Environmental Impact of Palm Cooking Oil: A Case Study in Sumatra, Indonesia

Environmental Impact of Palm Cooking Oil: A Case Study in Sumatra, Indonesia | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Environmental Impact of Palm Cooking Oil: A Case Study in Sumatra, Indonesia Irhan Febijanto, Delfi Fatina Soraya, Hermawan Febriansyah, Febrian Isharyadi, and 6 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6637300/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 20 Oct, 2025 Read the published version in Environmental Science and Pollution Research → Version 1 posted 6 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Over the past decade, there has been a notable increase in Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) studies on oil palm production worldwide, with a primary focus on the life cycle stages from oil palm plantation to Crude Palm Oil (CPO) production. However, a research gap remains in the downstream segment, from CPO to cooking oil production. This study addresses the gap by utilizing LCA to evaluate the environmental impacts using recent field data collected from selected sites in Sumatra. The study seeks to assess the environmental impacts based on the quality of palm cooking oil, and to compare these impacts with those of other vegetable cooking oils. The system boundary is defined as cradle to gate, comprising land preparation, plantation, CPO production and refinery of cooking oil. The results indicate that higher-quality palm cooking oil is associated with increased environmental impacts across several categories, including global warming, eutrophication, acidification, ozone layer depletion and marine ecotoxicity. Moreover, palm cooking oil with iodine value (IV) 56 which represents the quality level commonly consumed exhibits a lower carbon footprint compared to cooking oils derived from rapeseed, sunflower, soybean, peanut, canola, coconut and maize. These findings offer valuable insights for consumers, industries and policymakers to mitigate the environmental impact of vegetable cooking oil. palm oil production palm cooking oil iodine value environmental impact life cycle assessment Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Introduction Currently, edible oil is a very important component, especially used in food processing (Chen et al. 2021 ). Edible oil is generally used as a dressing on food or used for cooking and frying (Sayon-Orea et al. 2015 ; Pu et al. 2019 ). For the use as cooking oil or frying on food, edible oil act as heating medium. So, it will improve the taste, flavor, and even texture of the food (Katsuragi et al. 2019). Several types of cooking oils are commonly used is vegetable oil (Kumar et al. 2016 ; Aparicio et al. 2018 ; Ganesan et al. 2019 ), including palm oil, soybean oil, rapeseed oil, sunflower oil, and peanut oil. These five types of cooking oil are the cooking oils with the largest global production volume in the world (Schmidt 2015 ). Apart from that, there is also canola oil, maize oil and coconut oil which are used as cooking oil (Nawaz et al. 2019 ; Zhang et al. 2021 ; Phuah et al. 2022 ; Baig et al. 2022 ). Palm oil is the most widely used cooking oil in the world (Hansen et al. 2015 ; Jusman et al. 2021), and Indonesia is the largest palm oil producing country in the world (Isharyadi et al. 2021 ). Together with Malaysia, Indonesia contributed 85% of the world's oil production of around 72.3 million tons in 2020 (Murphy et al. 2021 ). Based on the data, Indonesia has become the center of attention and economic stability of the palm oil sector. The development of the area and production of Indonesian oil palm plantations from 2019 to 2023 shows an increasing trend every year, in 2023 estimated that the area of ​​oil palm plantations is 15.93 million hectares (BPS-Statistics Indonesia 2024 ). Riau Province is the largest palm oil-producing province with an area of 3.40 million hectares or 21.36 percent of the total area of ​​palm oil plantations in Indonesia (BPS-Statistics Indonesia 2024 ). Similarly, for the largest crude palm oil (CPO) production in 2023, Riau Province is also the largest, with a production of 9.22 million tons, or around 19.59 percent of Indonesia's total production (BPS-Statistics Indonesia 2024 ). The increase in the area and production of oil palm plantations is significantly driven by market demand for processed products from palm oil, both for domestic production and export needs (Khatiwada et al. 2021 ). One of the implications is the increase in palm cooking oil production due to increasing demand (Gheewala et al. 2022 ). In 2021, the consumption of palm cooking oil was 18,422 million tons; this amount increased compared to 2020, which was 17,349 million tons (Husna et al. 2023 ). The rising consumption of palm cooking oil is accompanied by the habit of frying among the people (Sayon-Orea et al. 2015 ) Palm oil is a plantation commodity that significantly contributes to economic activities especially for Indonesia (Purnomo et al. 2020 ). Despite its economic benefits, Indonesian palm oil has been the target of criticism both domestically and internationally (Choiruzzad 2019 ; Choiruzzad et al. 2021 ; Ahmad et al. 2021 ). Furthermore, palm oil product has also been criticized for its high emission releases and significant contribution to the greenhouse gas (GHG) problem (Mukherjee and Sovacool 2014 ; Oosterveer 2020 ; Jamaludin et al. 2024 ). Recognizing the advantages and disadvantages in the palm oil sector has encouraged and increased awareness of sustainability. Wiloso et al. ( 2019 ) stated that this awareness is mainly triggered by the competitiveness of sustainable products to fulfill market demand. Furthermore, government policies and other related regulations (e.g., roundtable on sustainable palm oil (RSPO), Indonesia sustainable palm oil (ISPO), sustainability reporting, etc.) also play a significant role in raising awareness. Throughout the life cycle of a product, the increasing production of palm cooking oil has the potential to affect the environment, starting from the stage of acquiring raw materials, the production process, and the use of the product. Assessment of potential environmental impacts for the development of innovation towards sustainability in the palm oil industry sector (from palm oil plantations to palm oil mills) needs to be carried out, especially to analyze the magnitude of environmental impacts in each process cycle throughout the product life cycle. Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a method that is trusted globally and widely acknowledged for assessing the environmental impact of products, technologies, and policies. Its effectiveness as a decision-making tool can be limited by various uncertainties within the calculations, as well as challenges in verifying, validating, or confirming the results due to technical, conceptual, legal, and other constraints (Sonnemann et al. 2018 ; Igos et al. 2019 ). LCA also is a holistic environmental impact calculation procedure that quantifies and evaluates all waste discharged into the environment and raw materials consumed throughout the life cycle (Sabeen et al. 2018 ), starting with the acquisition of raw materials from the earth through the production process to producing palm cooking oil to meet consumer demand. LCA can be used to ensure that all environmental impacts have been considered to decide on actions, calculate possible environmental impacts, compare process performance, and develop a database for further research (Hertwich et al. 1997 ; Hermann et al. 2007 ; De Benedetto and Klemeš 2009 ; Dong et al. 2018 ). The environmental impacts that can be calculated with LCA are very diverse; there are approximately 18 impacts called midpoint impacts (Rashedi and Khanam 2020 ; Ige et al. 2022 ). LCA can be used as a tool to support environmental improvement decision-making carried out by companies or governments (Dong et al. 2018 ). LCA is also a method in environmental analysis based on ISO 14040:2006 and ISO 14044:2006, which consists of activities such as (1) goal and scope definition, (2) life cycle inventory, (3) inventory analysis, and (4) impact assessment and interpretation (International Organization for Standardization 2006a ; International Organization for Standardization 2006b ). Several LCA studies have been conducted to identify the potential environmental impacts of palm cooking oil and compare it with various other types of cooking oils. Schmidt ( 2015 ) conducted a comparative life cycle assessment of palm oil, soybean oil, rapeseed oil, sunflower oil, and peanut oil. The research results show that soybean oil, palm oil, and peanut oil as the least good performing with respect to global warming. For land use, palm oil and soybean oil are the oils associated with the smallest contribution. Peanut oil, soybean, and palm oil have the largest contribution to water consumption. Prado et al. ( 2021 ) conducted a cradle-to-grave LCA of global soybean oil, U.S. canola oil, refined U.S. cottonseed oil (CSO), and palm oil for eight impact categories (global warming, abiotic depletion, eutrophication, acidification, photochemical oxidation, fine particulate matter, ozone layer depletion, and water scarcity). The research results show that refined CSO (U.S.) was a top performer in six of the eight impact categories evaluated. The high impacts of photochemical oxidation for palm oil and soybean oil were due to land use change impacts. For abiotic depletion and ozone layer depletion, palm oil and soybean oil have less than 40% of the impact of canola oil due to the use of fossil fuels in cultivation. Alcock et al. ( 2022 ) also conducted an analysis of life cycle input data from diverse palm, soybean, rapeseed, and sunflower oil production systems. The research results show that life cycle GHG emissions from the median palm oil production system are roughly equal to the across-crop median: 3.73 kg CO 2 eq per kg refined oil. The LCA studies that comprehensively examine the application of LCA from oil palm plantations to palm cooking oil production in Indonesia are still limited. The environmental performance evaluated in previous LCA studies on palm oil has primarily been restricted to parameters such as global warming potential (GWP) (Alcock et al. 2022 ), land use, and water consumption (Schmidt 2015 ). The study involved the re-analysis of life cycle input data from diverse palm oil production systems based on literature studies (Alcock et al. 2022 ). (Prado et al. 2021 ) conducted a cradle-to-grave LCA of palm oil with a more comprehensive evaluation of environmental performance, including global warming, abiotic depletion, eutrophication, acidification, photochemical oxidation, fine particulate matter, ozone layer depletion, and water scarcity. However, this study utilized refined palm oil comprising a mix of Indonesian (67%) and Malaysian (33%) palm oils. (Krisi et al. ( 2022 ) examined the potential environmental impacts of the palm cooking oil industry in Indonesia using the LCA method, but their assessment was limited to environmental performance indicators such as abiotic depletion, global warming, human toxicity, photochemical oxidation, acidification, and eutrophication. Moreover, the study was constrained by its system boundary, focusing on a gate-to-gate approach (from the crushing process to the production of cooking oil). Other studies have also indicated that LCA have not yet been conducted comprehensively but remain limited by a "cradle-to-gate" system boundary, covering processes from land preparation to palm oil mills (Andarani et al. 2018 ; Siregar et al. 2020 ; Faisal et al. 2021 ; Rinaldo et al. 2023 ). Based on this situation, it is necessary to conduct a LCA study that comprehensively examines the application from oil palm plantations to palm cooking oil production in Indonesia. Therefore, this research aims to (1) investigate the environmental impacts of palm cooking oil throughout its life cycle, including plantations, CPO production, refineries and cooking oil production and (2) analyse the environmental impacts associated with different qualities of cooking oil and compare these impacts to those of other vegetable cooking oil. So that it can provide information to consumers, industry, and policymakers regarding the environmental impacts of the palm cooking oil. Materials and methods Research Area This study was conducted to assess the potential environmental impacts caused by cooking oil products throughout their life cycle (cradle to gate), the scope of which starts from oil palm plantations, palm oil mills, to the refinery process where the final product of cooking oil is produced. The case study in this study was conducted in the Sumatra region, Indonesia. The plantation and palm oil mill stages were conducted in Lubuk Dalam, Riau, while the refinery location is in Sei Mangkei, North Sumatra. Plantation, mills and refinery operated by Perkebunan Nusantara (Fig. 1 ). Life cycle assessment This study uses the LCA method by ISO 14040:2006 and ISO 14044:2006 (International Organization for Standardization 2006a ; International Organization for Standardization 2006b ). LCA is a method used to evaluate various elements and potential environmental impacts throughout a product's life cycle, from raw material extraction manufacturing processes to disposal (Vieira et al. 2016 ). LCA involves identifying and quantifying material and energy flows, as well as wastes released to the environment, to assess environmental burdens and implement environmental improvement opportunities (Turner et al. 2016 ; Mannan and Al-Ghamdi 2021 ). The LCA framework, consists of 4 (four) stages. There are goal and scope definition, inventory analysis, impact assessment, and interpretation. LCA is a tool that can comprehensively consider the entire life cycle, and all environmental issues related to a product or service (Soraya et al. 2014 ). In addition, LCA is very useful in evaluating impacts during the manufacturing process and other phases of the product life cycle (Chang et al. 2014 ; Pacana et al. 2023 ) and has become a valuable tool for assessing the potential environmental impact of products, manufacturing processes, and related activities (Bergerson et al. 2020 ). With its ability to analyze a product holistically, LCA provides an objective approach that is essential to sustainability (Fauzi et al. 2019 ; Costa et al. 2019 ). This study used the software OpenLCA 2.2 to carry out the impact assessment and used the Ecoinvent database V3.8. Goal and scope definition The aim of this study is to identify potential environmental impacts from the production of palm cooking oil with three types of quality. The types of cooking oil quality in this case are based on the differences in iodine value (IV) in the palm cooking oil, which are divided into IV 56, IV 58, and IV 60. A higher IV value indicates a purer oil in the olein fraction, resulting in greater clarity. The potential environmental impacts of palm cooking oil production are investigated along the supply chain within the boundaries of the cradle to gate system. The system boundaries of this study start from oil palm plantations to the production of palm cooking oil products (Fig. 2 ). The boundary includes 3 (three) main process, there are (1) oil palm plantations which include the land preparation process, oil palm seedling production, oil palm seedling production, and planting, (2) palm oil mills which include the CPO production process and several supporting infrastructures such as electricity production, biogas production, water treatment plants, and steam production, and (3) refinery plants which include refined, bleached, and deodorized palm oil (RBDPO) production and fractionation processes to produce palm cooking oil. In this study, the functional unit used was 1 kg of palm cooking oil with three qualities produced, namely IV 56, IV, 58, and IV 60. This functional unit provided a guide for creating inventories of the environmental burdens in the examined supply chain and evaluating their associated impacts (Taelman et al. 2024 ). Functional units must be measurable, representing both qualitative and quantitative aspects of a product's intended function (Frigerio et al. 2023 ; André 2024 ; Konradsen et al. 2024 ). Primary data collection was conducted on state-owned companies engaged in oil palm plantations, palm oil mills, and refinery process in the context of palm cooking oil production located in Riau Province and North Sumatra Province. Primary data collection was conducted for 5 (five) months starting from November 2023 to March 2024. Life cycle inventory In this study, life cycle inventory (LCI) was obtained using primary and secondary data to calculate the environmental impact of palm cooking oil production. The primary data used is divided into 3 (three) main processes, namely oil palm plantation, palm oil mills, and the refinery process in the context of palm cooking oil production. The secondary data used are in the form of scientific journals related to this study. All inventory data obtained, the background data use Ecoinvent V3.8. In oil palm plantations, inventory data is input data in the form of fertilizer, water, pesticide, and other materials used in the land preparation, nursery, and planting stages of oil palm along with the output produced throughout the life cycle of oil palm plants for 27 years. The data is obtained from the use of input and output produced in 2019 to 2023 in each planting year available on the observed oil palm plantations, the data is used as input requirements for each year of oil palm plants starting from planting year 1 to 27 years. In palm oil mills, inventory data is input data in the form of the use of palm fruit, electricity, water, and other materials used in the CPO production process along with the output produced in the form of products, waste and emissions produced in 2023. Meanwhile, in the refinery process to produce palm cooking oil, inventory data is input data in the form of the use of CPO, electricity, water, and other materials used in the