Ten-Year Study on Bovine Paralytic Rabies in Northwestern Argentina (2014-2024): Clinical, Epidemiological, and Pathological Insights

Ten-Year Study on Bovine Paralytic Rabies in Northwestern Argentina (2014-2024): Clinical, Epidemiological, and Pathological Insights | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Ten-Year Study on Bovine Paralytic Rabies in Northwestern Argentina (2014-2024): Clinical, Epidemiological, and Pathological Insights Griselda Noemi Copa, Juan Pablo Diaz, María Luz Andrade, Carlos Alberto Enriquez, and 9 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7520441/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 4 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Paralytic bovine rabies is a fatal disease caused by the rabies virus (RabV), which is transmitted in Latin America primarily by the hematophagous bat Desmodus rotundus . In Argentina, rabies is a notifiable disease with a 100% mortality rate if untreated, affecting the central nervous system and causing neurological symptoms such as paralysis, excessive salivation, and death. This study examines the clinical, epidemiologic, and pathologic aspects of paralytic rabies in cattle and horses from northwestern Argentina between 2014 and 2024. A total of 84 neurological consultations were analyzed, with 38 confirmed outbreaks. These were primarily distributed throughout the province of Salta. Of the brains analysed, 48.5% were confirmed by a histopathological diagnosis and direct immunofluorescence; 14.81% were confirmed by DIF and biological testing; 11.1% were confirmed by DIF and RT-PCR; 12.96% were confirmed by RT-PCR alone; and 5.56% were confirmed by immunohistochemistry. It was estimated that approximately 430 animals died from paralytic rabies during the study period. Northern Argentina is endemic to the disease. Outbreaks are typically associated with bat bites, resulting in an estimated economic loss of approximately 430 dead animals and $ 500,000. These losses could be significantly reduced through vaccination, which highlights the importance of control strategies. Rabies virus bovine horse Salta Argentina RT-PCR direct immunofluorescence Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Introduction Bovine paralytic rabies is a fatal infectious disease caused by the rabies virus (RabV), a member of the genus Lyssavirus within the family Rhabdoviridae. In Latin America, the main reservoir is the hematophagous bat Desmodus rotundus , which transmits the virus to livestock and causes significant economic losses (Cisterna et al. 2005; Schneider et al. 2009; Markotter et al. 2018). In Argentina, paralytic bovine rabies is a notifiable disease due to its zoonotic potential and 100% case fatality rate without timely intervention (SENASA 2022). The virus primarily affects the central nervous system (CNS), resulting in progressive neurological signs such as paresis, hypersalivation, recumbency, and ultimately death (Micheloud et al. 2016). Desmodus rotundus plays a central role in the epidemiology of the disease, particularly in areas where habitat fragmentation and high livestock densities increase the likelihood of contact between bats and cattle (Acha 1998). Northern Argentina is considered endemic for bovine rabies, with outbreaks historically associated with D. rotundus bites and the spread of the virus within bat colonies (Delprieto et al. 1996). Remarkably, the first documented cases in the country date back to May 15, 1822, when the newspaper “La Abeja” described rabies as a terrible and deadly disease unknown in Argentina until 1807, allegedly introduced by infected dogs brought by English ships (Barcat 2011). According to SENASA (2022), 243 outbreaks of paralytic rabies were reported in Argentina between 2012 and 2021, with Salta province ranking fifth in the number of cases. Of these outbreaks, 82% involved cattle, 10% horses, and 2% both species. Notably, cases of paralytic rabies were also detected in regions previously declared rabies-free, as well as atypical presentations in livestock (Micheloud et al. 2016; Margineda et al. 2020). Despite long-standing surveillance efforts, important questions remain regarding the transmission dynamics and regional epidemiologic patterns of the disease. This study aims to investigate the clinical, epidemiological, and pathological features of rabies in cattle and horses in northwestern Argentina between 2014 and 2024. The analysis is based on diagnostic samples submitted to the Specialized Veterinary Diagnostic Service of the Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA) Salta at the 'Bernardo Carrillo' Laboratory, supplemented by field data from affected farms. The goal is to generate a more comprehensive understanding of the disease's behavior in this endemic region. Material and methods This study focuses on outbreaks of paralytic rabies in cattle and horses that occurred between 2014 and 2024. Case diagnoses were performed by the Specialized Veterinary Diagnostic Service at the "Bernardo Carrillo" Laboratory in the Area de Investigación de Salud Animal (AISA) of the Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA) Salta, located in Cerrillos, Salta, Argentina. At AISA, all samples underwent histopathologic examination, while confirmatory diagnosis was performed by laboratories of the National Rabies Network using direct immunofluorescence (DIF), intracerebral inoculation in mice (biological test, BT), reverse transcription-PCR (RT-PCR) and immunohistochemistry (IHC) according to the Manual de Procedimientos de Rabia Paresiante (2022). The study categorized animals by farm or lot of origin and performed a retrospective analysis by age: juveniles (< 15 months) and adults (≥ 15 months). Clinical findings and histopathologic (HP) evaluations of the central nervous system (CNS) were systematically recorded. Particular attention was paid to the presence of multifocal, non-suppurative encephalomyelitis of variable severity characteristic of viral infections. In some cases, intracytoplasmic inclusion bodies (IIB) were observed, which are highly characteristic of rabies infection and support the histological diagnosis of the disease (Micheloud et al. 2016, 2018). The study calculated the total mean annual incidence, both overall and by age