Seasonal Occurrence and Damage Assessment of Key Pests of Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L. Moench) in South-south Nigeria

Seasonal Occurrence and Damage Assessment of Key Pests of Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L. 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Moench) in South-south Nigeria Uwaidem, Yakubu Ismaila, Borisade, Omotoso Abiodun, Essien, Rosemary Anitie, and 1 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7794437/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Revision Version 1 posted 9 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Okra ( Abelmoschus esculentus L. Moench) is a vital vegetable crop in tropical regions, yet its productivity is severely constrained by pest attacks. This two-year field survey was conducted across three locations in Abak, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria, to investigate the seasonal occurrence , incidence, and impact of insect and non-insect pests on Yar-Balle and an improved variety (Yelle) of okra. Insects were collected and identified across different growth stages, and pests were grouped into their respective orders and families. A high diversity of Coleoptera, Lepidoptera larvae (including Sylepta derogata , Anomis flavus , Earias spp. and Helicoverpa armigera ), and hemipteran bugs were recorded, predominantly damaging okra leaves and fruits with an average infestation rate that is statistically s ignificant at p \(\:\le\:\) 0.005. Additionally, a significant incidence of gastropods (garden snails) was observed, causing foliar damage with an estimated severity of 40–65% in some plots. Pest populations and damage levels were consistently higher throughout the plant growth stages, with notable variations among the surveyed locations. Findings from this study highlight the need for integrated pest management strategies addressing both insect and non-insect pests across seasons to ensure sustainable okra production in South-south Nigeria. Seasonal Diversity Incidence Abelmoschus esculentus Sylepta derogata Anomis flavus Helicoverpa armigera Pest Population Akwa Ibom State Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 1.0 INTRODUCTION Okra ( Abelmoschus esculentus L.) is one of the most widely cultivated vegetable crops in Nigeria, ranking third after tomato and pepper in terms of fruit vegetable production (Sulaiman et al., 2022 ). It is valued not only for its short growth cycle, especially the early-maturing varieties that are ready for harvest within 40–60 days, but also for its economic and nutritional significance (Alhassan, 2019 ). The crop provides income and food security for small and medium-scale farmers and plays a critical role in household food security (Gemede et al., 2015 ; Ahmad, 2020 ). Beyond its immature pods, which are commonly used in traditional dishes, okra leaves and fruits are rich in essential nutrients vital for both human and animal health (Maheerthanan et al., 2024 ). Despite its economic and dietary importance, okra production is increasingly challenged by a wide range of insect pests. These pests feed on leaves, stems, flowers and fruits, causing defoliation, flower abortion and fruit damage. Infestations by sap-sucking bugs and lepidopteran larvae often result in reduced pod quality and marketability (Zia and Haseeb, 2019 ). Over 70 species of insects, including mites, have been reported on field-grown okra crops globally (Kodandaram et al., 2017 ; Rahman et al., 2013 ). However, there is limited regional information on the biology, abundance and impact of major insect and non-insect pests like Sylepta derogata , Amrasca biguttula biguttula , Earias spp., Helicoverpa armigera and Limicolaria spp. in Nigerian okra fields, which presents a challenge for localised pest management strategies. Although several studies in different regions of the world have explored insect pest control in okra (Bhutto et al., 2017 ; Berwa et al., 2017 ; Patil et al., 2023 ), most have focused solely on insects, often overlooking other arthropods and non-insect pests. A recent study by Rivers et al. ( 2024 ) highlighted the presence of several insect pest species in the region, but comprehensive data on non-insect pests such as the garden snail, a known pest of many crops in Southern Nigeria (Borisade et al., 2021 ), remains scarce. Our earlier research documented the predatory activities of Drilus beetles on garden snails across various agroecological zones, suggesting a natural biocontrol interaction. Unfortunately, cultural practices such as indiscriminate pesticide application and physical destruction of beetle larvae may be contributing to the decline of these beneficial agents. At the same time, garden snail populations appear to be rising, possibly due to favourable weather patterns and their ability to survive chemical treatments by retracting into their shells. The challenges posed by pod borers are particularly severe in okra fields where pods are left to mature for seed. These pests often infest pods internally, evading pesticide sprays that are typically applied during the day, even though egg-laying occurs at night. This timing mismatch further reduces the effectiveness of chemical control. Moreover, concerns about pesticide residues on fresh okra and the associated risks to human and environmental health have discouraged the consistent use of chemical inputs. In the study area, okra farming is practised intensively and extensively. Farmers not only depend on the sale and consumption of fresh pods but also harvest and dry mature pods for seed saving. However, the high incidence of pod borers and bugs during pod maturation often results in seed deformation and reduced germination potential. To support more effective pest management, this study seeks to provide up-to-date records of pest species associated with okra at various growth stages, including both major and emerging threats from non-insect members. It aims to document pest abundance and plant–pest interactions, assess the nature and severity of the damage caused by key pests, and identify beneficial organisms that could serve as natural enemies. The information generated is intended to guide the development of sustainable, cost-effective and environmentally friendly control strategies tailored to local farming systems in the study area. 2.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS 2.1 Study Location and Planting Materials The field survey was carried out during the early farming seasons of February to June in both 2022 and 2023 across three farmer-managed plots in Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. The sites were located approximately 6 kilometres apart, and their geographic coordinates are provided in Table 1 . Each plot was manually prepared and cultivated with two varieties of okra: Yar-Balle and Yelle variety obtained from “Unique Agro-Allied Store” in Abak. Both varieties are early maturing, with a harvest window of 35 to 45 days, and are known for producing high-quality pods. Yar-Balle, a cultivar native to the Sokoto region of Nigeria, has been previously described for its agronomic traits and adaptability under different management systems (Alhassan, 2019 ). Seeds were sown at a rate of two per hole using a standard planting distance of 60 × 40 cm. An organic farming approach was adopted, with no application of synthetic pesticides, to preserve potential insect and non-insect pest activity for observation. Weed control was carried out manually using hoes once the crops were established, and other agronomic practices were uniformly maintained across all sites. 2.2 Survey of Okra Pests Following germination and the development of three to four true leaves, field visits were conducted three times per week across the study plots. Once the okra plants were well established, sixty plants were randomly selected and tagged in each location, making a total of 180 plants across all three locations. Observations were carried out during the morning (8:00 − 10:00 a.m.) and evening (4:00 − 7:00 p.m.) hours on each sampling day, as insect populations were higher and most species were less active in feeding, making them easier to collect. To capture nocturnal pests, especially adult moths, routine night visits were also made between 8:00–10:00 p.m. using white lamps. All parts of the plant; leaves, flowers, stems and fruits were carefully examined. 2.3 Rearing and Identification of Insects Larvae collected from the undersides of leaves, as well as pupae found on foliage or within the soil, were reared in insect cages under laboratory conditions. Fresh okra leaves were supplied regularly as food until adult emergence. Leaves were replaced every three days, and larval feeding was visually assessed and compared with field infestation. To prevent rapid drying, the leaves were lightly moistened with water. Identified adults were recorded,, while unclear specimens were photographed and their images sent to curators at Museum Victoria Public Research and Information Centre, Melbourne, Australia ( [email protected] ) for expert identification. 2.4 Assessment of Pest Damage on Okra a. Leaf Damage Leaf damage was assessed visually and categorised as: Severe – if two-thirds or more of the leaf surface had visible perforations; Moderate – if about one-third showed perforations; None – when no perforations were observed. Presence of webbing, curled or folded leaves, and faecal pellets of garden snails were also recorded. b. Pod and Stem Damage Damage to okra pods and stems was assessed by counting the number of perforations per fruit and recording the number of perforated fruits per plant. Heavily damaged pods were collected and kept in perforated jars to monitor for borer emergence. 2.5 Data Analysis Descriptive statistics were used to present data on pest species abundance and associated damage levels. Data were analysed using IBM SPSS Statistics 20. Pest species frequency and distribution were illustrated using tables and charts (in percentage format). Specifically, data on the total number of leaves on the sampled plants, leaves infested with larvae, and the extent of infestation in each sampling year were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA). Mean differences significant at the 5% probability level were separated using the Least Significant Difference (LSD) test. 3.0 RESULTS 3.1 Pest Profile and Species Abundance A total of 92 insect and non-insect pest species belonging to 13 different orders were recovered on okra throughout the growth stages in both sampling years (Table 2 ). The order Coleoptera had the highest proportion (20.7%), followed by Lepidoptera (19.6%), Hemiptera (17.4%) and Orthoptera (15.2%) (Fig. 1 ). This trend was consistent in both 2022 and 2023, although individual species varied in abundance. For example, the incidence of cotton stainer bugs was higher in the second sampling year than in the first. A similar trend was observed for the okra fruit borer, Helicoverpa armigera , which led to more fruit infestation in the second year. In contrast, we observed a reduction in the population of black soldier fly ( Hermetia illucens ), a beneficial insect, during the second year (2023). Other major pests such as Sylepta derogata , Earias spp., Anomis flavus , Limicolaria spp. and orthopterans were recorded in both years, and their populations were statistically similar. Garden snail (Limicolaria spp .) populations appeared higher but were not statistically different at p \(\:\le\:\) .05 across all sampling periods. Table 1 geographical location and coordinate of the study areas Locations Names Coordinates Location 1 The Cross River Basin Development Authority, Abak Irrigation Project, Abak Usung-idim 4°57, 7°47 Location 2 6 battalion Nigerian Army Barracks, Ibagwa 4°54, 7°47 Location 3 Agricultural Science demonstration plot of The Nigerian Navy Military School, Ikot Ntuen, Oruk Anam 4°55, 7°48 Table 2 List of insects and non-insect’s pest on okra in both sampling seasons S/N Common name Scientific name Order Family 1 Garden spider** Araneus diadematus Araneae Araneidae 2 Bordered Orbweaver** Neoscona adianta Araneae Araneidae 3 Adonis Lady Beettle** Hippodamia variegate Coleoptera Coccinellidae 4 Cassid beetles Psylliodes luridipennis Coleoptera Chrysomelidae 5 Click beetles (Wire worms) Pterohelaeus spp Coleoptera Elateridae 6 Okra flea beetle Podegrica uniformis Coleoptera Chrysomelidae 7 Darkling beetles Lagria villosa Coleoptera Lagriidae 8 Flea beetles Epitrix spp Coleoptera Chrysomelidae 9 Transverse Lady beetles** Coccinella transversalis Coleoptera Coccinelidae 10 Tortoiseshell beetle Aspidomorpha spp Coleoptera Coccinellidae 11 Okra stem weevil Alcidodes affaber Coleoptera Curculionidae 12 Chafer beetle Oxycetonia versicolor Coleoptera Scarabidae 13 Nine-spotted ladybug** Coccinella novemnotata Coleoptera Coccinellidae 14 Darkling beetles Lagria spp Coleoptera Tenebrionidae 15 Leaf beetle Plagiodera versicolora Coleoptera Chrysomelidae 16 28-spotted ladybug** Henosepilachna Vigintioctopunctata Coleoptera Coccinellidae 17 Ladybird** Coccinella transversalis Coleoptera Coccinellidae 18 Net-winged beetles Porrostoma rhipidium Coleoptera Lycidae 19 Variable blister beetle Mylabris variabilis Coleoptera Meloidae 20 Asian lady beetle** Harmonia axyridis Coleoptera Coccinellidae 21 Spotted June beetle Pelidnota runctata Coleoptera Scarabaeidae 22 Common earwig Forficula auricularia Dermaptera Forficulidae 23 Flesh fly Sarcophaga carnaria Diptera Sarcophagidae 24 Okra pod fly Melanagromysa obtusa Diptera Agromyzidae 25 Black soldier fly** Hermetia illucens