palm cooking oil production process along with the output produced in the form of products, waste and emissions produced in 2023. This study uses 2 (two) assumptions, including (1) all oil palm fruit used in CPO production comes from 1 (one) company-owned plantation which is usually referred to as the core plantation, (2) palm cooking oil production in its supply chain uses all CPO from the CPO producing company being observed. Life cycle impact assessment Life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) was conducted based on the LCI obtained in the previous stage. Furthermore, the data was then analyzed using OpenLCA 2.2 software and using the CML-IA baseline method, to determine the impacts generated on several environmental quality indicators. This study calculated 5 (five) main impacts in palm cooking oil production, including global warming (GWP100a), acidification (AP), eutrophication (EP), marine aquatic ecotoxicity (MAEP), and ozone layer depletion (ODP). Limitation and assumption In this study, there are several limitations that can affect the results and interpretations. One of the main limitations is the limited data on smallholder plantation data, which is not recorded systematically and accurately. The available data only covers core plantations, so the analysis does not fully represent the condition of smallholder plantations. In the refinery unit data, the CPO supply is assumed to come from the palm oil mill from the same company plantation as the plantation location and the palm oil mill is located within a radius of 9.84 km. The processing of water materials to be processed into boiler feed water uses a dataset from ecoinvent database. Sensitivity and uncertainty analysis The production of palm cooking oil is continuously being refined to improve sustainability, with a strong focus on minimizing emissions. These advancements offer promising opportunities to mitigate environmental impacts by reducing the consumption of substances and resources that contribute to environmental degradation. A sensitivity analysis was conducted to assess changes in environmental impacts resulting from variations in input parameters, which are key contributors to these impacts. In LCA, sensitivity analysis is an essential method for evaluating the reliability and robustness of results by determining how fluctuations or uncertainties in input parameters influence the overall environmental impact assessment (Bahua et al. 2024 ). This technique helps identify the most influential factors affecting the results while distinguishing those with minimal impact. Sensitivity analysis serves as a valuable tool for decision-makers, guiding data collection, system boundary definition, and impact allocation. By applying this method, potential shifts in environmental impact can be anticipated when implementing modification strategies in the production process. Additionally, uncertainty analysis in LCA plays a crucial role in assessing and quantifying variations and risks related to environmental impacts. Monte Carlo analysis has been widely employed to evaluate uncertainties in LCA results by incorporating probability distributions of critical parameters (Heijungs 2020 ). In this study, uncertainty analysis was performed using Monte Carlo simulations in openLCA software, utilizing a range of input data for LCIA based on sensitivity parameters. This approach enabled a more targeted uncertainty analysis, focusing on the most influential variables to enhance the accuracy and relevance of the assessment. Results and discussion The quality of vegetable cooking oil This study discusses the environmental impacts associated with the production of palm cooking oil with 3 three) qualities, namely Iodine Value (IV) 56, 58, and 60, with limitations from land preparation (plantation) to palm cooking oil production. The difference in the quality of palm cooking oil is based on the length of the fractionation process time, where the fractionation process times for IV 56, 58, and 60 cooking oil are 8, 12, and 18 hours, respectively. Healthy living depends on the content of fatty acids. The quality of vegetable cooking oil is determined by the ratio of oleic acid to linoleic acid and the iodine value. In addition, the content of unsaturated fatty acids and the stability of cooking oil are determined using the iodine value. So, it can be said that the level of unsaturation of oil is defined as the iodine value (IV). The iodine value is an important indicator of the physical and chemical properties of oil. It is very important in the quality and application of vegetable oil in the food and oleochemical industries. Oils with higher IV are more susceptible to oxidation (Saad et al. 2008 ; Alireza et al. 2010 ) stated that the decrease in iodine value in oil after heating is due to more intensive thermo-oxidative transformation that occurs compared to foods containing heated oil. The decrease in iodine value can be associated with damage to double bonds due to oxidation, cutting, and polymerization. Based on the CODEX-STAN 210–1999 standard related to Fats and Oils from Vegetable Sources, different types of cooking oil have different IV values. The CODEX standard is considered an 'international standard' used as a guideline for food safety regulations, food quality, and nutrition, which is very important to protect consumer health, ensure food safety, and create trade opportunities (Wieck and Grant 2021 ). In the CODEX standard, the IV values ​​for several types of vegetable oils are as follows: coconut oil has an IV value of 6.3–10.6, palm oil has an IV value of 56, soybean oil has an IV value of 124–139, rapeseed oil has an IV value of 94–126, sunflower oil has an IV value of 78–141, peanut oil has an IV value of 86–107, corn oil has an IV value of 103–135, and cottonseed oil has an IV value of 100–123, and according to research conducted by (Tabasum et al. 2012 ; Roiaini et al. 2015 ; Khansili and Rattu 2017 )Canola oil has an IV value between 112–115. This study discusses the environmental impacts associated with the production of palm cooking oil with 3 (three) qualities, namely IV 56, 58, and 60, with limitations from land preparation (plantation) to palm cooking oil production. Life cycle inventory analysis Life cycle inventory (LCI) in this study consists of data obtained from 10 main process units according to the defined system boundaries. The process units to produce 1 kg of cooking oil consist of land preparation, palm seed production, palm nursery, palm plantation, crude palm oil mill, steam production, electricity production, water treatment, RBDPO production, and cooking oil production. Cooking oil final products are classified into 3 (three) grades, namely IV 56, IV 58, IV 60. In each process, there are several resources and energy required as well as products, co-products and waste produced, which are referred to as key life cycle inventory to produce 1 kg palm cooking oil (Table 1 ). Table 1 Key data for life cycle inventory of 1 kg palm cooking oil Key Data Unit Amount Land Preparation Stage Fertiliser, P kg/ha 71.5 Cover crop liter/ha 0.137 Diesel MJ/ha 4549.88 FAME kg/ha 60.2 Oil Palm Nursery Stage Fertiliser, N kg/seed 0.0376 Fertiliser, P kg/seed 0.0133 Fertiliser, Urea kg/seed 0.018 Polybag, Polyethylene kg/seed 0.0366 Water liter/seed 567 Oil Palm Plantation Stage Oil palm tree items/ha 136 FFB productivity per year kg/ha 21,236 Urea kg/ha 3481.72 NPK (15-15-15) kg/ha 40.05 Fertiliser, N kg/ha 866.25 Fertiliser, P kg/ha 513.39 Fertiliser, K kg/ha 1659.87 Dolomite kg/ha 1307.73 Rock phosphate kg/ha 3143.6 Magnesium oxide kg/ha 236.79 Potassium chloride kg/ha 3001.5 Sodium borates kg/ha 160.64 Triple superphosphate kg/ha 302.01 Diesel MJ/ha 22590.16 FAME kg/ha 298.89 Average distance plantation to mill Km 9.84 Palm Oil Mills Stage Crude palm oil extraction rate % 22.66 Methane content from biogas production % 59.78 Refinery and Fractionation Plant Stage RBDPO yield % 94.9 Natural gas m 3 /kg RBDPO 0.0245 Electricity kWh/kg RBDPO 0.0052 Bleaching earth kg/kg RBDPO 0.01 Phosphoric acid kg/kg RBDPO 0.0006 Average distance mill to refinery Km 25 Cooking oil yield (from RBDPO): IV 56 % 82 IV 58 % 74 IV 60 % 61 Throughout the cooking oil production process unit also obtains co-products. Co-products from the crude palm oil mill process unit are palm kernel nut, empty fruit bunch (EFB), EFB ash, palm kernel shell, solid decanter, and fly ash. Then, the co-product from the RBDPO production process unit is palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD). Finally, the co-product from the olein production process unit is stearin. All the data of LCI are primary data, which were collected from the oil palm plantation, palm oil mill, and the refinery company, except for oil palm seed. The data input of oil palm seeds is adopted from (Muhamad et al. 2014 ). The lifespan of oil palm is assessed from the immature phase, known as non-productive palm (NPP), to the mature, productive phase, referred to as productive palm (PP). The NPP phase lasts for approximately three years, while the PP phase extends for 24 years. The oil palm variety utilized in this study is the Marihat. The planting density is 136 trees per hectare, with a fresh fruit bunch (FFB) productivity of 21.24 tons per hectare. The primary fertilizers applied include urea (CO(NH₂)₂), a composite fertilizer containing nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium (NPK), dolomite (CaMg(CO₃)₂), rock phosphate (a natural phosphorus source), and potassium chloride (KCl). The plantation is established on mineral soils that have been in use for over 20 years, and therefore, the land-use impact is excluded from the environmental impact assessment, following the methodology of (Mattila et al. 2011 ; Perminova et al. 2016 ). Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, specifically carbon dioxide (CO₂), carbon monoxide (CO), methane (CH₄), and nitrous oxide (N₂O), are quantified based on the guidelines outlined by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Masson-Delmotte et al. 2021 ). The by-products of FFB processing at the palm oil mill include palm fibre and palm kernel shell, which are utilized as boiler fuel (Setiawan et al. 2024 ). The palm oil mill effluent (POME) which is stored in lagoon undergoes methane capture for biogas production, which is subsequently used as boiler fuel. Therefore, methane emissions from POME are not considered in the emission calculations. The steam produced by the boiler is utilized for the sterilization process of FFB and for electricity generation to fulfil the energy consumption of the palm oil mill. A portion of the by-products, including empty fruit bunches (EFB) and POME, is applied to oil palm plantations as organic fertilizer. In the production of cooking oil, CPO obtained from the palm oil mill undergoes a refining process to produce RBDPO using bleaching earth and phosphoric acid as processing aids. The RBDPO is then fractionated to separate the liquid fraction, which yields cooking oil, from the solid fraction, which forms stearin. The resulting cooking oil is categorized into 3 (three) IV variants: IV 56, IV 58, and IV 60. The primary distinction among these variants lies in the duration of the fractionation and filtration processes. Consequently, each IV variant exhibits differences in energy consumption (electricity) and cooking oil yield. Life cycle impact assessment Life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) assesses the environmental aspects and potential impacts of 1 kg palm cooking oil. The environmental quality indicators employed in this study are global warming potential (GWP100a), marine aquatic ecotoxicity (MAECT), ozone layer depletion potential (ODP), acidification potential (AP), and eutrophication potential (EP). The results of the LCIA in each iodine quality of 1 kg palm cooking oil can be seen in Fig. 3 . Figure 3 show that the production of 1 kg palm cooking oil for quality IV 60 has the highest potential impact for all five impact categories analyzed: GWP, MAECT, ODP, AP, and EP of 1.68 kg CO2 eq, 1.88E + 03 kg 1.4-DB eq, 1.16E-07 kg CFC-11 eq, 7.77E-03 kg SO2 eq, and 3.06E-03 kg PO4 eq, respectively. Cooking oil with quality IV 60 has a higher environmental impact than cooking oil with other qualities because it requires a longer process time during the fractionation process, which requires more energy from using electricity. The comparison of environmental impacts across different iodine values of palm cooking oil reveals a concerning trend: as the iodine value increases from IV 56 to IV 60, there is a corresponding increase in environmental impacts across all assessed indicators. While higher iodine values may be desirable for specific culinary applications, they come at an increased environmental cost. Global warming potential (GWP100a) Global warming is the process by which the Earth's surface temperature increases relative to the atmosphere, oceans, and land, making the Earth more arid. Global warming contributes to environmental degradation in equivalent units, or the mass of CO 2 gas released into the atmosphere (kg-CO 2 eq). Figure 4 shows that the oil palm cultivation process contributes the largest GWP impact on palm cooking oil production. The analysis reveals that the majority of GWP emissions arise from the plantation phase, which accounts for approximately 86.25% for IV 56, 85.84% for IV 58, and 85.46% for IV 60. These results indicate that the cultivation practices significantly contribute to greenhouse gas emissions in palm oil production. This finding is supported by previous research, which shows that the oil palm cultivation process is the stage that generates the largest GWP in the palm oil industry (Siregar et al. 2020 ; De Rosa et al. 2022 ). The palm oil industry can improve the efficiency of material and energy use to reduce the GWP impact, for example, by using more efficient fertilizers and reducing the number of pesticides used (Subramaniam et al. 2021 ; Tarigan et al. 2025 ). Other stages, like RBDPO production and land preparation, contribute far less, underscoring the need for sustainable agricultural practices in the plantation phase to mitigate climate impact. Marine aquatic ecotoxicity (MAECT) Marine aquatic ecotoxicity (MAECT), by definition, is the impact of toxic substances on marine ecosystems (Ozturk and Dincer 2020 ). MAECT is one of the categories of environmental impacts that the palm oil industry can generate. It refers to the potential damage to the marine environment due to using pesticides, fertilizers, and other chemicals in the agricultural and palm oil processing processes (Jampílek and Kráľová 2024 ). Figure 4 shows that the oil palm planting stage contributes the highest MAECT impact to palm cooking oil production, with 89.94%, 89.01%, and 88.18% for IV 56, IV 58, and IV 60, respectively. This impact highlights potential risks to aquatic ecosystems from runoff and pesticide use in palm oil plantations. Oil palm cultivation uses pesticides and fertilizers to control pests and increase production. This use can result in seawater pollution through the flow of water from the plantation to the sea, which can harm the marine ecosystem. The study by AbuQamar et al. ( 2024 ), which emphasizes the negative impacts of pesticide use in palm oil plantations on marine ecosystems, is consistent with this result. They found that the runoff from these plantations significantly impacts aquatic biodiversity, resulting in ecosystem degradation. Both results emphasize how urgently sustainable agriculture methods, such as integrated pest management, are needed to lessen chemical inputs and their negative ecological effects. Ozone Layer Depletion (ODP) Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP) relates to emissions of certain gases that can damage the stratospheric ozone layer. This ozone layer depletion leads to a significant fraction of UV-B solar radiation reaching the Earth's surface, potentially adversely impacting human health, animal health, terrestrial ecosystems, aquatic ecosystems, biochemical cycles, and materials. ODP in the palm oil industry is a relative measure of ozone layer degradation caused by a compound in each unit mass to CFC-11. CFC-11 is considered the most damaging to ozone, with a maximum ODP value. ODP is a substance that damages the ozone layer. The impact is that ultraviolet rays from the sun will directly radiate to the Earth, which can cause disease, the Earth's temperature increases, and there is no protection from objects from the sky that fall to the Earth (Abbasi and Abbasi 2017 ). In Fig. 4 , ozone depletion is also primarily driven by the plantation phase, contributing about 87.04% for IV 56, 86.93% for IV 58, and 86.82% for IV 60. Other processes, such as RBDPO production and land preparation, contribute significantly less. The study by (van den Oever et al. 2024 ) emphasizes how agricultural practices, including specific fertilizers and pesticides, contribute to ozone depletion, even though this influence is less commonly discussed. According to their results, there is a need for more studies and policy intervention in the palm oil sector since agricultural emissions may contribute to the depletion of the ozone layer. Acidification Acidifying pollution impacts soil, groundwater, surface water, biological organisms, ecosystems, and materials (Weldeslassie et al. 2018 ). The most critical acidifying pollutants are SO 2 , NOx, and NHx. Acidification in the palm oil industry occurs because of acid deposition due to the release of compounds such as N and sulfur oxides into the atmosphere in soil and water, leading to changes in soil and water acidity and causing various environmental impacts. This impact category is quantified by stoichiometric conversion to the mass of protons liberated (H + ) or the equivalent mass of sulfur dioxide (SO 2− ). Figure 4 shows that the oil palm cultivation stage has the highest acidification impact on palm cooking oil production. The highest contribution to the impact of acidification is using fertilizers and other agricultural