Radiological Characterization of Soil and Groundwater in a Granitic Terrain of Western Saudi Arabia: Implications for Drinking-Water Safety

Radiological Characterization of Soil and Groundwater in a Granitic Terrain of Western Saudi Arabia: Implications for Drinking-Water Safety | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Radiological Characterization of Soil and Groundwater in a Granitic Terrain of Western Saudi Arabia: Implications for Drinking-Water Safety Hattan D. Natto, Othman A. Fallatah, Maher M. Qutub, Emad F. Alsulimani, and 2 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8855669/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This study presents a comprehensive radiological assessment of the Hada Al-Sham region in western Saudi Arabia, an area characterized by Uranium and Thorium-bearing granitic formations that may influence radionuclide distribution in groundwater. We systematically evaluated naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM) in 20 environmental soil and groundwater samples using a High-Purity Germanium (HPGe) detector and ultra-low-level Liquid Scintillation Counter (LSC). Field measurements were conducted to establish background radiation dose rates across the region. Our results revealed that soil samples maintained activity concentrations substantially below international safety thresholds, with mean values of 221.07 Bq/kg for 40 K and 9–11 Bq/kg for Uranium and Thorium series progeny. However, several groundwater samples exceeded regulatory limits for gross alpha (up to 1.15 Bq/L) and gross beta (up to 1.61 Bq/L) activities, indicating potential health risks from chronic exposure through drinking water ingestion. Field gamma measurements confirmed typical background radiation levels of 0.054 µSv/h for granitic terrains. These findings underscore the importance of routine radiological monitoring in geologically susceptible, groundwater-dependent communities to support evidence-based public health protection strategies aligned with IAEA and WHO guidelines. Natural Radioactivity Uranium and Thorium series NORM HPGe Detector Radiological Risk assessment Liquid Scintillation Counter (LSC) Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 1. Introduction Understanding the distribution of naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM) in arid regions is crucial for evaluating environmental and public health risks. In Saudi Arabia, groundwater is a vital resource, particularly in remote areas such as Hada Al-Sham, situated within the Uranium and Thorium-bearing granitic formations of the Western Arabian Shield. This geological setting presents a potential pathway for radionuclide leaching into aquifers, warranting a comprehensive radiological assessment. Prior baseline radiological data for this region are lacking, creating a significant gap in risk assessment for a region supporting a few thousand residents who rely on untreated groundwater. This study presents the first comprehensive radiological assessment of the Hada Al-Sham area, combining detailed laboratory analysis with systematic field monitoring. The activity concentrations of key NORM ( 238 U and 232 Th series progeny and 40 K) in the environment were quantified using a High-Purity Germanium (HPGe) detector, and gross alpha/beta activities in groundwater were assessed via an ultra-low-level liquid scintillation counter (LSC). In addition to that, background gamma radiation levels across the region were measured during a dedicated field mission, which recorded dose rates and background levels. The primary objectives were to establish baseline activity concentrations in groundwater and soil environmental samples, evaluate spatial heterogeneity in radionuclide distribution, compare findings against international regulatory standards, and assess potential radiological health implications from chronic exposure, particularly via groundwater ingestion. Our findings reveal localized enrichments and spatial heterogeneity. While soil samples exhibited activity concentrations substantially below international safety thresholds (mean 40 K: 221.07 Bq/kg; U/Th series: 9–11 Bq/kg), several groundwater samples exceeded regulatory limits for gross alpha (range: 0.01–1.15 Bq/L) and beta (range: 0.01–1.61 Bq/L), indicating potential health risks from long-term ingestion (World Health Organization, 2011 ). Field gamma measurements confirmed the context, showing an average background radiation dose rate of 0.054 µSv/h (max: 0.062 µSv/h) typical of granitic terrains. This study highlights the importance of routine radiological monitoring in geologically susceptible, groundwater-dependent regions, such as Hada Al-Sham, to inform mitigation strategies and safeguard public health, aligning with IAEA and WHO frameworks (World Health Organization, 2011 ; International Atomic Energy Agency, 2014 ). 2. Materials and Method 2.1. Geological Information of the Study The geographic coordinates for 20 environmental soil and groundwater samples collected during the radiological assessment study in the Hada Al-Sham region of western Saudi Arabia are provided as shown in Table 1 . Table 1 Geographic coordinates for 20 environmental soil and groundwater samples Sample Geographic Coordinates Sample Geographic Coordinates Sample 1 21.8049, 39.7131 Sample 13 21.7992, 39.7352 Sample 2 21.1348, 39.4238 Sample 14 21.8021, 39.7402 Sample 3 21.2548, 39.4254 Sample 15 21.8090, 39.7265 Sample 5 21.7740, 39.6824 Sample 16 21.8090, 39.7282 Sample 7 21.7740, 39.6824 Sample 17 21.8092, 39.7293 Sample 8 21.7729, 39.6825 Sample 18 21.8147, 39.7585 Sample 9 21.7740, 39.6823 Sample 19 21.8150, 39.7589 Sample 10 21.7728, 39.6809 Sample 20 21.8150, 39.7593 Sample 11 21.4748, 39.4321 Sample 21 21.8218, 39.7258 Sample 12 21.4845, 39.4319 Sample 22 21.8005, 39.7225 The coordinates indicate that samples are distributed across the study area, exhibiting a notable spatial distribution. Five samples (5, 7, 8, 9, 10) are concentrated around (21.77°N, 39.68°E), indicating intensive sampling at a specific site of interest. Additional samples appear in the northwestern sector (Samples 18, 19, 20 near 21.815°N, 39.759°E) and central area (Samples 15–17 near 21.809°N, 39.728°E). Sample 2 (21.1348°N, 39.4238°E) represents the southernmost point, while Sample 21 (21.8218°N, 39.7258°E) marks the northern extent. The precise geolocation enables accurate spatial analysis of radionuclide distribution, supporting the study's findings of localized enrichment distributions in this granitic area. This validated spatial dataset is critical for correlating laboratory results with specific geological contexts and exposure pathways. A geological map of the Hada Al-Sham area is shown in Fig. 1 . 2.2. Sample Preparation 2.2.1 Soil Samples Preparation The 20 samples underwent initial preparation by removing any unwanted materials such as sticks and gravel. These samples were then sealed, labeled, and transported to the Center for Training and Radiation Protection (CTRP) radiochemical laboratory for further processing and examination. In the laboratory, the samples were dried in an oven at 105°C for 24 hours to remove moisture. Afterwards, they were placed in an electric furnace at 350°C for 48 hours to burn the plant remains. Subsequently, the samples were ground into a fine powder and made uniform by passing them through a 2 mm sieve to obtain a homogenous sample matrix. Approximately 1000 g portions of the samples were weighed using an electric balance and placed into 1-liter polyethylene cylindrical Marinelli beakers, sealed, and allowed to rest for 4 weeks before measurement. This resting period was necessary to achieve secular equilibrium, a condition in which the rate of decay of daughter products equals the rate of decay of the parent isotope for the U and Th series. Following the 4-week waiting period, the background radiation level was measured using an identically shaped empty sealed beaker to serve as a reference standard. 2.2.1 Groundwater Samples Preparation The sample preparation procedure followed in this study was designed to ensure the accuracy and reproducibility of results in liquid scintillation counting. All laboratory solutions were prepared using analytical-grade chemicals and double-distilled water. The solutions were filtered through 0.45 µm membrane filters and stored in 100 mL polyethylene bottles. Water samples were collected from wells ten minutes after the pumps were started to ensure representative sampling. Initially, each groundwater sample was shaken thoroughly, and a part of approximately 50 mL was filtered into a clean 100 mL conical flask following the method of Salonen (Salonen, L., 1989 ) and Sanchez Cabeza et al (Sanchez Cabeza et al., 1993). The sample was then placed on a hot-plate magnetic stirrer and heated gently at 60°C for 40 minutes to ensure complete removal of dissolved radon. After cooling to room temperature, 8 mL of the treated sample was transferred into a 20 mL polyethylene scintillation vial pre-filled with 12 mL of a general-purpose liquid scintillation cocktail. The vial was then vigorously shaken for about one minute to ensure homogeneity. It is essential to add the cocktail before the sample to avoid the formation of white precipitates, which are typically associated with high salt content in the water. The resulting mixture should appear clear. Control samples were also prepared and analyzed alongside the actual samples. The blank consisted of 12 mL cocktail mixed with 8 mL of distilled water, while the standard control sample contained the same proportions but was spiked with approximately 2 disintegrations per minute (dpm) of a pure alpha-emitting radionuclide ( 241 Am) and 2 dpm of a pure beta-emitter ( 40 K). The vials were then allowed to cool within the liquid scintillation counter chamber for approximately 3 hours before measurement. The ultra-low-level liquid scintillation counter (LSC) operated in an alpha/beta separation mode, enabling discrimination between alpha and beta events through distinct energy windows. In cases where a white precipitate formed—an indicator of high salt content—the sample was refrigerated for approximately 10 minutes to allow the precipitate to dissolve. If the precipitate persisted, corrective steps were taken, including sample dilution (e.g., adjusting the ratio to 12 mL cocktail: 7 mL sample: 1 mL distilled water), altering the sample-to-cocktail ratio, or selecting an alternative cocktail compatible with high-salt matrices. For modifications involving ratio adjustments or cocktail replacement, it was necessary to prepare new control samples with the same composition to maintain analytical reliability. It is also important to note that prepared standard samples were stored under refrigeration and remained viable for up to three months. Storage helps to minimize cocktail degradation, which may otherwise result in color changes and quenching effects that could compromise counting efficiency. 