Diptera Stratiomyidae 26 Bumblebee robber fly** Laphria flava Diptera Asilidae 27 Okra leafminer Liriomyza sativae Diptera Agromyzidae 28 The green darner** Anax junius Odonata Aeshnidae 29 Skimmers** Orthetrum chrysostigma Odonata Libellulidae 30 Damselfly** Ceriagrion cerinorubellum Odonata Coenagrionidae 31 Green leafhopper Empoasca onukii Hemiptera Cicadellidae 32 Leafhopper assassin bug** Zelus renardii Hemiptera Reduviidae 33 Rose leafhopper Edwardsianan rosae Hemiptera Cicadellidae 34 Aphis Aphis gossypii Hemiptera Aphididae 35 Cotton seed bug Oxycarenus hyalinipennis Hemiptera Lygaeidae 36 Leaf hoppers Austroasca spp Hemiptera Cicadellidae 37 Horned coreid bug Cletustrigonus Hemiptera Coreidae 38 Green peach aphids Myzus persicae Hemiptera Aphididae 39 Potato leafhopper Empoasca fabae Hemiptera Cicadellidae 40 Silverleaf whitefly Bemisia tabaci Hemiptera Aleyroididae 41 Mealy bug Ferrisia virgata Hemiptera Pseudococcidae 42 Okra soft scale Saissetia coffeae Hemiptera Coccidae 43 African pod bug Clavigralla tomentosicollis Hemiptera Coreidae 44 Green stink bug Nezara viridula Hemiptera Pentatomidae 45 True bugs Anoplocnemis curvipes Hemiptera Coreidae 46 Cotton stainer bug Dysdercus koenigii Hemiptera Pyrrhocoridae 47 Black crazy ant Paratrechina longicornis Hymenoptera Formicidae 48 Honey bee** Apis mellifera Hymenoptera Apidae 49 Black crazy ant Paratrechina longicornis Hymenoptera Formicidae 50 Braconid wasp** Cotesia congregata Hymenoptera Braconidae 51 Sawflies Tenthredo mesomela Hymenoptera Tenthredinoidae 52 Needle waisted paper wasp** Belonogaster spp Hymenoptera Vespidae 53 Black cockroach-wasp** Dolichurus spp Hymenoptera Ampulicidae 54 Cicada killer** Sphecius speciosus Hymenoptera Crabronidae 55 Common black ants Lasius niger Hymenoptera Formicidae 56 Army worm Spodoptera spp Lepidoptera Noctuidae 57 Beet webworm moth Spoladea recurvalis Lepidoptera Crambidae 58 Cotton looper Anomis flavus Lepidoptera Erebidae 59 Cucumber moth Diaphania indica Lepidoptera Crambidae 60 Light brown apple moth (LBAM) Epiphyas postvittana Lepidoptera Tortricidae 61 Sweet potato butterfly Acraea acerate Lepidoptera Nymphalidae 62 Okra leafroller Sylepta derogata Lepidoptera Crambidae 63 Okra shoots and fruit borer Earias vittella Lepidoptera Noctuidae 64 White plume moth Pterophorus pentadactyla Lepidoptera Pterophoridae 65 Okra fruit borer Helicoverpa armigera Lepidoptera Noctuidae 66 Clostera moth Clostera spp Lepidoptera Notodontidae 67 Fall cankerworm Alsophila pometaria Lepidoptera Geometridae 68 Painted tiger moth Aegocera rectilinea Lepidoptera Noctuidae 69 Snout Moth Euzophera perticella Lepidoptera Pyralidae 70 Indian cabbage moth Pieris canidia Lepidoptera Pieridae 71 Tropical white butterfly Appis drussila Lepidoptera Pieridae 72 Common hedge blue butterfly Acytolepis puspa Lepidoptera Lycaenidae 73 Handmaiden moth Syntomoides imaon Lepidoptera Erebidae 74 Praying mantids** Mantis religiosa Mantodea Mantoididae 75 Slant faced grasshopper Orphulella speciosa Orthoptera Acrididae 76 Green stripped grasshopper Chortophaga viridifasciata Orthoptera Acrididae 77 Katydids Tettigonia viridissima Orthoptera Acrididae 78 Angle-Wing Katydid Microcentrum rhombifolium Orthoptera Tettigoniidae 79 Slant faced grasshopper Orphulella speciosa Orthoptera Acrididae 80 Variegated grasshopper Zonocerus variagatus Orthoptera Pyrgomorphidae 81 Locust Austracris guttulosa Orthoptera Acrididae 82 Black field cricket Teleogryllus commodus Orthoptera Gryllidae 83 Mole cricket Gryllotalpa spp Orthoptera Gryllotalpidae 84 Stick insect Phasmida spp Orthoptera Phasmatodae 85 Short-horned grasshopper Oxya japonica Orthoptera Acrididae 86 Red headed bush cricket Phyllopalpus pulchellus Orthoptera Trigonidiidae 87 Coneheads Conocephalus dorsalis Orthoptera Tettigoniidae 88 Halush (digger water dog) Gryllotalpa gryllotalpa Orthoptera Gryllotalpidae 89 Garden Snail* Limicolaria flammea Stylommatophora Achatinidae 90 Land snails* Limicolaria aurora Stylommatophora Achatinidae 91 Caddisflies Tricoptera spp Tricoptera Leptoceridae 92 Red Spider mite* Tetranychus telarius Trombidiformes Tetranychidae **beneficial insects, *non-insect pest 3.2 Vegetative Damage Tables 2 and 3 : show mean number of leaves, perforated leaves and leaves harbouring garden snails. Figure 3 : show perforated leaves and feeding activities of garden snails on leaves. The mean number of infested leaves characterised by severe perforations and folding by leafrollers were statistically different in all the sampling periods and seasons. Several species of grasshoppers, leafrollers, beetles and garden snails were identified as the major leaf feeders of okra in all the study locations and in both seasons. Mean number of leaves harbouring snails were recorded as 2.52 ± 1.85 and 2.50 ± 2.00 in both seasons respectively (Tables 2 and 3 ). A total of 35 snails was recorded on Plot C during both sampling years (2022 and 2023) respectively. A comparable pattern was observed on Plot A across the same period. Snail populations exhibited a progressive increase with each sampling, reaching their peak during the second and third sampling periods in both years, corresponding to plant ages of 56 and 70 days, respectively. In contrast, Plot B consistently recorded the lowest snail population in the second year of observation (Fig. 2 ). First Year Sampling (2022) Table 2 a : showing the level of damage on okra leaves at different sampling time Sampling periods Number of leaves Number of leaves infested by leafroller Number of perforated leaves Leaves harbouring garden snails Mean ± Std error Mean ± Std error Mean ± Std error Mean ± Std error First sampling 7.2 ± 1.93 a 3.23 ± 2.96 a 5.50 ± 2.67 a 1.70 ± 1.60 a Second sampling 10.02 ± 1.85 b 5.27 ± 2.33 b 6.70 ± 1.95 b 2.63 ± 1.80 b Third sampling 12.63 ± 2.02 c 7.23 ± 2.40 c 8.47 ± 2.05 c 3.23 ± 1.87 c Total 9.98 ± 2.92 5.24 ± 3.03 6.89 ± 2.54 2.52 ± 1.85 Values with similar alphabets; a, b, c along rows were not statistically different Table 2 b : showing the level of damage on okra leaves in all the locations Locations Number of leaves Number of leaves infested by leafrollers Number of perforated leaves Leaves harbouring garden snails Mean ± Std error Mean ± Std error Mean ± Std error Mean ± Std error Location A 8.87 ± 2.37 a 4.93 ± 2.70 b 6.07 ± 2.03 c 2.27 ± 1.74 d Location B 9.90 ± 2.78 a 5.43 ± 3.15 b 6.77 ± 2.44 c 2.23 ± 1.75 d Location C 11.16 ± 3.16 a 5.36 ± 3.28 b 7.83 ± 2.83 c 3.07 ± 1.98 d Total 9.98 ± 2.92 6.89 ± 2.54 5.24 ± 3.03 2.52 ± 1.85 Values with similar alphabets; a, b, c along rows were not statistically different Second Year Sampling (2023) Table 3 a : showing the level of damage on okra leaves at different sampling time Sampling periods Number of leaves Number of leaves infested by leafrollers Number of perforated leaves Leaves harbouring garden snails Mean ± Std error Mean ± Std error Mean ± Std error Mean ± Std error First sampling 8.77 ± 2.66 a 4.57 ± 2.545 a 5.13 ± 2.62 a 1.76 ± 1.65 a Second sampling 11.87 ± 2.57 b 6.90 ± 2.52 b 7.20 ± 3.13 b 2.67 ± 1.75 ab Third sampling 15.33 ± 2.78 c 10.93 ± 2.99 c 10.16 ± 3.20 c 3.07 ± 2.34 c Total 11.99 ± 3.77 7.47 ± 3.75 7.50 ± 3.62 2.50 ± 2.00 Values with similar alphabets; a, b, c along rows were not statistically different Table 3 a : showing the level of damage on okra leaves in all the locations Locations Number of leaves Number of leaves infested by leafrollers Number of perforated leaves Leaves harbouring garden snails Mean ± Std error Mean ± Std error Mean ± Std error Mean ± Std error Location A 11.03 ± 4.18 a 7.77 ± 4.25 a 8.00 ± 4.10 ab 2.83 ± 2.20 d Location B 11.03 ± 3.42 a 6.17 ± 3.60 a 6.53 ± 3.26 c 1.80 ± 1.61 d Location C 13.90 ± 2.98 b 8.47 ± 3.06 b 7.97 ± 3.36 ab 2.87 ± 2.01 d Total 11.99 ± 3.77 7.47 ± 3.75 7.50 ± 3.62 2.50 ± 2.00 Values with similar alphabets; a, b, c along rows were not statistically different Damage on fruits Damages such as scrapping and shrinking of fruits were recorded on invaded fruits by beetles and cotton stainer bugs, but the level of damages were not quantified (Fig. 4 : A, B and C). Okra fruits were severely infested by two major insects’ larvae; Earais spp and Helicoverpa armigera . The later attacked newly forming fruits the most (Fig. 5 : A, B and C). Both insect larvae burrow into fruits; creating openings that cause rotting of fruits and damaged seeds in dry pods. The number of damage fruits were express in percentage of the total number of fruits and reaches 23 percent in location A and 21 percent in location C in 2022 and 2023 respectively. The least level of damage was recorded in location B (10 percent) in 2022, followed by location A- 17 percent and location C-17 percent in 2022 and 2023 respectively (Table 4 ). Table 4 Damage level on fruits Sampling periods Locations Percentage fruits infestation by fruit borers First Year (2022) Location A 15 Location B 10 Location C 21 Second Year (2023) Location A 23 Location B 17 Location C 19 4.0 DISCUSSION The results of this two-year study in the South-South agroecological region of Nigeria revealed a complex community of insect and non-insect pests affecting okra at various growth stages. Notably, we report for the first time the damaging behaviour of garden snails ( Limicolaria spp.) on vegetative parts of okra plants. In total, 92 pest species across 13 orders and 58 families were documented. Our species diversity aligns broadly with global findings and recent reports by ( Qunis et al ., 2024; Rivers et al., 2024 ). However, the density of gastropods and overall damage levels were significantly higher, likely due to the favourable local climatic and soil conditions. During the study, okra was the sole crop in many fields, intensifying pest attraction and colonisation. Beetles, grasshoppers and lepidopteran larvae inflicted heavy perforation, webbing and skeletonisation on vegetative parts, while hemipterans caused curling and discolouration through sap-sucking. A beneficial insect group, comprising predators and parasitoids, accounted for 21.7% of all specimens. Among these, the braconid parasitoid Cotesia congregata was the most abundant across all plots. According to van Huis et al. ( 2013 ), parasitoids alone account for about ten percent of all insect species. Non-insect members, including garden snails and mites, represented approximately 3.3% of the total pest population. Lepidopteran larvae, particularly Sylepta derogata and Anomis flavus , folded leaves into silken tunnels and deposited characteristic frass, reducing the photosynthetic area similar to coleopteran damage. Although no local data exist for direct comparison, similar injury caused by Sylepta derogata has been reported elsewhere to reduce okra yield (Anioke, 1988 ; Zia and Haseeb, 2019 ). Dipterans such as Hermetia illucens and odonates were also observed. H. illucens is known for its larvae’s ability to recycle organic waste and its potential as an animal feed ingredient (Astuti and Wiryawan, 2022 ). Their presence highlights the field’s biodiversity and potential for ecological biocontrol roles. Garden snails caused severe skeletonisation of okra leaves, travelling nocturnally across plants and leaving visible trails and greenish frass. These snails are known generalist pests in Southern Nigeria (Borisade et al., 2021 ), but detailed feeding behaviour was poorly documented until now. Two Limicolaria species were consistently found, suggesting a strong host preference for Malvaceae. Pod and stem borers, especially Earias spp. and Helicoverpa armigera , showed stage-specific preferences: Earias infested mature pods while H. armigera preferred tender fruits. This pattern, though previously observed in Amaranthus (Borisade et al., 2017 ), is newly reported for okra in this region. Stem borers may impair vascular function and predispose plants to fungal infections (Oyewale, et al., 2020 ). This study provides critical insight into pest species composition, seasonal patterns and plant–pest interactions. The marked nocturnal activity of garden snails suggests that hand-picking at night may be an effective control strategy, though health risks due to possible zoonotic parasites (Okafor-Elenwo and Imade, 2019 ) warrant caution. We also recommend conservation of predatory beetles such as Drilus spp. and enhancement of beneficial parasitoids like Cotesia congregata via mass-rearing and strategic field releases. Selective biocontrol may reduce reliance on synthetic inputs and support sustainable okra production. This study has shown that the okra varieties evaluated, even within their relatively short growing season, are vulnerable to a diverse range of insect and non-insect pests. While Coleoptera had the highest species count, larval Lepidoptera inflicted the most damage on both leaves and fruits. The presence of beneficial insect species highlights the possibility of integrating biological control into pest management strategies. We also recommend further investigation into the pest status and behavioural ecology of Limicolaria species on other crops. These findings offer a robust foundation for designing effective, environmentally friendly integrated pest management strategies tailored to smallholder okra production in Nigeria. 