inputs that release components that can change the environment's acidity. Several studies have explored the relationship between agricultural practices and acidification, providing valuable insights into the mechanisms and consequences of acid emissions. The use of nitrogen fertilizers in agriculture is a major contributor to acidification (Spinelli et al. 2013 ). They discovered that sustainable farming methods, including well-applied fertilizer, might reduce acid emissions. This finding is consistent with research on palm oil production, which shows that overuse of fertilizers can exacerbate acidity. (Ashitha et al. 2021 ) reported how agricultural runoff affects water quality. They found that fertilizers can cause nutrient overloads in aquatic systems, which can cause acidification and eutrophication. Their findings highlight the necessity of efficient land management techniques to lessen these effects, especially pertinent to the palm oil sector, since plantation runoff can exacerbate environmental deterioration. Using pesticides and fertilizers contributes significantly to global acidification. To lower the emissions, (Balafoutis et al. 2017 ) promoted using ecologically friendly farming methods. This suggestion relates to the palm oil industry, where environmentally friendly methods may lessen the consequences of acidification. Eutrophication Eutrophication includes all potential impacts of excessive environmental macro-nutrients, such as nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) (Khan et al. 2014 ). Excessive nutrients can lead to undesirable species composition exchanges and increased biomass production in aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. Eutrophication in the palm oil industry is increasing excessive levels of minerals and nutrients in waters caused by using fertilizers containing high levels of nitrogen and phosphorus in oil palm plantations. Oil palm plantations require the use of fertilizers containing high levels of nitrogen and phosphorus to increase production. When these elements are washed off the plants by rainfall or irrigation, they can enter nearby waterways and cause eutrophication. Eutrophication negatively impacts water quality and the ecosystem within the water body. Excessive nutrient increases can lead to harmful algal blooms, which can deplete oxygen levels in the water and harm fish and other aquatic life. In addition, eutrophication can lead to the accumulation of organic matter that can contribute to the growth of bacteria and other microorganisms that can harm human health. In Fig. 4 , the oil palm cultivation stage contributes the highest eutrophication impact on palm cooking oil production, contributing around 84.56–87.16% across the different iodine values assessed. The highest contribution of this eutrophication impact is the use of fertilizers. This finding aligns with the research conducted by (Paudel and Crago 2021 ) which examines how fertilizer-related agricultural runoff causes nitrogen loading in aquatic systems, ultimately leading to eutrophication. The necessity for better methods in palm oil production to reduce nutrient runoff is in line with (Ali and Bijay-Singh 2025 ), that nutrient management is essential in minimizing these effects. Interpretation The study results show that the leading cause of the environmental effects connected to the manufacturing of palm cooking oil is the oil palm cultivation process. The oil palm plantations must adopt sustainable practices to reduce the environmental loads. The results highlight how crucial it is to consider the full production lifetime when evaluating how agricultural goods affect the environment. The LCIA results in this study show that the plantation stage had the highest impact (Fig. 4 ), while the palm oil mill had the lowest impact due to the implementation of methane capture for biogas power generation from palm oil mill effluent (POME). Several LCA studies on palm oil production that did not include methane collection found significantly higher GWP values due to methane emissions from untreated POME.Reijnders & Huijbregts ( 2008 ) discovered that untreated POME emissions can contribute up to 3.0 kg CO₂ eq /kg of palm oil, which is roughly three times greater than the current study's figure of 1.23 kg CO₂ eq/kg oil. Similarly,Silalertruksa & Gheewala ( 2012 ) projected that palm oil mills without methane capture could account for up to 20% of total GHG emissions across the palm oil life cycle. In contrast to this study, which benefits from methane capture, a study by Schmidt ( 2015 ), estimated a GWP of roughly 2.5 kg CO₂ eq/kg oil in mills without such mitigating measures. This striking contrast emphasizes the importance of methane recovery in mitigating climate change implications. Without methane collection, the anaerobic breakdown of organic waste in POME emits considerable amounts of CH₄, a GHG with a GWP 28 times greater than CO₂ over 100 years. This result shows that installing biogas recovery reduces GWP while mitigating other environmental concerns. Acidification and eutrophication levels were generally higher in studies that did not include methane capture. Wicke et al. ( 2008 ), found a higher acidification potential of 9.0E-03 kg SO₂ eq/kg oil compared to this study's 7.77E-03 kg SO₂ eq/kg oil. Increased nitrogen leaching from untreated effluent leads to enhanced eutrophication levels of approximately 3.0E-03 kg PO₄ eq/kg oil (Wicke et al. 2008 ). The absence of methane capture may increase water pollution problems. (Razman et al. ( 2022 ) discovered that palm oil mills without methane recovery had considerably higher marine ecotoxicity due to increased chemical oxygen demand (COD) in untreated POME. The comparison research demonstrates that methane capture significantly decreases GWP and other environmental impacts in palm oil production. Studies without methane capture implementation consistently report higher impacts, particularly in climate change-related categories. The results also highlight how important it is for policymakers to successfully concentrate on sustainable palm oil production methods to lessen environmental effects. Sustainable agricultural practices can reduce greenhouse gas emissions and ecological degradation by improving soil management, lowering chemical inputs, and implementing agroforestry systems. In addition to promoting sustainable palm oil production, strict laws regarding land use change and agricultural techniques can aid in the protection of delicate ecosystems. Other than that, awareness of consumer is important to increase demand for sustainable goods sourced may increase if people are aware of palm oil's adverse environmental effects. Sensitivity analysis Sensitivity analysis aims to assess the reliability of final results and conclusions by determining how they are affected by data uncertainty and allocating methods to calculate category indicator results. The sensitivity check uses a reference from ISO 14044: 2017 by comparing the results of category impact calculations with various calculation methods. This analysis helps identify which factors significantly influence the results and which are less important. It also provides information for decision-makers and can guide data collection, system boundary definition, and impact allocation. In palm cooking oil production, the input parameter of NPK fertilizer use is known to have the greatest influence on the environment. The results of the sensitivity analysis on the input parameters show that by adding and subtracting 10% of NPK fertilizer usage from the existing conditions, the environmental impact is expected to change relatively within the range of 0.87–1.13% (Fig. 5 ). Uncertainty analysis of the global warming impact Uncertainty analysis in the LCA of palm cooking oil production is essential to understand and quantify the various fluctuations and risks associated with the environmental impacts of this process. Monte Carlo analysis techniques have been used to examine the uncertainty in LCA results by considering the probability distribution of critical parameters. The uncertainty analysis in this study was conducted using Monte Carlo simulation in openLCA software with various input data for LCIA based on sensitivity parameters. For this study, 1000 iterations were simulated to increase the validity and make the simulation more accurate. Simulations were conducted for the global warming potential impact category, and the mean value, standard deviation, 95% percentile, and coefficient of variation (CoV) were calculated. The average value of the GWP impact obtained is 1.230 kg CO 2 eq, with a standard deviation of 0.0946, which shows relatively small fluctuations in the results. The 5% and 95% percentile values are respectively located at 1.228 kg CO 2 eq and 1.233 kg CO 2 eq, indicating that about 90% of the simulation results fall within this range. The minimum and maximum values resulting from the simulation are 1.227 kg CO 2 eq and 1.240 kg CO 2 eq, indicating a range of variability in the results (Table 2 ). However, it remains focused on the mean value. With a centered and symmetrical distribution of results, it can be concluded that the probability distribution for the GWP impact category is stable and predictable (Fig. 6 ). The calculation results show that the CoV is 0.13%. This result indicates a low level of uncertainty in the LCA results. A CoV below 10% is generally considered an indicator that the variability or uncertainty in the calculation of environmental impacts is highly controllable. It also indicates that fluctuations in the input parameters do not result in significant deviations from the mean value, making the LCA results a basis for decision-making regarding the environmental impacts of palm cooking oil production, especially regarding GWP impacts. Table 2 Uncertainty analysis of the global warming impact Impact Category Unit Mean Standar Deviation Min Max 5% Percentile 95% Percentile CoV GWP kg CO 2 eq 1.230 1.65E-03 1.227 1.240 1.228 1.233 0.13% In Indonesia, the most widely available and consumed palm cooking oil has an IV of 56. The environmental impacts of palm oil with IV 56 have been compared to those of other vegetable oils found in previous studies. The study's LCIA results show that palm cooking oil has a GWP of 1.23 kg CO₂ eq/kg oil, from land preparation to frying. A comparison to prior studies demonstrates significant diversity in reported GWP estimates of palm cooking oil (Fig. 7 ) with boundary from plantation to produce cooking oil.Prado et al. ( 2021 ) estimated a GWP of 4.80 kg CO₂ eq/kg oil in a cradle-to-grave system, while Alcock et al. ( 2022 ), reported 3.73 kg CO₂ eq/kg refined oil, including emissions from land use change and refinery activities.Stefanie et al. ( 2022 ) reported a higher GWP of 6.86 kg CO₂ eq/kg oil along the farm-to-factory boundary (include transportation to market). The observed variance in results could be due to changes in system boundaries, methodological frameworks, data sources, and regional agricultural practices. Palm cooking oil appeared to have a lower GWP than other vegetable oils in this study with relatively the same boundaries. Rapeseed oil shows GWP impacts ranging from 1.82 kg CO₂ eq/kg to 3.35 kg CO₂ eq/kg (Bai et al. 2021 ; Bellon et al. 2024 ), while soybean oil exhibits values is 5.67 kg CO₂ eq/kg (Bai et al. 2021 ). Peanut oil has a GWP 3.15 kg CO₂ eq/kg (Bai et al. 2021 ). Canola oil has a GWP 1.94 kg CO₂ eq/kg (Khanali et al. 2018 ). The observed disparities can be attributable to differences in system limits, methodological techniques, and agricultural practices. The AP for palm cooking oil production is 0.00571 kg SO₂ eq/kg. This value is lower than the 0.0122 kg SO₂ eq/kg published by Stefanie et al. ( 2022 ) for refined palm oil, as well as lower than rapeseed oil, which ranges from 0.0116 kg SO₂ eq/kg (Bellon et al. 2024 ) to 0.04139 kg SO₂ eq/kg (Bai et al. 2021 ). Soybean and sunflower oils have higher AP impacts, measuring 0.03437 kg SO₂ eq/kg (Bai et al. 2021 ) and 0.0171 kg SO₂ eq/kg (Stefanie et al. 2022 ) respectively. The higher AP values for these oils are likely associated with increased fertilizer application and emissions from land use changes. In this study, the calculated EP for palm cooking oil is 0.00219 kg PO 4 eq/kg, higher than(Stefanie et al. 2022 ) 0.000565 kg PO 4 eq/kg. Rapeseed oil has an EP value of 0.0017 kg PO 4 eq/kg (Bellon et al. 2024 ), while soybean oil and sunflower oil have values of 0.00163 kg PO 4 eq/kg and 0.00779 kg PO 4 eq/kg, respectively (Stefanie et al. 2022 ). EP levels can vary due to changes in nitrogen and phosphate fertilizer application rates, wastewater treatment efficiencies, and geographic variables. This study found that the ODP is 8.60E-08 kg CFC-11 eq/kg oil.Stefanie et al. ( 2022 ) discovered that refined palm oil had a lower ODP of 9.74E-09 kg CFC-11 eq/kg oil, whereas soybean and sunflower oils have higher ODP values of 1.04E-05 kg CFC-11 eq/kg and 1.11E-05 kg CFC-11 eq/kg, respectively.Bellon et al. ( 2024 ) found that processed rapeseed oil has an ODP of 1.81E-05 kg CFC-11 eq/kg. The lower ODP observed in this study shows that refrigerant use and chemical processing in palm cooking oil production are causing lower emissions. This study's findings suggest reduced environmental effect values, particularly for GWP and acidification potential, compared to earlier research. Nevertheless, these differences are likely due to system boundary definitions, scientific approaches, and regional agriculture practices. These differences are most likely driven by system boundary definitions, scientific approaches, and regional agriculture practices. Studies with broader system limits, such as cradle-to-grave evaluations, typically report higher GWP values because they account for emissions from land use changes, transportation, and end-of-life processes. Differences in the life cycle impact assessment models, emission factor databases, and technology efficiency contribute to study variability. Understanding these methodological nuances is critical for accurate environmental effect comparisons and for creating more sustainable palm oil production plans. Conclusions This study presents a comprehensive LCA of palm cooking oil production in Sumatra, Indonesia, employing a cradle-to-gate approach. The results indicate that the oil palm cultivation stage is the primary contributor to the environmental impacts associated with palm cooking oil, particularly in terms of GWP, EP, AP, MAECT, and ODP. Among the various iodine values assessed, IV 60 exhibits the highest environmental impact across all categories, largely due to the extended fractionation process requiring higher electricity consumption. The comparative analysis reveals that palm cooking oil has a lower carbon footprint (1.23 kg CO₂ eq/kg) than other vegetable oils, such as rapeseed oil (1.82–3.35 kg CO₂ eq/kg), sunflower oil (1.49–2.94 kg CO₂ eq/kg), and soybean oil (4.25–6.4 kg CO₂ eq/kg). Similarly, the AP of palm cooking oil (0.00571 kg SO₂ eq/kg) is also lower than the other vegetable oils such as rapeseed (0.0116–0.04139 kg SO₂ eq/kg) and soybean oil (0.03437 kg SO₂ eq/kg). However, the EP of palm cooking oil (0.00219 kg PO 4 eq/kg) is higher compared to rapeseed oil (0.0017 kg PO 4 eq/kg) and soybean oil (0.00163 kg PO 4 eq/kg). This elevated EP is primarily attributed to the application of nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers in oil palm plantations. Furthermore, compared to studies that did not incorporate methane capture, this study reports a significantly lower GWP, highlighting the environmental benefit of methane recovery in the palm oil industry. These findings emphasize the necessity of considering a full life cycle perspective when assessing the environmental impacts of palm cooking oil relative to other vegetable cooking oils. Sustainable practices, particularly during the plantation stage, are critical for reducing the environmental burdens of palm cooking oil. Key strategies such as improved land management, optimized fertilization regimes, and methane capture technologies can significantly reduce the negative environmental impacts. This study provides valuable insights for consumers, industry stakeholders, and policymakers to adopt evidence-based measures to enhance the sustainability of palm cooking oil. Future research should focus on refining methodological approaches and incorporating best practices in sustainable palm oil production to minimize adverse environmental consequences. Declarations Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank the PT. Perkebunan Nusantara IV region III as the plantation and palm oil mill, and PT. Industri Nabati Lestari as the refinery company who were willing to provide the data. Funding This research was supported by the RIIM LPDP Grant and BRIN, grant number B-839/II.7.5/FR.06/5/2023. The authors wish to acknowledge the Energy and Manufacture Research Organization, BRIN for supporting this research. Authorship contributions All the authors contributed to the study concept, ideas, and design. RR, FI, UA, DFS, HF, KS, ABM, AARS, SS, IF, EIW, and NAS prepared the materials and collected the data. RR, FI, UA, DFS, HF, and ABM conducted the literature review, data analysis, and writing of the manuscript. RR, FI, UA, DFS, HF, and ABM conducted data handling and administration. AARS, IF, and EIW participated in critically analyzing the manuscript for significant intellectual content. RR, FI, UA, DFS, HF, ABM, KS, and NAS participated in the conceptualization of the study. RR, FI, UA, DFS, HF, and ABM wrote the first draft of the manuscript, and all authors commented on previous versions. All the authors have read and approved the final manuscript. Ethical Approval This is not applicable Consent to Participate This is not applicable Consent to Publish This is not applicable Competing Interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Data Availability Statement The data will be made available upon reasonable request References Abbasi SA, Abbasi T (2017) The Ozone Hole. In: Ozone Hole : Past, Present, Future. 