 3: moderately to strongly polluted; 3 < I geo < 4: strongly polluted; 4 < I geo < 5: strongly to extremely polluted and 5 < I geo : extremely polluted (Müller, 1969). 4.0 Results and Discussion 4.1 Geochemistry The trace element geochemistry of the stream sediment samples reveals variable concentrations of several elements. Calcium (Ca) content ranges from 1.15–3.06%, with an average of 2.03%, while magnesium (Mg) varies between 0.62% and 2.16%. Sodium (Na) concentrations range from 0.57–2.20%, and potassium (K) content spans from 1.65–3.50%. Iron (Fe) ranges from 3.20–11.05%, and aluminium (Al) content lies between 5.93% and 9.19% (Table 3 ). The elevated Fe and Al concentrations suggest significant input from mafic to intermediate source rocks, likely subjected to moderate to intense weathering (Rollinson, 1993 ; McLennan, 1993 ). The presence of moderate levels of alkali and alkaline earth elements (Na, K, Ca, Mg) implies derivation from feldspar- and pyroxene-bearing lithologies, consistent with the weathering of granitoid or metamorphic rocks (Taylor and McLennan, 1985 ). Among the heavy metals, copper (Cu) ranges from 16.7 to 76.5 ppm, lead (Pb) from 22.4 to 63.6 ppm, and zinc (Zn) from 7 to 235 ppm. Nickel (Ni) concentrations vary from 1.9 to 50.3 ppm, cobalt (Co) from 3.1 to 72.3 ppm, and manganese (Mn) shows a wide range from 387 to 4411 ppm. Cadmium (Cd) is present in low concentrations, ranging from 0.1 to 0.2 ppm, while chromium (Cr) ranges from 5 to 151 ppm. The geochemical data indicate that the sediments are relatively enriched in trace elements, particularly heavy metals such as Pb, Zn, and Cu. This enrichment is especially pronounced in samples from Ire Akari 3 (Location 2), Aaye Town (Location 30), Ifelodun Community (Location 6), and Oluwa Lowo (Location 7). The elevated concentrations of these metals are characteristic of sulphide mineralization, suggesting a potential lithological or hydrothermal source, possibly linked to underlying mineralized zones or vein systems (Rollinson, 1993 ; Alloway, 2013 ). Such geochemical signatures are consistent with areas of sulphide-bearing rocks, where metals like lead, zinc, and copper are mobilized and deposited through weathering and sedimentation processes (Taylor & McLennan, 1985 ; Kabata-Pendias & Mukherjee, 2007 ). These findings may have economic implications and warrant further exploration to assess the potential for mineral resource development in the highlighted locations. Table 3 Trace Elements (ppm) composition of the study area. Sample No Cu Pb Zn Ni Co Mn Cd Cr Ba L4 22.5 28.2 125 1.9 4.4 619 0.1 6 1954 L6 20.3 63.6 145 2.7 13.2 929 0.2 25 1782 L10 51.8 46.6 201 49 62.6 1393 0.2 140 1356 L13 31.6 34.8 91 33.3 72.3 2399 0.2 94 646 L15 34.6 34.8 91 33.3 72.3 3251 0.2 94 646 L16 20.1 32 148 2.2 13.2 387 0.2 8 2392 L17 16.9 24.6 7 20.1 7.3 697 0.1 5 512 L21 23.2 22.4 71 8.9 12 1238 0.1 13 410 L26 16.7 24.6 7 12.3 8.3 697 0.1 5 512 4.2 Univariate Statistical Analysis and Interpretation The univariate statistical analysis of the elemental data reveals that copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), cadmium (Cd), and barium (Ba) exhibit negative skewness, indicating a concentration distribution where most values are higher, with fewer samples showing low concentrations. In contrast, iron (Fe), lead (Pb), nickel (Ni), cobalt (Co), manganese (Mn), and chromium (Cr) display positive skewness, suggesting that these elements are present in lower concentrations across most samples, with a few exhibiting elevated levels (Table 4 ). Furthermore, the presence of distinct breaks and asymmetry in the histograms of individual elements suggests the existence of multiple geochemical populations. This multimodal distribution may reflect heterogeneity in the source rocks (protoliths), pointing to varying chemical compositions, mineralogical diversity, or multiple sediment sources contributing to the stream sediments (Rollinson, 1993 ; Govindaraju, 1994). Additionally, a strong positive correlation observed between the major oxides and trace elements implies a shared geochemical behaviour or co-association during weathering and sedimentation processes. This relationship suggests that the trace elements may be hosted in the same mineral phases or were mobilized and deposited under similar environmental conditions (Taylor and McLennan, 1985 ). Table 4 Univariate Statistics of the metallic element in the study area (ppm and %) Heavy Metals Background Mean Median Std. Deviation Threshold Skewness Fe 6.92 35.5 23.2 20.8 2.15 1.1 Cu 76.5 7.6 7.9 2.4 6.5 -0.2 Pb 63.6 41.5 34.8 15.5 10.2 0.5 Zn 235 137.5 145 73.4 56 -0.5 Ni 50 18.6 12.3 18.2 10 0.7 Co 72.3 29.1 13.2 27.6 5.9 0.8 Mn 5740 1769.9 1161 1360.6 464 0.9 Cd 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.05 0 -1.2 Cr 151 51.5 25 55.6 19 0.9 Ba 514 1377.9 1438 690.9 792 -0.02 4.3 Multivariate Statistical Analysis Factor analysis was employed to better understand elemental associations and identify mineralization types, pathfinder elements, and weathering behaviour. The rotated component matrix yielded three principal components: Component 1 (45.21% of total variance) Characterised by a strong Cu-Pb-Zn association, which is typical of massive sulphide mineralization that is commonly concentrated by hydrothermal processes (Taylor and McLennan, 1985 ; Alloway, 2013 ). Component 2 (29.43% of total variance) Consists of Cu, Pb, Zn, Ni, Co, Mn, Cd, and Cr. These are recognized as pathfinder elements of polymetallic sulphide mineralization, often appearing in dispersion halos or early-stage mineral exploration anomalies (Rollinson, 1993 ; Kabata-Pendias and Mukherjee, 2007 ). Component 3 (9.57% of total variance) Reflects weathered and dispersed elements, possibly due to prolonged chemical weathering and redistribution within the sediment matrix (Alloway, 2013 ). 4.4 Cluster Analysis The hierarchical cluster analysis presents the geochemical relationship between the elements and their sampling sites. The following clusters were identified: Cluster Group I Fe and Al, likely indicating siderophile and aluminosilicate affinity, typically derived from mafic to intermediate rocks (Taylor and McLennan, 1985 ). Cluster Group II Cu, Pb, Zn, and Cd, indicators of sulphide mineralization, likely pointing to hydrothermal vein-type or massive sulphide systems (Alloway, 2013 ). Cluster Group III Ni, Co, Mn, and Cr, associated with lithophile behaviour, common in ultramafic and mafic terrains (Kabata-Pendias and Mukherjee, 2007 ). 4.5 Correlation Coefficient Analysis of Major Oxides The correlation coefficient analysis of the major oxides reveals distinct geochemical relationships that reflect the compositional trends and possible provenance of the sediments. The correlation coefficient analysis of the major oxides reveals that SiO₂ exhibits a negative correlation with all other major oxides. Al₂O₃ shows a positive correlation with all major oxides except K₂O and TiO₂. Fe₂O₃ displays a positive correlation with all major oxides. MgO is positively correlated with all major oxides except K₂O. CaO shows a positive correlation with all except MnO. Na₂O has a positive correlation with all major oxides. K₂O is positively correlated with all, except MnO, while TiO₂ also exhibits positive correlation with all major oxides These correlation patterns suggest a mixed sediment provenance with contributions from both felsic and mafic parent rocks. The negative correlation of SiO₂ with other oxides reflects sediment maturity, possibly due to weathering or sorting processes that concentrate quartz. In contrast, the positive correlations among Fe₂O₃, Al₂O₃, MgO, Na₂O, and TiO₂ suggest mineralogical coherence, likely indicating that these oxides are structurally linked within silicate or oxide minerals derived from common rock types (Rollinson, 1993 ; Govindaraju, 1994). The exceptions noted-particularly the variable behaviour of K₂O and MnO-may point to distinct mineral sources, localized geochemical conditions, or secondary processes such as diagenesis or hydrothermal alteration. 4.6 Correlation Coefficient Analysis of Trace Elements The correlation coefficient evaluation of the trace elements showed a negative correlation of Pb/Mn (-0.046), Fe/Ni (–0.10), Al/Co (-0.10) indicative of indicate distinct sources or different depositional mechanisms (Govindaraju, 1994), to a very strong correlation of Ni/Cr (0.93), Co/Cr (0.90), Ni/Co (0.80), Pb/Zn (0.70), Cu/Zn (0.70), Mn/Cr (0.60), Cu/Pb (0.50), and Ni/Co (0.50) suggestive of common sources or co-enrichment through similar geochemical pathways (Rollinson, 1993 ). The strong Cu-Pb and Pb-Zn correlations support the presence of sulphide mineralisation. Similarly, positive associations among Co, Ni, and Cr point toward lithophile mineralisation, while the Fe-Al correlation may indicate siderophile affinity likely tied to weathered ferromagnesian minerals or clay-rich components (Taylor and McLennan, 1985 ; Kabata-Pendias and Mukherjee, 2007 ). The consistency between cluster analysis and correlation coefficient evaluation reinforces the interpretation that the trace element enrichment in the sediments is predominantly influenced by the geochemical signature of the parent rocks and mineralization processes. 