category. Absolute case frequencies by category were compared using the non-parametric χ² test to assess statistically significant differences (p < 0.05). Thematic maps were developed to visualize all outbreaks reported during the study period, with a special focus on Northwestern Argentina (NOA). These maps incorporated the known distribution of Desmodus rotundus (Sandoval et al. 2019) and regional vegetation units (Oyarzabal et al. 2018), using the open-source software QGIS ( https://qgis.org/ ), version 3.22.5. Results Between 2014 and 2024, the AISA received a total of 84 consultations involving cattle or horses with neurological signs and differential diagnoses that included paralytic rabies. Of these, 47.6% underwent specific diagnostic testing for rabies by DIF, BT and RT-PCR. During the study period, a total of 38 outbreaks of paralytic rabies were confirmed from Salta (32), Jujuy ( 1 ), Santiago del Estero ( 2 ), Tucumán ( 2 ), and Misiones ( 1 ). The geographic distribution of these outbreaks coincides with the known range of Desmodus rotundus (Fig. 1 ). However, it is important to note that in two outbreaks from the Anta Department (Salta), there was no documented bat activity in the area. In both cases, the affected animals were determined to have been incubating the disease prior to arrival at the premises. Retrospective anamnesis revealed the presence of compatible rabies cases at their original farms. Necropsies were performed on a total of 54 animals, including 50 cattle and 4 horses. Histopathological analysis of the brains revealed that 79.63% (43/54) exhibited severe, multifocal, non-suppurative lesions consistent with grades 2 and 3 as described by Micheloud et al. (2018), characterized by prominent and abundant perivascular cuffs. Intracytoplasmic inclusion bodies (Negri bodies) were observed in 44.44% of the brains examined, all of which showed multifocal, non-suppurative encephalitis of varying severity. Of the brains analyzed, 48.5% were confirmed by histopathological diagnosis and direct immunofluorescence (DIF), 14.81% by DIF and biological testing (BT), 11.1% by DIF and RT-PCR, 12.96% by RT-PCR alone, and 5.56% by immunohistochemistry (IHC). One case (1.85%) tested negative by DIF but positive by BT (Table 1 and Fig. 2 ). This latter case corresponded to a horse, and histopathological examination did not reveal lesions in the brain, likely due to the advanced state of autolysis (approximately 48 hours post-mortem). Table 1 Histopathological findings in brain samples and confirmatory diagnostic methods for bovine paralytic rabies. Confirmatory diagnostic Number and percentage (%) of brains * Histopathological findings IIB multifocal non-suppurative encephalitis Suppurative encephalitis with IIB Absence of injuries. DIF 26 (48,15) 7 12 6 1 DIF y RT-PCR 6 ( 11 , 11 ) 1 1 3 1 DIF-BT 8 (14,81) 0 8 0 0 IHC 3 (5,56) 0 3 0 0 BT 1 (1,85) 0 0 0 1 RT-PCR 7 (12,96) 0 3 4 0 HP** 3 (5,56) 0 0 3 0 Total 54 (100) * Positive results were found according to the diagnostic technique and its combinations. ** The samples were received in formalin. Diagnosis was only possible by HP and detailed detailed anamnesis. During the study period, it was estimated that approximately 430 animals died as a result of paralytic rabies. Of these, 418 were cattle and 12 were horses. Of these deaths, 69.68% occurred in Salta, 23.61% in Santiago del Estero, and the rest in Jujuy, Tucumán, and Misiones (p < 0.05). In Salta, the highest number of deaths was recorded in the department of Metán (n = 64), followed by Guachipas (49), General Martín de Güemes (48), Rosario de la Frontera (47), La Candelaria (45), Anta (33), La Caldera ( 6 ), Rosario de Lerma ( 6 ), and General José de San Martín, where only one case was reported (Fig. 3 ). The clinical progression of the disease in young cattle was 3.14 days, while in adults it was 6.10 days, showing statistically significant differences (p = 0.0008), whereas in horses the progression was 4.5 days. Regarding age categories, the highest mortality was recorded in young animals (n = 349), with an average incidence of 13.6%, while adults showed an average incidence of 9.2%. In horses, the average incidence was 13.55%. The recorded clinical signs in young animals included depression, anorexia, ptyalism, ataxia, ascending paresis, paddling, neck latero-flexion, and death. In adults, the most common signs were ataxia with progressive paresis starting in the posterior limbs, leading to a state of prostration with lateral recumbency and death. In Salta province, the highest mortality occurred in 2015 (n = 296) from eight outbreaks, but the highest incidence (24.4%) was recorded in 2017 with four outbreaks. In 2018, only one case was reported from the Rosario de Lerma department, representing the lowest incidence of the study period. Based on the number of outbreaks reported and diagnosed at AISA, the average monthly distribution of cases shows higher peaks during the summer, with smaller peaks in May and August. The number of cases remained low during the colder and drier months, suggesting a possible seasonality (Fig. 4 ). Discussion Rabies is a zoonotic disease that poses a global public health and veterinary threat. In 2024, the World Organization for Animal Health (WOAH) reported that approximately 59,000 people die annually from rabies (WOAH, 2024). Although accurate data on the number of animals affected by bovine paralytic rabies are not available worldwide, it is estimated that approximately 1,000,000 cattle die each year in Latin America from this disease (Hernández Baumgarten, 1976). The provinces of Córdoba, Chaco, Formosa, Corrientes, Tucumán, Misiones, Santiago del Estero, Salta, La Rioja, San Luis, Jujuy and Catamarca in Argentina constitute the endemic area for paralytic bovine rabies. This region also contains 17,824,878 cattle at potential risk of infection (SENASA, 2022). In our study, a total of 38 rabies outbreaks were attended and diagnosed, the majority of which originated from the province of Salta. This is probably related to the location of the AISA laboratory and researchers in Cerrillos, Salta. Smaller outbreaks were also reported in Jujuy, Santiago del Estero, Tucumán and Misiones. All outbreaks were located within the endemic area, coinciding with the distribution