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Springer, Singapore, pp 1–26 Prado V, Daystar J, Pires S, Wallace M, Laurin L (2021) Comparative life cycle assessment of edible vegetable frying oils. Trans ASABE 64:1717–1733 Pu G, Zheng M, Lu S, Huang J (2019) Study on the Use of Cooking Oil in Chinese Dishes. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2019, Vol 16, Page 3367 16:3367. https://doi.org/10.3390/IJERPH16183367 Purnomo H, Okarda B, Dermawan A, Ilham QP, Pacheco P, Nurfatriani F, Suhendang E (2020) Reconciling oil palm economic development and environmental conservation in Indonesia: A value chain dynamic approach. For Policy Econ 111:102089. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FORPOL.2020.102089 Rashedi A, Khanam T (2020) Life cycle assessment of most widely adopted solar photovoltaic energy technologies by mid-point and end-point indicators of ReCiPe method. Environmental Science and Pollution Research 27:29075–29090. https://doi.org/10.1007/S11356-020-09194-1/FIGURES/9 Razman KK, Hanafiah MM, Mohammad AW, Lun AW (2022) Life Cycle Assessment of an Integrated Membrane Treatment System of Anaerobic-Treated Palm Oil Mill Effluent (POME). Membranes (Basel) 12:246. https://doi.org/10.3390/MEMBRANES12020246/S1 Reijnders L, Huijbregts MAJ (2008) Palm oil and the emission of carbon-based greenhouse gases. J Clean Prod 16:477–482. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2006.07.054 Rinaldo R, Suprihatin S, Yani M (2023) Life cycle assessment produksi crude palm oil (CPO)(studi kasus: PT X Provinsi Bengkulu). Agrointek: Jurnal Teknologi Industri Pertanian 17:651–659 Roiaini M, Ardiannie T, Norhayati H (2015) Physicochemical properties of canola oil, olive oil and palm olein blends. Int Food Res J 22:1227–1233 Saad B, Wai WT, Lim BP (2008) Comparative study on oxidative decomposition behavior of vegetable oils and its correlation with iodine value using thermogravimetric analysis. J Oleo Sci 57:257–261. https://doi.org/10.5650/jos.57.257 Sabeen AH, Noor ZZ, Ngadi N, Almuraisy S, Raheem AB (2018) Quantification of environmental impacts of domestic wastewater treatment using life cycle assessment: A review. J Clean Prod 190:221–233. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2018.04.053 Sayon-Orea C, Carlos S, Martínez-Gonzalez MA (2015) Does cooking with vegetable oils increase the risk of chronic diseases?: a systematic review. British Journal of Nutrition 113:S36–S48. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114514002931 Schmidt JH (2015) Life cycle assessment of five vegetable oils. J Clean Prod 87:130–138 Setiawan AAR, Bardant TB, Ariesca R, Wiloso EI, Ahamed T, Noguchi R (2024) Development of IoT-Based Platform for Biomass Utilization Toward Low-Carbon Economic Society: Case of Oil Palm Residue. IoT and AI in Agriculture 401–420. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-1263-2_25 Silalertruksa T, Gheewala SH (2012) Food, Fuel, and Climate Change. J Ind Ecol 16:541–551. https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1530-9290.2012.00521.X Siregar K, Ichwana, Nasution IS, Sholihati, Sofiah I, Miharza T (2020) Implementation of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) for oil palm industry in Aceh Province, Indonesia. In: IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science. Institute of Physics Publishing Sonnemann G, Gemechu ED, Sala S, Schau EM, Allacker K, Pant R, Adibi N, Valdivia S (2018) Life Cycle Thinking and the Use of LCA in Policies Around the World. Life Cycle Assessment: Theory and Practice 429–463. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-56475-3_18 Soraya DF, Gheewala SH, Bonnet S, Tongurai C (2014) Life Cycle Assessment of Biodiesel Production from Palm Oil in Indonesia. Journal of Sustainable Energy & Environment 5:27–32 Spinelli D, Bardi L, Fierro A, Jez S, Basosi R (2013) Environmental analysis of sunflower production with different forms of mineral nitrogen fertilizers. J Environ Manage 129:302–308. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2013.07.029 Stefanie DS, Karolien P, Katrien B, Lise A, An V (2022) PEF report of vegetable oil and proteinmeal industry products Subramaniam V, Loh SK, Aziz AA (2021) GHG analysis of the production of crude palm oil considering the conversion of agricultural wastes to by-products. Sustain Prod Consum 28:1552–1564. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.SPC.2021.09.004 Tabasum S, Asghar S, Naz Ashraf S, Badaruddin Ahmad H, Akhtar N, Mohammed Khan K (2012) Physicochemical Characterization and Frying Quality of Canola and Sunflower Oil Samples. JChemSocPak 34:513 Taelman SE, De Luca Peña L V., Préat N, Bachmann TM, Van der Biest K, Maes J, Dewulf J (2024) Integrating ecosystem services and life cycle assessment: a framework accounting for local and global (socio-)environmental impacts. International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment 29:99–115. https://doi.org/10.1007/S11367-023-02216-3/TABLES/3 Tarigan S, Pradiko I, Darlan NH, Kristanto Y (2025) Carbon Footprint Comparison of Rapeseed and Palm Oil: Impact of Land Use and Fertilizers. Sustainability 2025, Vol 17, Page 1521 17:1521. https://doi.org/10.3390/SU17041521 Turner DA, Williams ID, Kemp S (2016) Combined material flow analysis and life cycle assessment as a support tool for solid waste management decision making. J Clean Prod 129:234–248. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2016.04.077 van den Oever AEM, Puricelli S, Costa D, Thonemann N, Lavigne Philippot M, Messagie M (2024) Revisiting the challenges of ozone depletion in life cycle assessment. Cleaner Environmental Systems 13:100196. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CESYS.2024.100196 Vieira DR, Calmon JL, Coelho FZ (2016) Life cycle assessment (LCA) applied to the manufacturing of common and ecological concrete: A review. Constr Build Mater 124:656–666. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CONBUILDMAT.2016.07.125 Weldeslassie T, Naz H, Singh B, Oves M (2018) Chemical Contaminants for Soil, Air and Aquatic Ecosystem. In: Oves M, Zain Khan M, M.I. Ismail I (eds) Modern Age Environmental Problems and their Remediation. Springer, Cham, pp 1–22 Wicke B, Dornburg V, Junginger M, Faaij A (2008) Different palm oil production systems for energy purposes and their greenhouse gas implications. Biomass Bioenergy 32:1322–1337 Wieck C, Grant JH (2021) Codex in Motion: Food Safety Standard Setting and Impacts on Developing Countries’ Agricultural Exports. EuroChoices 20:37–47. https://doi.org/10.1111/1746-692X.12293 Wiloso EI, Nazir N, Hanafi J, Siregar K, Harsono SS, Setiawan AAR, Muryanto, Romli M, Utama NA, Shantiko B, Jupesta J, Utomo THA, Sari AA, Saputra SY, Fang K (2019) Life cycle assessment research and application in Indonesia. International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment 24:386–396. https://doi.org/10.1007/S11367-018-1459-3/TABLES/4 Zhang Y, Zhuang P, Wu F, He W, Mao L, Jia W, Zhang Y, Chen X, Jiao J (2021) Cooking oil/fat consumption and deaths from cardiometabolic diseases and other causes: prospective analysis of 521,120 individuals. BMC Med 19:1–14. https://doi.org/10.1186/S12916-021-01961-2/FIGURES/3 Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 20 Oct, 2025 Read the published version in Environmental Science and Pollution Research → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Major Revision 17 Jul, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 02 Jun, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 02 Jun, 2025 Editor invited by journal 22 May, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 19 May, 2025 First submitted to journal 15 May, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6637300","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":465450135,"identity":"b506ea71-df4f-486f-8d53-78bed97cfec9","order_by":0,"name":"Irhan 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02:49:21","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6637300/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6637300/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-025-37056-1","type":"published","date":"2025-10-20T16:16:07+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":84211299,"identity":"a20ec0d9-5c0e-4840-b10a-d97dd2ae26ea","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-09 10:08:11","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":933821,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eResearch locations (Modified from Lesniewski (2025))\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6637300/v1/f76a31a4391106310d30d5a8.png"},{"id":84211300,"identity":"5d4a8388-e659-4cd0-83a8-9064c07cae95","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-09 10:08:11","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":432402,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSystem boundaries and the input-output flows of palm cooking oil production\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6637300/v1/06519dd9fed7a5eff91099fa.png"},{"id":84212087,"identity":"f0575db8-0a8c-49e9-bead-00ca2a8b4492","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-09 10:16:11","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":141383,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eImpact distribution at each life cycle stage of 1 kg palm cooking oil\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6637300/v1/0424c18e01b1b0e03a27963c.png"},{"id":84212093,"identity":"9248585a-e3f0-41cb-b425-41cf7c944edb","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-09 10:16:11","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":75641,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eImpact distribution at each stage of palm cooking oil production among various iodine values\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6637300/v1/846a508acb048c4a5982916b.png"},{"id":84211303,"identity":"37976b79-f174-45be-b86c-21c9cabe9d08","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-09 10:08:11","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":60278,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSensitivity analysis\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6637300/v1/6aebb39ad088be50c97c68e2.png"},{"id":84211307,"identity":"d55f1f4a-76c4-4ab8-b994-9974aa468a62","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-09 10:08:11","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":113769,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDistribution of greenhouse gas emission values by Monte Carlo simulation (1000 iterations)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6637300/v1/7054ea2644cba2c73f526a5f.png"},{"id":84211305,"identity":"a681794c-3a9b-40ef-ad1e-798408a80c1d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-09 10:08:11","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":72002,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eComparison of the global warming impact of palm cooking oil with various vegetable oil (kg CO\u003csub\u003e2 \u003c/sub\u003eeq/kg)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6637300/v1/bfdf3e1805edec2990083d2d.png"},{"id":94490695,"identity":"1cee537d-1e22-4724-95c6-03a6ff1cfe11","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-27 17:13:45","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":3145118,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6637300/v1/389ed028-6729-4428-a1d9-3c7f44ae6db4.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"Environmental Impact of Palm Cooking Oil: A Case Study in Sumatra, Indonesia","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eCurrently, edible oil is a very important component, especially used in food processing (Chen et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Edible oil is generally used as a dressing on food or used for cooking and frying (Sayon-Orea et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Pu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). For the use as cooking oil or frying on food, edible oil act as heating medium. So, it will improve the taste, flavor, and even texture of the food (Katsuragi et al. 2019). Several types of cooking oils are commonly used is vegetable oil (Kumar et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Aparicio et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Ganesan et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), including palm oil, soybean oil, rapeseed oil, sunflower oil, and peanut oil. These five types of cooking oil are the cooking oils with the largest global production volume in the world (Schmidt \u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Apart from that, there is also canola oil, maize oil and coconut oil which are used as cooking oil (Nawaz et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Zhang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR96\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Phuah et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Baig et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePalm oil is the most widely used cooking oil in the world (Hansen et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Jusman et al. 2021), and Indonesia is the largest palm oil producing country in the world (Isharyadi et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Together with Malaysia, Indonesia contributed 85% of the world's oil production of around 72.3\u0026nbsp;million tons in 2020 (Murphy et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Based on the data, Indonesia has become the center of attention and economic stability of the palm oil sector. The development of the area and production of Indonesian oil palm plantations from 2019 to 2023 shows an increasing trend every year, in 2023 estimated that the area of ​​oil palm plantations is 15.93\u0026nbsp;million hectares (BPS-Statistics Indonesia \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Riau Province is the largest palm oil-producing province with an area of 3.40\u0026nbsp;million hectares or 21.36 percent of the total area of ​​palm oil plantations in Indonesia (BPS-Statistics Indonesia \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Similarly, for the largest crude palm oil (CPO) production in 2023, Riau Province is also the largest, with a production of 9.22\u0026nbsp;million tons, or around 19.59 percent of Indonesia's total production (BPS-Statistics Indonesia \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). The increase in the area and production of oil palm plantations is significantly driven by market demand for processed products from palm oil, both for domestic production and export needs (Khatiwada et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). One of the implications is the increase in palm cooking oil production due to increasing demand (Gheewala et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). In 2021, the consumption of palm cooking oil was 18,422\u0026nbsp;million tons; this amount increased compared to 2020, which was 17,349\u0026nbsp;million tons (Husna et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). The rising consumption of palm cooking oil is accompanied by the habit of frying among the people (Sayon-Orea et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePalm oil is a plantation commodity that significantly contributes to economic activities especially for Indonesia (Purnomo et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Despite its economic benefits, Indonesian palm oil has been the target of criticism both domestically and internationally (Choiruzzad \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Choiruzzad et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Ahmad et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, palm oil product has also been criticized for its high emission releases and significant contribution to the greenhouse gas (GHG) problem (Mukherjee and Sovacool \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Oosterveer \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Jamaludin et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Recognizing the advantages and disadvantages in the palm oil sector has encouraged and increased awareness of sustainability. Wiloso et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR95\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) stated that this awareness is mainly triggered by the competitiveness of sustainable products to fulfill market demand. Furthermore, government policies and other related regulations (e.g., roundtable on sustainable palm oil (RSPO), Indonesia sustainable palm oil (ISPO), sustainability reporting, etc.) also play a significant role in raising awareness. Throughout the life cycle of a product, the increasing production of palm cooking oil has the potential to affect the environment, starting from the stage of acquiring raw materials, the production process, and the use of the product.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAssessment of potential environmental impacts for the development of innovation towards sustainability in the palm oil industry sector (from palm oil plantations to palm oil mills) needs to be carried out, especially to analyze the magnitude of environmental impacts in each process cycle throughout the product life cycle. Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a method that is trusted globally and widely acknowledged for assessing the environmental impact of products, technologies, and policies. Its effectiveness as a decision-making tool can be limited by various uncertainties within the calculations, as well as challenges in verifying, validating, or confirming the results due to technical, conceptual, legal, and other constraints (Sonnemann et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR81\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Igos et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). LCA also is a holistic environmental impact calculation procedure that quantifies and evaluates all waste discharged into the environment and raw materials consumed throughout the life cycle (Sabeen et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR75\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e), starting with the acquisition of raw materials from the earth through the production process to producing palm cooking oil to meet consumer demand. LCA can be used to ensure that all environmental impacts have been considered to decide on actions, calculate possible environmental impacts, compare process performance, and develop a database for further research (Hertwich et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e; Hermann et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e; De Benedetto and Klemeš \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Dong et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). The environmental impacts that can be calculated with LCA are very diverse; there are approximately 18 impacts called midpoint impacts (Rashedi and Khanam \u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Ige et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). LCA can be used as a tool to support environmental improvement decision-making carried out by companies or governments (Dong et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). LCA is also a method in environmental analysis based on ISO 14040:2006 and ISO 14044:2006, which consists of activities such as (1) goal and scope definition, (2) life cycle inventory, (3) inventory analysis, and (4) impact assessment and interpretation (International Organization for Standardization \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006a\u003c/span\u003e; International Organization for Standardization \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006b\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeveral LCA studies have been conducted to identify the potential environmental impacts of palm cooking oil and compare it with various other types of cooking oils. Schmidt (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) conducted a comparative life cycle assessment of palm oil, soybean oil, rapeseed oil, sunflower oil, and peanut oil. The research results show that soybean oil, palm oil, and peanut oil as the least good performing with respect to global warming. For land use, palm oil and soybean oil are the oils associated with the smallest contribution. Peanut oil, soybean, and palm oil have the largest contribution to water consumption. Prado et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) conducted a cradle-to-grave LCA of global soybean oil, U.S. canola oil, refined U.S. cottonseed oil (CSO), and palm oil for eight impact categories (global warming, abiotic depletion, eutrophication, acidification, photochemical oxidation, fine particulate matter, ozone layer depletion, and water scarcity). The research results show that refined CSO (U.S.) was a top performer in six of the eight impact categories evaluated. The high impacts of photochemical oxidation for palm oil and soybean oil were due to land use change impacts. For abiotic depletion and ozone layer depletion, palm oil and soybean oil have less than 40% of the impact of canola oil due to the use of fossil fuels in cultivation. Alcock et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) also conducted an analysis of life cycle input data from diverse palm, soybean, rapeseed, and sunflower oil production systems. The research results show that life cycle GHG emissions from the median palm oil production system are roughly equal to the across-crop median: 3.73 kg CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e eq per kg refined oil.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe LCA studies that comprehensively examine the application of LCA from oil palm plantations to palm cooking oil production in Indonesia are still limited. The environmental performance evaluated in previous LCA studies on palm oil has primarily been restricted to parameters such as global warming potential (GWP) (Alcock et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), land use, and water consumption (Schmidt \u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). The study involved the re-analysis of life cycle input data from diverse palm oil production systems based on literature studies (Alcock et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). (Prado et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) conducted a cradle-to-grave LCA of palm oil with a more comprehensive evaluation of environmental performance, including global warming, abiotic depletion, eutrophication, acidification, photochemical oxidation, fine particulate matter, ozone layer depletion, and water scarcity. However, this study utilized refined palm oil comprising a mix of Indonesian (67%) and Malaysian (33%) palm oils. (Krisi et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) examined the potential environmental impacts of the palm cooking oil industry in Indonesia using the LCA method, but their assessment was limited to environmental performance indicators such as abiotic depletion, global warming, human toxicity, photochemical oxidation, acidification, and eutrophication. Moreover, the study was constrained by its system boundary, focusing on a gate-to-gate approach (from the crushing process to the production of cooking oil). Other studies have also indicated that LCA have not yet been conducted comprehensively but remain limited by a \"cradle-to-gate\" system boundary, covering processes from land preparation to palm oil mills (Andarani et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Siregar et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR80\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Faisal et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Rinaldo et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Based on this situation, it is necessary to conduct a LCA study that comprehensively examines the application from oil palm plantations to palm cooking oil production in Indonesia. Therefore, this research aims to (1) investigate the environmental impacts of palm cooking oil throughout its life cycle, including plantations, CPO production, refineries and cooking oil production and (2) analyse the environmental impacts associated with different qualities of cooking oil and compare these impacts to those of other vegetable cooking oil. So that it can provide information to consumers, industry, and policymakers regarding the environmental impacts of the palm cooking oil.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials and methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eResearch Area\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study was conducted to assess the potential environmental impacts caused by cooking oil products throughout their life cycle (cradle to gate), the scope of which starts from oil palm plantations, palm oil mills, to the refinery process where the final product of cooking oil is produced. The case study in this study was conducted in the Sumatra region, Indonesia. The plantation and palm oil mill stages were conducted in Lubuk Dalam, Riau, while the refinery location is in Sei Mangkei, North Sumatra. Plantation, mills and refinery operated by Perkebunan Nusantara (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eLife cycle assessment\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study uses the LCA method by ISO 14040:2006 and ISO 14044:2006 (International Organization for Standardization \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006a\u003c/span\u003e; International Organization for Standardization \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006b\u003c/span\u003e). LCA is a method used to evaluate various elements and potential environmental impacts throughout a product's life cycle, from raw material extraction manufacturing processes to disposal (Vieira et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR91\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). LCA involves identifying and quantifying material and energy flows, as well as wastes released to the environment, to assess environmental burdens and implement environmental improvement opportunities (Turner et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR89\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Mannan and Al-Ghamdi \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The LCA framework, consists of 4 (four) stages. There are goal and scope definition, inventory analysis, impact assessment, and interpretation. LCA is a tool that can comprehensively consider the entire life cycle, and all environmental issues related to a product or service (Soraya et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR82\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). In addition, LCA is very useful in evaluating impacts during the manufacturing process and other phases of the product life cycle (Chang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Pacana et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) and has become a valuable tool for assessing the potential environmental impact of products, manufacturing processes, and related activities (Bergerson et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). With its ability to analyze a product holistically, LCA provides an objective approach that is essential to sustainability (Fauzi et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Costa et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). This study used the software OpenLCA 2.2 to carry out the impact assessment and used the Ecoinvent database V3.8.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eGoal and scope definition\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe aim of this study is to identify potential environmental impacts from the production of palm cooking oil with three types of quality. The types of cooking oil quality in this case are based on the differences in iodine value (IV) in the palm cooking oil, which are divided into IV 56, IV 58, and IV 60. A higher IV value indicates a purer oil in the olein fraction, resulting in greater clarity. The potential environmental impacts of palm cooking oil production are investigated along the supply chain within the boundaries of the cradle to gate system. The system boundaries of this study start from oil palm plantations to the production of palm cooking oil products (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe boundary includes 3 (three) main process, there are (1) oil palm plantations which include the land preparation process, oil palm seedling production, oil palm seedling production, and planting, (2) palm oil mills which include the CPO production process and several supporting infrastructures such as electricity production, biogas production, water treatment plants, and steam production, and (3) refinery plants which include refined, bleached, and deodorized palm oil (RBDPO) production and fractionation processes to produce palm cooking oil.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this study, the functional unit used was 1 kg of palm cooking oil with three qualities produced, namely IV 56, IV, 58, and IV 60. This functional unit provided a guide for creating inventories of the environmental burdens in the examined supply chain and evaluating their associated impacts (Taelman et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR87\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Functional units must be measurable, representing both qualitative and quantitative aspects of a product's intended function (Frigerio et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Andr\u0026eacute; \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Konradsen et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Primary data collection was conducted on state-owned companies engaged in oil palm plantations, palm oil mills, and refinery process in the context of palm cooking oil production located in Riau Province and North Sumatra Province. Primary data collection was conducted for 5 (five) months starting from November 2023 to March 2024.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eLife cycle inventory\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn this study, life cycle inventory (LCI) was obtained using primary and secondary data to calculate the environmental impact of palm cooking oil production. The primary data used is divided into 3 (three) main processes, namely oil palm plantation, palm oil mills, and the refinery process in the context of palm cooking oil production. The secondary data used are in the form of scientific journals related to this study. All inventory data obtained, the background data use Ecoinvent V3.8.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn oil palm plantations, inventory data is input data in the form of fertilizer, water, pesticide, and other materials used in the land preparation, nursery, and planting stages of oil palm along with the output produced throughout the life cycle of oil palm plants for 27 years. The data is obtained from the use of input and output produced in 2019 to 2023 in each planting year available on the observed oil palm plantations, the data is used as input requirements for each year of oil palm plants starting from planting year 1 to 27 years.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn palm oil mills, inventory data is input data in the form of the use of palm fruit, electricity, water, and other materials used in the CPO production process along with the output produced in the form of products, waste and emissions produced in 2023. Meanwhile, in the refinery process to produce palm cooking oil, inventory data is input data in the form of the use of CPO, electricity, water, and other materials used in the palm cooking oil production process along with the output produced in the form of products, waste and emissions produced in 2023. This study uses 2 (two) assumptions, including (1) all oil palm fruit used in CPO production comes from 1 (one) company-owned plantation which is usually referred to as the core plantation, (2) palm cooking oil production in its supply chain uses all CPO from the CPO producing company being observed.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eLife cycle impact assessment\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLife cycle impact assessment (LCIA) was conducted based on the LCI obtained in the previous stage. Furthermore, the data was then analyzed using OpenLCA 2.2 software and using the CML-IA baseline method, to determine the impacts generated on several environmental quality indicators. This study calculated 5 (five) main impacts in palm cooking oil production, including global warming (GWP100a), acidification (AP), eutrophication (EP), marine aquatic ecotoxicity (MAEP), and ozone layer depletion (ODP).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eLimitation and assumption\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this study, there are several limitations that can affect the results and interpretations. One of the main limitations is the limited data on smallholder plantation data, which is not recorded systematically and accurately. The available data only covers core plantations, so the analysis does not fully represent the condition of smallholder plantations. In the refinery unit data, the CPO supply is assumed to come from the palm oil mill from the same company plantation as the plantation location and the palm oil mill is located within a radius of 9.84 km. The processing of water materials to be processed into boiler feed water uses a dataset from ecoinvent database.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSensitivity and uncertainty analysis\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe production of palm cooking oil is continuously being refined to improve sustainability, with a strong focus on minimizing emissions. These advancements offer promising opportunities to mitigate environmental impacts by reducing the consumption of substances and resources that contribute to environmental degradation. A sensitivity analysis was conducted to assess changes in environmental impacts resulting from variations in input parameters, which are key contributors to these impacts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn LCA, sensitivity analysis is an essential method for evaluating the reliability and robustness of results by determining how fluctuations or uncertainties in input parameters influence the overall environmental impact assessment (Bahua et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). This technique helps identify the most influential factors affecting the results while distinguishing those with minimal impact. Sensitivity analysis serves as a valuable tool for decision-makers, guiding data collection, system boundary definition, and impact allocation. By applying this method, potential shifts in environmental impact can be anticipated when implementing modification strategies in the production process.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdditionally, uncertainty analysis in LCA plays a crucial role in assessing and quantifying variations and risks related to environmental impacts. Monte Carlo analysis has been widely employed to evaluate uncertainties in LCA results by incorporating probability distributions of critical parameters (Heijungs \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). In this study, uncertainty analysis was performed using Monte Carlo simulations in openLCA software, utilizing a range of input data for LCIA based on sensitivity parameters. This approach enabled a more targeted uncertainty analysis, focusing on the most influential variables to enhance the accuracy and relevance of the assessment.