4.7 Pollution Assessment The Index of Geo-accumulation (I geo ) values determined for the analyzed elements follow an increasing order as follows: Pb < Fe < Zn < Mn < Cd < Cu < < Cr < Ni (Table 5 ). Based on the classification standard of Praveena et al. (2008), the I geo values indicate that all sampling points are unpolluted for Cu, Cd, Ni, Cr, and Mn. However, Fe levels range from unpolluted to moderately polluted, while Pb concentrations suggest that the area is moderately polluted with this element. The relatively high I geo value for Pb indicates likely origins from anthropogenic sources, such as industrial discharge or vehicular emissions. Fe, though naturally abundant, shows I geo values indicating possible localized enrichment from natural weathering or minor external inputs. Table 5. Geo-accumulation index of heavy metals in the study area Sample No I geo Fe I geo Cu I geo Pb I geo Cd I geo Ni I geo Zn I geo Cr I geo Mn L2 1.22 -0.11 1.75 0.04 -4.97 1.16 -2.32 -0.58 L4 1.48 -1.87 0.59 -0.96 -5.89 0.25 -4.64 -1.28 L6 1.43 -2.02 1.76 0.04 -5.38 0.47 -2.58 -0.69 L7 0.99 -2.02 1.76 0.04 -5.38 0.47 -2.58 -0.37 L10 0.92 -0.67 1.31 0.04 -1.2 0.94 -0.1 -0.11 L13 0.42 -1.38 0.89 0.04 -1.76 -0.21 -0.67 0.68 L15 0.57 -1.25 0.89 0.04 -1.76 -0.21 -0.67 1.12 L16 0.47 -2.04 0.77 0.04 -5.68 0.5 -4.23 -1.95 L17 0.43 -2.29 0.39 -0.96 -2.48 -3.91 -4.91 -1.11 L18 1.27 -0.7 1.33 0.04 -1.4 0.94 0.01 1.56 L20 1.34 -2.01 0.73 0.04 -5.61 0.53 -4.64 1.34 L21 0.52 -1.83 0.26 -0.96 -3.66 -0.56 -3.53 -0.28 L26 -0.29 -2.3 0.39 -0.96 -3.19 -3.91 -4.91 -1.11 L27 1.03 -0.7 1.18 0.04 -1.16 0.98 -0.1 1.31 L30 1.22 -0.11 1.75 0.04 -3.05 1.16 -2.32 -0.82 Mean 0.87 -1.42 1.05 -0.23 -3.5 -0.09 -2.55 -0.15 The Enrichment Factor (EF) The Enrichment Factor (EF) values calculated using the method of Sutherland (2000) show that the overall mean EF indicates minimal enrichment for Fe, Cu, Cd, Ni, Zn, Cr, and Mn across all sampling points (Table 6). However, Pb exhibited moderate to significant enrichment in all samples. The enrichment of Pb and Zn is often associated with sulphide mineral deposits, suggesting the area may host mineralization zones, particularly of lead-zinc sulphide origin (e.g., galena and sphalerite). Sample No Cu Pb Cd Ni Zn Cr Mn Fe L2 1.391 5.04 1.538 0.05 3.36 0.3 1.01 0.7 L4 0.409 2.256 0.769 0.03 1.79 0.06 0.62 0.9 L6 0.369 5.088 1.538 0.04 2.07 0.25 0.93 0.9 L7 0.369 5.088 1.538 0.04 2.07 0.25 1.16 0.6 L10 0.942 3.728 1.538 0.65 2.87 1.4 1.39 0.6 L13 0.575 2.784 1.538 0.44 1.3 0.94 2.4 0.4 L15 0.629 2.784 1.538 0.44 1.3 0.94 3.25 0.5 L16 0.365 2.56 1.538 0.03 2.11 0.08 0.39 0.4 L17 0.307 1.968 0.769 0.27 0.1 0.05 0.7 0.4 L18 0.924 3.768 1.538 0.57 2.89 1.51 4.41 0.8 L20 0.373 2.488 1.538 0.03 2.17 0.06 3.79 0.8 L21 0.422 1.792 0.769 0.12 1.01 0.13 1.24 0.5 L26 0.304 1.968 0.769 0.16 0.1 0.05 0.7 0.3 L27 0.924 3.408 1.538 0.67 2.96 1.4 3.72 0.7 L30 1.391 5.04 1.538 0.18 3.36 0.3 0.85 0.7 Mean 0.65 3.32 1.33 0.25 1.96 0.51 1.77 0.6 5.0 Conclusions Trace element analysis of stream sediments shows variable but elevated levels of Fe, Al, and heavy metals (Pb, Zn, Cu), suggesting derivation from mafic to intermediate rocks and possible sulphide mineralization. Notably high concentrations at specific locations imply potential hydrothermal influence and mineralized zones, warranting further exploration for resource potential. Univariate analysis shows negative skewness in Cu, Zn, Cd, Ba, and positive skewness in Fe, Pb, Ni, Co, Mn, Cr, indicating multimodal distributions and diverse geochemical sources while Factor analysis identified three components: (1) Cu-Pb-Zn linked to sulphide mineralization, (2) polymetallic pathfinder elements, and (3) weathered elements reflecting prolonged chemical weathering and elemental redistribution in sediments. Hierarchical cluster analysis reveals three groups: Fe-Al (siderophile/aluminosilicate), Cu-Pb-Zn-Cd (sulphide mineralization), and Ni-Co-Mn-Cr (lithophile elements), reflecting varied source rocks including mafic, ultramafic, and hydrothermal systems. Correlation analysis of major and trace elements reveals mixed sediment provenance from felsic and mafic sources. SiO₂ shows negative correlations, while Fe₂O₃, Al₂O₃, and others show positive links. Strong Cu-Pb-Zn and Ni-Co-Cr correlations indicate sulphide and lithophile mineralization. Igeo values indicate unpolluted levels for most elements, moderate Pb pollution likely from human activities, and Fe shows localized enrichment possibly from natural weathering or minor anthropogenic input. EF values show minimal enrichment for most metals, but Pb and Zn enrichment suggests potential lead-zinc sulphide mineralization in the area. Declarations Author Contribution Olusiji Samuel Ayodele(corresponding author) initiated the topic, supervised the work from the beginning and ensured that the procedures for the work were strictly followed.Timilehin Daniel Akande carried out the analysis,interpreted the data and wrote the results, went to the field for the data collection and interpreted it and gathered all relevant materials to assist in the literatures and write up. 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Early Proterozoic climates and plate motions inferred from major element chemistry of lutites. Nature , 299(5885), 715–717. Olatunji, A. S., and Abimbola, A. F. (2010) Geochemical Evaluation of the Lagos Lagoon sediments and water. World Appl Sci J. 9(2):178-193 Rahaman, M. A. (1989). Review of the Basements Geology of Southwestern Nigeria. In Kogbe, C.A., (ed.) Geology of Nigeria, pp. 39-56. Rollinson, H. (1993). Using Geochemical Data: Evaluation, Presentation, Interpretation . Longman. Romero, F. M., Probst, A., & Probst, J. L. (2021). Effects of heavy metal pollution on human health and soil microbial communities: A global concern. Environmental Research , 197 , 111087. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2020.111087 Rose, A. W., Hawkes, H. E., and Webb, J. S. (1979). Geochemistry in Mineral Exploration (Second Edition). Sanayei, Y., Ismail, N., and Talebi, S. M. (2019). Determination of heavy metals in Zayanderud River, Isfahan-Iran. World Applied Sciences Journal , 6 (9), 1209–1214. Taylor, S. R. and McLennan, S. M. (1985). The Continental Crust: Its Composition and Evolution . Blackwell. Wong, Y. L., and Chadwick, M. A. (2024). The Assessment of Heavy Metal Accumulation and Risks in Urban Rivers and Sediments of China’s Nine Major River Systems: A Meta‑Analysis. Environmental Processes, 11(43). Tables Table 2 not available with this version. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6917081","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":489207519,"identity":"8b96f8c9-7bd1-4bf5-9422-4d1bb04e563d","order_by":0,"name":"Olusiji Samuel Ayodele","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA9ElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYNACNgYZBvbGBxDOASK18DDwHDaAqCZei0QykVr4+Q8/k/hQZsPDL/mYTfpDDYMc340Etodf8GiRnJFmJjnjXBqP5OxkNokDxxiMJW8ksBvL4NFicIPBTJq37TCPwe38YxIH2BgSNwBtkZbAp+X88W9ALf957G8eBtryj6GesJYDOSBbDvAYSDCzSRxsY0gwAGqR/IDXLznFljPOJfNInElmtjjbJ2E488zDNmk8OoAhdnzjjQ9ldnL87YcZb1R8s5HnO558TPIHPj0MDCzIDgexGRuYefBrYcZ0OCMBW0bBKBgFo2BkAQDNvkqffpjV0wAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"Federal University of Technology","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Olusiji","middleName":"Samuel","lastName":"Ayodele","suffix":""},{"id":489207520,"identity":"57038470-24d2-4d1b-b376-a1d4b67dee1b","order_by":1,"name":"Timilehin Daniel Akande","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Federal University of Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Timilehin","middleName":"Daniel","lastName":"Akande","suffix":""},{"id":489207521,"identity":"7dffd787-57bd-4a33-a74e-a2f549b5ad31","order_by":2,"name":"Oladotun Afolabi Oluwajana","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Adekunle Ajasin University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Oladotun","middleName":"Afolabi","lastName":"Oluwajana","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-06-17 19:38:06","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6917081/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6917081/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":87557980,"identity":"d4fc2b33-5002-4eb9-b13b-e3d0412fdab0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-25 07:39:02","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":204566,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMap of Nigeria showing the locations of the study areas in Ondo State\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6917081/v1/6719bc38a6a9296b084dff15.png"},{"id":87558003,"identity":"ee082c9d-3039-4778-ba83-f367bea97895","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-25 07:39:04","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":179401,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGeological map of the study area. Migmatite is the main rock type observed in the study area.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6917081/v1/80e4b7e00597140094ea0be4.png"},{"id":87558011,"identity":"e573443c-0e3a-49aa-ae9e-da623bdbe227","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-25 07:39:05","extension":"jpeg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":208310,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eLocation sample point map. The red dots represent sampling stations along the streams\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6917081/v1/bbeeb2dc8846090be609ca9c.jpeg"},{"id":87558006,"identity":"d3a79114-33d3-4717-9020-2f4e512af436","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-25 07:39:04","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":52888,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFigure 5.\u003c/strong\u003eCluster diagram (Dendogram) of the elemental associations\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6917081/v1/de6ff5a19430884e83d6917a.png"},{"id":94066033,"identity":"b5c83168-88c3-43e6-ba17-43ba3ebffaf1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-22 08:01:54","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1712020,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6917081/v1/c7f5ae0f-ae3c-4dec-8ad7-8360c60fe359.