2.3. Radiological Characterization of Soil Samples A comprehensive radiochemical analysis was conducted on 20 environmental samples to determine the activity concentrations of naturally occurring radionuclides, primarily from the uranium and thorium decay chains. The analysis was performed using a High-Purity Germanium (HPGe) gamma-ray spectrometry, which offers high-resolution detection of gamma-emitting radionuclides and is widely regarded as a standard method for environmental radioactivity studies. Activity concentrations were measured for specific gamma-ray energies corresponding to key radionuclides, including 214 Pb, 214 Bi, 212 Pb, 228 Ac, 208 Tl, 212 Bi, and 40 K. The activity levels were quantified in becquerels per kilogram (Bq/kg), alongside their respective uncertainties (σ), providing a robust dataset for both statistical evaluation and radiological risk assessment. An HPGe detector system was used to quantify the activity levels of the naturally occurring radionuclides 238 U ( 226 Ra), 232 Th, and 40 K present in the collected samples. The detection device consisted of a CANBERRA GC4018 model detector characterized by a relative efficiency of 40% and an energy resolution of 1.8 keV (FWHM) at the 1.33 MeV gamma-ray emission from 60 Co, integrated with a computer-controlled multi-channel analyzer (MCA) for data acquisition and processing. The measurement and analytical work were performed at the KAU-CTRP lab. All samples were analyzed for a duration of 86,400 seconds using consistent measurement parameters and geometry. The detector was calibrated for both energy and detection efficiency using reference sources with known gamma-ray energies, specifically 60 Co, 152 Eu, 137 Cs, and 241 Am. The LabSOCS software was utilized to determine the efficiency calibration. Reference materials certified by the IAEA (IAEA-RGU-1, IAEA-RGTh-1, and IAEA-RGK-1) served as standards for validating the activity measurements and ensuring quality assurance. Operating under the assumption of secular equilibrium, the activity concentrations of 238 U, 232 Th, and 40 K were indirectly determined by analyzing gamma-ray emissions from their respective decay products. For 238 U quantification, gamma-ray lines from 214 Pb at 295.224 keV (19.32%) and 351.932 keV (37.64%), and from 214 Bi at 609.312 keV (46.15%), 1120.287 keV (15.12%), and 1764.494 keV (15.42%) were employed. For 232 Th measurement, gamma-ray lines from 212 Pb at 238.632 keV (43.34%), from 228 Ac at 338.32 keV (11.27%) and 911.204 keV (25.84%), from 208 Tl at 583.191 keV (30.50%), and from 212 Pb at 238.632 keV (43.34%) were utilized. The activity concentration of 238U was calculated using the decay product 234m Pa at its characteristic gamma-ray energy of 1001.03 keV (0.842%). The 40 K activity concentration was obtained directly from its single gamma-ray emission at 1460.8 keV (11.00%). Background radiation levels detected in the vicinity of the detector were measured separately and subsequently subtracted from the sample spectra to obtain net activity values. 2.4. Radiological Characterization of Groundwater Samples This study presents an assessment of the radiological quality of groundwater samples collected from an unspecified region, focusing on gross alpha and gross beta activity concentrations measured in units of becquerels per liter (Bq/L). A total of 20 samples were analyzed using a liquid scintillation counter (LSC), a highly sensitive technique suitable for low-level radioactivity measurements in aqueous samples. The results were subsequently evaluated against international standards to determine potential health implications for populations consuming this water. The measurement of gross alpha and gross beta particle activities in water serves as a fundamental radiological screening tool. This approach provides a cost-effective and time-efficient means of assessing the overall radiological quality of water, offering sufficient information on the potential presence of long-lived alpha- and beta-emitting radionuclides. High-throughput screening enables faster decision-making, allowing for timely corrective actions or the determination that no further analysis is needed. Only when these screening results exceed regulatory thresholds is it necessary to proceed with more sophisticated and isotope-specific analytical methods, which are typically more resource-intensive. Notably, the gross alpha activity is often of greater concern than gross beta activity in the context of natural radioactivity, as elevated alpha levels may indicate the presence of uranium (U), thorium (Th), radium (Ra), radon (Rn), and their decay products—elements of significant environmental and health relevance. 3. Results and Discussion 3.1 Health Risk Assessment of Soil Samples Among all measured radionuclides, 40 K displayed the highest average activity concentration as shown in Fig. 2 , reaching a mean of 221.07 Bq/kg. Sample 1 exhibited the peak 40 K activity (306.82 Bq/kg), whereas Sample 3 presented the lowest (64.57 Bq/kg). Despite these differences, the uncertainty associated with 40 K measurements was consistently low (σ < 2), indicating high precision and reliability. Figure 3 demonstrates the Uranium- 238 and the Thorium-232 series specific activities (Bq/Kg) along with their uncertainties (σ). Uranium-238 series isotopes, particularly 214 Pb and 214 Bi, demonstrated stable and consistent activity concentrations across all samples, with mean values ranging from 9.13 to 10.63 Bq/kg. The Thorium-232 series displayed a similar level of consistency, even though with slightly more variability. Particularly, 212 Bi exhibited the highest average activity within the thorium group at 10.86 Bq/kg, with Sample 16 showing elevated concentrations across nearly all thorium decay products, suggesting localized thorium enrichment. From a statistical perspective, the data exhibited clear heterogeneity from sample to sample. Sample 16 consistently emerged as an outlier, featuring the highest measured activities for both Uranium and Thorium series isotopes, as well as elevated levels of 40 K. Conversely, Sample 20 registered the lowest activity concentrations across multiple radionuclides, highlighting variability in the geological or environmental sources of the materials. When compared against international levels, the measured concentrations of natural radionuclides were all found to fall within globally observed ranges, as shown in Table 2 . The Uranium and Thorium series activities were consistent with typical background levels found in various soil types, and substantially below the worldwide average of 35 for Uranium and 30 for Thorium (Bq/kg). Potassium-40 activity, though lower than the global average of 400 Bq/kg, remained within expected variability. The health risk assessment based on these findings confirms the absence of significant hazards. Table 2 Comparison of natural radionuclides of different samples from different countries of the world. Country Samples 238 U (Bq kg − 1 ) 232 Th (Bq kg − 1 ) 40 K (Bq kg − 1 ) Reference Ghana Medicinal plant 31.8 ± 2.8 56.2 ± 2.3 839.8 ± 11.9 (S. Salmani-Ghabeshi et al., 2016 ) Spain Soil 25 31 615 (H. Al-Sulaiti, 2011 ) Qatar Soil & building materials 17.22 ± 1.55 6.38 ± 0.26 169 ± 5 (El-Sayed, 2014 ) Nigeria Rock 13.1 ± 1.6–129 ± 38 42.4 ± 4.5–15,023 64.5 ± 6.3–882 ± 298 (L. Tettey-larbi et al., 2013 ) Egypt Granitic rock 5.26–336.70 3.12 − 64.43 160.22–774.16 (D. Ayalew et al., 2019 ) Ethiopia Soil 19.97 ± 2.42 56.38 ± 4.50 716.59 ± 68.43 (A.K. Hailu Geremew et al., 2019) Ethiopia Flouri culture soil 142.29 ± 27.67 7.82 ± 0.54 259.62 ± 44.9 (R. Ravisankar et al., 2012 ) India Flooring materials 25.48 42.82 560.69 (R. Veiga et al., 2006 ) Brazil Sand 169 963 824 (M. Karataşlı et al., 2016 ) Iraq Soil 34.8 18.8 289.2 (W. Arafa et al., 2004) Turkey Soil 27.1 34.3 370.5 (U. Cevik et al., 2008 ) Turkey Soil 167 44 404 (Z. Hamzah et al., 2008 ) Malaysia Soil 3798 ± 419 12,896 ± 1533 2521 ± 298 (E. Svoukis et al., 2007) Cyprus Soil & rock 14.2 ± 5.7 10.6 ± 5.1 153 ± 5.6 (UNSCEAR, 2002) Nigeria Soil 47.06 ± 14.01 75.97 ± 9.11 216.02 ± 62.37 (M.A. Akpanowo et at., 2019) Ethiopia Gemstones/rock 29.84 ± 6.53 68.44 ± 18.94 390.87 ± 6.09 (Mekuanint L. et al., 2023) This Study Soil 9.92 ± 0.25 9.80 ± 0.29 221.07 ± 1.64 World Average — 35 30 400 (E.O. Joshua et al., 2009 ) 3.2 Health Risk Assessment of Groundwater Samples Table 3 represents the gross alpha and gross beta for the 20 groundwater samples. Gross alpha activity in the analyzed samples ranged from a minimum of 0.01 Bq/L to a maximum of 1.15 Bq/L, with an average value of 0.27 Bq/L. For gross beta activity, values ranged from 0.01 Bq/L to 1.61 Bq/L, with an average of 0.44 Bq/L. Standard uncertainties for gross alpha ranged between ± 0.13 and ± 0.18 Bq/L, while for gross beta, they were relatively uniform, around ± 0.56 to ± 0.60 Bq/L. The highest gross alpha concentration was observed in Sample 9, while the highest gross beta activity was found in Sample 1. Several samples, including Samples 3, 6, 9, 11, 12, and 16, exhibited gross alpha concentrations above regulatory limits. Similarly, elevated gross beta activities were noted in Samples 1, 11, and 12. Table 3 Gross alpha and gross beta activity concentrations for the 20 groundwater samples. Sample ID Gross α Gross β Bq / L σ Bq / L σ Sample 1 0.09 0.14 1.61 0.60 Sample 2 0.12 0.14 0.69 0.59 Sample 3 0.33 0.15 0.11 0.57 Sample 5 0.07 0.14 0.02 0.58 Sample 7 0.25 0.15 0.09 0.58 Sample 8 0.04 0.14 0.32 0.57 Sample 9 1.15 0.18 0.57 0.58 Sample 10 0.18 0.15 0.14 0.57 Sample 11 0.60 0.17 1.21 0.59 Sample 12 0.45 0.15 1.53 0.59 Sample 13 0.05 0.13 0.03 0.57 Sample 14 0.29 0.14 0.57 0.57 Sample 15 0.01 0.13 0.34 0.57 Sample 16 0.55 0.15 0.42 0.57 Sample 17 0.24 0.14 0.98 0.58 Sample 18 0.16 0.14 0.02 0.56 Sample 19 0.24 0.14 0.15 0.57 Sample 20 0.33 0.15 0.09 0.57 Sample 21 0.15 0.14 0.01 0.56 Sample 22 0.13 0.15 0.01 0.57 Maximum 1.15 0.18 1.61 0.60 Minimum 0.01 0.13 0.01 0.56 Average 0.27 0.15 0.44 0.57 To evaluate the safety of the water for human consumption, the results were compared to international standards set by various agencies. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends maximum screening levels of 0.5 Bq/L for gross alpha and 1.0 Bq/L for gross beta in drinking water (World Health Organization, 2011 ). According to these guidelines, only Sample 9 exceeded the gross alpha limit, and only Sample 1 exceeded the gross beta limit. From a radiological health risk perspective, exceedance of these guideline values implies potential long-term health risks, particularly through internal exposure via ingestion. Chronic intake of water with elevated alpha or beta activity can lead to increased risks of carcinogenesis and organ-specific damage. Alpha-emitting radionuclides such as Uranium and Radium are of particular concern due to their high ionizing potential when deposited in human tissues. Although the data do not suggest an immediate public health emergency, continued consumption of water from the affected sources without treatment may lead to cumulative radiological health effects over time, especially among vulnerable populations such as infants and pregnant women. 