area of D. rotundus , the primary hematophagous vector of the disease, as previously reported (Sandoval et al., 2019). Histopathologic analysis revealed a high frequency of severe multifocal non-suppurative encephalitis with perivascular infiltration, features compatible with viral infections of the central nervous system. The presence of intracytoplasmic inclusion bodies in a significant percentage of cases confirmed the value of this lesion as a highly suggestive indicator of rabies. Furthermore, these analyses were complemented by techniques such as IFD, PB, IFQ, and/or RT-PCR, which increased the sensitivity and speed of diagnostic confirmation in an endemic area (Micheloud et al., 2018). This is the first study to describe at a local level the distribution of outbreaks and the number of rabies cases in the province of Salta, with the department of Metán being the most affected, reporting more than 60 cases in both cattle and horses and an average incidence of 7.6%. The highest mortality rates in cattle were concentrated in the central-southern part of the province. A local study conducted in the Valle de Guachipas reported that 15% of cattle examined showed bites from D. rotundus, with one case of bovine paralytic rabies diagnosed (Suarez et al., 2018). In addition, during farm visits and through anamnesis, owners reported the presence of this vampire bat species (except in two imported outbreaks). They often observed injuries on cattle caused by these bats or found caves nearby. Bites from D. rotundus infected with rabies virus (RabV) are known to be fatal to cattle and humans, as the disease is 100% fatal (Acha, 1968; Johnson et al., 2018). This supports the notion that cattle act as terminal hosts, unable to efficiently transmit the virus to other species. The primary mode of transmission remains the bite of D. rotundus , highlighting the need for control strategies targeting this species to reduce disease incidence in cattle, especially in endemic areas (Johnson, 2018; Markotter et al., 2018; Buenrostro-Silva et al., 2019). In our study, it was estimated that between 2014 and 2024, 430 animals would die from bovine paralytic rabies. If these numbers are weighted with the economic costs outlined in the Ministry of Economy's 2024 Livestock Results Report No. 50, the economic loss could be approximately US $ 500,000. Although vaccination data was not available for these animals, if they had been properly vaccinated, the cost of vaccination with a booster after 30 days would be around USD $ 500, highlighting the cost-benefit of vaccination. Furthermore, the disease mainly affected young cattle, which showed a shorter clinical course compared to adults, a finding consistent with previous studies (Micheloud et al., 2018). The highest incidence occurred in 2017 (24.4%), while the highest number of outbreaks was recorded in 2015. Although our data have the limitation that we could not estimate the population size for all events, they reflect a similar trend to the notifications and reports from SENASA (2022). A fluctuating pattern was observed over the years, and it is hypothesized that outbreaks occur, and self-resolve as infected bats also die from the virus, reducing the number of individuals in the colony. It may take a long time for the colony to repopulate and for the virus to spread again. Other studies of the epidemiology of the disease in the region have reported a seasonal distribution of cases, with peaks during the summer months and declines during cold and dry periods. This suggests a cyclical transmission pattern of the virus, with the average winter temperature being a key determinant; it should not fall below 15°C (Acha et al., 1968; Torres et al., 2014). This pattern was also observed in our study, with the highest number of cases occurring in November and January. These results may provide important information to strengthen strategies for the prevention and control of the disease. In terms of prevention, rabies control strategies in Argentina are based on epidemiologic surveillance, vaccination of cattle in high-risk areas, and control of D. rotundus populations. Unlike canine rabies, for which vaccination is mandatory and has significantly reduced human cases, cattle vaccination is only mandatory in areas with active outbreaks. This contributes to the persistence of the disease in certain regions (SENASA, 2022; Guillén et al., 2022). Finally, economic impact projections suggest that systematic vaccination could be a cost-effective strategy to reduce losses caused by paralytic bovine rabies. In Argentina, the investment required to immunize the at-risk cattle population is substantial, but could be justified in terms of the costs avoided due to production losses and mortality. In addition, strengthening epidemiological surveillance strategies and controlling bat populations are essential measures to reduce the long-term incidence of the disease. Declarations Conflict of interest None of the authors have any conflict of interest to declare Funding This work was supported by research proyects from Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria: 2019-RIST-E5-I111-001, 2023-PD-L06-I114, 2023-PE-L01-I057, and 2023-PE-L01-I044 Author contributions Griselda N. Copa and Juan F. Micheloud: conceptualization, data curation, formal analysis, research, Intestigation, Writing- original draft, writing, review and editing. Griselda N. Copa, María L. Andrade , Carlos A. Enriquez, Mariana Tolaba-Carillos and Juan P. Diaz: Data curation, formal analysis, methodology, original draft. Juan F. Micheloud, Luis Colque-Caro, Diego Medina, Jeremías Singh, Agustín Avellaneda-Cáceres, Laura Sabrina Aguirre and Gabriela Virginia Sandoval and Fernando Delgado methodology (laboratory and field work). Acknowledgements we thank the Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria for supporting and enabling this work, as well as the veterinarians who requested and contributed to the diagnostic process. Data Availability The datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are not publicly available because they are the property of the Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA) and are subject to the institution's data-sharing policies. However, they are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. 