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Stream sediments geochemical and heavy metal pollution assessment of Irese, Igoba and Ilado areas (north of Akure), Southwestern Nigeria","fulltext":[{"header":"1.0 Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eStream sediment geochemistry plays a vital role in geochemical exploration by providing insights into geological and geochemical variations, thus facilitating the identification of mineralized zones (Rose et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1979\u003c/span\u003e). The geochemistry of urban river sediments has garnered growing attention due to the potential long-term toxicity associated with heavy metal contaminants originating from urban activities (Asowata et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). This form of pollution is especially problematic in developing countries, where regulatory frameworks, environmental monitoring, and remediation efforts are often inadequate (Islam et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Heavy metals, which occur naturally in trace amounts, have become widespread in air, soil, and water due to anthropogenic activities such as mining, agriculture, fossil fuel combustion, and industrial discharge (Chen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Khan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). While naturally occurring concentrations typically pose minimal risk, elevated levels resulting from human activity are toxic to ecosystems and human health (Sanayei et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Romero et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eStream sediments serve as long-term sinks for heavy metals, making them effective indicators of both natural geochemical processes and anthropogenic pollution. Their analysis provides critical information on the spatial distribution, sources, and potential ecological and health risks of heavy metal contaminants (Myangan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eGlobally, heavy metal contamination in sediments is increasingly recognized as a critical environmental issue, particularly in rapidly urbanizing regions and areas undergoing intensive resource exploitation. Studies of this nature play a crucial role, not only in guiding local environmental management but also in enhancing the broader scientific understanding of metal dispersion mechanisms, the ecological consequences of mineralization, and pathways toward the sustainable development of natural resources (Wong and Chadwick, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study areas (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e), which have recently experienced the establishment of quarry operations, are situated near Akure (the state capital of Ondo State) in southwestern Nigeria and are integral components of the peri-urban settlements that surround the city. Topographically, the area is gently undulating with scattered inselbergs and a notable north-south trending ridge formed by the porphyritic granite, which influences surface runoff and reduces infiltration capacity. The drainage pattern is predominantly dendritic, and the area is traversed by three main streams, namely River Ugele, River Ilado, and River Aaye.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDespite increasing anthropogenic activities in the Irese, Igoba, and Ilado areas, there is a lack of documented studies focusing on their geochemical composition and heavy metal pollution status. This gap in knowledge forms the basis for the present study. This study examines the abundance, distribution, geochemical characteristics, and pollution status of heavy metals in the Aye, Igoba and Ilado areas of Akure in southwestern Nigeria, to assess the environmental impact and potential mineralisation. The study areas are located north of Akure township.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2.0 Geology of the study area","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe Precambrian outcrops of southwestern Nigeria lie within the zone of Pan African reactivation 600\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;150 m.y., and are composed predominantly of migmatitic and granitic gneiss; quartzites; slightly migmatized to unmigmatized meta-sedimentary schists and metaigneous rocks; charnokitic, gabbroic, and dioritic rocks; and the members of the Older Granite suite mainly granites, syenites, and granodiorites (Rahaman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1989\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study area lies within the southwestern part of Nigeria\u0026rsquo;s Basement Complex, which forms part of the extensive Precambrian shield of West Africa (Rahaman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1989\u003c/span\u003e). This region is composed predominantly of crystalline rocks that have experienced multiple phases of deformation, metamorphism, and magmatism associated with several orogenic events, notably the Pan-African orogeny (Ademeso, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe rock units observed in the study area comprise migmatite, porphyritic granite, which intrudes the migmatite and forms prominent ridges, and granite gneiss, which appears as low-lying outcrops, while quartzite occurs in isolated exposures. Charnockite, though less common in the study area, are mainly of magmatic origin and occur generally along margins of Older Granite bodies (porphyritic biotite and biotite hornblende granites) north of Akure (Rahaman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1989\u003c/span\u003e). The lithological composition and structural framework of the area render it favourable for economically viable activities, including quarrying and civil construction.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3.0 Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1 Field study and sampling\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eField investigations commenced with a preliminary traverse aimed at acquiring a general understanding of the geological framework, identifying the major rock units, and delineating key structural features. To ensure systematic and comprehensive spatial coverage, a gridding system was implemented. Topographic maps, combined with Global Positioning System (GPS) technology, were used to accurately record geographic coordinates, including latitude, longitude, and elevation, as well as location-specific observations.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe drainage system of the study area is dominated by three major rivers: Ugele, Ilado, and Aaye. A total of thirteen (13) stream sediment samples were systematically collected from the central portions of the river channels at a depth of approximately 10 cm to reduce the influence of surface contamination. This depth is widely regarded as the primary depositional zone for metal enrichment (Olatunji and Abimbola, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Asowata et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). A consistent sampling density of one sample per 4 km\u0026sup2; was maintained throughout the survey.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOn-site in-stream wet sieving was conducted using a 65 \u0026micro;m mesh, with flowing water facilitating the separation and removal of finer clay particles (Asowata and Akinwumiju, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The sediment residues were stored in clearly labelled polyethene containers, air-dried under ambient conditions (~\u0026thinsp;26\u0026deg;C), and subsequently pulverized using an agate mortar and pestle to ensure sample homogeneity for laboratory analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFor chemical analysis, fifteen (15) stream sediment samples were subsequently sieved to a size of \u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.063 mm and sealed in polyethene bags for geochemical analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2 Geochemical analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eA 0.5-gram portion of each sieved sample was digested using aqua regia (a 1:1:1 mixture of HNO₃, HCl, and H₂O) at 95\u0026deg;C for two hours. Following digestion, the leachate was filtered and diluted to a final volume of 10 mL with ultra-pure water in a volumetric flask.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe resulting solutions were analyzed for fourteen (14) major and trace elements, including Mo, Cu, Ag, Fe, As, Sc, Au, Ca, and La, using Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS). The aqua regia digestion method was selected over other techniques due to its strong oxidizing capacity, which ensures effective dissolution of a wide range of mineral phases.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eQuality control protocols included the use of duplicate samples to assess data reproducibility and the application of in-house reference materials from ACME Analytical Laboratories to ensure analytical accuracy. Both the digestion and ICP-MS analyses were conducted at ACME Analytical Laboratories, Vancouver, Canada.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.3 Statistical analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe geochemical data were analyzed using inferential statistical techniques with the aid of Grapher 9 and SPSS Statistics 17 (2008 version).