3.3 Field Measurements of Natural Background Gamma Radiation A SPIR-IDENT Mobile 2-liter version of NaI (Tl) 5 x 10 x 40 cm detector system (Fig. 4 ) was used to estimate the radiological survey conducted in the Hada Alsham area. The mission's objective was to assess ambient radiation levels through a series of manual acquisitions. The operational data comprised five primary events: one manual acquisition flagged as "AL Tolerated" and four separate background measurements. The survey's overarching radiological findings indicate a stable environment. The mission-wide data shows an average gamma dose rate of 0.054 µSv/h, with a maximum of 0.062 µSv/h. The average background (BKG) gamma dose rate was measured to be 0.055 µSv/h. A significant identification occurred during Event 2, where spectral analysis confirmed the presence of Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material (NORM) from the Th-232 decay series with a high confidence level of 9.0, as shown in Fig. 5 . Event-specific analysis reveals consistent background measurements across four locations. The average gamma dose rates for these background events (Events 3, 4, 5, and 6) were 0.046 µSv/h, 0.042 µSv/h, 0.047 µSv/h, and 0.040 µSv/h, respectively, corroborating the stable baseline. The mission was conducted across various geographic coordinates within the area, with altitudes ranging from approximately 207 meters to 254 meters above mean sea level (AMSL). All manual acquisitions were performed from a stationary platform, as indicated by a ground speed (GS) of 0 km/h and a constant height of 2 meters above ground level (AGL). The collected data conclusively indicate that all measured radiation levels fall within the expected range of natural background variation. Figure 6 illustrates a blueish pathway of the driven car and the five locations where measurements were taken. The blueish color indicates the concentration of K-40, which is about 205 Bq/kg. 3.4 Statistical Analysis of Environmental Hazard Indices The calculated radiological hazard indices derived from measured activity concentrations of ²³⁸U, ²³²Th, and ⁴⁰K provide an integrated perspective on potential environmental and public health impacts in the Hada Al-Sham area. Summary statistics for Absorbed Gamma Dose Rate (AGDR), Annual Effective Dose Rate (AEDR), Radium equivalent activity (Ra eq ), external and internal hazard indices (H ex and H in ), gamma and alpha activity indices, and Excess Lifetime Cancer Risk (ELCR) are presented in Table 4 . Table 4 Statistical Parameters of Environmental Hazard Indices Index Minimum Maximum Mean Permissible Limit Reference AGDR (nGy/h) 33.33 145.23 102.20 55 (UNSCEAR, 2000) AEDR (mSv/y) 0.050 0.219 0.154 1 (ICRP, 2007 ) Ra eq (Bq/kg) 19.76 64.42 40.96 370 (OECD, 1979 ) H ex 0.05 0.17 0.11 1.0 (Beretka, J. et al., 1985) H in 0.07 0.22 0.14 1.0 (Beretka, J. et al., 1985) Iγ 0.14 0.48 0.31 2–6 (Fallatah, O.A. et al., 2024 ) ELCR (×10⁻³) 0.176 0.767 0.540 0.29 (UNSCEAR, 2000) Iα 0.03 0.09 0.05 1.0 (Fallatah, O.A. et al., 2024 ) Overall, all hazard indices remain well below internationally recommended safety limits, confirming that the investigated soils do not pose a significant radiological hazard. AGDR values ranged from 33.33 to 145.23 nGy/h, with a mean of 102.20 nGy/h. Although the mean value slightly exceeds the global average reported by (UNSCEAR, 2000), this elevation reflects natural geological control, particularly the presence of uranium- and thorium-bearing granitic formations, rather than anthropogenic influence. Importantly, the corresponding AEDR values (mean: 0.154 mSv/y) remain far below the public exposure limit of 1 mSv/y recommended by the ICRP (ICRP, 2007 ), indicating negligible radiological risk from external exposure. The calculated Raeq values (mean: 40.96 Bq/kg) are substantially lower than the recommended maximum limit of 370 Bq/kg, further confirming the radiological safety of the soil samples. Similarly, both external (Hex) and internal (Hin) hazard indices are significantly below unity, demonstrating that neither external gamma radiation nor internal exposure from radon progeny presents a meaningful hazard under current environmental conditions. Gamma and alpha activity indices also fall well within acceptable limits, reinforcing the conclusion that soil-related exposure pathways are not of radiological concern. The estimated ELCR values, while marginally higher than the global average in some locations, remain within acceptable safety margins and are best explained by spatial heterogeneity in natural radionuclide distribution associated with granitic lithology. Taken together, these results highlight clear spatial variability controlled by local geology, with slightly elevated indices occurring in areas influenced by granitic outcrops. However, these variations do not translate into significant radiological risk from soil exposure. When interpreted alongside groundwater results, the hazard indices confirm that external exposure from soil is secondary, whereas internal exposure via groundwater ingestion represents the dominant potential radiological pathway in the study area. 4. Conclusions This study provides the first comprehensive evaluation of naturally occurring radioactive materials in soil and groundwater in the Hada Al-Sham area of western Saudi Arabia, establishing a baseline dataset for a granitic, groundwater-dependent region. The results demonstrate that radiological hazards associated with soil are minimal, as activity concentrations of uranium- and thorium-series radionuclides and potassium-40 remain well below internationally recommended reference levels. Calculated radiological hazard indices, including absorbed gamma dose rate, annual effective dose rate, radium equivalent activity, and external and internal hazard indices, confirm that soil-related external exposure does not pose a significant radiological risk to the public. In contrast, groundwater was identified as the dominant potential radiological exposure pathway, with approximately one-third of the analyzed samples exceeding World Health Organization screening levels for gross alpha and/or gross beta activity. These exceedances indicate localized radiological concern related primarily to chronic ingestion rather than immediate health effects. Although the measured activities do not suggest an acute public health emergency, long-term consumption of untreated groundwater from affected sources may result in cumulative internal exposure, particularly among sensitive population groups. Field gamma-ray surveys further confirmed that ambient radiation levels across the study area fall within normal natural background variability, indicating that elevated exposure is not associated with external gamma radiation but is mainly linked to groundwater ingestion pathways controlled by local granitic geology. Overall, the findings highlight the importance of distinguishing between soil-related external exposure and groundwater-related internal exposure in granitic environments. The study highlights the importance of ongoing groundwater monitoring, targeted water treatment where necessary, and risk-informed public health communication. The methodological framework and results presented here provide a valuable reference for radiological assessments in arid regions where populations rely heavily on groundwater and may be exposed to naturally occurring radiation. Declarations Ethical Approval: This declaration is “not applicable”. Funding: This Project was funded by the Deanship of Scientific Research (DSR) at King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, under grant no. (IPP: 1125-135-2025). The authors therefore acknowledge with thanks DSR for its technical and financial support. “All authors have read, understood, and complied as applicable with the statement on "Ethical responsibilities of Authors" as found in the Instructions for Authors.” Author Contribution Natto H. and Fallath O. wrote the main manuscript.Alsulimani E. and Hafiz L. collected the samples and did the field radiation measurements.Qutub M. analyzed the samples.Tayeb M. reviewed the manuscript. Acknowledgement This Project was funded by the Deanship of Scientific Research (DSR) at King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, under grant no. (IPP: 1125-135-2025). The authors, therefore, acknowledge with thanks DSR for technical and financial support. References AYALEW, D., B. SITOTAW, E. MENGISTU, (2019), Evaluation of dose rate and hazard from background radiation of Dire Dawa city, Ethiopia, Romanian J. Biophys., 30(1), 23–32. Beretka, J., & Mathew, P. 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Vienna, Austria: IAEA. L. Tettey-larbi, E.O. Darko, C. Schandorf and A.A. Appiah, (2013), Natural radioactivity levels of some medicinal plants commonly used in Ghana, SpringerPlus 2, 1, doi: 10.1186/2193-1801-2-157 . M. Karataşlı, S. Turhan, A. Varinlioğlu and Z. Yeğingil, (2016), Determination of tritium activity concentration in natural water samples, Environ. Forensics 75 (424), 1. doi: 10.1080/15275922.2017.1305012 . M.A. Akpanowo, I. Umaru and S. Iyakwari, (2019), Assessment of radiological risk from the soils of artisanal mining areas of Anka, North West Nigeria, Afr J. Environ. Sci. Technol. 13 (8), 303, doi: 10.5897/AJEST2019.2691 . Mekuanint Lemlem Legasu & Ashok K. Chaubey, (2023), Evaluation of natural radioactivity level in Delanta-Dawunt, Wollo District, Ethiopia, International Journal of Environmental Analytical Chemistry, 103:20, 9452–9465, DOI: 10.1080/03067319.2021.2011257 . Mirion, (2026), “SPIR-Ident Mobile PlatformTM Airborne and Carborne Mobile Spectrometry,” https://www.mirion.com/products/technologies/defense-security-systems/security-search-systems/mobile-systems/spir-ident-mobile-platform-airborne-and-carborne-mobile-spectrometry (accessed Jan. 10, 2026). OECD, (1979), Exposure to Radiation from Natural Radioactivity in Building Materials, OECD Nuclear Energy Agency, Paris. R. Ravisankar, M. Suganya, K. Vanasundari, S. Sivakumar, G. Senthilkumar, J. Chandra Mohan, P. Vijayagopal and B. Venkatraman, (2012), MEASUREMENT OF NATURAL RADIOACTIVITY IN COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS USED IN TIRUVANNAMALAI, TAMILNADU, INDIA, doi: 10.4103/0972-0464.101710 . R. Veiga, N. Sanches, R.M. Anjos, K. Macarioa, J. Bastosa, M. Iguatemya, J.G. Aguiarb, A.M. A. Santosb, B. Mosqueraa, C. Carvalhoa, M. Baptista Filhoa and N.K. Umisedo, (2006), Measurement of natural radioactivity in Brazilian beach sands, Radiat. Meas. 41 (2), 189, doi: 10.1016/j.radmeas.2005.05.001 . S. Salmani-Ghabeshi, M.R. Palomo-Marín, E. Bernalte, F. RuedaHolgado, C. Miro-Rodriguez, F. Cereceda-Balic, X. Fadic, V. Vidal, M. Funes and E. Pinilla-Gil, (2016), Environ. Spatial gradient of human health risk from exposure to trace elements and radioactive pollutants in soils at the Puchuncaví-Ventanas industrial complex, Chile, Pollut. 