Colour, Culture and Cognition: Rethinking the Role of Physical Environments in Child Development

Classroom colour schemes play a subtle but important role in shaping students' cognitive, emotional, and social functioning. While often overlooked in educational design, colour influences attention, mood regulation, environmental perception, and interpersonal communication. Drawing on organisational culture theory, I examine how classroom aesthetics---particularly colour---can serve as a tool for supporting students' mental well-being, and learning outcomes. I review experimental studies linking specific colour schemes to changes in children's emotional responses, cognitive performance, and classroom behaviour. I also highlight cross-cultural gaps in the existing research and propose future directions for theory and school design practices. Colour, Culture and Cognition: Rethinking the Role of Physical Environments in Child Development

Classroom colour schemes play a subtle but important role in shaping students’ cognitive, emotional, and social functioning. While often overlooked in educational design, colour influences attention, mood regulation, environmental perception, and interpersonal communication. Drawing on organisational culture theory, I examine how classroom aesthetics—particularly colour—can serve as a tool for supporting students’ mental well-being, and learning outcomes. I review experimental studies linking specific colour schemes to changes in children’s emotional responses, cognitive performance, and classroom behaviour. I also highlight cross-cultural gaps in the existing research and propose future directions for theory and school design practices.

classroom design, colour schemes, educational environments, organisational culture, student development Theoretical Framework: Organisational culture & design The physical space of an educational institution can be considered one of the physical symbols of a school’s organisational culture. This means that the conscious choice and arrangement of the school’s physical space, including the use of appropriate colours, is one way of shaping organisational culture. In the oldest definition of organisational culture, Elliot Jacques pointed out that it is a way of thinking and acting that employees must learn and accept if they themselves want to be accepted as members of the organisation [Sikorski, 2002]. In the educational context, researchers point out that an important element of school culture are the patterns and values transmitted during teaching, common rituals (both class and school) and the way the school space is arranged [Stolp & Smith 1955]. Terrence E. Deal and Kent D. Peterson [1990] emphasise that school culture can be observed immediately upon entering the building, as it is reflected not only in the way people communicate, but also in the arrangement of the physical space, which displays the values and norms adopted in the school and shows important personal symbols (these are people, patrons, students, teachers who are held up as role models [Sikorski, 2002]) and behavioural (these are upheld traditions and rituals, in other words, the way people behave in an organisation – what a typical working day looks like, how people communicate, how they make decisions [Kinal, 2022]. In educational institutions, behavioural symbols include the way a teacher conducts classes or the way a headteacher conducts meetings, as well as customs, holidays and ceremonies that are celebrated and considered important). Edgar H. Schein [2009] distinguishes three levels in organisational culture: the level of cultural assumptions, the level of norms and values. As Aniszewska [2007] notes, through symbols: spatial architecture, logos, communication methods, and behaviours: traditions, customs and ceremonies, the organisation ”visualises its organisational culture” [Aniszewska, 2007, p. 15]. Therefore, it is important to look at educational architecture not only from the perspective of learning effectiveness and the mental health of students and teachers, but also from the perspective of the responsible and conscious management of this space by teachers and headteachers. The approach to shaping educational space from the perspective of developing a specific type of organisational culture assumes achieving a certain architectural coherence and brings about intended changes in the area of communication and interpersonal relations. The literature on the subject distinguishes a number of typologies of organisational cultures: Harrison & Handy, Deal & Kennedy, Cameron & Quinn, La Tefy Schoen & Teddlie. There is a research gap concerning how the arrangement of space affects interpersonal relationships, communication, psychological well-being and the building of formal structures – elements of organisational culture. Educational environments – why it matters Kocki et al. [2015] point out that the physical space of a school should change along with economic, social, cultural and technological changes. It can be concluded that the physical space of an educational institution should be adapted to the educational paradigm presented in legal acts on education or in the statutes of a given school. Kocki et al. note that the physical space of a school is a subject that has been largely unexplored and considered less important than issues related to teaching and upbringing, while the impact of the environment on the individual (their social, emotional and cognitive functioning) has been proven and studied by social psychologists [Kocki et al., 2015]. W. Kocki et al. state