Sex-specific impact of early nutrition on neurodevelopment, cognition and brain structure in healthy children up to 6-year-old: Findings from the COGNIS study

Sex-specific impact of early nutrition on neurodevelopment, cognition and brain structure in healthy children up to 6-year-old: Findings from the COGNIS study | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Sex-specific impact of early nutrition on neurodevelopment, cognition and brain structure in healthy children up to 6-year-old: Findings from the COGNIS study Ana Nieto-Ruiz, Antonio Jerez, Florian Herrmann, Rocío Bonillo-León, and 6 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7067933/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background early nutrition plays a critical role in brain development, but the potential combined effects of sex and nutrition are still relatively understudied. Objective to explore whether sex can influence the long-term impact of early nutrition on neurodevelopment, cognitive function, and brain structure in healthy infants up to 6 years old. Methods the current study involved healthy children up to 6 years old participating in the COGNIS Study. Infants were randomized to receive, during their first 18 months of life, a standard (SF) or an experimental infant formula (EF) enriched with bioactive nutrients including long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFAs), milk fat globule membrane (MFGM) and synbiotics, among others. As a reference group, breastfed (BF) children were included. A total of 108 children, were followed-up to 6 years old (SF, n = 37; EF, n = 39; BF, n = 32). Results girls presented better cognitive development at 18 months of life and better execution in a Go/no-Go task at 6 years old, while boys showed better reaction time at 6 years. Girls showed greater regional brain volumes in temporal lobes. Boys presented greater cortical thickness in posterior brain areas, while girls had greater cortical thickness in cingulate and frontal areas. Additionally, EF fed boys showed higher intelligence quotient (IQ), as well as better long-term verbal memory than SF fed boys. EF boys also presented higher volumes in different regions of the right parietal lobule, and lower cortical thickness in right frontal sulcus, compared to SF boys. Finally, higher volumes and lower cortical thickness of different brain areas, particularly in girls, were associated with better cognitive development. Conclusions our findings suggest that infant formula enriched with bioactive nutrients may exert long-term, sex-specific beneficial effects on neurocognitive development and brain structure, particularly in boys. These results underscore the potential importance of developing sex-specific nutritional interventions during early life to optimize neurodevelopmental outcomes. cognition neuroimaging early nutrition infant formula breastfeeding Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Highlights 1. Infant formula enriched with MFGM, LC-PUFAs and Synbiotic may enhance cognitive outcomes and modulate brain structure in a sex-specific manner, with notable improvements in IQ and memory observed in boys. 2. Sex appears to influence neurodevelopmental trajectories : at 6 years, girls outperformed boys in cognitive and executive domains, while boys exhibited faster reaction time performance potentially related with increased processing speed. 3. Evidence of neuroanatomical sexual dimorphism of the brain is suggested, with boys showing greater posterior cortical thickness and temporal lobe volumes, and girls demonstrating enhanced thickness in cingulate and frontal cortices. Combined influence of sex and type of early feeding on brain structure were less pronounced in girls. 4. Distinct neurocognitive-brain morphometry associations were more pronounced in girls, especially in language-related brain areas. 5. These findings suggest sex-specific neurodevelopmental responses to early-life nutrition , highlighting the relevance of individualized dietary strategies for optimizing pediatric brain development. 1. Introduction Neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs) are a group of conditions that affect the development of the brain and nervous system, leading to problems related to behavior, learning, communication, and social interaction. These disorders are prevalent worldwide, affecting a significant proportion of children and adolescents. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the global prevalence of NDDs among children aged 0–14 years is estimated to be around 10–15%, with some estimates suggesting that the figure could be as high as 25% [1,2]. Additionally, sex-based differences in the prevalence of neurodevelopmental disorders, such as autism and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), have been reported [3]. The etiology of NDD is complex and multifactorial, involving genetic, environmental and social factors. While some risk factors are beyond our control, there are modifiable factors, mainly nutrition and early childhood development, that can be targeted for prevention and early intervention [4]. The human brain is a complex organ that undergoes a remarkable period of development during the first few years of life. This period, known as early neurodevelopment, is crucial for laying the foundation for a child's cognitive, emotional, and social development throughout their lifespan [5]. Various factors, including genetic background, environmental influences, and nutrition, can have long-term consequences on child brain structure and function [6]. Among them, it is well established that adequate nutrition, especially during the first 1000 days of life in which the brain is rapidly developing, is essential for building a strong foundation for brain growth and function [7]. Consequently, nutritional deficiencies during this critical period can lead to developmental delays, impaired cognitive function, and other neurodevelopmental disorders [8]. Human milk is the gold standard for infant nutrition due to it contains various bioactive compounds (growth and satiety factors, hormone, cytokines and microRNA, among others) that play crucial roles in infant physiology and development [9]. Although many of these bioactive