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eField description of the stream sediments\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSample No\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLocations\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLatitude\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLongitude\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eElevation (m)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTexture\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRemarks\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eL2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIre-akari Phase 3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u0026deg;17'19.27\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u0026deg;10'35.50\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e358\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMedium coarse\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePorphyritic granite\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eL4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eShagari\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u0026deg;17'11.67\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u0026deg;11'27.81\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e357\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMedium coarse\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo outcrop\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eL6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIfelodun Muyiwa Community\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u0026deg;18'23.80\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u0026deg;10'58.62\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e364\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFine medium\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo outcrop\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eL7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOluwa lowo, Irese\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u0026deg;17'34.81\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u0026deg;11'41.73\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e362\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFine medium\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGranite gneiss\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eL10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlagbado area, Orita Obele\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u0026deg;18'49.83\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u0026deg;10'20.40\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e362\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMedium coarse\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo outcrop\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eL13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAaye/Irese road\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u0026deg;19'47.61\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u0026deg;11'14.80\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e367\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFine medium\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo outcrop\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eL15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAbusoro, Ado Road\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u0026deg;19'46.27\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u0026deg;13'37.01\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e352\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFine medium\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo outcrop\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eL16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOdudu Area\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u0026deg;19'51.13\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u0026deg;13'59.82\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e353\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFine medium\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo outcrop\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eL17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIgoba Phase 3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u0026deg;18'31.94\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u0026deg;14'6.27\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e348\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMedium coarse\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo outcrop\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eL18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIgoba/Isinigbo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u0026deg;18'47.39\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u0026deg;14'50.56\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e342\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMedium coarse\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMigmatite\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eL20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOmoniyi Zone 1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u0026deg;16'59.69\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u0026deg;12'41.34\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e358\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFine medium\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMigmatite\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eL21\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOmoniyi Zone 4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u0026deg;17'42.59\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u0026deg;12'28.06\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e374\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFine medium\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo outcrop\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eL26\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eItaogbolu\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u0026deg;20'32.37\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u0026deg;13'26.11\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e367\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFine medium\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo outcrop\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eL27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIrese Town\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u0026deg;20'27.83\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u0026deg;12'18.39\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e363\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFine medium\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGranite gneiss\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eL30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAaye Town\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u0026deg;20'7.64\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u0026deg;11'10.84\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e358\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFine medium\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePorphyritic granite\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.3 Pollution assessment\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Geo-accumulation Index (I-geo) is a quantitative measure used to assess the degree of heavy metal contamination in sediments by comparing current concentrations with pre-industrial (background) levels (M\u0026uuml;ller, 1969).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eI\u003csub\u003egeo\u003c/sub\u003e​=log\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e​(\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\frac{\\text{C}\\text{n}}{1.5\\times\\:\\text{B}\\text{n}}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhere:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eI\u003csub\u003egeo\u003c/sub\u003e = Geo-accumulation index,\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eC\u003csub\u003en\u003c/sub\u003e = Measured concentration of the element in the sediment,\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eB\u003csub\u003en\u003c/sub\u003e = Geochemical background value of the element (usually shale or crustal average).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.5\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Constant in the equation, which is the background matrix correction factor (accounts for natural variability and minor anthropogenic influences).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eI\u003csub\u003egeo\u003c/sub\u003e is classified into 7 groups,\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eI\u003csub\u003egeo\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;0 is practically unpolluted; 0\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;I\u003csub\u003egeo\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026lt; 1 is unpolluted to moderately polluted; 1\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;I\u003csub\u003egeo\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026lt; 1 is moderately polluted; 2\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;I\u003csub\u003egeo\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026lt; 3: moderately to strongly polluted; 3\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;I\u003csub\u003egeo\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026lt; 4: strongly polluted; 4\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;I\u003csub\u003egeo\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026lt; 5: strongly to extremely polluted and 5\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;I\u003csub\u003egeo\u003c/sub\u003e: extremely polluted (M\u0026uuml;ller, 1969).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4.0 Results and Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.1 Geochemistry\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe trace element geochemistry of the stream sediment samples reveals variable concentrations of several elements. Calcium (Ca) content ranges from 1.15\u0026ndash;3.06%, with an average of 2.03%, while magnesium (Mg) varies between 0.62% and 2.16%. Sodium (Na) concentrations range from 0.57\u0026ndash;2.20%, and potassium (K) content spans from 1.65\u0026ndash;3.50%. Iron (Fe) ranges from 3.20\u0026ndash;11.05%, and aluminium (Al) content lies between 5.93% and 9.19% (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe elevated Fe and Al concentrations suggest significant input from mafic to intermediate source rocks, likely subjected to moderate to intense weathering (Rollinson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e; McLennan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e). The presence of moderate levels of alkali and alkaline earth elements (Na, K, Ca, Mg) implies derivation from feldspar- and pyroxene-bearing lithologies, consistent with the weathering of granitoid or metamorphic rocks (Taylor and McLennan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1985\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAmong the heavy metals, copper (Cu) ranges from 16.7 to 76.5 ppm, lead (Pb) from 22.4 to 63.6 ppm, and zinc (Zn) from 7 to 235 ppm. Nickel (Ni) concentrations vary from 1.9 to 50.3 ppm, cobalt (Co) from 3.1 to 72.3 ppm, and manganese (Mn) shows a wide range from 387 to 4411 ppm. Cadmium (Cd) is present in low concentrations, ranging from 0.1 to 0.2 ppm, while chromium (Cr) ranges from 5 to 151 ppm.