218 (322–330), 322, doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2016.07.007 . Salonen, L., (1989), Simultaneous determination of gross alpha and gross beta in water by liquid scintillation counting. 2nd Intern. Conf. on Anal. Chem. In Nucl. Technology: Karlsruhe. Sanchez-Cabeza, J.A., Pujol, L., Merino, J., Leon, L., Molero, J., Vidal-Quadras, A., Schell, W.R., Mitchell, P.I., (1993),Optimization and calibration of a low background liquid scintillation counter for the simultaneous determination of alpha and beta emitters in the aqueous samples, in: Liquid Scintillation Spectrometry 1992 (J.E. Noakes, F. Schonhofer, H.A. Polach, eds.). Radiocarbon, 43–50. U. Cevik, N. Damla, B. Koz and S. Kaya, (2008), Radiological Characterization around the Afsin-Elbistan Coal-Fired Power Plant in Turkey, Energy Fuels. 22 (1), 428, doi: 10.1021/ef700374u . ‌UNSCEAR, (2000), Sources and Effects of Ionizing Radiation, United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation, United Nations, New York. UNSCEAR, (2002), United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effect of Atomic Radiation. Sources and Effects of Ionizing Radiation. Report to General Assembly, with Scientific Annexes, United Nations, New York, https://www.unscear.org/unscear/en/publications/2000_1.html . W. Arafa, (2004), Specific activity and hazards of granite samples collected from the Eastern Desert of Egypt, J. Envir. Radio. 75, 315, doi: 10.1016/j.jenvrad.2004.01.004 . World Health Organization, (2011), Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality, 4th ed. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization. Z. Hamzah, S. Ahmad, H. M. Noor and D. E. She, (2008), Surface Radiation Dose and Radionuclide Measurement in Ex-Tin Mining Area, Kg Gajah, Perak, The Malaysian Journal of Analytical Sciences, Vol. 12, No. 2, pp. 419–431. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8855669","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":600915948,"identity":"c0d8de54-7bd0-4827-9180-81d44cf67c0e","order_by":0,"name":"Hattan D. Natto","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAy0lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACA4YEMC0nAabYiNVyIIHBmHQtiTOI1mLOnnvw88cfNukz288YMHwoO8wg334AvxbLnnfJEgcS0nJn8+QYMM44d5jB4EwCAYfdyDEAajmcO48hx4CZt+0wPEDwaTH+AdSSLsf/xoD5L1CLfP8DglrMQLYkSEsAbWEEamG4QciWM2/MLM6kpRnOnPGs4GDPuXQegxuEbDmeY3yjwsZGXuJ88sYHP8qs5eT7CdiCAg4AMQ8J6kfBKBgFo2AU4AIAlhZGo6RlQnAAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"Nuclear Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, King Abdulaziz University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Hattan","middleName":"D.","lastName":"Natto","suffix":""},{"id":600915950,"identity":"dcdb1076-87dc-4764-98f3-4c4c4188dc80","order_by":1,"name":"Othman A. Fallatah","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Nuclear Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, King Abdulaziz University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Othman","middleName":"A.","lastName":"Fallatah","suffix":""},{"id":600915955,"identity":"6983d67c-c58f-4f6b-8d2a-c9684735d898","order_by":2,"name":"Maher M. Qutub","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Nuclear Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, King Abdulaziz University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Maher","middleName":"M.","lastName":"Qutub","suffix":""},{"id":600915959,"identity":"5179ddea-5e89-4d10-b2cf-f0ada224b45f","order_by":3,"name":"Emad F. Alsulimani","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Center for Training and Radiation Protection, King Abdulaziz University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Emad","middleName":"F.","lastName":"Alsulimani","suffix":""},{"id":600915961,"identity":"4b844b17-8e38-4984-b286-f546a2882807","order_by":4,"name":"Loia M. Hafiz","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Center for Training and Radiation Protection, King Abdulaziz University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Loia","middleName":"M.","lastName":"Hafiz","suffix":""},{"id":600915964,"identity":"2d4a46f9-f159-4b4b-bf68-909d0e964c21","order_by":5,"name":"Mohammed S. Tayeb","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Radiology Department, King Abdulaziz University Hospital","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Mohammed","middleName":"S.","lastName":"Tayeb","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-02-11 21:24:04","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8855669/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8855669/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":106771624,"identity":"297c7ced-ef7b-41f4-9377-782f75d61bb6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-13 10:13:31","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":332556,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eLocation of the Hada Al-Sham area in western Saudi Arabia, with a simplified geological map showing major lithological units and sampling sites.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8855669/v1/1060db750c883ad99e014da5.jpg"},{"id":106771623,"identity":"01fcab87-1833-47c5-ac54-d782559d1f51","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-13 10:13:31","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":250727,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eK-40 specific activities for 20 soil samples.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture2.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8855669/v1/4a5bd630cab6782775e0beaf.jpg"},{"id":106771621,"identity":"aa2448b7-be70-4e1e-a032-54bf9832c40a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-13 10:13:30","extension":"jpg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":319803,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eU-238 and Th-232 specific activities for 20 soil samples.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture3.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8855669/v1/51858bbe4d619b90f1f00b3a.jpg"},{"id":106771616,"identity":"33269f5c-706f-4f57-80b4-d04c1fd8724a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-13 10:13:27","extension":"jpg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":74457,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSPIR-IDENT Mobile 2-liter version of NaI(Tl) 5 x 10 x 40 cm detector system [22]\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture4.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8855669/v1/eb8c6eab3653a73d8190eba4.jpg"},{"id":106771615,"identity":"82ff8f37-a607-41e0-9e40-1cdb3f185c05","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-13 10:13:23","extension":"jpg","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":43322,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTh-232 decay series with a high confidence level of 9.0\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture5.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8855669/v1/cff92aa69481ff82a92b56ee.jpg"},{"id":106771614,"identity":"e15093c3-f451-486e-b23d-76938f4deed2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-13 10:13:23","extension":"jpg","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":83583,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eK-40 concentration in the Hada Al-Sham area.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture6.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8855669/v1/93bda49732d22e2163f1f9ab.jpg"},{"id":108139010,"identity":"26d55283-a687-4f49-82a6-0889f50d7d94","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-29 18:25:10","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1531918,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8855669/v1/b4de5d71-cf92-4619-bffe-2aabc137ea68.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Radiological Characterization of Soil and Groundwater in a Granitic Terrain of Western Saudi Arabia: Implications for Drinking-Water Safety","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eUnderstanding the distribution of naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM) in arid regions is crucial for evaluating environmental and public health risks. In Saudi Arabia, groundwater is a vital resource, particularly in remote areas such as Hada Al-Sham, situated within the Uranium and Thorium-bearing granitic formations of the Western Arabian Shield. This geological setting presents a potential pathway for radionuclide leaching into aquifers, warranting a comprehensive radiological assessment. Prior baseline radiological data for this region are lacking, creating a significant gap in risk assessment for a region supporting a few thousand residents who rely on untreated groundwater. This study presents the first comprehensive radiological assessment of the Hada Al-Sham area, combining detailed laboratory analysis with systematic field monitoring. The activity concentrations of key NORM (\u003csup\u003e238\u003c/sup\u003eU and \u003csup\u003e232\u003c/sup\u003eTh series progeny and \u003csup\u003e40\u003c/sup\u003eK) in the environment were quantified using a High-Purity Germanium (HPGe) detector, and gross alpha/beta activities in groundwater were assessed via an ultra-low-level liquid scintillation counter (LSC). In addition to that, background gamma radiation levels across the region were measured during a dedicated field mission, which recorded dose rates and background levels. The primary objectives were to establish baseline activity concentrations in groundwater and soil environmental samples, evaluate spatial heterogeneity in radionuclide distribution, compare findings against international regulatory standards, and assess potential radiological health implications from chronic exposure, particularly via groundwater ingestion. Our findings reveal localized enrichments and spatial heterogeneity. While soil samples exhibited activity concentrations substantially below international safety thresholds (mean \u003csup\u003e40\u003c/sup\u003eK: 221.07 Bq/kg; U/Th series: 9\u0026ndash;11 Bq/kg), several groundwater samples exceeded regulatory limits for gross alpha (range: 0.01\u0026ndash;1.15 Bq/L) and beta (range: 0.01\u0026ndash;1.61 Bq/L), indicating potential health risks from long-term ingestion (World Health