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Molecular Ecology , 23(9): 2340–2352. https://doi.org/10.1111/mec.12728 Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Reviewers agreed at journal 17 Sep, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 14 Sep, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 04 Sep, 2025 First submitted to journal 03 Sep, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7520441","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":514871477,"identity":"f12297d4-2912-4ba5-b204-7656d2abcb16","order_by":0,"name":"Griselda Noemi 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Agropecuaria","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Juan","middleName":"Francisco","lastName":"Micheloud","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-09-02 18:36:04","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7520441/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7520441/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":91879279,"identity":"4052d047-5918-4516-8f63-fa7917de97dc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-22 14:50:13","extension":"jpg","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":124776,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Figure1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7520441/v1/8b319aa1feb8c5933ebedc5f.jpg"},{"id":91882173,"identity":"5b390bf6-62c6-48e7-ab75-5bb9c87b5315","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-22 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14:58:14","extension":"xml","order_by":18,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":65435,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"TROPD25016750structuring.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7520441/v1/97aacd3d9345e718e145cd4f.xml"},{"id":91881692,"identity":"7cb3566d-434e-40d9-859c-dd9650016405","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-22 14:58:14","extension":"html","order_by":19,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":75596,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7520441/v1/bee673d62339e19aa24c8103.html"},{"id":91879276,"identity":"b7d52a16-54b3-476a-9bed-4bfffd03fe07","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-22 14:50:13","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":124776,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDistribution of paralytic rabies outbreaks investigated and diagnosed by AISA between 2014 and 2024, overlaid with the known geographic range of \u003cem\u003eDesmodus rotundus\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7520441/v1/f92c7e1d353ecd112cd10109.jpg"},{"id":91879280,"identity":"f6f3e892-c8b0-49f2-85e1-cae8ee557fb2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-22 14:50:13","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":761123,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eClinical, Epidemiological, and Histopathological Features of Rabies in Livestock (A) A calf in lateral decubitus with motor impairment. (B) A horse in the terminal stage of rabies lying on the ground and exhibiting pedaling movements. (C) The hematophagous bat \u003cem\u003eDesmodus rotundus\u003c/em\u003e, the main vector of rabies transmission in Latin America. (D) A vampire bat bite wound on a calf's ear. (E) Central nervous system histopathology showing nonsuppurative encephalomyelitis with perivascular cuffing. In the inset is an intracytoplasmic inclusion body that is consistent with a Negri body (H\u0026amp;E stain, 400×). (F) Immunohistochemistry showing rabies virus antigen in neurons and neuropil (streptavidin-biotin-peroxidase method, 400×).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"OnlineFigure2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7520441/v1/40e5b0556e15aba91fb9d09a.png"},{"id":91881685,"identity":"21158b88-ea03-4771-9376-b42598cd4686","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-22 14:58:13","extension":"jpg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":65717,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCategorization of paralytic rabies cases by department in the Salta province. Period 2014 and 2024 (n=299). MET: Metán, GUA: Guachipas, FRR: Rosario de la Frontera, LCN: La Candelaria, GGU: General Martín Miguel de Güemes, ANT: Anta, RLE: Rosario de Lerma, LCA: La Caldera, GSM: General José de San Martín.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure3.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7520441/v1/bc0593ba4cc95a3881f98612.jpg"},{"id":91879281,"identity":"2cfe6fa0-a601-4fca-9654-792b7196ffaf","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-22 14:50:13","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":19633,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eAverage monthly distribution of bovine deaths due to rabies according to the number of outbreaks reported in the province of Salta\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7520441/v1/07c6cc661e7302f621b2be52.png"},{"id":91884104,"identity":"2c61d9f3-7cc7-4470-ac92-6189433c7c98","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-22 15:14:14","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1715358,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7520441/v1/0225ad89-891e-4760-95bb-0f88faec91f4.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"Ten-Year Study on Bovine Paralytic Rabies in Northwestern Argentina (2014-2024): Clinical, Epidemiological, and Pathological Insights","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eBovine paralytic rabies is a fatal infectious disease caused by the rabies virus (RabV), a member of the genus Lyssavirus within the family Rhabdoviridae. In Latin America, the main reservoir is the hematophagous bat \u003cem\u003eDesmodus rotundus\u003c/em\u003e, which transmits the virus to livestock and causes significant economic losses (Cisterna et al. 2005; Schneider et al. 2009; Markotter et al. 2018). In Argentina, paralytic bovine rabies is a notifiable disease due to its zoonotic potential and 100% case fatality rate without timely intervention (SENASA 2022).