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe geochemical data indicate that the sediments are relatively enriched in trace elements, particularly heavy metals such as Pb, Zn, and Cu. This enrichment is especially pronounced in samples from Ire Akari 3 (Location 2), Aaye Town (Location 30), Ifelodun Community (Location 6), and Oluwa Lowo (Location 7). The elevated concentrations of these metals are characteristic of sulphide mineralization, suggesting a potential lithological or hydrothermal source, possibly linked to underlying mineralized zones or vein systems (Rollinson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e; Alloway, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Such geochemical signatures are consistent with areas of sulphide-bearing rocks, where metals like lead, zinc, and copper are mobilized and deposited through weathering and sedimentation processes (Taylor \u0026amp; McLennan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1985\u003c/span\u003e; Kabata-Pendias \u0026amp; Mukherjee, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). These findings may have economic implications and warrant further exploration to assess the potential for mineral resource development in the highlighted locations.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTrace Elements (ppm) composition of the study area.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"10\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSample No\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCu\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePb\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eZn\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNi\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMn\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCd\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCr\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBa\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eL4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e125\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e619\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1954\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eL6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e63.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e145\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e929\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1782\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eL10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e51.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e46.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e201\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e49\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e62.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1393\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e140\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1356\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eL13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e34.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e91\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e33.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e72.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2399\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e94\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e646\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eL15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e34.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e34.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e91\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e33.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e72.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3251\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e94\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e646\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eL16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e148\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e387\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2392\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eL17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e24.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e697\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e512\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eL21\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e71\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1238\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e410\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eL26\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e24.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e697\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e512\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.2 Univariate Statistical Analysis and Interpretation\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe univariate statistical analysis of the elemental data reveals that copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), cadmium (Cd), and barium (Ba) exhibit negative skewness, indicating a concentration distribution where most values are higher, with fewer samples showing low concentrations. In contrast, iron (Fe), lead (Pb), nickel (Ni), cobalt (Co), manganese (Mn), and chromium (Cr) display positive skewness, suggesting that these elements are present in lower concentrations across most samples, with a few exhibiting elevated levels (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFurthermore, the presence of distinct breaks and asymmetry in the histograms of individual elements suggests the existence of multiple geochemical populations. This multimodal distribution may reflect heterogeneity in the source rocks (protoliths), pointing to varying chemical compositions, mineralogical diversity, or multiple sediment sources contributing to the stream sediments (Rollinson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e; Govindaraju, 1994).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAdditionally, a strong positive correlation observed between the major oxides and trace elements implies a shared geochemical behaviour or co-association during weathering and sedimentation processes. This relationship suggests that the trace elements may be hosted in the same mineral phases or were mobilized and deposited under similar environmental conditions (Taylor and McLennan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1985\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUnivariate Statistics of the metallic element in the study area (ppm and %)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHeavy Metals\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBackground\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMedian\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStd. Deviation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThreshold\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSkewness\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFe\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.92\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e35.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCu\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e76.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePb\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e63.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e41.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e34.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eZn\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e235\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e137.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e145\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e73.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e56\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNi\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e72.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e29.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMn\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5740\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1769.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1161\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1360.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e464\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCd\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-1.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCr\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e151\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e51.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e55.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBa\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e514\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1377.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1438\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e690.