Organization, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Field gamma measurements confirmed the context, showing an average background radiation dose rate of 0.054 \u0026micro;Sv/h (max: 0.062 \u0026micro;Sv/h) typical of granitic terrains. This study highlights the importance of routine radiological monitoring in geologically susceptible, groundwater-dependent regions, such as Hada Al-Sham, to inform mitigation strategies and safeguard public health, aligning with IAEA and WHO frameworks (World Health Organization, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; International Atomic Energy Agency, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Materials and Method","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1. Geological Information of the Study\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe geographic coordinates for 20 environmental soil and groundwater samples collected during the radiological assessment study in the Hada Al-Sham region of western Saudi Arabia are provided as shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGeographic coordinates for 20 environmental soil and groundwater samples\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGeographic Coordinates\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGeographic Coordinates\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample 1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.8049, 39.7131\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample 13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.7992, 39.7352\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample 2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.1348, 39.4238\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample 14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.8021, 39.7402\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample 3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.2548, 39.4254\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample 15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.8090, 39.7265\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample 5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.7740, 39.6824\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample 16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.8090, 39.7282\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample 7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.7740, 39.6824\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample 17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.8092, 39.7293\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample 8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.7729, 39.6825\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample 18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.8147, 39.7585\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample 9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.7740, 39.6823\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample 19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.8150, 39.7589\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample 10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.7728, 39.6809\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample 20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.8150, 39.7593\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample 11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.4748, 39.4321\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample 21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.8218, 39.7258\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample 12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.4845, 39.4319\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample 22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.8005, 39.7225\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe coordinates indicate that samples are distributed across the study area, exhibiting a notable spatial distribution. Five samples (5, 7, 8, 9, 10) are concentrated around (21.77\u0026deg;N, 39.68\u0026deg;E), indicating intensive sampling at a specific site of interest. Additional samples appear in the northwestern sector (Samples 18, 19, 20 near 21.815\u0026deg;N, 39.759\u0026deg;E) and central area (Samples 15\u0026ndash;17 near 21.809\u0026deg;N, 39.728\u0026deg;E). Sample 2 (21.1348\u0026deg;N, 39.4238\u0026deg;E) represents the southernmost point, while Sample 21 (21.8218\u0026deg;N, 39.7258\u0026deg;E) marks the northern extent. The precise geolocation enables accurate spatial analysis of radionuclide distribution, supporting the study's findings of localized enrichment distributions in this granitic area. This validated spatial dataset is critical for correlating laboratory results with specific geological contexts and exposure pathways. A geological map of the Hada Al-Sham area is shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2. Sample Preparation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.1 Soil Samples Preparation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe 20 samples underwent initial preparation by removing any unwanted materials such as sticks and gravel. These samples were then sealed, labeled, and transported to the Center for Training and Radiation Protection (CTRP) radiochemical laboratory for further processing and examination. In the laboratory, the samples were dried in an oven at 105\u0026deg;C for 24 hours to remove moisture. Afterwards, they were placed in an electric furnace at 350\u0026deg;C for 48 hours to burn the plant remains. Subsequently, the samples were ground into a fine powder and made uniform by passing them through a 2 mm sieve to obtain a homogenous sample matrix. Approximately 1000 g portions of the samples were weighed using an electric balance and placed into 1-liter polyethylene cylindrical Marinelli beakers, sealed, and allowed to rest for 4 weeks before measurement. This resting period was necessary to achieve secular equilibrium, a condition in which the rate of decay of daughter products equals the rate of decay of the parent isotope for the U and Th series. Following the 4-week waiting period, the background radiation level was measured using an identically shaped empty sealed beaker to serve as a reference standard.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.1 Groundwater Samples Preparation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe sample preparation procedure followed in this study was designed to ensure the accuracy and reproducibility of results in liquid scintillation counting. All laboratory solutions were prepared using analytical-grade chemicals and double-distilled water. The solutions were filtered through 0.45 \u0026micro;m membrane filters and stored in 100 mL polyethylene bottles. Water samples were collected from wells ten minutes after the pumps were started to ensure representative sampling. Initially, each groundwater sample was shaken thoroughly, and a part of approximately 50 mL was filtered into a clean 100 mL conical flask following the method of Salonen (Salonen, L., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1989\u003c/span\u003e) and Sanchez Cabeza et al (Sanchez Cabeza et al., 1993). The sample was then placed on a hot-plate magnetic stirrer and heated gently at 60\u0026deg;C for 40 minutes to ensure complete removal of dissolved radon. After cooling to room temperature, 8 mL of the treated sample was transferred into a 20 mL polyethylene scintillation vial pre-filled with 12 mL of a general-purpose liquid scintillation cocktail. The vial was then vigorously shaken for about one minute to ensure homogeneity. It is essential to add the cocktail before the sample to avoid the formation of white precipitates, which are typically associated with high salt content in the water. The resulting mixture should appear clear. Control samples were also prepared and analyzed alongside the actual samples. The blank consisted of 12 mL cocktail mixed with 8 mL of distilled water, while the standard control sample contained the same proportions but was spiked with approximately 2 disintegrations per minute (dpm) of a pure alpha-emitting radionuclide (\u003csup\u003e241\u003c/sup\u003eAm) and 2 dpm of a pure beta-emitter (\u003csup\u003e40\u003c/sup\u003eK). The vials were then allowed to cool within the liquid scintillation counter chamber for approximately 3 hours before measurement. The ultra-low-level liquid scintillation counter (LSC) operated in an alpha/beta separation mode, enabling discrimination between alpha and beta events through distinct energy windows. In cases where a white precipitate formed\u0026mdash;an indicator of high salt content\u0026mdash;the sample was refrigerated for approximately 10 minutes to allow the precipitate to dissolve. If the precipitate persisted, corrective steps were taken, including sample dilution (e.g., adjusting the ratio to 12 mL cocktail: 7 mL sample: 1 mL distilled water), altering the sample-to-cocktail ratio, or selecting an alternative cocktail compatible with high-salt matrices. For modifications involving ratio adjustments or cocktail replacement, it was necessary to prepare new control samples with the same composition to maintain analytical reliability. It is also important to note that prepared standard samples were stored under refrigeration and remained viable for up to three months. Storage helps to minimize cocktail degradation, which may otherwise result in color changes and quenching effects that could compromise counting efficiency.