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results and discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eThe quality of vegetable cooking oil\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study discusses the environmental impacts associated with the production of palm cooking oil with 3 three) qualities, namely Iodine Value (IV) 56, 58, and 60, with limitations from land preparation (plantation) to palm cooking oil production. The difference in the quality of palm cooking oil is based on the length of the fractionation process time, where the fractionation process times for IV 56, 58, and 60 cooking oil are 8, 12, and 18 hours, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHealthy living depends on the content of fatty acids. The quality of vegetable cooking oil is determined by the ratio of oleic acid to linoleic acid and the iodine value. In addition, the content of unsaturated fatty acids and the stability of cooking oil are determined using the iodine value. So, it can be said that the level of unsaturation of oil is defined as the iodine value (IV). The iodine value is an important indicator of the physical and chemical properties of oil. It is very important in the quality and application of vegetable oil in the food and oleochemical industries. Oils with higher IV are more susceptible to oxidation (Saad et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Alireza et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e) stated that the decrease in iodine value in oil after heating is due to more intensive thermo-oxidative transformation that occurs compared to foods containing heated oil. The decrease in iodine value can be associated with damage to double bonds due to oxidation, cutting, and polymerization.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on the CODEX-STAN 210\u0026ndash;1999 standard related to Fats and Oils from Vegetable Sources, different types of cooking oil have different IV values. The CODEX standard is considered an 'international standard' used as a guideline for food safety regulations, food quality, and nutrition, which is very important to protect consumer health, ensure food safety, and create trade opportunities (Wieck and Grant \u003cspan citationid=\"CR94\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the CODEX standard, the IV values ​​for several types of vegetable oils are as follows: coconut oil has an IV value of 6.3\u0026ndash;10.6, palm oil has an IV value of 56, soybean oil has an IV value of 124\u0026ndash;139, rapeseed oil has an IV value of 94\u0026ndash;126, sunflower oil has an IV value of 78\u0026ndash;141, peanut oil has an IV value of 86\u0026ndash;107, corn oil has an IV value of 103\u0026ndash;135, and cottonseed oil has an IV value of 100\u0026ndash;123, and according to research conducted by (Tabasum et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR86\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Roiaini et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Khansili and Rattu \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e)Canola oil has an IV value between 112\u0026ndash;115. This study discusses the environmental impacts associated with the production of palm cooking oil with 3 (three) qualities, namely IV 56, 58, and 60, with limitations from land preparation (plantation) to palm cooking oil production.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eLife cycle inventory analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eLife cycle inventory (LCI) in this study consists of data obtained from 10 main process units according to the defined system boundaries. The process units to produce 1 kg of cooking oil consist of land preparation, palm seed production, palm nursery, palm plantation, crude palm oil mill, steam production, electricity production, water treatment, RBDPO production, and cooking oil production. Cooking oil final products are classified into 3 (three) grades, namely IV 56, IV 58, IV 60. In each process, there are several resources and energy required as well as products, co-products and waste produced, which are referred to as key life cycle inventory to produce 1 kg palm cooking oil (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKey data for life cycle inventory of 1 kg palm cooking oil\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKey Data\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnit\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmount\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLand Preparation Stage\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFertiliser, P\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ekg/ha\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e71.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCover crop\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eliter/ha\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.137\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDiesel\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMJ/ha\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4549.88\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFAME\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ekg/ha\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eOil Palm Nursery Stage\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFertiliser, N\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ekg/seed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0376\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFertiliser, P\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ekg/seed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0133\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFertiliser, Urea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ekg/seed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.018\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePolybag, Polyethylene\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ekg/seed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0366\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWater\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eliter/seed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e567\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eOil Palm Plantation Stage\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOil palm tree\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eitems/ha\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e136\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFFB productivity per year\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ekg/ha\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21,236\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ekg/ha\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3481.72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNPK (15-15-15)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ekg/ha\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFertiliser, N\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ekg/ha\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e866.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFertiliser, P\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ekg/ha\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e513.39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFertiliser, K\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ekg/ha\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1659.87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDolomite\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ekg/ha\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1307.73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRock phosphate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ekg/ha\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3143.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMagnesium oxide\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ekg/ha\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e236.79\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePotassium chloride\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ekg/ha\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3001.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSodium borates\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ekg/ha\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e160.64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTriple superphosphate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ekg/ha\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e302.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDiesel\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMJ/ha\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22590.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFAME\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ekg/ha\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e298.89\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAverage distance plantation to mill\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKm\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.84\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePalm Oil Mills Stage\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrude palm oil extraction rate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.66\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMethane content from biogas production\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e59.78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRefinery and Fractionation Plant Stage\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRBDPO yield\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e94.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNatural gas\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003em\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e/kg RBDPO\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0245\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eElectricity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ekWh/kg RBDPO\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0052\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBleaching earth\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ekg/kg RBDPO\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhosphoric acid\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ekg/kg RBDPO\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0006\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAverage distance mill to refinery\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKm\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCooking oil yield (from RBDPO):\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIV 56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e82\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIV 58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e74\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIV 60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThroughout the cooking oil production process unit also obtains co-products. Co-products from the crude palm oil mill process unit are palm kernel nut, empty fruit bunch (EFB), EFB ash, palm kernel shell, solid decanter, and fly ash. Then, the co-product from the RBDPO production process unit is palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD). Finally, the co-product from the olein production process unit is stearin.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll the data of LCI are primary data, which were collected from the oil palm plantation, palm oil mill, and the refinery company, except for oil palm seed. The data input of oil palm seeds is adopted from (Muhamad et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). The lifespan of oil palm is assessed from the immature phase, known as non-productive palm (NPP), to the mature, productive phase, referred to as productive palm (PP). The NPP phase lasts for approximately three years, while the PP phase extends for 24 years. The oil palm variety utilized in this study is the Marihat. The planting density is 136 trees per hectare, with a fresh fruit bunch (FFB) productivity of 21.24 tons per hectare. The primary fertilizers applied include urea (CO(NH₂)₂), a composite fertilizer containing nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium (NPK), dolomite (CaMg(CO₃)₂), rock phosphate (a natural phosphorus source), and potassium chloride (KCl). The plantation is established on mineral soils that have been in use for over 20 years, and therefore, the land-use impact is excluded from the environmental impact assessment, following the methodology of (Mattila et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Perminova et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, specifically carbon dioxide (CO₂), carbon monoxide (CO), methane (CH₄), and nitrous oxide (N₂O), are quantified based on the guidelines outlined by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Masson-Delmotte et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe by-products of FFB processing at the palm oil mill include palm fibre and palm kernel shell, which are utilized as boiler fuel (Setiawan et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). The palm oil mill effluent (POME) which is stored in lagoon undergoes methane capture for biogas production, which is subsequently used as boiler fuel. Therefore, methane emissions from POME are not considered in the emission calculations. The steam produced by the boiler is utilized for the sterilization process of FFB and for electricity generation to fulfil the energy consumption of the palm oil mill. A portion of the by-products, including empty fruit bunches (EFB) and POME, is applied to oil palm plantations as organic fertilizer.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the production of cooking oil, CPO obtained from the palm oil mill undergoes a refining process to produce RBDPO using bleaching earth and phosphoric acid as processing aids. The RBDPO is then fractionated to separate the liquid fraction, which yields cooking oil, from the solid fraction, which forms stearin. The resulting cooking oil is categorized into 3 (three) IV variants: IV 56, IV 58, and IV 60. The primary distinction among these variants lies in the duration of the fractionation and filtration processes. Consequently, each IV variant exhibits differences in energy consumption (electricity) and cooking oil yield.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eLife cycle impact assessment\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eLife cycle impact assessment (LCIA) assesses the environmental aspects and potential impacts of 1 kg palm cooking oil. The environmental quality indicators employed in this study are global warming potential (GWP100a), marine aquatic ecotoxicity (MAECT), ozone layer depletion potential (ODP), acidification potential (AP), and eutrophication potential (EP). The results of the LCIA in each iodine quality of 1 kg palm cooking oil can be seen in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e show that the production of 1 kg palm cooking oil for quality IV 60 has the highest potential impact for all five impact categories analyzed: GWP, MAECT, ODP, AP, and EP of 1.68 kg CO2 eq, 1.88E\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;03 kg 1.4-DB eq, 1.16E-07 kg CFC-11 eq, 7.77E-03 kg SO2 eq, and 3.06E-03 kg PO4 eq, respectively. Cooking oil with quality IV 60 has a higher environmental impact than cooking oil with other qualities because it requires a longer process time during the fractionation process, which requires more energy from using electricity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe comparison of environmental impacts across different iodine values of palm cooking oil reveals a concerning trend: as the iodine value increases from IV 56 to IV 60, there is a corresponding increase in environmental impacts across all assessed indicators. While higher iodine values may be desirable for specific culinary applications, they come at an increased environmental cost.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eGlobal warming potential (GWP100a)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eGlobal warming is the process by which the Earth's surface temperature increases relative to the atmosphere, oceans, and land, making the Earth more arid. Global warming contributes to environmental degradation in equivalent units, or the mass of CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e gas released into the atmosphere (kg-CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eeq). Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e shows that the oil palm cultivation process contributes the largest GWP impact on palm cooking oil production. The analysis reveals that the majority of GWP emissions arise from the plantation phase, which accounts for approximately 86.25% for IV 56, 85.84% for IV 58, and 85.46% for IV 60. These results indicate that the cultivation practices significantly contribute to greenhouse gas emissions in palm oil production. This finding is supported by previous research, which shows that the oil palm cultivation process is the stage that generates the largest GWP in the palm oil industry (Siregar et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR80\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; De Rosa et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). The palm oil industry can improve the efficiency of material and energy use to reduce the GWP impact, for example, by using more efficient fertilizers and reducing the number of pesticides used (Subramaniam et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR85\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Tarigan et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR88\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). Other stages, like RBDPO production and land preparation, contribute far less, underscoring the need for sustainable agricultural practices in the plantation phase to mitigate climate impact.