that ”modernly designed schools can contribute significantly to improving the quality of education and achieving its goals and objectives. These issues do not only concern teaching and the educational process during lessons, but also include extracurricular activities at school, in particular issues related to the proper use of children’s and young people’s free time” [Kocki et al., 2015, p. 35]. Among the environmental factors influencing the effectiveness of student learning, the following are distinguished [Polak, 2016]: lighting, acoustics, air humidity and temperature, air quality and ventilation, colour, space management, the size of the school and classes and their numbers Polak [2016], writing about the arrangement of educational space, sums up: students are unlikely to feel motivated in schools that resemble prisons, with cramped classrooms and no space for comfort or privacy. Pacewicz [2016] states that the learning environment depends on three dimensions: social and cultural space, virtual and technological space, and physical and architectural space. She points out that physical space is the ”third teacher” [Pacewicz, 2016, p. 24], and its arrangement has a huge impact on the quality of learning and the well-being of students, but also of employees of educational institutions. C. Kenneth Tanner [2008] notes that many decision-makers in education: teachers, headteachers, parents, politicians, believe that the physical space of a school is of little importance to the educational process, and therefore even newly constructed buildings usually do not take into account adequate air circulation, colour schemes, meeting places for students or teachers and parents, or the adaptation of classrooms to the requirements of modern teaching. Empirical Evidence: Colour and emotional/cognitive functioning One of the elements of physical space that affects mental state and the quality of cognitive processes is colour – the colour of walls, benches, teaching aids, or the use of colour as a method to facilitate learning and information retention. Colour, as one of the elements of the educational space, can be perceived differently by individuals due to their reactivity. Research on colour in educational institutions focuses on the following issues: how warm and cool colours in a room affect the teaching process (including the colour of lighting), how the colour of the surface on which one works affects cognitive processes, and how the colour of teaching materials affects the memory process. Sun et al. [2024] conducted a study to analyse the impact of warm and cool colours on students’ emotional attitudes. The study involved primary school students in grades 3-6 in north-western China and used the Positive and Negative Affect Scale for Children (PANAS-C). The researchers pointed out that mental health problems appear as early as primary school, and therefore the environment in which children spend about 5-6 hours a day should be examined and cared for. They assumed that the physical environment affects cognitive and neurophysiological processes, and that positive or negative emotions associated with colour stimuli affect students’ well-being and can minimise social stress. G. H. Taylor [1924] notes that colour in a space regulates its atmosphere and influences decision-making and behaviour. The study was conducted in two identical rooms that differed in the colour of the walls and desktops – one room had light blue walls and blue desktops (the ”cool” classroom) and the other had yellow walls and orange desktops (the ”warm” classroom). The researchers concluded that both warm and cool classrooms affect students’ emotions, stimulating positive emotions much more often than negative ones. In classrooms with warm and cool colours, the most common positive emotion was lively – full of vivid, clear emotions. In classrooms with cool colours, the highest-scoring negative emotion was gloomy, while in classrooms with warm colours , the highest-scoring negative emotion was nervous. Sun et al. [2024] conclude that classrooms with cool colours are conducive to calming both positive and negative emotions (the average values of positive and negative emotions were higher in classrooms with warm colours). In addition, in classrooms with cool colours, students felt calm more often and reported negative emotions such as anger or shame less often, while in classrooms with warm colours, students reported emotions such as mad and nervous more often. Based on the presented study, it can be concluded that students who have problems with maintaining calm and quiet and who are overly active during lessons would be better suited to classrooms with cool colours. The study showed a correlation between the intensity of negative and positive emotions and age and gender. However, the study is not representative and is limited to the study group; it did not include a control group that would have completed the test in rooms with white walls. Sun et al. [2024] propose that the study be repeated and expanded. Fazila Duyan and Rengin Ünver [2016] conducted a study to determine whether the colour of classroom walls affects students’ attention. The study was conducted in a private and public primary school in Istanbul among students aged 8-9 from different socio-cultural backgrounds. A total of 78 students were surveyed. The level of attention was analysed in red, green, purple, blue and yellow classrooms. The space was cleared of teaching aids (maps, charts) and notice boards, the ceilings were painted white and the remaining elements (floor, cupboards) were painted dark grey. The Bourdon Attention Test was used in the study – the students’ task was to find the letters ”b, d, g, and p” among 440 letters in 2 minutes. The experiment lasted 5 weeks – each week the students spent in a different classroom. Analysing the results of the experiment, Duyan and Ünver [2016] found that students from both schools achieved the best results in attention tests in classrooms with purple walls, followed by blue, green, yellow and finally red. Furthermore, the results for purple, green and blue were similar, which allowed the authors of the study to conclude that cool wall colours affect students’ attention at the same level. It was also found that private school students achieved higher results in every classroom than public school students and that there was no correlation between student attention, wall colour and socio-cultural status. Similar research was conducted by Ogita and Pothong [2021], who attempted to answer the question of whether wall colour affects students’ attention levels. In line with K. Grube’s thesis [2013], they assumed that creating a safe and comfortable learning environment is a prerequisite for generating concentration. When designing their study, the authors wanted to repeat the study proposed by Duyan and Ünver [2016], changing the number of colours tested and the age of the students. The study was conducted on 34 students attending the eighth grade of an international school (aged 13-14) in Thailand. During the experiment, the students attended classes in classrooms with purple, red and green walls (tables, chairs, ceilings, floors and curtains were kept in neutral colours) (Fig. 1). A pre-test and post-test were conducted using the Bourdon Attention Test. Fig. 1. Control class, in purple, red and green Source: Reprinted from: Ogita & Pothong, 2021, pp. 4-5. The study showed a correlation between students’ attention and the colour of the walls. According to the researchers, red has the strongest effect on students’ attention, which means that students in the red room achieved the highest increase in attention test results. Slightly lower (by 1.5%) results were achieved by students learning in green rooms. The difference between the pre-tests and post-tests indicates that the longer the students stayed in classrooms with coloured walls, the better their attention span became. The study was conducted on a small research group and the students were selected in a biased manner (voluntary response sample). In 2022, F. Duyan and F. Ünver conducted another study to determine how the colour of classroom walls affects students’ behaviour, attention and emotions. The experiment involved 35 students aged 8-9. The classrooms were painted in the following colours: red, orange, yellow, green-yellow, green, blue-green, blue, purple-blue, purple, red-purple, white and grey (Fig. 2). Fig. 2. Overview of classrooms differentiated by wall colours: 1st row: red, orange, yellow; 2nd row: green-yellow, green, blue-green; 3rd row: blue, purple-blue; purple; 4th row: red-purple, grey, white. Note: Reprinted from: Duyan & Ünver, 2022, p. 633. Analysing the results, the researchers concluded that students’ attention increased when they took the Bourton attention test in classrooms with red-purple and yellow walls, while it decreased in classrooms with orange, red, blue and purple walls (Duyan & Ünver 2022), although in a 2015 study, purple was indicated by researchers as having a positive effect on students’ attention (Duyan & Ünver 2015). Duyan and Ünver also asked students what colour they preferred for their walls. The students’ favourite colour was green-yellow, followed by blue-green and orange, while the least favourite colour was grey. Interestingly, the researchers also asked teachers to assess the behavioural reactions of students in a classroom with a specific colour scheme (Table 1). Table 1. Behavioural reactions, emotional attitudes of students towards colours and level of concentration depending on the colour of the classroom | Red | It caused excessive nervousness, agitation and difficulty concentrating among students. As a result, the teacher had problems maintaining discipline in class. | 7/12 | Students’ results dropped by 2.35 (p<0.1) | | yellow | Students were energetic, cheerful and interested in the lesson. | 11/12 | Student results increased by 1.89 (p<0.1) | | green | It had a calming effect on the students, helping them to quickly transition from intense activity to focused work. The teacher noticed that the students easily adapted to the lesson and remained calm. | 5/12 | Student results improved by 1.84 (p>0.1) | | blue | It encouraged students to follow the rules and improved their response to comments and their efficiency in completing tasks. | 6/12 | Student results decreased by 2.58 (p<0.05) | | purple | It caused stagnation among students during independent learning, while at the same time encouraging frequent conversation. In a blue environment, engagement with the content of the lessons was moderate. | 4/12 | Student results dropped by 4.03 (p<0.05) | | orange | It stimulated students in a positive way – they were cheerful, cordial and more engaged in lessons. | 3/12 | Student performance dropped by 14.01 (p<0.01) | | Green-yellow | It increased students’ concentration, reduced the number of complaints and noise, and students appeared calm; however, some anxiety was observed in girls. | 1/12 | Student performance decreased by 0.49 (p>0.1) | | Blue-green | Caused chaos and noise in the classroom, increased the number of