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e792\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.3 Multivariate Statistical Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eFactor analysis was employed to better understand elemental associations and identify mineralization types, pathfinder elements, and weathering behaviour. The rotated component matrix yielded three principal components:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eComponent 1 (45.21% of total variance)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eCharacterised by a strong Cu-Pb-Zn association, which is typical of massive sulphide mineralization that is commonly concentrated by hydrothermal processes (Taylor and McLennan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1985\u003c/span\u003e; Alloway, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eComponent 2 (29.43% of total variance)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eConsists of Cu, Pb, Zn, Ni, Co, Mn, Cd, and Cr. These are recognized as pathfinder elements of polymetallic sulphide mineralization, often appearing in dispersion halos or early-stage mineral exploration anomalies (Rollinson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e; Kabata-Pendias and Mukherjee, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eComponent 3 (9.57% of total variance)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eReflects weathered and dispersed elements, possibly due to prolonged chemical weathering and redistribution within the sediment matrix (Alloway, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.4 Cluster Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe hierarchical cluster analysis presents the geochemical relationship between the elements and their sampling sites. The following clusters were identified:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCluster Group I\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eFe and Al, likely indicating siderophile and aluminosilicate affinity, typically derived from mafic to intermediate rocks (Taylor and McLennan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1985\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCluster Group II\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eCu, Pb, Zn, and Cd, indicators of sulphide mineralization, likely pointing to hydrothermal vein-type or massive sulphide systems (Alloway, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCluster Group III\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eNi, Co, Mn, and Cr, associated with lithophile behaviour, common in ultramafic and mafic terrains (Kabata-Pendias and Mukherjee, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.5 Correlation Coefficient Analysis of Major Oxides\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe correlation coefficient analysis of the major oxides reveals distinct geochemical relationships that reflect the compositional trends and possible provenance of the sediments. The correlation coefficient analysis of the major oxides reveals that SiO₂ exhibits a negative correlation with all other major oxides. Al₂O₃ shows a positive correlation with all major oxides except K₂O and TiO₂. Fe₂O₃ displays a positive correlation with all major oxides. MgO is positively correlated with all major oxides except K₂O. CaO shows a positive correlation with all except MnO. Na₂O has a positive correlation with all major oxides. K₂O is positively correlated with all, except MnO, while TiO₂ also exhibits positive correlation with all major oxides\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese correlation patterns suggest a mixed sediment provenance with contributions from both felsic and mafic parent rocks. The negative correlation of SiO₂ with other oxides reflects sediment maturity, possibly due to weathering or sorting processes that concentrate quartz. In contrast, the positive correlations among Fe₂O₃, Al₂O₃, MgO, Na₂O, and TiO₂ suggest mineralogical coherence, likely indicating that these oxides are structurally linked within silicate or oxide minerals derived from common rock types (Rollinson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e; Govindaraju, 1994).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe exceptions noted-particularly the variable behaviour of K₂O and MnO-may point to distinct mineral sources, localized geochemical conditions, or secondary processes such as diagenesis or hydrothermal alteration.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.6 Correlation Coefficient Analysis of Trace Elements\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe correlation coefficient evaluation of the trace elements showed a negative correlation of Pb/Mn (-0.046), Fe/Ni (\u0026ndash;0.10), Al/Co (-0.10) indicative of indicate distinct sources or different depositional mechanisms (Govindaraju, 1994), to a very strong correlation of Ni/Cr (0.93), Co/Cr (0.90), Ni/Co (0.80), Pb/Zn (0.70), Cu/Zn (0.70), Mn/Cr (0.60), Cu/Pb (0.50), and Ni/Co (0.50) suggestive of common sources or co-enrichment through similar geochemical pathways (Rollinson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e). The strong Cu-Pb and Pb-Zn correlations support the presence of sulphide mineralisation. Similarly, positive associations among Co, Ni, and Cr point toward lithophile mineralisation, while the Fe-Al correlation may indicate siderophile affinity likely tied to weathered ferromagnesian minerals or clay-rich components (Taylor and McLennan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1985\u003c/span\u003e; Kabata-Pendias and Mukherjee, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe consistency between cluster analysis and correlation coefficient evaluation reinforces the interpretation that the trace element enrichment in the sediments is predominantly influenced by the geochemical signature of the parent rocks and mineralization processes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.7 Pollution Assessment\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Index of Geo-accumulation (I\u003csub\u003egeo\u003c/sub\u003e) values determined for the analyzed elements follow an increasing order as follows: Pb\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;Fe\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;Zn\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;Mn\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;Cd\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;Cu\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;Cr\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;Ni (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). Based on the classification standard of Praveena et al. (2008), the I\u003csub\u003egeo\u003c/sub\u003e values indicate that all sampling points are unpolluted for Cu, Cd, Ni, Cr, and Mn. However, Fe levels range from unpolluted to moderately polluted, while Pb concentrations suggest that the area is moderately polluted with this element.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe relatively high I\u003csub\u003egeo\u003c/sub\u003e value for Pb indicates likely origins from anthropogenic sources, such as industrial discharge or vehicular emissions. Fe, though naturally abundant, shows I\u003csub\u003egeo\u003c/sub\u003e values indicating possible localized enrichment from natural weathering or minor external inputs.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:justify;line-height:150%;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:16px;line-height:150%;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003eTable 5.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:16px;line-height:150%;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u0026nbsp;Geo-accumulation index of heavy metals in the study area\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:8.0pt;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;'\u003e\n \u003ctable style=\"border: none;width:432.85pt;border-collapse:collapse;\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:48.85pt;border-top:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-left:none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:none;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:30.0pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:16px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003eSample No\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:48.0pt;border-top:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-left:none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:none;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:30.0pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:16px;font-family:\"Times New 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style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:right;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:16px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:red;'\u003e1.05\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:48.0pt;border:none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:15.5pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:right;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:16px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:red;'\u003e-0.23\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:48.0pt;border:none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:15.5pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:right;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:16px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:red;'\u003e-3.5\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:48.0pt;border:none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:15.5pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:right;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:16px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:red;'\u003e-0.09\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:48.0pt;border:none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:15.5pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:right;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:16px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:red;'\u003e-2.55\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:48.0pt;border:none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:15.5pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:right;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:16px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:red;'\u003e-0.15\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eThe Enrichment Factor (EF)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Enrichment Factor (EF) values calculated using the method of Sutherland (2000) show that the overall mean EF indicates minimal enrichment for Fe, Cu, Cd, Ni, Zn, Cr, and Mn across all sampling points (Table\u0026nbsp;6). However, Pb exhibited moderate to significant enrichment in all samples. The enrichment of Pb and Zn is often associated with sulphide mineral deposits, suggesting the area may host mineralization zones, particularly of lead-zinc sulphide origin (e.g., galena and sphalerite).