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMarine aquatic ecotoxicity (MAECT)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMarine aquatic ecotoxicity (MAECT), by definition, is the impact of toxic substances on marine ecosystems (Ozturk and Dincer \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). MAECT is one of the categories of environmental impacts that the palm oil industry can generate. It refers to the potential damage to the marine environment due to using pesticides, fertilizers, and other chemicals in the agricultural and palm oil processing processes (Jamp\u0026iacute;lek and Kr\u0026aacute;ľov\u0026aacute; \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e shows that the oil palm planting stage contributes the highest MAECT impact to palm cooking oil production, with 89.94%, 89.01%, and 88.18% for IV 56, IV 58, and IV 60, respectively. This impact highlights potential risks to aquatic ecosystems from runoff and pesticide use in palm oil plantations. Oil palm cultivation uses pesticides and fertilizers to control pests and increase production. This use can result in seawater pollution through the flow of water from the plantation to the sea, which can harm the marine ecosystem.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study by AbuQamar et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), which emphasizes the negative impacts of pesticide use in palm oil plantations on marine ecosystems, is consistent with this result. They found that the runoff from these plantations significantly impacts aquatic biodiversity, resulting in ecosystem degradation. Both results emphasize how urgently sustainable agriculture methods, such as integrated pest management, are needed to lessen chemical inputs and their negative ecological effects.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eOzone Layer Depletion (ODP)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eOzone Depletion Potential (ODP) relates to emissions of certain gases that can damage the stratospheric ozone layer. This ozone layer depletion leads to a significant fraction of UV-B solar radiation reaching the Earth's surface, potentially adversely impacting human health, animal health, terrestrial ecosystems, aquatic ecosystems, biochemical cycles, and materials.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eODP in the palm oil industry is a relative measure of ozone layer degradation caused by a compound in each unit mass to CFC-11. CFC-11 is considered the most damaging to ozone, with a maximum ODP value. ODP is a substance that damages the ozone layer. The impact is that ultraviolet rays from the sun will directly radiate to the Earth, which can cause disease, the Earth's temperature increases, and there is no protection from objects from the sky that fall to the Earth (Abbasi and Abbasi \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). In Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, ozone depletion is also primarily driven by the plantation phase, contributing about 87.04% for IV 56, 86.93% for IV 58, and 86.82% for IV 60. Other processes, such as RBDPO production and land preparation, contribute significantly less.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study by (van den Oever et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR90\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) emphasizes how agricultural practices, including specific fertilizers and pesticides, contribute to ozone depletion, even though this influence is less commonly discussed. According to their results, there is a need for more studies and policy intervention in the palm oil sector since agricultural emissions may contribute to the depletion of the ozone layer.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eAcidification\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcidifying pollution impacts soil, groundwater, surface water, biological organisms, ecosystems, and materials (Weldeslassie et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR92\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). The most critical acidifying pollutants are SO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e, NOx, and NHx. Acidification in the palm oil industry occurs because of acid deposition due to the release of compounds such as N and sulfur oxides into the atmosphere in soil and water, leading to changes in soil and water acidity and causing various environmental impacts. This impact category is quantified by stoichiometric conversion to the mass of protons liberated (H\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e) or the equivalent mass of sulfur dioxide (SO\u003csup\u003e2\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e). Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e shows that the oil palm cultivation stage has the highest acidification impact on palm cooking oil production. The highest contribution to the impact of acidification is using fertilizers and other agricultural inputs that release components that can change the environment's acidity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeveral studies have explored the relationship between agricultural practices and acidification, providing valuable insights into the mechanisms and consequences of acid emissions. The use of nitrogen fertilizers in agriculture is a major contributor to acidification (Spinelli et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR83\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). They discovered that sustainable farming methods, including well-applied fertilizer, might reduce acid emissions. This finding is consistent with research on palm oil production, which shows that overuse of fertilizers can exacerbate acidity. (Ashitha et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) reported how agricultural runoff affects water quality. They found that fertilizers can cause nutrient overloads in aquatic systems, which can cause acidification and eutrophication. Their findings highlight the necessity of efficient land management techniques to lessen these effects, especially pertinent to the palm oil sector, since plantation runoff can exacerbate environmental deterioration. Using pesticides and fertilizers contributes significantly to global acidification. To lower the emissions, (Balafoutis et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) promoted using ecologically friendly farming methods. This suggestion relates to the palm oil industry, where environmentally friendly methods may lessen the consequences of acidification.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eEutrophication\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eEutrophication includes all potential impacts of excessive environmental macro-nutrients, such as nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) (Khan et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Excessive nutrients can lead to undesirable species composition exchanges and increased biomass production in aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. Eutrophication in the palm oil industry is increasing excessive levels of minerals and nutrients in waters caused by using fertilizers containing high levels of nitrogen and phosphorus in oil palm plantations. Oil palm plantations require the use of fertilizers containing high levels of nitrogen and phosphorus to increase production. When these elements are washed off the plants by rainfall or irrigation, they can enter nearby waterways and cause eutrophication.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEutrophication negatively impacts water quality and the ecosystem within the water body. Excessive nutrient increases can lead to harmful algal blooms, which can deplete oxygen levels in the water and harm fish and other aquatic life. In addition, eutrophication can lead to the accumulation of organic matter that can contribute to the growth of bacteria and other microorganisms that can harm human health. In Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, the oil palm cultivation stage contributes the highest eutrophication impact on palm cooking oil production, contributing around 84.56\u0026ndash;87.16% across the different iodine values assessed. The highest contribution of this eutrophication impact is the use of fertilizers. This finding aligns with the research conducted by (Paudel and Crago \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) which examines how fertilizer-related agricultural runoff causes nitrogen loading in aquatic systems, ultimately leading to eutrophication. The necessity for better methods in palm oil production to reduce nutrient runoff is in line with (Ali and Bijay-Singh \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e), that nutrient management is essential in minimizing these effects.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eInterpretation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study results show that the leading cause of the environmental effects connected to the manufacturing of palm cooking oil is the oil palm cultivation process. The oil palm plantations must adopt sustainable practices to reduce the environmental loads. The results highlight how crucial it is to consider the full production lifetime when evaluating how agricultural goods affect the environment. The LCIA results in this study show that the plantation stage had the highest impact (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e), while the palm oil mill had the lowest impact due to the implementation of methane capture for biogas power generation from palm oil mill effluent (POME).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeveral LCA studies on palm oil production that did not include methane collection found significantly higher GWP values due to methane emissions from untreated POME.Reijnders \u0026amp; Huijbregts (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e) discovered that untreated POME emissions can contribute up to 3.0 kg CO₂ eq /kg of palm oil, which is roughly three times greater than the current study's figure of 1.23 kg CO₂ eq/kg oil. Similarly,Silalertruksa \u0026amp; Gheewala (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR79\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e) projected that palm oil mills without methane capture could account for up to 20% of total GHG emissions across the palm oil life cycle. In contrast to this study, which benefits from methane capture, a study by Schmidt (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), estimated a GWP of roughly 2.5 kg CO₂ eq/kg oil in mills without such mitigating measures. This striking contrast emphasizes the importance of methane recovery in mitigating climate change implications. Without methane collection, the anaerobic breakdown of organic waste in POME emits considerable amounts of CH₄, a GHG with a GWP 28 times greater than CO₂ over 100 years. This result shows that installing biogas recovery reduces GWP while mitigating other environmental concerns.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcidification and eutrophication levels were generally higher in studies that did not include methane capture. Wicke et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR93\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e), found a higher acidification potential of 9.0E-03 kg SO₂ eq/kg oil compared to this study's 7.77E-03 kg SO₂ eq/kg oil. Increased nitrogen leaching from untreated effluent leads to enhanced eutrophication levels of approximately 3.0E-03 kg PO₄ eq/kg oil (Wicke et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR93\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). The absence of methane capture may increase water pollution problems. (Razman et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) discovered that palm oil mills without methane recovery had considerably higher marine ecotoxicity due to increased chemical oxygen demand (COD) in untreated POME.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe comparison research demonstrates that methane capture significantly decreases GWP and other environmental impacts in palm oil production. Studies without methane capture implementation consistently report higher impacts, particularly in climate change-related categories. The results also highlight how important it is for policymakers to successfully concentrate on sustainable palm oil production methods to lessen environmental effects. Sustainable agricultural practices can reduce greenhouse gas emissions and ecological degradation by improving soil management, lowering chemical inputs, and implementing agroforestry systems. In addition to promoting sustainable palm oil production, strict laws regarding land use change and agricultural techniques can aid in the protection of delicate ecosystems. Other than that, awareness of consumer is important to increase demand for sustainable goods sourced may increase if people are aware of palm oil's adverse environmental effects.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSensitivity analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSensitivity analysis aims to assess the reliability of final results and conclusions by determining how they are affected by data uncertainty and allocating methods to calculate category indicator results. The sensitivity check uses a reference from ISO 14044: 2017 by comparing the results of category impact calculations with various calculation methods. This analysis helps identify which factors significantly influence the results and which are less important. It also provides information for decision-makers and can guide data collection, system boundary definition, and impact allocation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn palm cooking oil production, the input parameter of NPK fertilizer use is known to have the greatest influence on the environment. The results of the sensitivity analysis on the input parameters show that by adding and subtracting 10% of NPK fertilizer usage from the existing conditions, the environmental impact is expected to change relatively within the range of 0.87\u0026ndash;1.13% (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eUncertainty analysis of the global warming impact\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eUncertainty analysis in the LCA of palm cooking oil production is essential to understand and quantify the various fluctuations and risks associated with the environmental impacts of this process. Monte Carlo analysis techniques have been used to examine the uncertainty in LCA results by considering the probability distribution of critical parameters. The uncertainty analysis in this study was conducted using Monte Carlo simulation in openLCA software with various input data for LCIA based on sensitivity parameters. For this study, 1000 iterations were simulated to increase the validity and make the simulation more accurate. Simulations were conducted for the global warming potential impact category, and the mean value, standard deviation, 95% percentile, and coefficient of variation (CoV) were calculated.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe average value of the GWP impact obtained is 1.230 kg CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e eq, with a standard deviation of 0.0946, which shows relatively small fluctuations in the results. The 5% and 95% percentile values are respectively located at 1.228 kg CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e eq and 1.233 kg CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e eq, indicating that about 90% of the simulation results fall within this range. The minimum and maximum values resulting from the simulation are 1.227 kg CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e eq and 1.240 kg CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e eq, indicating a range of variability in the results (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). However, it remains focused on the mean value. With a centered and symmetrical distribution of results, it can be concluded that the probability distribution for the GWP impact category is stable and predictable (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe calculation results show that the CoV is 0.13%. This result indicates a low level of uncertainty in the LCA results. A CoV below 10% is generally considered an indicator that the variability or uncertainty in the calculation of environmental impacts is highly controllable. It also indicates that fluctuations in the input parameters do not result in significant deviations from the mean value, making the LCA results a basis for decision-making regarding the environmental impacts of palm cooking oil production, especially regarding GWP impacts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUncertainty analysis \u003cem\u003eof the global warming impact\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"9\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eImpact Category\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnit\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStandar Deviation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMin\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMax\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5% Percentile\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95% Percentile\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGWP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ekg CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e eq\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.230\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.65E-03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.227\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.240\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.228\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.233\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.13%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Indonesia, the most widely available and consumed palm cooking oil has an IV of 56. The environmental impacts of palm oil with IV 56 have been compared to those of other vegetable oils found in previous studies. The study's LCIA results show that palm cooking oil has a GWP of 1.23 kg CO₂ eq/kg oil, from land preparation to frying. A comparison to prior studies demonstrates significant diversity in reported GWP estimates of palm cooking oil (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e) with boundary from plantation to produce cooking oil.Prado et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) estimated a GWP of 4.80 kg CO₂ eq/kg oil in a cradle-to-grave system, while Alcock et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), reported 3.73 kg CO₂ eq/kg refined oil, including emissions from land use change and refinery activities.Stefanie et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR84\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) reported a higher GWP of 6.86 kg CO₂ eq/kg oil along the farm-to-factory boundary (include transportation to market). The observed variance in results could be due to changes in system boundaries, methodological frameworks, data sources, and regional agricultural practices.