complaints and arguments, which the teacher found surprising. | 2/12 | Student performance increased by 1.23 (p>0.1) | | Purple-blue | Did not significantly affect student behaviour – classes proceeded normally, with no noticeable changes in either a positive or negative direction. | 10/12 | Student results increased by 0.16 (p>0.1) | | Red-purple | High concentration of students on the tasks at hand and no disruptions during independent work were observed. After the experimental study, the teacher indicated that of all the colours tested, red-purple had the most beneficial effect on the students’ behaviour and attention levels. | 9/12 | The students’ results increased by 3.39 (p0.1) | | White | The students behaved inconsistently – they were able to focus on independent learning, but even minor incidents could suddenly trigger uncontrollable behaviour. | 8/12 | Student performance declined by 0.72 (p>0.1) | Note: Adapted from: Duyan & Ünver, 2022, pp. 639-640. A study conducted by Al-Ayasha et al. analysed the impact of colour on the educational environment, focusing on the mood and performance of people aged 20–38. The experiment used shades of blue, yellow and red in high-value versions, differing in saturation (high and low). The results indicated that blue colours had a calming effect, while high-saturation colours had a clearly positive effect on performance. Analysing the students’ results in terms of their comprehension of the text, the researchers concluded that students performed better when surrounded by colours than in rooms with white walls [Al-Ayash et al., 2016]. Similar results were obtained by Kwallek et al. [1996], who found that office workers made more mistakes when working in rooms with light colours than in rooms with bright colours. Ravi Mehta and Rui Zhu [2009] sought to answer the question of which colour – red or blue – has a better effect on cognitive performance. The study (several experiments were designed) was conducted on a total of 600 participants aged 17 to 39. They showed that red helps in solving tasks that require precision, as it is a colour that motivates people to avoid mistakes and improves concentration. Blue, on the other hand, should be used when individuals are solving creative tasks, as it encourages creative risk-taking. These studies were repeated by Xia T. et al. [2016], who wanted to see how background colours – red, blue and grey – affect students’ cognitive abilities depending on the type of task – creative tasks and detail-oriented tasks – and the level of difficulty of the task – simple and difficult tasks. The experiments showed that a red background improved performance on simple tasks, while a blue background had a more positive effect on students when they had to solve difficult tasks. In addition, a blue background had a positive effect on students’ performance in both simple and difficult creative tasks, while red and grey backgrounds did not bring any benefits in the context of creative activities. D. Hooman et al. [2023] conducted a study on 180 children aged 6-7 to assess the relationship between students’ colour preferences and the influence of colours on children’s cognitive abilities. The study analysed the following colours: blue, green, yellow, red, purple, black, grey and white. In the first experiment, the children were asked to choose their preferred colour, and in the second experiment, they looked at pictures on a sheet of paper in a given colour and had 30 seconds to memorise the elements shown there. The results showed that boys preferred green, yellow and blue, while girls preferred blue, purple and red. The researchers did not reach a clear conclusion regarding the correlation between preferred colour and better memorisation of elements on that background (in the case of boys, the correlation appeared only with the colour red, while in girls it appeared with the colour grey). Regardless of their colour preferences, boys were better at remembering items on a yellow, blue and black background, while girls remembered more items on a green, blue and yellow background. The best colour for both sexes in terms of information retention is blue [Hooman, et al., 2023]. Table 2 presents a summary of the studies along with conclusions regarding the emotions felt by individuals in rooms with the indicated colours. Table 2. Colour and its impact on an individual’s well-being | J. W. von Goethe | 1840 | USA | Yellow, red-yellow, yellow-red | Revitalisation, increased ambition, warmth in those observed | | Blue, red-blue, blue-red | Anxiety, fear, coldness in those observed | ||| | K. Goldstein | 1942 | USA | Red and yellow walls | Stimulate action, increase energy | | Green and blue walls | Have a calming and stabilising effect | ||| | J.S. Nakshian | 1964 | USA | Red and orange walls | Causes excitement, disrupts activities requiring motor inhibition | | Green and blue walls | Have a relaxing effect | ||| | M. G. Frank, T. Gilovich | 1988 | USA | Blue and yellow (high brightness) – colour of clothing | Causes positive emotions | | Black and grey (low saturation) – clothing colour | Causes negative emotions | ||| | P.N. Hamid | 1989 | New Zealand | Pink | Increases physical energy and positive emotions in children | | Blue | Reduces physical energy and positive emotions in children | ||| | C. J. Boyatzis, R. Varghese | 1994 | USA | Bright colours (pink, blue, red) | Associated with positive emotions (e.g. happiness, excitement) | | Dark colours (brown, black, grey) | Associated with negative emotions (e.g. sadness, anger). | ||| | F.H. Mahnke | 