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3. Radiological Characterization of Soil Samples\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA comprehensive radiochemical analysis was conducted on 20 environmental samples to determine the activity concentrations of naturally occurring radionuclides, primarily from the uranium and thorium decay chains. The analysis was performed using a High-Purity Germanium (HPGe) gamma-ray spectrometry, which offers high-resolution detection of gamma-emitting radionuclides and is widely regarded as a standard method for environmental radioactivity studies. Activity concentrations were measured for specific gamma-ray energies corresponding to key radionuclides, including \u003csup\u003e214\u003c/sup\u003ePb, \u003csup\u003e214\u003c/sup\u003eBi, \u003csup\u003e212\u003c/sup\u003ePb, \u003csup\u003e228\u003c/sup\u003eAc, \u003csup\u003e208\u003c/sup\u003eTl, \u003csup\u003e212\u003c/sup\u003eBi, and \u003csup\u003e40\u003c/sup\u003eK. The activity levels were quantified in becquerels per kilogram (Bq/kg), alongside their respective uncertainties (σ), providing a robust dataset for both statistical evaluation and radiological risk assessment. An HPGe detector system was used to quantify the activity levels of the naturally occurring radionuclides \u003csup\u003e238\u003c/sup\u003eU (\u003csup\u003e226\u003c/sup\u003eRa), \u003csup\u003e232\u003c/sup\u003eTh, and \u003csup\u003e40\u003c/sup\u003eK present in the collected samples. The detection device consisted of a CANBERRA GC4018 model detector characterized by a relative efficiency of 40% and an energy resolution of 1.8 keV (FWHM) at the 1.33 MeV gamma-ray emission from \u003csup\u003e60\u003c/sup\u003eCo, integrated with a computer-controlled multi-channel analyzer (MCA) for data acquisition and processing. The measurement and analytical work were performed at the KAU-CTRP lab. All samples were analyzed for a duration of 86,400 seconds using consistent measurement parameters and geometry. The detector was calibrated for both energy and detection efficiency using reference sources with known gamma-ray energies, specifically \u003csup\u003e60\u003c/sup\u003eCo, \u003csup\u003e152\u003c/sup\u003eEu, \u003csup\u003e137\u003c/sup\u003eCs, and \u003csup\u003e241\u003c/sup\u003eAm. The LabSOCS software was utilized to determine the efficiency calibration. Reference materials certified by the IAEA (IAEA-RGU-1, IAEA-RGTh-1, and IAEA-RGK-1) served as standards for validating the activity measurements and ensuring quality assurance. Operating under the assumption of secular equilibrium, the activity concentrations of \u003csup\u003e238\u003c/sup\u003eU, \u003csup\u003e232\u003c/sup\u003eTh, and \u003csup\u003e40\u003c/sup\u003eK were indirectly determined by analyzing gamma-ray emissions from their respective decay products. For \u003csup\u003e238\u003c/sup\u003eU quantification, gamma-ray lines from \u003csup\u003e214\u003c/sup\u003ePb at 295.224 keV (19.32%) and 351.932 keV (37.64%), and from \u003csup\u003e214\u003c/sup\u003eBi at 609.312 keV (46.15%), 1120.287 keV (15.12%), and 1764.494 keV (15.42%) were employed. For \u003csup\u003e232\u003c/sup\u003eTh measurement, gamma-ray lines from \u003csup\u003e212\u003c/sup\u003ePb at 238.632 keV (43.34%), from \u003csup\u003e228\u003c/sup\u003eAc at 338.32 keV (11.27%) and 911.204 keV (25.84%), from \u003csup\u003e208\u003c/sup\u003eTl at 583.191 keV (30.50%), and from \u003csup\u003e212\u003c/sup\u003ePb at 238.632 keV (43.34%) were utilized. The activity concentration of 238U was calculated using the decay product \u003csup\u003e234m\u003c/sup\u003ePa at its characteristic gamma-ray energy of 1001.03 keV (0.842%). The \u003csup\u003e40\u003c/sup\u003eK activity concentration was obtained directly from its single gamma-ray emission at 1460.8 keV (11.00%). Background radiation levels detected in the vicinity of the detector were measured separately and subsequently subtracted from the sample spectra to obtain net activity values.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4. Radiological Characterization of Groundwater Samples\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study presents an assessment of the radiological quality of groundwater samples collected from an unspecified region, focusing on gross alpha and gross beta activity concentrations measured in units of becquerels per liter (Bq/L). A total of 20 samples were analyzed using a liquid scintillation counter (LSC), a highly sensitive technique suitable for low-level radioactivity measurements in aqueous samples. The results were subsequently evaluated against international standards to determine potential health implications for populations consuming this water. The measurement of gross alpha and gross beta particle activities in water serves as a fundamental radiological screening tool. This approach provides a cost-effective and time-efficient means of assessing the overall radiological quality of water, offering sufficient information on the potential presence of long-lived alpha- and beta-emitting radionuclides. High-throughput screening enables faster decision-making, allowing for timely corrective actions or the determination that no further analysis is needed. Only when these screening results exceed regulatory thresholds is it necessary to proceed with more sophisticated and isotope-specific analytical methods, which are typically more resource-intensive. Notably, the gross alpha activity is often of greater concern than gross beta activity in the context of natural radioactivity, as elevated alpha levels may indicate the presence of uranium (U), thorium (Th), radium (Ra), radon (Rn), and their decay products\u0026mdash;elements of significant environmental and health relevance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results and Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1 Health Risk Assessment of Soil Samples\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmong all measured radionuclides, \u003csup\u003e40\u003c/sup\u003eK displayed the highest average activity concentration as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, reaching a mean of 221.07 Bq/kg. Sample 1 exhibited the peak \u003csup\u003e40\u003c/sup\u003eK activity (306.82 Bq/kg), whereas Sample 3 presented the lowest (64.57 Bq/kg). Despite these differences, the uncertainty associated with \u003csup\u003e40\u003c/sup\u003eK measurements was consistently low (σ\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;2), indicating high precision and reliability. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e demonstrates the Uranium- 238 and the Thorium-232 series specific activities (Bq/Kg) along with their uncertainties (σ). Uranium-238 series isotopes, particularly \u003csup\u003e214\u003c/sup\u003ePb and \u003csup\u003e214\u003c/sup\u003eBi, demonstrated stable and consistent activity concentrations across all samples, with mean values ranging from 9.13 to 10.63 Bq/kg. The Thorium-232 series displayed a similar level of consistency, even though with slightly more variability. Particularly, \u003csup\u003e212\u003c/sup\u003eBi exhibited the highest average activity within the thorium group at 10.86 Bq/kg, with Sample 16 showing elevated concentrations across nearly all thorium decay products, suggesting localized thorium enrichment. From a statistical perspective, the data exhibited clear heterogeneity from sample to sample. Sample 16 consistently emerged as an outlier, featuring the highest measured activities for both Uranium and Thorium series isotopes, as well as elevated levels of \u003csup\u003e40\u003c/sup\u003eK. Conversely, Sample 20 registered the lowest activity concentrations across multiple radionuclides, highlighting variability in the geological or environmental sources of the materials.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhen compared against international levels, the measured concentrations of natural radionuclides were all found to fall within globally observed ranges, as shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. The Uranium and Thorium series activities were consistent with typical background levels found in various soil types, and substantially below the worldwide average of 35 for Uranium and 30 for Thorium (Bq/kg). Potassium-40 activity, though lower than the global average of 400 Bq/kg, remained within expected variability. The health risk assessment based on these findings confirms the absence of significant hazards.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eComparison of natural radionuclides of different samples from different countries of the world.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCountry\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSamples\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e238\u003c/sup\u003eU (Bq kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e232\u003c/sup\u003eTh (Bq kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e40\u003c/sup\u003eK (Bq kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReference\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGhana\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedicinal plant\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e56.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e839.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(S. Salmani-Ghabeshi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpain\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e615\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(H. Al-Sulaiti, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eQatar\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil \u0026amp; building materials\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.22\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.38\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e169\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(El-Sayed, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNigeria\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRock\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.6\u0026ndash;129\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.5\u0026ndash;15,023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e64.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.3\u0026ndash;882\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;298\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(L. Tettey-larbi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEgypt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGranitic rock\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.26\u0026ndash;336.70\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.12\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;64.43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e160.22\u0026ndash;774.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(D. Ayalew et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEthiopia\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.97\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e56.38\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e716.59\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;68.43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(A.K. Hailu Geremew et al., 2019)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEthiopia\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFlouri culture soil\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e142.29\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;27.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.82\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e259.62\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;44.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(R. Ravisankar et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndia\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFlooring materials\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42.82\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e560.69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(R. 