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe virus primarily affects the central nervous system (CNS), resulting in progressive neurological signs such as paresis, hypersalivation, recumbency, and ultimately death (Micheloud et al. 2016). \u003cem\u003eDesmodus rotundus\u003c/em\u003e plays a central role in the epidemiology of the disease, particularly in areas where habitat fragmentation and high livestock densities increase the likelihood of contact between bats and cattle (Acha 1998).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eNorthern Argentina is considered endemic for bovine rabies, with outbreaks historically associated with \u003cem\u003eD. rotundus\u003c/em\u003e bites and the spread of the virus within bat colonies (Delprieto et al. 1996). Remarkably, the first documented cases in the country date back to May 15, 1822, when the newspaper \u0026ldquo;La Abeja\u0026rdquo; described rabies as a terrible and deadly disease unknown in Argentina until 1807, allegedly introduced by infected dogs brought by English ships (Barcat 2011).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAccording to SENASA (2022), 243 outbreaks of paralytic rabies were reported in Argentina between 2012 and 2021, with Salta province ranking fifth in the number of cases. Of these outbreaks, 82% involved cattle, 10% horses, and 2% both species. Notably, cases of paralytic rabies were also detected in regions previously declared rabies-free, as well as atypical presentations in livestock (Micheloud et al. 2016; Margineda et al. 2020). Despite long-standing surveillance efforts, important questions remain regarding the transmission dynamics and regional epidemiologic patterns of the disease.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study aims to investigate the clinical, epidemiological, and pathological features of rabies in cattle and horses in northwestern Argentina between 2014 and 2024. The analysis is based on diagnostic samples submitted to the Specialized Veterinary Diagnostic Service of the Instituto Nacional de Tecnolog\u0026iacute;a Agropecuaria (INTA) Salta at the 'Bernardo Carrillo' Laboratory, supplemented by field data from affected farms. The goal is to generate a more comprehensive understanding of the disease's behavior in this endemic region.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Material and methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study focuses on outbreaks of paralytic rabies in cattle and horses that occurred between 2014 and 2024. Case diagnoses were performed by the Specialized Veterinary Diagnostic Service at the \"Bernardo Carrillo\" Laboratory in the Area de Investigaci\u0026oacute;n de Salud Animal (AISA) of the Instituto Nacional de Tecnolog\u0026iacute;a Agropecuaria (INTA) Salta, located in Cerrillos, Salta, Argentina. At AISA, all samples underwent histopathologic examination, while confirmatory diagnosis was performed by laboratories of the National Rabies Network using direct immunofluorescence (DIF), intracerebral inoculation in mice (biological test, BT), reverse transcription-PCR (RT-PCR) and immunohistochemistry (IHC) according to the Manual de Procedimientos de Rabia Paresiante (2022).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study categorized animals by farm or lot of origin and performed a retrospective analysis by age: juveniles (\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;15 months) and adults (\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;15 months). Clinical findings and histopathologic (HP) evaluations of the central nervous system (CNS) were systematically recorded. Particular attention was paid to the presence of multifocal, non-suppurative encephalomyelitis of variable severity characteristic of viral infections. In some cases, intracytoplasmic inclusion bodies (IIB) were observed, which are highly characteristic of rabies infection and support the histological diagnosis of the disease (Micheloud et al. 2016, 2018).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study calculated the total mean annual incidence, both overall and by age category. Absolute case frequencies by category were compared using the non-parametric χ\u0026sup2; test to assess statistically significant differences (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThematic maps were developed to visualize all outbreaks reported during the study period, with a special focus on Northwestern Argentina (NOA). These maps incorporated the known distribution of \u003cem\u003eDesmodus rotundus\u003c/em\u003e (Sandoval et al. 2019) and regional vegetation units (Oyarzabal et al. 2018), using the open-source software QGIS (\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://qgis.org/\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://qgis.org/\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e), version 3.22.5.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eBetween 2014 and 2024, the AISA received a total of 84 consultations involving cattle or horses with neurological signs and differential diagnoses that included paralytic rabies. Of these, 47.6% underwent specific diagnostic testing for rabies by DIF, BT and RT-PCR. During the study period, a total of 38 outbreaks of paralytic rabies were confirmed from Salta (32), Jujuy (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e), Santiago del Estero (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e), Tucum\u0026aacute;n (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e), and Misiones (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). The geographic distribution of these outbreaks coincides with the known range of \u003cem\u003eDesmodus rotundus\u003c/em\u003e (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHowever, it is important to note that in two outbreaks from the Anta Department (Salta), there was no documented bat activity in the area. In both cases, the affected animals were determined to have been incubating the disease prior to arrival at the premises. Retrospective anamnesis revealed the presence of compatible rabies cases at their original farms.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eNecropsies were performed on a total of 54 animals, including 50 cattle and 4 horses. Histopathological analysis of the brains revealed that 79.63% (43/54) exhibited severe, multifocal, non-suppurative lesions consistent with grades 2 and 3 as described by Micheloud et al. (2018), characterized by prominent and abundant perivascular cuffs. Intracytoplasmic inclusion bodies (Negri bodies) were observed in 44.44% of the brains examined, all of which showed multifocal, non-suppurative encephalitis of varying severity.