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:8.0pt;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;'\u003e\n \u003ctable style=\"border: none;width:307.0pt;border-collapse:collapse;\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:60.0pt;border-top:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-left:none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:none;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:15.0pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:16px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003eSample No\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:35.0pt;border-top:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-left:none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:none;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:15.0pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:16px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003eCu\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:35.0pt;border-top:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-left:none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:none;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:15.0pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:16px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003e\u0026nbsp;Pb\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:35.0pt;border-top:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-left:none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:none;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:15.0pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:16px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003eCd\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:29.0pt;border-top:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-left:none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:none;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:15.0pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:16px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003e\u0026nbsp;Ni\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:29.0pt;border-top:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-left:none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:none;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:15.0pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:16px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003e\u0026nbsp;Zn\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:29.0pt;border-top:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-left:none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:none;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:15.0pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:16px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003e\u0026nbsp;Cr\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:29.0pt;border-top:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-left:none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:none;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:15.0pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:16px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003eMn\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:26.0pt;border-top:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-left:none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:none;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:15.0pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:center;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:16px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003eFe\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:60.0pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:15.5pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:16px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003eL2\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:35.0pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:15.5pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:right;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:16px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003e1.391\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:35.0pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:15.5pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:right;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:16px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003e5.04\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:35.0pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:15.5pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:right;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:16px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003e1.538\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:29.0pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:15.5pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:right;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cspan 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5.4pt;height:15.5pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:right;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:16px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003e1.01\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:26.0pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:15.5pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:right;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:16px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003e0.7\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:60.0pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:15.5pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:16px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003eL4\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:35.0pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:15.5pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:right;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:16px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003e0.409\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:35.0pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:15.5pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:right;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:16px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003e2.256\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:35.0pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:15.5pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:right;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:16px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003e0.769\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:29.0pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:15.5pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:right;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:16px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003e0.03\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:29.0pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:15.5pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:right;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:16px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003e1.79\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:29.0pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:15.5pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:right;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:16px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003e0.06\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:29.0pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:15.5pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:right;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:16px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003e0.62\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:26.0pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:15.5pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:right;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:16px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:black;'\u003e0.9\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:60.0pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:15.5pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp 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style='margin-top:0in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:\"Calibri\",sans-serif;text-align:right;line-height:normal;'\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:16px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;color:red;'\u003e0.6\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"5.0 Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003col\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eTrace element analysis of stream sediments shows variable but elevated levels of Fe, Al, and heavy metals (Pb, Zn, Cu), suggesting derivation from mafic to intermediate rocks and possible sulphide mineralization. Notably high concentrations at specific locations imply potential hydrothermal influence and mineralized zones, warranting further exploration for resource potential.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eUnivariate analysis shows negative skewness in Cu, Zn, Cd, Ba, and positive skewness in Fe, Pb, Ni, Co, Mn, Cr, indicating multimodal distributions and diverse geochemical sources while Factor analysis identified three components: (1) Cu-Pb-Zn linked to sulphide mineralization, (2) polymetallic pathfinder elements, and (3) weathered elements reflecting prolonged chemical weathering and elemental redistribution in sediments.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eHierarchical cluster analysis reveals three groups: Fe-Al (siderophile/aluminosilicate), Cu-Pb-Zn-Cd (sulphide mineralization), and Ni-Co-Mn-Cr (lithophile elements), reflecting varied source rocks including mafic, ultramafic, and hydrothermal systems.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eCorrelation analysis of major and trace elements reveals mixed sediment provenance from felsic and mafic sources. SiO₂ shows negative correlations, while Fe₂O₃, Al₂O₃, and others show positive links. Strong Cu-Pb-Zn and Ni-Co-Cr correlations indicate sulphide and lithophile mineralization.