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Karataşlı et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIraq\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e289.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(W. Arafa et al., 2004)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTurkey\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e370.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(U. Cevik et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTurkey\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e167\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e404\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Z. Hamzah et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMalaysia\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3798\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;419\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12,896\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1533\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2521\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;298\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(E. Svoukis et al., 2007)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCyprus\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil \u0026amp; rock\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e153\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(UNSCEAR, 2002)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNigeria\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e47.06\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;14.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75.97\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;9.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e216.02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;62.37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(M.A. Akpanowo et at., 2019)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEthiopia\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGemstones/rock\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29.84\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e68.44\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;18.94\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e390.87\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Mekuanint L. et al., 2023)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis Study\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.92\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.80\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e221.07\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWorld Average\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(E.O. Joshua et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2 Health Risk Assessment of Groundwater Samples\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e represents the gross alpha and gross beta for the 20 groundwater samples. Gross alpha activity in the analyzed samples ranged from a minimum of 0.01 Bq/L to a maximum of 1.15 Bq/L, with an average value of 0.27 Bq/L. For gross beta activity, values ranged from 0.01 Bq/L to 1.61 Bq/L, with an average of 0.44 Bq/L. Standard uncertainties for gross alpha ranged between \u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.13 and \u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.18 Bq/L, while for gross beta, they were relatively uniform, around \u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.56 to \u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.60 Bq/L. The highest gross alpha concentration was observed in Sample 9, while the highest gross beta activity was found in Sample 1. Several samples, including Samples 3, 6, 9, 11, 12, and 16, exhibited gross alpha concentrations above regulatory limits. Similarly, elevated gross beta activities were noted in Samples 1, 11, and 12.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGross alpha and gross beta activity concentrations for the 20 groundwater samples.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample ID\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGross α\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGross β\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBq / L\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eσ\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBq / L\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eσ\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample 1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample 2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample 3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample 5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample 7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample 8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample 9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample 10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample 11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample 12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample 13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample 14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample 15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample 16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample 17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample 18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample 19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample 20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample 21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample 22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMaximum\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMinimum\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAverage\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo evaluate the safety of the water for human consumption, the results were compared to international standards set by various agencies. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends maximum screening levels of 0.5 Bq/L for gross alpha and 1.0 Bq/L for gross beta in drinking water (World Health Organization, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). According to these guidelines, only Sample 9 exceeded the gross alpha limit, and only Sample 1 exceeded the gross beta limit. From a radiological health risk perspective, exceedance of these guideline values implies potential long-term health risks, particularly through internal exposure via ingestion. Chronic intake of water with elevated alpha or beta activity can lead to increased risks of carcinogenesis and organ-specific damage. Alpha-emitting radionuclides such as Uranium and Radium are of particular concern due to their high ionizing potential when deposited in human tissues. Although the data do not suggest an immediate public health emergency, continued consumption of water from the affected sources without treatment may lead to cumulative radiological health effects over time, especially among vulnerable populations such as infants and pregnant women.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3 Field Measurements of Natural Background Gamma Radiation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA SPIR-IDENT Mobile 2-liter version of NaI (Tl) 5 x 10 x 40 cm detector system (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e) was used to estimate the radiological survey conducted in the Hada Alsham area. The mission's objective was to assess ambient radiation levels through a series of manual acquisitions. The operational data comprised five primary events: one manual acquisition flagged as \"AL Tolerated\" and four separate background measurements. The survey's overarching radiological findings indicate a stable environment. The mission-wide data shows an average gamma dose rate of 0.054 \u0026micro;Sv/h, with a maximum of 0.062 \u0026micro;Sv/h. The average background (BKG) gamma dose rate was measured to be 0.055 \u0026micro;Sv/h. A significant identification occurred during Event 2, where spectral analysis confirmed the presence of Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material (NORM) from the Th-232 decay series with a high confidence level of 9.0, as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEvent-specific analysis reveals consistent background measurements across four locations. The average gamma dose rates for these background events (Events 3, 4, 5, and 6) were 0.046 \u0026micro;Sv/h, 0.042 \u0026micro;Sv/h, 0.047 \u0026micro;Sv/h, and 0.040 \u0026micro;Sv/h, respectively, corroborating the stable baseline. The mission was conducted across various geographic coordinates within the area, with altitudes ranging from approximately 207 meters to 254 meters above mean sea level (AMSL). All manual acquisitions were performed from a stationary platform, as indicated by a ground speed (GS) of 0 km/h and a constant height of 2 meters above ground level (AGL). The collected data conclusively indicate that all measured radiation levels fall within the expected range of natural background variation. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e illustrates a blueish pathway of the driven car and the five locations where measurements were taken. The blueish color indicates the concentration of K-40, which is about 205 Bq/kg.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4 Statistical Analysis of Environmental Hazard Indices\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe calculated radiological hazard indices derived from measured activity concentrations of \u0026sup2;\u0026sup3;⁸U, \u0026sup2;\u0026sup3;\u0026sup2;Th, and ⁴⁰K provide an integrated perspective on potential environmental and public health impacts in the Hada Al-Sham area. Summary statistics for Absorbed Gamma Dose Rate (AGDR), Annual Effective Dose Rate (AEDR), Radium equivalent activity (Ra\u003csub\u003eeq\u003c/sub\u003e), external and internal hazard indices (H\u003csub\u003eex\u003c/sub\u003e and H\u003csub\u003ein\u003c/sub\u003e), gamma and alpha activity indices, and Excess Lifetime Cancer Risk (ELCR) are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStatistical Parameters of Environmental Hazard Indices\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndex\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMinimum\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMaximum\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePermissible Limit\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReference\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAGDR (nGy/h)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e145.23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e102.