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOf the brains analyzed, 48.5% were confirmed by histopathological diagnosis and direct immunofluorescence (DIF), 14.81% by DIF and biological testing (BT), 11.1% by DIF and RT-PCR, 12.96% by RT-PCR alone, and 5.56% by immunohistochemistry (IHC). One case (1.85%) tested negative by DIF but positive by BT (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e and Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). This latter case corresponded to a horse, and histopathological examination did not reveal lesions in the brain, likely due to the advanced state of autolysis (approximately 48 hours post-mortem).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHistopathological findings in brain samples and confirmatory diagnostic methods for bovine paralytic rabies.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eConfirmatory diagnostic\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNumber and percentage (%) of brains *\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHistopathological findings\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIIB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003emultifocal non-suppurative encephalitis\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSuppurative encephalitis with IIB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAbsence of injuries.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDIF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26 (48,15)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDIF y RT-PCR\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6 (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDIF-BT\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8 (14,81)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIHC\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3 (5,56)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBT\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1 (1,85)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRT-PCR\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7 (12,96)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHP**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3 (5,56)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e54 (100)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"6\"\u003e* Positive results were found according to the diagnostic technique and its combinations.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"6\"\u003e** The samples were received in formalin. Diagnosis was only possible by HP and detailed detailed anamnesis.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDuring the study period, it was estimated that approximately 430 animals died as a result of paralytic rabies. Of these, 418 were cattle and 12 were horses. Of these deaths, 69.68% occurred in Salta, 23.61% in Santiago del Estero, and the rest in Jujuy, Tucum\u0026aacute;n, and Misiones (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). In Salta, the highest number of deaths was recorded in the department of Met\u0026aacute;n (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;64), followed by Guachipas (49), General Mart\u0026iacute;n de G\u0026uuml;emes (48), Rosario de la Frontera (47), La Candelaria (45), Anta (33), La Caldera (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e), Rosario de Lerma (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e), and General Jos\u0026eacute; de San Mart\u0026iacute;n, where only one case was reported (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e ).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe clinical progression of the disease in young cattle was 3.14 days, while in adults it was 6.10 days, showing statistically significant differences (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.0008), whereas in horses the progression was 4.5 days. Regarding age categories, the highest mortality was recorded in young animals (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;349), with an average incidence of 13.6%, while adults showed an average incidence of 9.2%. In horses, the average incidence was 13.55%. The recorded clinical signs in young animals included depression, anorexia, ptyalism, ataxia, ascending paresis, paddling, neck latero-flexion, and death. In adults, the most common signs were ataxia with progressive paresis starting in the posterior limbs, leading to a state of prostration with lateral recumbency and death.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn Salta province, the highest mortality occurred in 2015 (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;296) from eight outbreaks, but the highest incidence (24.4%) was recorded in 2017 with four outbreaks. In 2018, only one case was reported from the Rosario de Lerma department, representing the lowest incidence of the study period.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBased on the number of outbreaks reported and diagnosed at AISA, the average monthly distribution of cases shows higher peaks during the summer, with smaller peaks in May and August. The number of cases remained low during the colder and drier months, suggesting a possible seasonality (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eRabies is a zoonotic disease that poses a global public health and veterinary threat. In 2024, the World Organization for Animal Health (WOAH) reported that approximately 59,000 people die annually from rabies (WOAH, 2024). Although accurate data on the number of animals affected by bovine paralytic rabies are not available worldwide, it is estimated that approximately 1,000,000 cattle die each year in Latin America from this disease (Hern\u0026aacute;ndez Baumgarten, 1976). The provinces of C\u0026oacute;rdoba, Chaco, Formosa, Corrientes, Tucum\u0026aacute;n, Misiones, Santiago del Estero, Salta, La Rioja, San Luis, Jujuy and Catamarca in Argentina constitute the endemic area for paralytic bovine rabies. This region also contains 17,824,878 cattle at potential risk of infection (SENASA, 2022).