5.0 CONCLUSION This study has shown that the okra varieties evaluated, even within their relatively short growing season, are vulnerable to a diverse range of insect and non-insect pests. While Coleoptera had the highest species count, larval Lepidoptera inflicted the most damage on both leaves and fruits. The presence of beneficial insect species highlights the possibility of integrating biological control into pest management strategies. We also recommend further investigation into the pest status and behavioural ecology of Limicolaria species on other crops. These findings offer a robust foundation for designing effective, environmentally friendly integrated pest management strategies tailored to smallholder okra production in Nigeria. Declarations COMPETITING INTEREST The authors declare that they have no competing interests. FUNDING No funding, grants or financial support was received. Author Contribution Uwaidem, Y.I. – Conceptualization, Field Work, Data Analysis, Writing – Original DraftEssien, R.A. – Literature Search, Insect Identification and Logistic supportBorisade, O.A. – Methodological Supervision, Manuscript EditingShehu, M. – Insect Identification and Logistics SupportAll authors read and approve the final copy of manuscript Acknowledgement We sincerely thank the farmers in the study areas for their cooperation and for granting continuous access to their fields. Their commitment to organic farming without synthetic pesticides was essential for the success of this study. We are especially grateful to Mr. Inyang of the Cross River Basin Development Authority, Abak Irrigation Project, for his guidance, as well as Habib Aliyu and Ugo Stella for field assistance.Our special appreciation also goes to Capt. 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Anim bioscience 35(2):356–363 Berwa R, Sharma AK, Pachori R, Shukla A, Aarwe R, Bhowmik P (2017) Efficacy of chemical and botanical insecticides against sucking insect pest complex on Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L. Moench). J Entomol Zool Stud 5:1693–1697 Bhutto ZA, Magsi FH, Soomro AA, Ahmed M, Channa NA, Lashari SH, Mangi S, Junejo AA (2017) Integrated pest management of okra insect pests. Int J Fauna Biol Stud 4(3):39–42 Borisade OA, Uwaidem YI, Ayotunde-Ojo MO (2017) Arthropods associated with Amaranthus hybridus in Southwestern Nigeria and aggregation patterns of Gasteroclisus rhomboidalis , Hypolixus nubilosus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) and brown marmorated stinkbug, Halyomorpha halys (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) in relation to host’s morphology Borisade OA, Uwaidem YI, Falade MJ (2021) Interactions of undescribed Drilus beetle larvae with pestiferous Limicolaria flammea (Gastropoda: Achatinidae): Are there prospects for biocontrol? Annual Res Rev Biology 36(12):120–125 Gemede HF, Ratta N, Haki GD, Woldegiorgis AZ, Beyen F (2015) Nutritional quality and health benefits of okra ( Abelmoschus esculentus ): A review. J Food Process Technol . 06(06) Kodandaram M, Halder J, Singh N, Rai A (2017) Pest management modules against major insect pests of okra. Pesticide Res J 29(2):153–157 Maheerthanan RA, Ravi M, Preetha G, Prabina J, B., and, Sowmiya A (2024) PGPR-Induced Biochemical Defense Mechanisms for Leafhopper ( Amrasca devastans ) Management in Okra Cultivation. J Adv Biology Biotechnol 27(11):1330–1342 Okafor-Elenwo EJ, Imade OS (2019) Estimation of Pathogenic exposure levels and associated baseline bio-risks in edible terrestrial snails ( Achachatina marginata ) sold in Nigerian markets. J Appl Sci Environ Manag 23:673–680 Oyewale RO, Salaudeen MT, Bamaiyi LJ, Bello BY (2020) Ecology and distribution of stem borers in Nigeria. Sustain Food Agric 1(1):27–36 Patil R, Pawar SA, Patil CS, Saindane YS (2023) Evaluation of IPM against pest complex of okra. Indian J Entomol 86(2):547–550 Rahman MM, Uddin MM, Shahjahan M (2013) Management of okra shoot and fruit borer, Earias vittella (Fabricius) using chemical and botanical insecticides for different okra varieties. Int Res J Appl Life Sci, 2(1) Rivers EU, Nwune UC, Etukudo ME, Okoroafor PI (2024) A survey on the diversity of field insect pests of okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) within the six ADP zones in Akwa Ibom State. Int J Life Sci Agric Res 3(6):467–472 Sulaiman AJ, Hussaini Y, Onyibe JE (2022) Growth Components and Dry Fruit Yield of Okra ( Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench) Varieties as Influenced by Poultry Manure and Stand Density in Kaduna State, Nigeria. Afr. J. Agr. & Allied Sc . volume 5(Issue – 2) 2025 van Huis A, van Itterbeeck J, Klunder H, Mertens E, Halloran A, Muir G, Vantomme P (2013) Edible Insects: Future Prospects for Food and Feed Security. FAO Forestry Paper No. 171. FAO, Rome Zia A, Haseeb M (2019) Seasonal Incidence of Cotton Mealybug, Phenacoccus solenopsis (Tinsley) on Okra, Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) and Comparative Efficacy of Insecticides on the Mortality. J Entomol Zool Stud 7(4):421–425 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Revision Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 02 Mar, 2026 Reviews received at journal 21 Feb, 2026 Reviews received at journal 15 Feb, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 05 Feb, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 04 Feb, 2026 Reviewers invited by journal 04 Feb, 2026 Editor assigned by journal 14 Oct, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 14 Oct, 2025 First submitted to journal 06 Oct, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7794437","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":587566429,"identity":"42f1d48e-1396-4355-9da5-f7a907857242","order_by":0,"name":"Uwaidem, Yakubu Ismaila","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAyklEQVRIiWNgGAWjYLCCBDYGBn4wo4AULZINIIYB0dYAtRgcADGI0WJwI8fww4Mym2jj86sTPzwwYJDnFztAUIuxRMK5tNxtN95ulgA6zHDm7ARCWnI3SCS2HQZqObsBpCXB4DZhLZt/JLb9z9084+zmH8Rq2Qa05UDuBv7ebcTZInnm/TeLhHPJuTNu8G6zSDCQIOwXvuNpyTd/lNnl9vef3XzzR4WNPL80AS0KB2AsCbBKCfzKQUC+AcbiP4Bb1SgYBaNgFIxsAAAlcUwrtQmB2QAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"Akwa Ibom State University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Yakubu","middleName":"Ismaila","lastName":"Uwaidem","suffix":""},{"id":587566430,"identity":"d7cbf8a2-b09e-415d-bad0-8390a18d9d43","order_by":1,"name":"Borisade, Omotoso Abiodun","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Omotoso","middleName":"Abiodun","lastName":"Borisade","suffix":""},{"id":587566431,"identity":"ef63d4b0-dbd9-418f-b734-d60a20262110","order_by":2,"name":"Essien, Rosemary Anitie","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Akwa Ibom State University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Rosemary","middleName":"Anitie","lastName":"Essien","suffix":""},{"id":587566432,"identity":"e3236714-67bd-4b29-9786-af9ce8e5a539","order_by":3,"name":"Shehu Mohammed","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Modibbo Adama University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Shehu","middleName":"","lastName":"Mohammed","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-10-06 21:53:07","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7794437/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7794437/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":102308207,"identity":"1886203e-5277-4c87-9d00-5e7f83822041","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-10 11:47:47","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":59392,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOrders of insect and non-insect pests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7794437/v1/6d8741630fc1536f2e6bbccd.png"},{"id":102308540,"identity":"a35420bc-adee-4678-8c2d-d856a1d95713","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-10 11:48:59","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":27606,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eshowing number of snails per plots in each observation and sampling year\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7794437/v1/7bdb8c7f12a9cda3ee514d8d.png"},{"id":102308991,"identity":"90104c0a-c773-4dc1-ad2f-39795f0f5d73","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-10 11:49:54","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1080517,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOkra leaves infested with leaf feeding insect and non-insect pests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7794437/v1/65cafa224b0ae62272c8e144.png"},{"id":102308244,"identity":"ae5a7abe-3f35-4316-aa35-31d513f548f7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-10 11:47:50","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1046467,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOkra flowers and fruits infested with (A);\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e Mylabris variabilis, Belonogaster spp\u003c/em\u003e(B) \u003cem\u003eOxycarenus hyalinipennis, Alsophila pometaria \u003c/em\u003e(C) \u003cem\u003eDysdercus koenigii\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7794437/v1/e7e2916d8b49dce35f24bab7.png"},{"id":102308085,"identity":"95c05807-885e-44cd-a207-424d51649d81","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-10 11:47:20","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1012438,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOkra pods infested by pod borer (\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEarias spp\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7794437/v1/c682a43041c0dbe6cf146cfe.png"},{"id":102310712,"identity":"9a520bc5-2072-49b8-842a-8128135e80bd","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-10 11:55:49","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":6106402,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7794437/v1/0731ad60-7415-4bd4-9017-5ad322ecd1d7.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Seasonal Occurrence and Damage Assessment of Key Pests of Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L. Moench) in South-south Nigeria","fulltext":[{"header":"1.0 INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003eOkra (\u003cem\u003eAbelmoschus esculentus\u003c/em\u003e L.) is one of the most widely cultivated vegetable crops in Nigeria, ranking third after tomato and pepper in terms of fruit vegetable production (Sulaiman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). It is valued not only for its short growth cycle, especially the early-maturing varieties that are ready for harvest within 40\u0026ndash;60 days, but also for its economic and nutritional significance (Alhassan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). The crop provides income and food security for small and medium-scale farmers and plays a critical role in household food security (Gemede et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Ahmad, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Beyond its immature pods, which are commonly used in traditional dishes, okra leaves and fruits are rich in essential nutrients vital for both human and animal health (Maheerthanan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite its economic and dietary importance, okra production is increasingly challenged by a wide range of insect pests. These pests feed on leaves, stems, flowers and fruits, causing defoliation, flower abortion and fruit damage. Infestations by sap-sucking bugs and lepidopteran larvae often result in reduced pod quality and marketability (Zia and Haseeb, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Over 70 species of insects, including mites, have been reported on field-grown okra crops globally (Kodandaram et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Rahman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). However, there is limited regional information on the biology, abundance and impact of major insect and non-insect pests like \u003cem\u003eSylepta derogata\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eAmrasca biguttula biguttula\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eEarias\u003c/em\u003e spp., \u003cem\u003eHelicoverpa armigera\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eLimicolaria\u003c/em\u003e spp. in Nigerian okra fields, which presents a challenge for localised pest management strategies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough several studies in different regions of the world have explored insect pest control in okra (Bhutto et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Berwa et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Patil et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), most have focused solely on insects, often overlooking other arthropods and non-insect pests. A recent study by Rivers et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) highlighted the presence of several insect pest species in the region, but comprehensive data on non-insect pests such as the garden snail, a known pest of many crops in Southern Nigeria (Borisade et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), remains scarce. Our earlier research documented the predatory activities of \u003cem\u003eDrilus\u003c/em\u003e beetles on garden snails across various agroecological zones, suggesting a natural biocontrol interaction. Unfortunately, cultural practices such as indiscriminate pesticide application and physical destruction of beetle larvae may be contributing to the decline of these beneficial agents. At the same time, garden snail populations appear to be rising, possibly due to favourable weather patterns and their ability to survive chemical treatments by retracting into their shells.