1996 | USA | Cool colours (e.g. blue, green) | Create an atmosphere of calm and concentration | | A. S. Soldat, R. C. Sinclair, M. M. Mark | 1997 | Canada | Red, blue and white paper | Under conditions of low motivation, participants solving tasks on blue and white paper achieved better results than participants solving tasks on red paper. Under conditions of high motivation, no effects were observed. | | P. Barrett, Y. Zhang, J. Moffat, K. Kobbacy | 2013 | United Kingdom | Bright and intense colours, white walls | High-intensity and bright colours work better as accents or distinguishing features rather than as the main colour theme of a classroom. White walls with accents (such as a vivid or bright colour) provide the right level of stimulation for children. | | N. A. Jalil, R. Yunus, N. S. Said, M. I. Iqbal | 2015 | Thailand | Red walls | Increasing students’ attention | | M. Nael | 2019 | Philippines | Gold, yellow, pink, red, green | The most emotionally pleasant colours for children – the joy evoked by certain colours correlates with an increase in students’ learning outcomes. | Note: own study based on: Barrett et al., 2013; Boyatzis & Varghese, 1994; Frank & Gilovich, 1988; Goethe, 2019; Goldstein, 1942; Hamid, 1989; Jalil et al., 2015; Mahnke, 1996; Nael, 2019; Nakshian, 1964; Soldat et al., 1997. Implications for school design & policy Research shows that the colours used in school environments significantly influence students’ emotions, attention, and cognitive functioning. Warm colours like red, orange, and yellow tend to increase arousal and emotional intensity, which can be both motivating and distracting, depending on the context. In contrast, cool colours such as blue and green are consistently linked with reduced negative emotions and improved focus, especially during tasks that require precision. These findings have practical implications for school design and classroom policy: 1. Match colours to learning goals: Cool colours should be prioritised in classrooms where focus and calm are essential (e.g., exams, reading, individual tasks), while warmer tones may be used in spaces intended for group activities, creativity, or physical movement. 2. Adapt to student needs: When designing classrooms for young children or students with special educational needs, schools should consider individual emotional reactivity and sensory sensitivity. Flexible environments that allow for adjustments in lighting and colour (e.g., via panels or digital projections) may support better regulation. 3. Establish design guidelines: Ministries of education and local authorities should include basic colour-use principles in architectural and renovation standards. These can be based on empirical findings and regularly updated based on new cross-cultural and longitudinal research. When implemented thoughtfully, colour can become an affordable and effective tool for improving students’ learning conditions and psychological well-being. Gaps and Future Directions Despite growing interest in the impact of colour on educational outcomes, several important gaps remain. First, most existing studies come from North America, Asia, and Europe, with minimal representation from Africa or South America. This raises questions about the generalisability of findings across cultural and geographic contexts. Second, much of the research has been conducted in controlled laboratory settings or simplified classrooms stripped of typical visual stimuli (e.g., posters, furniture, toys). Real-world environments are more complex and dynamic, and their visual characteristics may interact with colour perception in ways that current studies do not capture. Third, sample sizes in many studies are small and socio-culturally homogenous, limiting the applicability of results. Most studies are also cross-sectional, making it difficult to assess the long-term effects of classroom colour on learning and well-being. Future research should focus on: 1. Longitudinal studies that examine sustained effects of classroom colour over time; 2. Inclusive samples, including young children and students with special educational needs; 3. Cross-cultural comparisons that explore how colour is perceived and experienced in different cultural contexts; 4. Real-world settings that reflect the sensory complexity of actual classrooms. An emerging area worth exploring is the use of adaptive lighting systems and dynamic colour environments – especially those enhanced by artificial intelligence—to support emotional regulation and cognitive performance in diverse student populations [Quiles-Rodríguez & Palau, 2024; Quiles-Rodríguez et al., 2025]. Literature: Al-Ayash, A., Kane, R. T., Smith, D., & Green-Armytage, P. (2016). The influence of colour on student emotion, heart rate, and performance in learning environments. Color Research & Application, 41( 2), 196–205. https://doi.org/10.1002/col.21949 Aniszewska, G. (2007). Organisational culture in management . Polish Economic Publishing House. 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Authors Metrics & Citations Metrics Article Usage 311views 107downloads Citations Download citation Mariola Kinal. Colour, Culture and Cognition: Rethinking the Role of Physical Environments in Child Development. Authorea. 05 September 2025. DOI: https://doi.org/10.22541/au.175710451.10365294/v1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.22541/au.175710451.10365294/v1 If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download. For more information or tips please see 'Downloading to a citation manager' in the Help menu.