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn our study, a total of 38 rabies outbreaks were attended and diagnosed, the majority of which originated from the province of Salta. This is probably related to the location of the AISA laboratory and researchers in Cerrillos, Salta. Smaller outbreaks were also reported in Jujuy, Santiago del Estero, Tucum\u0026aacute;n and Misiones. All outbreaks were located within the endemic area, coinciding with the distribution area of \u003cem\u003eD. rotundus\u003c/em\u003e, the primary hematophagous vector of the disease, as previously reported (Sandoval et al., 2019).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHistopathologic analysis revealed a high frequency of severe multifocal non-suppurative encephalitis with perivascular infiltration, features compatible with viral infections of the central nervous system. The presence of intracytoplasmic inclusion bodies in a significant percentage of cases confirmed the value of this lesion as a highly suggestive indicator of rabies. Furthermore, these analyses were complemented by techniques such as IFD, PB, IFQ, and/or RT-PCR, which increased the sensitivity and speed of diagnostic confirmation in an endemic area (Micheloud et al., 2018).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis is the first study to describe at a local level the distribution of outbreaks and the number of rabies cases in the province of Salta, with the department of Met\u0026aacute;n being the most affected, reporting more than 60 cases in both cattle and horses and an average incidence of 7.6%. The highest mortality rates in cattle were concentrated in the central-southern part of the province. A local study conducted in the Valle de Guachipas reported that 15% of cattle examined showed bites from D. rotundus, with one case of bovine paralytic rabies diagnosed (Suarez et al., 2018).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn addition, during farm visits and through anamnesis, owners reported the presence of this vampire bat species (except in two imported outbreaks). They often observed injuries on cattle caused by these bats or found caves nearby. Bites from \u003cem\u003eD. rotundus\u003c/em\u003e infected with rabies virus (RabV) are known to be fatal to cattle and humans, as the disease is 100% fatal (Acha, 1968; Johnson et al., 2018). This supports the notion that cattle act as terminal hosts, unable to efficiently transmit the virus to other species. The primary mode of transmission remains the bite of \u003cem\u003eD. rotundus\u003c/em\u003e, highlighting the need for control strategies targeting this species to reduce disease incidence in cattle, especially in endemic areas (Johnson, 2018; Markotter et al., 2018; Buenrostro-Silva et al., 2019).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn our study, it was estimated that between 2014 and 2024, 430 animals would die from bovine paralytic rabies. If these numbers are weighted with the economic costs outlined in the Ministry of Economy's 2024 Livestock Results Report No. 50, the economic loss could be approximately US\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e500,000. Although vaccination data was not available for these animals, if they had been properly vaccinated, the cost of vaccination with a booster after 30 days would be around USD\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e500, highlighting the cost-benefit of vaccination. Furthermore, the disease mainly affected young cattle, which showed a shorter clinical course compared to adults, a finding consistent with previous studies (Micheloud et al., 2018).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe highest incidence occurred in 2017 (24.4%), while the highest number of outbreaks was recorded in 2015. Although our data have the limitation that we could not estimate the population size for all events, they reflect a similar trend to the notifications and reports from SENASA (2022). A fluctuating pattern was observed over the years, and it is hypothesized that outbreaks occur, and self-resolve as infected bats also die from the virus, reducing the number of individuals in the colony. It may take a long time for the colony to repopulate and for the virus to spread again.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOther studies of the epidemiology of the disease in the region have reported a seasonal distribution of cases, with peaks during the summer months and declines during cold and dry periods. This suggests a cyclical transmission pattern of the virus, with the average winter temperature being a key determinant; it should not fall below 15\u0026deg;C (Acha et al., 1968; Torres et al., 2014). This pattern was also observed in our study, with the highest number of cases occurring in November and January. These results may provide important information to strengthen strategies for the prevention and control of the disease.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn terms of prevention, rabies control strategies in Argentina are based on epidemiologic surveillance, vaccination of cattle in high-risk areas, and control of \u003cem\u003eD. rotundus\u003c/em\u003e populations. Unlike canine rabies, for which vaccination is mandatory and has significantly reduced human cases, cattle vaccination is only mandatory in areas with active outbreaks. This contributes to the persistence of the disease in certain regions (SENASA, 2022; Guill\u0026eacute;n et al., 2022).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFinally, economic impact projections suggest that systematic vaccination could be a cost-effective strategy to reduce losses caused by paralytic bovine rabies. In Argentina, the investment required to immunize the at-risk cattle population is substantial, but could be justified in terms of the costs avoided due to production losses and mortality. In addition, strengthening epidemiological surveillance strategies and controlling bat populations are essential measures to reduce the long-term incidence of the disease.