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe challenges posed by pod borers are particularly severe in okra fields where pods are left to mature for seed. These pests often infest pods internally, evading pesticide sprays that are typically applied during the day, even though egg-laying occurs at night. This timing mismatch further reduces the effectiveness of chemical control. Moreover, concerns about pesticide residues on fresh okra and the associated risks to human and environmental health have discouraged the consistent use of chemical inputs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the study area, okra farming is practised intensively and extensively. Farmers not only depend on the sale and consumption of fresh pods but also harvest and dry mature pods for seed saving. However, the high incidence of pod borers and bugs during pod maturation often results in seed deformation and reduced germination potential.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo support more effective pest management, this study seeks to provide up-to-date records of pest species associated with okra at various growth stages, including both major and emerging threats from non-insect members. It aims to document pest abundance and plant\u0026ndash;pest interactions, assess the nature and severity of the damage caused by key pests, and identify beneficial organisms that could serve as natural enemies. The information generated is intended to guide the development of sustainable, cost-effective and environmentally friendly control strategies tailored to local farming systems in the study area.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Study Location and Planting Materials\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe field survey was carried out during the early farming seasons of February to June in both 2022 and 2023 across three farmer-managed plots in Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. The sites were located approximately 6 kilometres apart, and their geographic coordinates are provided in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEach plot was manually prepared and cultivated with two varieties of okra: Yar-Balle and Yelle variety obtained from \u0026ldquo;Unique Agro-Allied Store\u0026rdquo; in Abak. Both varieties are early maturing, with a harvest window of 35 to 45 days, and are known for producing high-quality pods. Yar-Balle, a cultivar native to the Sokoto region of Nigeria, has been previously described for its agronomic traits and adaptability under different management systems (Alhassan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeeds were sown at a rate of two per hole using a standard planting distance of 60 \u0026times; 40 cm. An organic farming approach was adopted, with no application of synthetic pesticides, to preserve potential insect and non-insect pest activity for observation. Weed control was carried out manually using hoes once the crops were established, and other agronomic practices were uniformly maintained across all sites.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2 Survey of Okra Pests\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFollowing germination and the development of three to four true leaves, field visits were conducted three times per week across the study plots. Once the okra plants were well established, sixty plants were randomly selected and tagged in each location, making a total of 180 plants across all three locations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eObservations were carried out during the morning (8:00 \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;10:00 a.m.) and evening (4:00 \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;7:00 p.m.) hours on each sampling day, as insect populations were higher and most species were less active in feeding, making them easier to collect. To capture nocturnal pests, especially adult moths, routine night visits were also made between 8:00\u0026ndash;10:00 p.m. using white lamps. All parts of the plant; leaves, flowers, stems and fruits were carefully examined.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3 Rearing and Identification of Insects\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eLarvae collected from the undersides of leaves, as well as pupae found on foliage or within the soil, were reared in insect cages under laboratory conditions. Fresh okra leaves were supplied regularly as food until adult emergence. Leaves were replaced every three days, and larval feeding was visually assessed and compared with field infestation. To prevent rapid drying, the leaves were lightly moistened with water. Identified adults were recorded,, while unclear specimens were photographed and their images sent to curators at Museum Victoria Public Research and Information Centre, Melbourne, Australia ([email protected]) for expert identification.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003e2.4 Assessment of Pest Damage on Okra\u003c/b\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003ea. Leaf Damage\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eLeaf damage was assessed visually and categorised as:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eSevere \u0026ndash; if two-thirds or more of the leaf surface had visible perforations;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eModerate \u0026ndash; if about one-third showed perforations;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eNone \u0026ndash; when no perforations were observed.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePresence of webbing, curled or folded leaves, and faecal pellets of garden snails were also recorded.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eb. Pod and Stem Damage\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDamage to okra pods and stems was assessed by counting the number of perforations per fruit and recording the number of perforated fruits per plant. Heavily damaged pods were collected and kept in perforated jars to monitor for borer emergence.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.5 Data Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eDescriptive statistics were used to present data on pest species abundance and associated damage levels. Data were analysed using IBM SPSS Statistics 20. Pest species frequency and distribution were illustrated using tables and charts (in percentage format). Specifically, data on the total number of leaves on the sampled plants, leaves infested with larvae, and the extent of infestation in each sampling year were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA). Mean differences significant at the 5% probability level were separated using the Least Significant Difference (LSD) test.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3.0 RESULTS","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1 Pest Profile and Species Abundance\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA total of 92 \u003cb\u003einsect and non-insect pest species\u003c/b\u003e belonging to 13 different orders were recovered on okra throughout the growth stages in both sampling years (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). The order Coleoptera had the highest proportion (20.7%), followed by Lepidoptera (19.6%), Hemiptera (17.4%) and Orthoptera (15.2%) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). This trend was consistent in both 2022 and 2023, although individual species varied in abundance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor example, the incidence of cotton stainer bugs was higher in the second sampling year than in the first. A similar trend was observed for the okra fruit borer, \u003cem\u003eHelicoverpa armigera\u003c/em\u003e, which led to more fruit infestation in the second year. In contrast, we observed a reduction in the population of black soldier fly (\u003cem\u003eHermetia illucens\u003c/em\u003e), a beneficial insect, during the second year (2023). Other major pests such as \u003cem\u003eSylepta derogata\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eEarias\u003c/em\u003e spp., \u003cem\u003eAnomis flavus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eLimicolaria\u003c/em\u003e spp. and orthopterans were recorded in both years, and their populations were statistically similar.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGarden snail \u003cem\u003e(Limicolaria spp\u003c/em\u003e.) populations appeared higher but were not statistically different at \u003cb\u003ep\u003c/b\u003e \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\le\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e \u003cb\u003e.05\u003c/b\u003e across all sampling periods.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003egeographical location and coordinate of the study areas\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLocations\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNames\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoordinates\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLocation 1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Cross River Basin Development Authority, Abak Irrigation Project, Abak Usung-idim\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u0026deg;57, 7\u0026deg;47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLocation 2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6 battalion Nigerian Army Barracks, Ibagwa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u0026deg;54, 7\u0026deg;47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLocation 3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgricultural Science demonstration plot of The Nigerian Navy Military School, Ikot Ntuen, Oruk Anam\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u0026deg;55, 7\u0026deg;48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eList of insects and non-insect\u0026rsquo;s pest on okra in both sampling seasons\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS/N\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCommon name\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eScientific name\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrder\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFamily\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGarden spider**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAraneus diadematus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAraneae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAraneidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBordered Orbweaver**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNeoscona adianta\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAraneae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAraneidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdonis Lady Beettle**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHippodamia variegate\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eColeoptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoccinellidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCassid beetles\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePsylliodes luridipennis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eColeoptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChrysomelidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClick beetles (Wire worms)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePterohelaeus spp\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eColeoptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eElateridae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOkra flea beetle\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePodegrica uniformis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eColeoptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChrysomelidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDarkling beetles\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLagria villosa\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eColeoptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLagriidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFlea beetles\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEpitrix spp\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eColeoptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChrysomelidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTransverse Lady beetles**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCoccinella transversalis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eColeoptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoccinelidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTortoiseshell beetle\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAspidomorpha spp\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eColeoptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoccinellidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOkra stem weevil\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAlcidodes affaber\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eColeoptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCurculionidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChafer beetle\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOxycetonia versicolor\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eColeoptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eScarabidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNine-spotted ladybug**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCoccinella novemnotata\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eColeoptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoccinellidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDarkling beetles\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLagria spp\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eColeoptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTenebrionidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLeaf beetle\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePlagiodera versicolora\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eColeoptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChrysomelidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28-spotted ladybug**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHenosepilachna Vigintioctopunctata\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eColeoptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoccinellidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLadybird**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCoccinella transversalis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eColeoptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoccinellidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNet-winged beetles\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePorrostoma rhipidium\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eColeoptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLycidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariable blister beetle\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMylabris variabilis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eColeoptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMeloidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAsian lady beetle**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHarmonia axyridis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eColeoptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoccinellidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpotted June beetle\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePelidnota runctata\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eColeoptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eScarabaeidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCommon earwig\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eForficula auricularia\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDermaptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eForficulidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFlesh fly\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSarcophaga carnaria\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDiptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSarcophagidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOkra pod fly\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMelanagromysa obtusa\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDiptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgromyzidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBlack soldier fly**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHermetia illucens\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDiptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStratiomyidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBumblebee robber fly**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLaphria flava\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDiptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAsilidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOkra leafminer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLiriomyza sativae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDiptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgromyzidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe green darner**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAnax junius\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOdonata\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAeshnidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSkimmers**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOrthetrum chrysostigma\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOdonata\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLibellulidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDamselfly**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCeriagrion cerinorubellum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOdonata\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoenagrionidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGreen leafhopper\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEmpoasca onukii\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHemiptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCicadellidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLeafhopper assassin bug**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eZelus renardii\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHemiptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReduviidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRose leafhopper\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEdwardsianan rosae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHemiptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCicadellidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAphis\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAphis gossypii\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHemiptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAphididae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCotton seed bug\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOxycarenus hyalinipennis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHemiptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLygaeidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLeaf hoppers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAustroasca spp\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHemiptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCicadellidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHorned coreid bug\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCletustrigonus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHemiptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoreidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGreen peach aphids\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMyzus persicae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHemiptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAphididae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePotato leafhopper\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEmpoasca fabae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHemiptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCicadellidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSilverleaf whitefly\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBemisia tabaci\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHemiptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAleyroididae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMealy bug\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eFerrisia virgata\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHemiptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePseudococcidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOkra soft scale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSaissetia coffeae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHemiptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoccidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAfrican pod bug\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eClavigralla tomentosicollis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHemiptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoreidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGreen stink bug\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNezara viridula\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHemiptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePentatomidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrue bugs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAnoplocnemis curvipes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHemiptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoreidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCotton stainer bug\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDysdercus koenigii\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHemiptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePyrrhocoridae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBlack crazy ant\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eParatrechina longicornis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHymenoptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFormicidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHoney bee**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eApis mellifera\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHymenoptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eApidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBlack crazy ant\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eParatrechina longicornis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHymenoptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFormicidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBraconid wasp**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCotesia congregata\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHymenoptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBraconidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSawflies\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTenthredo mesomela\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHymenoptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTenthredinoidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNeedle waisted paper wasp**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBelonogaster spp\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHymenoptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVespidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBlack cockroach-wasp**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDolichurus spp\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHymenoptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmpulicidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCicada killer**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSphecius speciosus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHymenoptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrabronidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCommon black ants\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLasius niger\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHymenoptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFormicidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArmy worm\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSpodoptera spp\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLepidoptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNoctuidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBeet webworm moth\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSpoladea recurvalis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLepidoptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrambidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCotton looper\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAnomis flavus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLepidoptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eErebidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCucumber moth\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDiaphania indica\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLepidoptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrambidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLight brown apple moth (LBAM)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEpiphyas postvittana\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLepidoptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTortricidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSweet potato butterfly\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAcraea acerate\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLepidoptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNymphalidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOkra leafroller\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSylepta derogata\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLepidoptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrambidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e63\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOkra shoots and fruit borer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEarias vittella\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLepidoptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNoctuidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhite plume moth\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePterophorus pentadactyla\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLepidoptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePterophoridae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOkra fruit borer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHelicoverpa armigera\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLepidoptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNoctuidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e66\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClostera moth\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eClostera spp\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLepidoptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNotodontidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFall cankerworm\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAlsophila pometaria\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLepidoptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGeometridae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e68\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePainted tiger moth\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAegocera rectilinea\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLepidoptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNoctuidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSnout Moth\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEuzophera perticella\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLepidoptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePyralidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndian cabbage moth\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePieris canidia\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLepidoptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePieridae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e71\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTropical white butterfly\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAppis drussila\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLepidoptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePieridae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCommon hedge blue butterfly\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAcytolepis puspa\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLepidoptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLycaenidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHandmaiden moth\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSyntomoides imaon\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLepidoptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eErebidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e74\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePraying mantids**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMantis religiosa\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMantodea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMantoididae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSlant faced grasshopper\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOrphulella speciosa\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrthoptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcrididae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGreen stripped grasshopper\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eChortophaga viridifasciata\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrthoptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcrididae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e77\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKatydids\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTettigonia viridissima\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrthoptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcrididae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAngle-Wing Katydid\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMicrocentrum rhombifolium\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrthoptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTettigoniidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e79\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSlant faced grasshopper\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOrphulella speciosa\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrthoptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcrididae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariegated grasshopper\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eZonocerus variagatus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrthoptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePyrgomorphidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLocust\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAustracris guttulosa\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrthoptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcrididae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e82\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBlack field cricket\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTeleogryllus commodus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrthoptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGryllidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e83\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMole cricket\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eGryllotalpa spp\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrthoptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGryllotalpidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e84\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStick insect\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePhasmida spp\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrthoptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhasmatodae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e85\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eShort-horned grasshopper\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOxya japonica\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrthoptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcrididae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e86\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRed headed bush cricket\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePhyllopalpus pulchellus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrthoptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrigonidiidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConeheads\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eConocephalus dorsalis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrthoptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTettigoniidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e88\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHalush (digger water dog)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eGryllotalpa gryllotalpa\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrthoptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGryllotalpidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e89\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGarden Snail*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLimicolaria flammea\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStylommatophora\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAchatinidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLand snails*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLimicolaria aurora\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStylommatophora\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAchatinidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e91\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCaddisflies\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTricoptera spp\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTricoptera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLeptoceridae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e92\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRed Spider mite*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTetranychus telarius\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrombidiformes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTetranychidae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"5\"\u003e\u003cb\u003e**beneficial insects, *non-insect pest\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2 Vegetative Damage\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTables\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e: show mean number of leaves, perforated leaves and leaves harbouring garden snails. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e: show perforated leaves and feeding activities of garden snails on leaves. The mean number of infested leaves characterised by severe perforations and folding by leafrollers were statistically different in all the sampling periods and seasons. Several species of grasshoppers, leafrollers, beetles and garden snails were identified as the major leaf feeders of okra in all the study locations and in both seasons. Mean number of leaves harbouring snails were recorded as 2.52\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.85 and 2.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.00 in both seasons respectively (Tables\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). A total of 35 snails was recorded on Plot C during both sampling years (2022 and 2023) respectively. A comparable pattern was observed on Plot A across the same period. Snail populations exhibited a progressive increase with each sampling, reaching their peak during the second and third sampling periods in both years, corresponding to plant ages of 56 and 70 days, respectively. In contrast, Plot B consistently recorded the lowest snail population in the second year of observation (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eFirst Year Sampling (2022)\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ea\u003c/b\u003e: showing the level of damage on okra leaves at different sampling time\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSampling periods\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumber of leaves\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumber of leaves infested by leafroller\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumber of perforated leaves\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLeaves harbouring garden snails\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;Std error\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;Std error\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;Std error\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;Std error\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFirst sampling\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.93\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.23\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.96\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.67\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.70\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.60\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecond sampling\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.85\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.27\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.33\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.70\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.95\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.63\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.80\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThird sampling\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.63\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.02\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.23\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.40\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.47\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.05\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.23\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.87\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.98\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.92\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.24\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.89\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.52\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.85\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eValues with similar alphabets; a, b, c along rows were not statistically different\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eb\u003c/b\u003e: showing the level of damage on okra leaves in all the locations\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLocations\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumber of leaves\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumber of leaves infested by leafrollers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumber of perforated leaves\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLeaves harbouring garden snails\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;Std error\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;Std error\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;Std error\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;Std error\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLocation A\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.87\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.37\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.93\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.70\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.07\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.03\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.27\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.74\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLocation B\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.90\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.78\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.43\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.15\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.77\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.44\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.23\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.75\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLocation C\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.16\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.16\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.36\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.28\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.83\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.83\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.07\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.98\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.98\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.92\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.89\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.24\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.52\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.85\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eValues with similar alphabets; a, b, c along rows were not statistically different\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eSecond Year Sampling (2023)\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ea\u003c/b\u003e: showing the level of damage on okra leaves at different sampling time\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSampling periods\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumber of leaves\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumber of leaves infested by leafrollers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumber of perforated leaves\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLeaves harbouring garden snails\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;Std error\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;Std error\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;Std error\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;Std error\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFirst sampling\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.77\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.66\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.57\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.545\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.13\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.62\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.76\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.65\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecond sampling\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.87\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.57\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.90\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.52\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.13\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.75\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThird sampling\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.78\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.93\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.99\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.16\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.20\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.07\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.34\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.99\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.77\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.47\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.62\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eValues with similar alphabets; a, b, c along rows were not statistically different\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ea\u003c/b\u003e: showing the level of damage on okra leaves in all the locations\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLocations\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumber of leaves\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumber of leaves infested by leafrollers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumber of perforated leaves\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLeaves harbouring garden snails\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;Std error\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;Std error\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;Std error\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;Std error\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLocation A\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.03\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.18\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.77\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.25\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.10\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.83\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.20\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLocation B\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.03\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.42\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.17\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.60\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.53\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.26\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.80\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.61\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLocation C\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.90\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.98\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.47\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.06\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.97\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.36\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.87\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.01\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.99\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.77\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.47\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.62\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eValues with similar alphabets; a, b, c along rows were not statistically different\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eDamage on fruits\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDamages such as scrapping and shrinking of fruits were recorded on invaded fruits by beetles and cotton stainer bugs, but the level of damages were not quantified (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e: A, B and C).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOkra fruits were severely infested by two major insects\u0026rsquo; larvae; \u003cem\u003eEarais\u003c/em\u003e spp and \u003cem\u003eHelicoverpa armigera\u003c/em\u003e. The later attacked newly forming fruits the most (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e: A, B and C). Both insect larvae burrow into fruits; creating openings that cause rotting of fruits and damaged seeds in dry pods. The number of damage fruits were express in percentage of the total number of fruits and reaches 23 percent in location A and 21 percent in location C in 2022 and 2023 respectively. The least level of damage was recorded in location B (10 percent) in 2022, followed by location A- 17 percent and location C-17 percent in 2022 and 2023 respectively (Table \u003cspan refid=\"Tab7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab7\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDamage level on fruits\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSampling periods\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLocations\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePercentage fruits infestation by fruit borers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFirst Year (2022)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLocation A\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLocation B\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLocation C\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecond Year (2023)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLocation A\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLocation B\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLocation C\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4.0 DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe results of this two-year study in the South-South agroecological region of Nigeria revealed a complex community of insect and non-insect pests affecting okra at various growth stages. Notably, we report for the first time the damaging behaviour of garden snails (\u003cem\u003eLimicolaria\u003c/em\u003e spp.) on vegetative parts of okra plants. In total, 92 pest species across 13 orders and 58 families were documented.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur species diversity aligns broadly with global findings and recent reports by \u003cb\u003e(\u003c/b\u003eQunis \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2024; Rivers et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). However, the density of gastropods and overall damage levels were significantly higher, likely due to the favourable local climatic and soil conditions. During the study, okra was the sole crop in many fields, intensifying pest attraction and colonisation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBeetles, grasshoppers and lepidopteran larvae inflicted heavy perforation, webbing and skeletonisation on vegetative parts, while hemipterans caused curling and discolouration through sap-sucking. A beneficial insect group, comprising predators and parasitoids, accounted for 21.7% of all specimens. Among these, the braconid parasitoid \u003cem\u003eCotesia congregata\u003c/em\u003e was the most abundant across all plots. According to van Huis et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e), parasitoids alone account for about ten percent of all insect species.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNon-insect members, including garden snails and mites, represented approximately 3.3% of the total pest population. Lepidopteran larvae, particularly \u003cem\u003eSylepta derogata\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eAnomis flavus\u003c/em\u003e, folded leaves into silken tunnels and deposited characteristic frass, reducing the photosynthetic area similar to coleopteran damage. Although no local data exist for direct comparison, similar injury caused by \u003cem\u003eSylepta derogata\u003c/em\u003e has been reported elsewhere to reduce okra yield (Anioke, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1988\u003c/span\u003e; Zia and Haseeb, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDipterans such as \u003cem\u003eHermetia illucens\u003c/em\u003e and odonates were also observed. \u003cem\u003eH. illucens\u003c/em\u003e is known for its larvae\u0026rsquo;s ability to recycle organic waste and its potential as an animal feed ingredient (Astuti and Wiryawan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Their presence highlights the field\u0026rsquo;s biodiversity and potential for ecological biocontrol roles.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGarden snails caused severe skeletonisation of okra leaves, travelling nocturnally across plants and leaving visible trails and greenish frass. These snails are known generalist pests in Southern Nigeria (Borisade et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), but detailed feeding behaviour was poorly documented until now. Two \u003cem\u003eLimicolaria\u003c/em\u003e species were consistently found, suggesting a strong host preference for Malvaceae.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePod and stem borers, especially \u003cem\u003eEarias\u003c/em\u003e spp. and \u003cem\u003eHelicoverpa armigera\u003c/em\u003e, showed stage-specific preferences: \u003cem\u003eEarias\u003c/em\u003e infested mature pods while \u003cem\u003eH. armigera\u003c/em\u003e preferred tender fruits. This pattern, though previously observed in \u003cem\u003eAmaranthus\u003c/em\u003e (Borisade et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), is newly reported for okra in this region. Stem borers may impair vascular function and predispose plants to fungal infections (Oyewale, et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study provides critical insight into pest species composition, seasonal patterns and plant\u0026ndash;pest interactions. The marked nocturnal activity of garden snails suggests that hand-picking at night may be an effective control strategy, though health risks due to possible zoonotic parasites (Okafor-Elenwo and Imade, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) warrant caution.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe also recommend conservation of predatory beetles such as \u003cem\u003eDrilus\u003c/em\u003e spp. and enhancement of beneficial parasitoids like \u003cem\u003eCotesia congregata\u003c/em\u003e via mass-rearing and strategic field releases. Selective biocontrol may reduce reliance on synthetic inputs and support sustainable okra production.