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePalm cooking oil appeared to have a lower GWP than other vegetable oils in this study with relatively the same boundaries. Rapeseed oil shows GWP impacts ranging from 1.82 kg CO₂ eq/kg to 3.35 kg CO₂ eq/kg (Bai et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Bellon et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), while soybean oil exhibits values is 5.67 kg CO₂ eq/kg (Bai et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Peanut oil has a GWP 3.15 kg CO₂ eq/kg (Bai et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Canola oil has a GWP 1.94 kg CO₂ eq/kg (Khanali et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). The observed disparities can be attributable to differences in system limits, methodological techniques, and agricultural practices.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe AP for palm cooking oil production is 0.00571 kg SO₂ eq/kg. This value is lower than the 0.0122 kg SO₂ eq/kg published by Stefanie et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR84\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) for refined palm oil, as well as lower than rapeseed oil, which ranges from 0.0116 kg SO₂ eq/kg (Bellon et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) to 0.04139 kg SO₂ eq/kg (Bai et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Soybean and sunflower oils have higher AP impacts, measuring 0.03437 kg SO₂ eq/kg (Bai et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) and 0.0171 kg SO₂ eq/kg (Stefanie et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR84\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) respectively. The higher AP values for these oils are likely associated with increased fertilizer application and emissions from land use changes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this study, the calculated EP for palm cooking oil is 0.00219 kg PO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e eq/kg, higher than(Stefanie et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR84\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) 0.000565 kg PO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e eq/kg. Rapeseed oil has an EP value of 0.0017 kg PO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e eq/kg (Bellon et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), while soybean oil and sunflower oil have values of 0.00163 kg PO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e eq/kg and 0.00779 kg PO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e eq/kg, respectively (Stefanie et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR84\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). EP levels can vary due to changes in nitrogen and phosphate fertilizer application rates, wastewater treatment efficiencies, and geographic variables.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study found that the ODP is 8.60E-08 kg CFC-11 eq/kg oil.Stefanie et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR84\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) discovered that refined palm oil had a lower ODP of 9.74E-09 kg CFC-11 eq/kg oil, whereas soybean and sunflower oils have higher ODP values of 1.04E-05 kg CFC-11 eq/kg and 1.11E-05 kg CFC-11 eq/kg, respectively.Bellon et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) found that processed rapeseed oil has an ODP of 1.81E-05 kg CFC-11 eq/kg. The lower ODP observed in this study shows that refrigerant use and chemical processing in palm cooking oil production are causing lower emissions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study's findings suggest reduced environmental effect values, particularly for GWP and acidification potential, compared to earlier research. Nevertheless, these differences are likely due to system boundary definitions, scientific approaches, and regional agriculture practices. These differences are most likely driven by system boundary definitions, scientific approaches, and regional agriculture practices. Studies with broader system limits, such as cradle-to-grave evaluations, typically report higher GWP values because they account for emissions from land use changes, transportation, and end-of-life processes. Differences in the life cycle impact assessment models, emission factor databases, and technology efficiency contribute to study variability. Understanding these methodological nuances is critical for accurate environmental effect comparisons and for creating more sustainable palm oil production plans.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study presents a comprehensive LCA of palm cooking oil production in Sumatra, Indonesia, employing a cradle-to-gate approach. The results indicate that the oil palm cultivation stage is the primary contributor to the environmental impacts associated with palm cooking oil, particularly in terms of GWP, EP, AP, MAECT, and ODP. Among the various iodine values assessed, IV 60 exhibits the highest environmental impact across all categories, largely due to the extended fractionation process requiring higher electricity consumption.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe comparative analysis reveals that palm cooking oil has a lower carbon footprint (1.23 kg CO₂ eq/kg) than other vegetable oils, such as rapeseed oil (1.82\u0026ndash;3.35 kg CO₂ eq/kg), sunflower oil (1.49\u0026ndash;2.94 kg CO₂ eq/kg), and soybean oil (4.25\u0026ndash;6.4 kg CO₂ eq/kg). Similarly, the AP of palm cooking oil (0.00571 kg SO₂ eq/kg) is also lower than the other vegetable oils such as rapeseed (0.0116\u0026ndash;0.04139 kg SO₂ eq/kg) and soybean oil (0.03437 kg SO₂ eq/kg). However, the EP of palm cooking oil (0.00219 kg PO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e eq/kg) is higher compared to rapeseed oil (0.0017 kg PO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e eq/kg) and soybean oil (0.00163 kg PO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e eq/kg). This elevated EP is primarily attributed to the application of nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers in oil palm plantations. Furthermore, compared to studies that did not incorporate methane capture, this study reports a significantly lower GWP, highlighting the environmental benefit of methane recovery in the palm oil industry.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese findings emphasize the necessity of considering a full life cycle perspective when assessing the environmental impacts of palm cooking oil relative to other vegetable cooking oils. Sustainable practices, particularly during the plantation stage, are critical for reducing the environmental burdens of palm cooking oil. Key strategies such as improved land management, optimized fertilization regimes, and methane capture technologies can significantly reduce the negative environmental impacts. This study provides valuable insights for consumers, industry stakeholders, and policymakers to adopt evidence-based measures to enhance the sustainability of palm cooking oil. Future research should focus on refining methodological approaches and incorporating best practices in sustainable palm oil production to minimize adverse environmental consequences.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgments\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors would like to thank the PT. Perkebunan Nusantara IV region III as the plantation and palm oil mill, and PT. Industri Nabati Lestari as the refinery company who were willing to provide the data.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research was supported by the RIIM LPDP Grant and BRIN, grant number B-839/II.7.5/FR.06/5/2023. The authors wish to acknowledge\u0026nbsp;the Energy and Manufacture Research Organization, BRIN for supporting this research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cstrong\u003eAuthorship contributions\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eAll the authors contributed to the study concept, ideas, and design. RR, FI, UA, DFS, HF, KS, ABM, AARS, SS, IF, EIW, and NAS prepared the materials and collected the data. RR, FI, UA, DFS, HF, and ABM conducted the literature review, data analysis, and writing of the manuscript. RR, FI, UA, DFS, HF, and ABM conducted data handling and administration. AARS, IF, and EIW participated in critically analyzing the manuscript for significant intellectual content. RR, FI, UA, DFS, HF, ABM, KS, and NAS participated in the conceptualization of the study. RR, FI, UA, DFS, HF, and ABM wrote the first draft of the manuscript, and all authors commented on previous versions. All the authors have read and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical Approval\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis is not applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;Consent to Participate\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis is not applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp; Consent to Publish\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis is not applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting Interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability Statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data will be made available upon reasonable request\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAbbasi SA, Abbasi T (2017) The Ozone Hole. 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Sustainability 2019, Vol 11, Page 636 11:636. https://doi.org/10.3390/SU11030636\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFrigerio V, Casson A, Limbo S (2023) Comparison of different methodological choices in functional unit selection and results implication when assessing food-packaging environmental impact. J Clean Prod 396:136527. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2023.136527\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGanesan K, Sukalingam K, Xu B (2019) Impact of consumption of repeatedly heated cooking oils on the incidence of various cancers- A critical review. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 59:488\u0026ndash;505. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2017.1379470\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGheewala SH, Jaroenkietkajorn U, Nilsalab P, Silalertruksa T, Somkerd T, Laosiripojana N (2022) Sustainability assessment of palm oil-based refinery systems for food, fuel, and chemicals. 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For Policy Econ 111:102089. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FORPOL.2020.102089\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRashedi A, Khanam T (2020) Life cycle assessment of most widely adopted solar photovoltaic energy technologies by mid-point and end-point indicators of ReCiPe method. Environmental Science and Pollution Research 27:29075\u0026ndash;29090. https://doi.org/10.1007/S11356-020-09194-1/FIGURES/9\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRazman KK, Hanafiah MM, Mohammad AW, Lun AW (2022) Life Cycle Assessment of an Integrated Membrane Treatment System of Anaerobic-Treated Palm Oil Mill Effluent (POME). Membranes (Basel) 12:246. https://doi.org/10.3390/MEMBRANES12020246/S1\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eReijnders L, Huijbregts MAJ (2008) Palm oil and the emission of carbon-based greenhouse gases. 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Springer, Cham, pp 1\u0026ndash;22\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWicke B, Dornburg V, Junginger M, Faaij A (2008) Different palm oil production systems for energy purposes and their greenhouse gas implications. Biomass Bioenergy 32:1322\u0026ndash;1337\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWieck C, Grant JH (2021) Codex in Motion: Food Safety Standard Setting and Impacts on Developing Countries\u0026rsquo; Agricultural Exports. EuroChoices 20:37\u0026ndash;47. https://doi.org/10.1111/1746-692X.12293\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWiloso EI, Nazir N, Hanafi J, Siregar K, Harsono SS, Setiawan AAR, Muryanto, Romli M, Utama NA, Shantiko B, Jupesta J, Utomo THA, Sari AA, Saputra SY, Fang K (2019) Life cycle assessment research and application in Indonesia. International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment 24:386\u0026ndash;396. https://doi.org/10.1007/S11367-018-1459-3/TABLES/4\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZhang Y, Zhuang P, Wu F, He W, Mao L, Jia W, Zhang Y, Chen X, Jiao J (2021) Cooking oil/fat consumption and deaths from cardiometabolic diseases and other causes: prospective analysis of 521,120 individuals. BMC Med 19:1\u0026ndash;14. https://doi.org/10.1186/S12916-021-01961-2/FIGURES/3\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":true,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"environmental-science-and-pollution-research","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"espr","sideBox":"Learn more about [Environmental Science and Pollution Research](https://www.springer.com/journal/11356)","snPcode":"11356","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/11356/3","title":"Environmental Science and Pollution Research","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"palm oil production, palm cooking oil, iodine value, environmental impact, life cycle assessment","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6637300/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6637300/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eOver the past decade, there has been a notable increase in Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) studies on oil palm production worldwide, with a primary focus on the life cycle stages from oil palm plantation to Crude Palm Oil (CPO) production. However, a research gap remains in the downstream segment, from CPO to cooking oil production. This study addresses the gap by utilizing LCA to evaluate the environmental impacts using recent field data collected from selected sites in Sumatra. The study seeks to assess the environmental impacts based on the quality of palm cooking oil, and to compare these impacts with those of other vegetable cooking oils. The system boundary is defined as cradle to gate, comprising land preparation, plantation, CPO production and refinery of cooking oil. The results indicate that higher-quality palm cooking oil is associated with increased environmental impacts across several categories, including global warming, eutrophication, acidification, ozone layer depletion and marine ecotoxicity. Moreover, palm cooking oil with iodine value (IV) 56 which represents the quality level commonly consumed exhibits a lower carbon footprint compared to cooking oils derived from rapeseed, sunflower, soybean, peanut, canola, coconut and maize. These findings offer valuable insights for consumers, industries and policymakers to mitigate the environmental impact of vegetable cooking oil.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Environmental Impact of Palm Cooking Oil: A Case Study in Sumatra, Indonesia","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-06-09 10:08:06","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6637300/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Major Revision","date":"2025-07-17T22:29:04+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"","date":"2025-06-02T19:57:31+00:00","index":0,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-06-02T19:32:28+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"Environmental Science and Pollution Research","date":"2025-05-22T07:49:06+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-05-19T04:34:56+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Environmental Science and Pollution Research","date":"2025-05-15T15:47:43+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"environmental-science-and-pollution-research","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"espr","sideBox":"Learn more about [Environmental Science and Pollution Research](https://www.springer.com/journal/11356)","snPcode":"11356","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/11356/3","title":"Environmental Science and Pollution Research","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"f3a9155d-c657-4a1a-8c90-d35785dd4cc3","owner":[],"postedDate":"June 9th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-10-27T16:23:07+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-6637300","link":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-025-37056-1","journal":{"identity":"environmental-science-and-pollution-research","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Environmental Science and Pollution Research"},"publishedOn":"2025-10-20 16:16:07","publishedOnDateReadable":"October 20th, 2025"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-06-09 10:08:06","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1007/s11356-025-37056-1","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-025-37056-1","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6637300","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6637300","identity":"rs-6637300","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}