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cb\u003eConflict of interest\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eNone of the authors have any conflict of interest to declare\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFunding\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis work was supported by research proyects from Instituto Nacional de Tecnolog\u0026iacute;a Agropecuaria: 2019-RIST-E5-I111-001, 2023-PD-L06-I114, 2023-PE-L01-I057, and 2023-PE-L01-I044\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor contributions\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eGriselda N. Copa and Juan F. Micheloud: conceptualization, data curation, formal analysis, research, Intestigation, Writing- original draft, writing, review and editing. Griselda N. Copa, Mar\u0026iacute;a L. Andrade\u003csup\u003e,\u003c/sup\u003e Carlos A. Enriquez, Mariana Tolaba-Carillos and Juan P. Diaz: Data curation, formal analysis, methodology, original draft. Juan F. Micheloud, Luis Colque-Caro, Diego Medina, Jerem\u0026iacute;as Singh, Agust\u0026iacute;n Avellaneda-C\u0026aacute;ceres, Laura Sabrina Aguirre and Gabriela Virginia Sandoval and Fernando Delgado methodology (laboratory and field work).\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003ewe thank the Instituto Nacional de Tecnolog\u0026iacute;a Agropecuaria for supporting and enabling this work, as well as the veterinarians who requested and contributed to the diagnostic process.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are not publicly available because they are the property of the Instituto Nacional de Tecnolog\u0026iacute;a Agropecuaria (INTA) and are subject to the institution's data-sharing policies. However, they are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAcha P, Acevedo-Whitehouse K, de-la-Cueva H, Gulland FMD, Aurioles-Gamboa D, Arellano-Carbajal F, Su\u0026aacute;rez-G\u0026uuml;emes F (1968). Epidemiolog\u0026iacute;a de la rabia bovina paral\u0026iacute;tica transmitida por los quir\u0026oacute;pteros. \u003cem\u003eBolet\u0026iacute;n de la Oficina Sanitaria Panamericana\u003c/em\u003e, 64: 411\u0026ndash;430. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://iris.paho.org/bitstream/handle/10665.2/12741/v64n5p411.pdf\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://iris.paho.org/bitstream/handle/10665.2/12741/v64n5p411.pdf\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBarcat (2011). 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Phylodynamics of vampire bat-transmitted rabies in Argentina. \u003cem\u003eMolecular Ecology\u003c/em\u003e, 23(9): 2340\u0026ndash;2352. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1111/mec.12728\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1111/mec.12728\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"tropical-animal-health-and-production","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"trop","sideBox":"Learn more about [Tropical Animal Health and Production](https://www.springer.com/journal/11250)","snPcode":"11250","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/11250/3","title":"Tropical Animal Health and Production","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Rabies virus, bovine, horse, Salta, Argentina, RT-PCR, direct immunofluorescence","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7520441/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7520441/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eParalytic bovine rabies is a fatal disease caused by the rabies virus (RabV), which is transmitted in Latin America primarily by the hematophagous bat \u003cem\u003eDesmodus rotundus\u003c/em\u003e. In Argentina, rabies is a notifiable disease with a 100% mortality rate if untreated, affecting the central nervous system and causing neurological symptoms such as paralysis, excessive salivation, and death. This study examines the clinical, epidemiologic, and pathologic aspects of paralytic rabies in cattle and horses from northwestern Argentina between 2014 and 2024. A total of 84 neurological consultations were analyzed, with 38 confirmed outbreaks. These were primarily distributed throughout the province of Salta. Of the brains analysed, 48.5% were confirmed by a histopathological diagnosis and direct immunofluorescence; 14.81% were confirmed by DIF and biological testing; 11.1% were confirmed by DIF and RT-PCR; 12.96% were confirmed by RT-PCR alone; and 5.56% were confirmed by immunohistochemistry. It was estimated that approximately 430 animals died from paralytic rabies during the study period. Northern Argentina is endemic to the disease. Outbreaks are typically associated with bat bites, resulting in an estimated economic loss of approximately 430 dead animals and \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e500,000. These losses could be significantly reduced through vaccination, which highlights the importance of control strategies.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Ten-Year Study on Bovine Paralytic Rabies in Northwestern Argentina (2014-2024): Clinical, Epidemiological, and Pathological Insights","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-09-22 14:50:09","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7520441/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"","date":"2025-09-17T16:21:46+00:00","index":0,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-09-14T17:01:55+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-09-05T03:44:32+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Tropical Animal Health and Production","date":"2025-09-03T12:50:26+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"tropical-animal-health-and-production","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"trop","sideBox":"Learn more about [Tropical Animal Health and Production](https://www.springer.com/journal/11250)","snPcode":"11250","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/11250/3","title":"Tropical Animal Health and Production","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"8b71e638-c5d4-479d-a68d-b1b826ad0c35","owner":[],"postedDate":"September 22nd, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-09-22T14:50:09+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-09-22 14:50:09","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7520441","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7520441","identity":"rs-7520441","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}