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eIgeo values indicate unpolluted levels for most elements, moderate Pb pollution likely from human activities, and Fe shows localized enrichment possibly from natural weathering or minor anthropogenic input. EF values show minimal enrichment for most metals, but Pb and Zn enrichment suggests potential lead-zinc sulphide mineralization in the area.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eOlusiji Samuel Ayodele(corresponding author) initiated the topic, supervised the work from the beginning and ensured that the procedures for the work were strictly followed.Timilehin Daniel Akande carried out the analysis,interpreted the data and wrote the results, went to the field for the data collection and interpreted it and gathered all relevant materials to assist in the literatures and write up. Oladotun Afolabi Oluwajana assisted in reorganising the work check for errors in the interpretations and corrected it, remove unwanted extraneous materials and assisted in reshaping the initial arrangement to meet the journal standard. Those are the contributions from the three authors mentioned above .\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAdemeso, O. A. (2010). Field and Petrographic Relationships between the Charnockitic and Associated Granitic Rock, Akure Area, Southwestern Nigeria, southwestern Nigeria. \u003cem\u003eInternational Journal of Environmental and Earth Sciences\u003c/em\u003e 1:2\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAlloway, B.J. (2013). \u003cem\u003eHeavy Metals in Soils: Trace Metals and Metalloids in Soils and their Bioavailability\u003c/em\u003e (3rd ed.). Springer.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAsowata I. T, Badejo O. O, Onifade, O. M and Olukoya F. F(2015). Spatial Distribution of Trace Element of Ala River\u0026apos;s Sediments, Akure, Southwestern Nigeria. Ife Journal of Science. (1):109-120.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAsowata, I. T. and Akinwumiju, A. S. (2020) Assessment of potentially harmful elements in floodplain soils and stream sediments in Ile‑Ife area, South‑western Nigeria. \u003cem\u003eSN Applied Sciences \u003c/em\u003e2:1506 1-17\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eChen, W., Zhang, J., Wang, S., and Liu, J. (2022). Distribution and risk assessment of heavy metals in soil and water: A review. \u003cem\u003eEnvironmental Science and Pollution Research\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e29\u003c/em\u003e(13), 18249\u0026ndash;18266. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-16427-2\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCooke, D. R., Hollings, P., and Walshe, J. (2020). Geochemical exploration: Past, present, and future. \u003cem\u003eOre Geology Reviews\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e117\u003c/em\u003e, 103237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2019.103237\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCullers, R. L. (2000). The geochemistry of shales, siltstones and sandstones of Pennsylvanian\u0026ndash;Permian age, Colorado, USA: Implications for provenance and metamorphic studies. \u003cem\u003eLithos\u003c/em\u003e, 51(3), 181\u0026ndash;203.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eIslam, M. S., Ahmed, M. K., Raknuzzaman, M., Habibullah-Al-Mamun, M., and Islam, M. K. (2019). Heavy metal pollution in surface water and sediment: A preliminary assessment of an urban river in a developing country. \u003cem\u003eEcological Indicators\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e48\u003c/em\u003e, 282\u0026ndash;291. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2014.08.016\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKabata-Pendias, A., and Mukherjee, A. B. (2007). \u003cem\u003eTrace Elements from Soil to Human\u003c/em\u003e. Springer.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKhan, S., Rehman, S., Khan, A. Z., Khan, M. A., \u0026amp; Shah, M. T. (2018). Soil and vegetables enrichment with heavy metals from geological sources in Gilgit, northern Pakistan. \u003cem\u003eEcotoxicology and Environmental Safety\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e73\u003c/em\u003e(7), 1820\u0026ndash;1827. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2009.07.007\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMcLennan, S. M. (1993). Weathering and global denudation. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Geology\u003c/em\u003e, 101(2), 295\u0026ndash;303.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMyangan, L., Davaasuren, B., and Enkh-Amgalan, T. (2017). Geochemical assessment of heavy metals in stream sediments: A case study from the Tuul River Basin, Mongolia. \u003cem\u003eEnvironmental Monitoring and Assessment\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e189\u003c/em\u003e(4), 187. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-017-5873-3\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eNesbitt, H. W., \u0026amp; Young, G. M. (1982). Early Proterozoic climates and plate motions inferred from major element chemistry of lutites. \u003cem\u003eNature\u003c/em\u003e, 299(5885), 715\u0026ndash;717.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eOlatunji, A. S., and Abimbola, A. F. (2010) Geochemical Evaluation of the Lagos Lagoon sediments and water. \u003cem\u003eWorld Appl Sci J.\u003c/em\u003e 9(2):178-193\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRahaman, M. A. (1989). Review of the Basements Geology of Southwestern Nigeria. In Kogbe, C.A., (ed.) Geology of Nigeria, pp. 39-56.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRollinson, H. (1993). \u003cem\u003eUsing Geochemical Data: Evaluation, Presentation, Interpretation\u003c/em\u003e. Longman.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRomero, F. M., Probst, A., \u0026amp; Probst, J. L. (2021). Effects of heavy metal pollution on human health and soil microbial communities: A global concern. \u003cem\u003eEnvironmental Research\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e197\u003c/em\u003e, 111087. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2020.111087\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRose, A. W., Hawkes, H. E., and Webb, J. S. (1979). Geochemistry in Mineral Exploration (Second Edition).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSanayei, Y., Ismail, N., and Talebi, S. M. (2019). Determination of heavy metals in Zayanderud River, Isfahan-Iran. \u003cem\u003eWorld Applied Sciences Journal\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e6\u003c/em\u003e(9), 1209\u0026ndash;1214.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTaylor, S. R. and McLennan, S. M. (1985). \u003cem\u003eThe Continental Crust: Its Composition and Evolution\u003c/em\u003e. Blackwell.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWong, Y. L., and Chadwick, M. A. (2024). The Assessment of Heavy Metal Accumulation and Risks in Urban Rivers and Sediments of China\u0026rsquo;s Nine Major River Systems: A Meta‑Analysis. Environmental Processes, 11(43).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Tables","content":"\u003cp\u003eTable 2 not available with this version.\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6917081/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6917081/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study examines geochemical characteristics and heavymetal pollution of stream sediments and rocks in Irese, Igoba and Ilado, where no prior assessment exists. Thirty streamsediment samples were systematically collected (1 sample per 4 km\u0026sup2;, 1 m depth), along with six petrographic and twenty ICPMSanalyzed rock samples. Grapher, Surfer, SPSS and Excel facilitated evaluation of enrichment levels, pollution indices and multivariate relationships. Elevated Fe, Al, Pb, Zn, and Cu concentrations at several sites suggest derivation from mafictointermediate source rocks and potential sulphide mineralization under hydrothermal influence. Univariate statistics show negative skewness for Cu, Zn, Cd, Ba and positive skewness for Fe, Pb, Ni, Co, Mn, Cr, indicating multimodal distributions and diverse provenance. Factor analysis yielded three components: (1) CuPbZn linked to sulphide mineralization, (2) polymetallic pathfinder assemblages, and (3) weathered elements reflecting prolonged alteration. Hierarchical clustering grouped elements into aluminosilicate/siderophile (FeAl), sulphide-related (CuPbZnCd) and lithophile (NiCoMnCr) clusters, underscoring varied source contributions, including felsic and mafic rocks. Correlation patterns corroborate mixed sediment origins. Index of Geoaccumulation values show unpolluted conditions for most metals, moderate Pb pollution likely from anthropogenic activities, and localized Fe enrichment. Enrichment Factors indicate minimal enrichment for most elements, whereas Pb and Zn display moderatetosignificant enrichment, highlighting prospective lead-zinc sulphide mineralization zones in the area. The study provided a baseline geochemical dataset crucial for future environmental monitoring, landuse planning, guiding mineral exploration, and resource development strategies.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Stream sediments geochemical and heavy metal pollution assessment of Irese, Igoba and Ilado areas (north of Akure), Southwestern Nigeria","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-07-25 07:38:54","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6917081/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"4bed0548-657d-4e68-9614-e4104ce9ce72","owner":[],"postedDate":"July 25th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-10-22T07:53:42+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-07-25 07:38:54","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6917081","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6917081","identity":"rs-6917081","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}