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(UNSCEAR, 2000)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAEDR (mSv/y)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.050\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.219\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.154\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(ICRP, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRa\u003csub\u003eeq\u003c/sub\u003e (Bq/kg)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.76\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e64.42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40.96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e370\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(OECD, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1979\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eH\u003csub\u003eex\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Beretka, J. et al., 1985)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eH\u003csub\u003ein\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Beretka, J. et al., 1985)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIγ\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u0026ndash;6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Fallatah, O.A. et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eELCR (\u0026times;10⁻\u0026sup3;)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.176\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.767\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.540\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(UNSCEAR, 2000)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIα\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Fallatah, O.A. et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverall, all hazard indices remain well below internationally recommended safety limits, confirming that the investigated soils do not pose a significant radiological hazard. AGDR values ranged from 33.33 to 145.23 nGy/h, with a mean of 102.20 nGy/h. Although the mean value slightly exceeds the global average reported by (UNSCEAR, 2000), this elevation reflects natural geological control, particularly the presence of uranium- and thorium-bearing granitic formations, rather than anthropogenic influence. Importantly, the corresponding AEDR values (mean: 0.154 mSv/y) remain far below the public exposure limit of 1 mSv/y recommended by the ICRP (ICRP, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e), indicating negligible radiological risk from external exposure. The calculated Raeq values (mean: 40.96 Bq/kg) are substantially lower than the recommended maximum limit of 370 Bq/kg, further confirming the radiological safety of the soil samples. Similarly, both external (Hex) and internal (Hin) hazard indices are significantly below unity, demonstrating that neither external gamma radiation nor internal exposure from radon progeny presents a meaningful hazard under current environmental conditions. Gamma and alpha activity indices also fall well within acceptable limits, reinforcing the conclusion that soil-related exposure pathways are not of radiological concern. The estimated ELCR values, while marginally higher than the global average in some locations, remain within acceptable safety margins and are best explained by spatial heterogeneity in natural radionuclide distribution associated with granitic lithology. Taken together, these results highlight clear spatial variability controlled by local geology, with slightly elevated indices occurring in areas influenced by granitic outcrops. However, these variations do not translate into significant radiological risk from soil exposure. When interpreted alongside groundwater results, the hazard indices confirm that external exposure from soil is secondary, whereas internal exposure via groundwater ingestion represents the dominant potential radiological pathway in the study area.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study provides the first comprehensive evaluation of naturally occurring radioactive materials in soil and groundwater in the Hada Al-Sham area of western Saudi Arabia, establishing a baseline dataset for a granitic, groundwater-dependent region. The results demonstrate that radiological hazards associated with soil are minimal, as activity concentrations of uranium- and thorium-series radionuclides and potassium-40 remain well below internationally recommended reference levels. Calculated radiological hazard indices, including absorbed gamma dose rate, annual effective dose rate, radium equivalent activity, and external and internal hazard indices, confirm that soil-related external exposure does not pose a significant radiological risk to the public. In contrast, groundwater was identified as the dominant potential radiological exposure pathway, with approximately one-third of the analyzed samples exceeding World Health Organization screening levels for gross alpha and/or gross beta activity. These exceedances indicate localized radiological concern related primarily to chronic ingestion rather than immediate health effects. Although the measured activities do not suggest an acute public health emergency, long-term consumption of untreated groundwater from affected sources may result in cumulative internal exposure, particularly among sensitive population groups. Field gamma-ray surveys further confirmed that ambient radiation levels across the study area fall within normal natural background variability, indicating that elevated exposure is not associated with external gamma radiation but is mainly linked to groundwater ingestion pathways controlled by local granitic geology. Overall, the findings highlight the importance of distinguishing between soil-related external exposure and groundwater-related internal exposure in granitic environments. The study highlights the importance of ongoing groundwater monitoring, targeted water treatment where necessary, and risk-informed public health communication. The methodological framework and results presented here provide a valuable reference for radiological assessments in arid regions where populations rely heavily on groundwater and may be exposed to naturally occurring radiation.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eEthical Approval:\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis declaration is \u0026ldquo;not applicable\u0026rdquo;.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFunding:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis Project was funded by the Deanship of Scientific Research (DSR) at King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, under grant no. (IPP: 1125-135-2025). The authors therefore acknowledge with thanks DSR for its technical and financial support.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;All authors have read, understood, and complied as applicable with the statement on \"Ethical responsibilities of Authors\" as found in the Instructions for Authors.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eNatto H. and Fallath O. wrote the main manuscript.Alsulimani E. and Hafiz L. collected the samples and did the field radiation measurements.Qutub M. analyzed the samples.Tayeb M. reviewed the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis Project was funded by the Deanship of Scientific Research (DSR) at King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, under grant no. (IPP: 1125-135-2025). The authors, therefore, acknowledge with thanks DSR for technical and financial support.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAYALEW, D., B. SITOTAW, E. MENGISTU, (2019), Evaluation of dose rate and hazard from background radiation of Dire Dawa city, Ethiopia, Romanian J. Biophys., 30(1), 23\u0026ndash;32.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBeretka, J., \u0026amp; Mathew, P. J., (1985), Natural radioactivity of Australian building materials, industrial wastes, and by-products. Health Physics, 48(1), 87\u0026ndash;95.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eE. Svoukis, H. 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She, (2008), Surface Radiation Dose and Radionuclide Measurement in Ex-Tin Mining Area, Kg Gajah, Perak, The Malaysian Journal of Analytical Sciences, Vol. 12, No. 2, pp. 419\u0026ndash;431.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Natural Radioactivity, Uranium and Thorium series, NORM, HPGe Detector, Radiological Risk assessment, Liquid Scintillation Counter (LSC)","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8855669/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8855669/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study presents a comprehensive radiological assessment of the Hada Al-Sham region in western Saudi Arabia, an area characterized by Uranium and Thorium-bearing granitic formations that may influence radionuclide distribution in groundwater. We systematically evaluated naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM) in 20 environmental soil and groundwater samples using a High-Purity Germanium (HPGe) detector and ultra-low-level Liquid Scintillation Counter (LSC). Field measurements were conducted to establish background radiation dose rates across the region. Our results revealed that soil samples maintained activity concentrations substantially below international safety thresholds, with mean values of 221.07 Bq/kg for \u003csup\u003e40\u003c/sup\u003eK and 9\u0026ndash;11 Bq/kg for Uranium and Thorium series progeny. However, several groundwater samples exceeded regulatory limits for gross alpha (up to 1.15 Bq/L) and gross beta (up to 1.61 Bq/L) activities, indicating potential health risks from chronic exposure through drinking water ingestion. Field gamma measurements confirmed typical background radiation levels of 0.054 \u0026micro;Sv/h for granitic terrains. These findings underscore the importance of routine radiological monitoring in geologically susceptible, groundwater-dependent communities to support evidence-based public health protection strategies aligned with IAEA and WHO guidelines.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Radiological Characterization of Soil and Groundwater in a Granitic Terrain of Western Saudi Arabia: Implications for Drinking-Water Safety","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-04-13 10:12:11","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8855669/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"709a3a14-f4d0-4c80-bda2-7e66deeab0a9","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 13th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-04-29T18:23:35+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-04-13 10:12:11","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8855669","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8855669","identity":"rs-8855669","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}