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study has shown that the okra varieties evaluated, even within their relatively short growing season, are vulnerable to a diverse range of insect and non-insect pests. While Coleoptera had the highest species count, larval Lepidoptera inflicted the most damage on both leaves and fruits. The presence of beneficial insect species highlights the possibility of integrating biological control into pest management strategies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe also recommend further investigation into the pest status and behavioural ecology of \u003cem\u003eLimicolaria\u003c/em\u003e species on other crops. These findings offer a robust foundation for designing effective, environmentally friendly integrated pest management strategies tailored to smallholder okra production in Nigeria.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5.0 CONCLUSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study has shown that the okra varieties evaluated, even within their relatively short growing season, are vulnerable to a diverse range of insect and non-insect pests. While Coleoptera had the highest species count, larval Lepidoptera inflicted the most damage on both leaves and fruits. The presence of beneficial insect species highlights the possibility of integrating biological control into pest management strategies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe also recommend further investigation into the pest status and behavioural ecology of \u003cem\u003eLimicolaria\u003c/em\u003e species on other crops. These findings offer a robust foundation for designing effective, environmentally friendly integrated pest management strategies tailored to smallholder okra production in Nigeria.\u003c/p\u003e "},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCOMPETITING INTEREST\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFUNDING\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo funding, grants or financial support was received.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eUwaidem, Y.I. \u0026ndash; Conceptualization, Field Work, Data Analysis, Writing \u0026ndash; Original DraftEssien, R.A. \u0026ndash; Literature Search, Insect Identification and Logistic supportBorisade, O.A. \u0026ndash; Methodological Supervision, Manuscript EditingShehu, M. \u0026ndash; Insect Identification and Logistics SupportAll authors read and approve the final copy of manuscript\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe sincerely thank the farmers in the study areas for their cooperation and for granting continuous access to their fields. Their commitment to organic farming without synthetic pesticides was essential for the success of this study. We are especially grateful to Mr. Inyang of the Cross River Basin Development Authority, Abak Irrigation Project, for his guidance, as well as Habib Aliyu and Ugo Stella for field assistance.Our special appreciation also goes to Capt. O.B. Oko, Commandant of the Nigerian Navy Military School, Ikot Ntuen, and to the staff of the Agricultural Science Unit for their continued support.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAhmad S (2020) Evaluation of indigenous plant extracts against Jassid, \u003cem\u003eAmrasca bigutulla bi-gutulla\u003c/em\u003e I. (Cicadellidae: Homoptera) on okra. \u003cem\u003eUttar Pradesh Journal of Zoology\u003c/em\u003e, 41(22), 38\u0026ndash;47\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAlhassan J (2019) Growth and Yield Performance of Okra [\u003cem\u003eAbelmoschus esculentus\u003c/em\u003e (L.) (Moench) var. Yar-balle] as Influenced by NPK Fertilizer and Weed Control in Sudan Savannah, Nigeria. Direct Res J Agric Food Sci 7(12):445\u0026ndash;449\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAnioke SC (1988) Screening of okra for resistance to \u003cem\u003eSylepta derogata\u003c/em\u003e Fabricius (Pyralidae) in Eastern Nigeria. \u003cem\u003eTropical Pest Management\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e34\u003c/em\u003e(4), 421\u0026ndash;422. \u003cem\u003eAsian J Adv Agric Res\u003c/em\u003e 2: 1\u0026ndash;11\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAstuti DA, Wiryawan KG (2022) Black soldier fly as feed ingredient for ruminants. Anim bioscience 35(2):356\u0026ndash;363\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBerwa R, Sharma AK, Pachori R, Shukla A, Aarwe R, Bhowmik P (2017) Efficacy of chemical and botanical insecticides against sucking insect pest complex on Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L. Moench). J Entomol Zool Stud 5:1693\u0026ndash;1697\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBhutto ZA, Magsi FH, Soomro AA, Ahmed M, Channa NA, Lashari SH, Mangi S, Junejo AA (2017) Integrated pest management of okra insect pests. Int J Fauna Biol Stud 4(3):39\u0026ndash;42\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBorisade OA, Uwaidem YI, Ayotunde-Ojo MO (2017) Arthropods associated with Amaranthus hybridus in Southwestern Nigeria and aggregation patterns of \u003cem\u003eGasteroclisus rhomboidalis\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eHypolixus nubilosus\u003c/em\u003e (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) and brown marmorated stinkbug, \u003cem\u003eHalyomorpha halys\u003c/em\u003e (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) in relation to host\u0026rsquo;s morphology\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBorisade OA, Uwaidem YI, Falade MJ (2021) Interactions of undescribed \u003cem\u003eDrilus\u003c/em\u003e beetle larvae with pestiferous \u003cem\u003eLimicolaria flammea\u003c/em\u003e (Gastropoda: Achatinidae): Are there prospects for biocontrol? Annual Res Rev Biology 36(12):120\u0026ndash;125\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGemede HF, Ratta N, Haki GD, Woldegiorgis AZ, Beyen F (2015) Nutritional quality and health benefits of okra (\u003cem\u003eAbelmoschus esculentus\u003c/em\u003e): A review. \u003cem\u003eJ Food Process Technol\u003c/em\u003e. 06(06)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKodandaram M, Halder J, Singh N, Rai A (2017) Pest management modules against major insect pests of okra. Pesticide Res J 29(2):153\u0026ndash;157\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMaheerthanan RA, Ravi M, Preetha G, Prabina J, B., and, Sowmiya A (2024) PGPR-Induced Biochemical Defense Mechanisms for Leafhopper (\u003cem\u003eAmrasca devastans\u003c/em\u003e) Management in Okra Cultivation. J Adv Biology Biotechnol 27(11):1330\u0026ndash;1342\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOkafor-Elenwo EJ, Imade OS (2019) Estimation of Pathogenic exposure levels and associated baseline bio-risks in edible terrestrial snails (\u003cem\u003eAchachatina marginata\u003c/em\u003e) sold in Nigerian markets. J Appl Sci Environ Manag 23:673\u0026ndash;680\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOyewale RO, Salaudeen MT, Bamaiyi LJ, Bello BY (2020) Ecology and distribution of stem borers in Nigeria. Sustain Food Agric 1(1):27\u0026ndash;36\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePatil R, Pawar SA, Patil CS, Saindane YS (2023) Evaluation of IPM against pest complex of okra. Indian J Entomol 86(2):547\u0026ndash;550\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRahman MM, Uddin MM, Shahjahan M (2013) Management of okra shoot and fruit borer, \u003cem\u003eEarias vittella\u003c/em\u003e (Fabricius) using chemical and botanical insecticides for different okra varieties. Int Res J Appl Life Sci, 2(1)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRivers EU, Nwune UC, Etukudo ME, Okoroafor PI (2024) A survey on the diversity of field insect pests of okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) within the six ADP zones in Akwa Ibom State. Int J Life Sci Agric Res 3(6):467\u0026ndash;472\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSulaiman AJ, Hussaini Y, Onyibe JE (2022) Growth Components and Dry Fruit Yield of Okra (\u003cem\u003eAbelmoschus esculentus\u003c/em\u003e (L.) Moench) Varieties as Influenced by Poultry Manure and Stand Density in Kaduna State, Nigeria. \u003cem\u003eAfr. J. Agr. \u0026amp; Allied Sc\u003c/em\u003e. volume 5(Issue \u0026ndash;\u0026thinsp;2) 2025\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003evan Huis A, van Itterbeeck J, Klunder H, Mertens E, Halloran A, Muir G, Vantomme P (2013) Edible Insects: Future Prospects for Food and Feed Security. FAO Forestry Paper No. 171. FAO, Rome\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eZia A, Haseeb M (2019) Seasonal Incidence of Cotton Mealybug, \u003cem\u003ePhenacoccus solenopsis\u003c/em\u003e (Tinsley) on Okra, \u003cem\u003eAbelmoschus esculentus\u003c/em\u003e (L.) and Comparative Efficacy of Insecticides on the Mortality. J Entomol Zool Stud 7(4):421\u0026ndash;425\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"international-journal-of-tropical-insect-science","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"jtis","sideBox":"Learn more about [International Journal of Tropical Insect Science](http://link.springer.com/journal/42690)","snPcode":"42690","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/jtis/default2.aspx","title":"International Journal of Tropical Insect Science","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Seasonal Diversity, Incidence, Abelmoschus esculentus, Sylepta derogata, Anomis flavus, Helicoverpa armigera, Pest, Population, Akwa Ibom State","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7794437/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7794437/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eOkra (\u003cem\u003eAbelmoschus esculentus\u003c/em\u003e L. Moench) is a vital vegetable crop in tropical regions, yet its productivity is severely constrained by pest attacks. This two-year field survey was conducted across three locations in Abak, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria, to investigate the seasonal \u003cb\u003eoccurrence\u003c/b\u003e, incidence, and impact of insect and non-insect pests on Yar-Balle and an improved variety (Yelle) of okra. Insects were collected and identified across different growth stages, and pests were grouped into their respective orders and families. A high diversity of Coleoptera, Lepidoptera larvae (including \u003cem\u003eSylepta derogata\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eAnomis flavus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eEarias\u003c/em\u003e spp. and \u003cem\u003eHelicoverpa armigera\u003c/em\u003e), and hemipteran bugs were recorded, predominantly damaging okra leaves and fruits with an average infestation rate that is statistically \u003cb\u003es\u003c/b\u003eignificant \u003cem\u003eat p\u003c/em\u003e\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\le\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e 0.005. Additionally, a significant incidence of gastropods (garden snails) was observed, causing foliar damage with an estimated severity of 40\u0026ndash;65% in some plots. Pest populations and damage levels were consistently higher throughout the plant growth stages, with notable variations among the surveyed locations. Findings from this study highlight the need for integrated pest management strategies addressing both insect and non-insect pests across seasons to ensure sustainable okra production in South-south Nigeria.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Seasonal Occurrence and Damage Assessment of Key Pests of Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L. Moench) in South-south Nigeria","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-02-10 11:26:26","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7794437/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-03-02T08:16:10+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-02-21T21:18:31+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-02-15T15:54:19+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"2411499858491171515359961773341227370","date":"2026-02-06T03:25:27+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"272329524451367212249265438046865269396","date":"2026-02-04T18:47:18+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2026-02-04T14:21:13+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-10-15T01:08:27+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-10-15T01:07:09+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"International Journal of Tropical Insect Science","date":"2025-10-06T21:45:45+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"international-journal-of-tropical-insect-science","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"jtis","sideBox":"Learn more about [International Journal of Tropical Insect Science](http://link.springer.com/journal/42690)","snPcode":"42690","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/jtis/default2.aspx","title":"International Journal of Tropical Insect Science","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"c419c71c-e54b-43b1-bc89-8cfbc458ee8f","owner":[],"postedDate":"February 10th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"in-revision","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-06T07:08:31+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-02-10 11:26:26","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7794437","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7794437","identity":"rs-7794437","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}