substances seem to follow sex-specific secretion pathways in adults, children [10,11], and cord blood [12,13], there is limited knowledge regarding their sex-specific distribution in human milk. In this regard, both male and female infants exhibit different responses to their early nutritional environment, suggesting sex-specific requirements for optimal growth and development during this early life stage [14]. Interestingly, the data obtained so far suggest that the composition of human milk in term infants may present sex-specific variations in terms of high calorie, carbohydrate and fat content in human milk for male-term infants compared to female-term infants [15–18]. Moreover, proteins related to metabolic processes seem to be up-regulated for mothers of male infants and in the mature stage of lactation, while those related to defense appear to be abundant in mothers of female infants and in the colostrum phase [19]. Despite this, there are currently no guidelines that establish sex-specific nutritional strategies or requirements for infants [20]. Therefore, gaining a better understanding of whether male and female infants receive different nutritional and hormonal intakes through human milk could provide valuable insights into the potential need for sex-specific nutritional strategies in clinical and community settings. In addition, recent efforts have focused on potential impact of sex on early neurodevelopment, with some studies suggesting that boys and girls may develop at different rates and have different nutritional requirements [21,22]. Interestingly, there is important but inconclusive evidence concerning sex differences in brain structure and function. In fact, the adult male brain has ≈ 10% greater volume than the adult female brain, but lower cortical thickness and white matter tract complexity [23]. Studies performed in children also show sex-based effects on brain structure, suggesting that boys seem to have greater variability in brain structure compared to girls [24,25]. However, other factors or educational experiences, but not sex, seem to be decisive in brain-cognitive differences between boys and girls [25]. Overall, a better understanding of the impact of early nutrition and sex on brain structure and function should be critical for developing effective strategies to promote healthy brain development in children, thus reducing the risk of neurodevelopmental disorders at both early and later ages. Having in mind these considerations, the current study aimed to analyze the short and long-term sex-specific impact, as well as combined effects of sex and type of early feeding, on neurodevelopment, cognitive function, and brain structure in healthy children up to 6 years old. 2. Methods 2.1. Study design and subjects The COGNIS study is a double-blind randomized clinical trial (RCT) with a nutritional intervention using a new infant formula supplemented/enriched with bioactive nutrients (registered at www.ClinicalTrials.gov , Identifier: NCT02094547). Both COGNIS project and formula composition have been previously described elsewhere [26–28]. Briefly, a total of 220 healthy Spanish infants were enrolled; of them, 170 infants, aged 0–2 months, were randomly assigned (ratio 1:1) to receive, during their first 18 months of life, either a standard infant formula (SF: n = 85) or an experimental infant formula (EF: n = 85) containing milk fat globule membrane (MFGM) components [10% of total protein content (wt:wt)], synbiotics [Fructooligosaccharides (FOS): Inulin proportion 1:1; Bifidobacterium longum subsp. infantis CECT7210 ( Bifidobacterium infantis IM1®) and Lactobacillus rhamnosus LCS-74], long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFAs), gangliosides, nucleotides and sialic acid. Additionally, 50 exclusively breastfed infants (BF), for at least 2 months, between 0–6 months of age, were recruited as a reference group. Independently of the principal outcome of the COGNIS Study, the current exploratory study included 171 infants evaluated at 6 months, 76 of them girls (SF = 60, 24 girls; EF = 68, 26 girls; BF = 41, 26 girls), 152 infants at 12 months (69 girls) (SF = 51, 21 girls; EF = 63, 25 girls; BF = 38, 23 girls), and 141 infants at 18 months (65 girls) (SF = 48, 20 girls; EF = 56, 23 girls; BF = 37, 22 girls). Follow-up at 4 and 6 years old was conducted with neuropsychological assessments. After drop-outs, 122 children were evaluated at 4 years old, 51 of them girls (SF = 46, 15 girls; EF = 43, 16 girls; BF = 33, 20 girls). Likewise, neuropsychological evaluation was performed in108 children at 6 years old (46 girls) (SF = 37, 13 girls; EF = 39, 14 girls; BF = 32, 19 girls). Finally, participants were also invited to undergo a Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) at 6 years old; however, data from 30 participants were excluded due to excessive motion during acquisition. A participant flowchart from baseline visit to 6 years old is shown in Fig. 1 . <> 2.2. Ethical approval declarations This study was performed according to the updated Declaration of Helsinki Principles [29,30], and all procedures were approved by the Research Ethical Committee of the University of Granada and the Bioethical Committees for Clinical Research of the University San Cecilio and Mother-Infant Hospitals in Granada (Spain). All families were informed about all procedures during the follow-up and signed informed consent was obtained from each parent or legal guardian before involving each child in the study. 2.3. Data collection and assessment Baseline characteristics of infant participants were collected using validated questionnaires and medical records, including gestational age, delivery type, sex, sibling information, and breastfeeding period. Information about the parents was also obtained, including age, pre-conceptional maternal weight and BMI, gestational weight gain (GWG), smoking during pregnancy, education, place of residence, and socioeconomic status. The Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (Spanish version) was used to evaluate postpartum depression [31], and parental intelligence quotient (IQ) was assessed with the Cattell Intelligence test (G Factor) [32,33]. 2.4. Neurodevelopment assessment Bayley´s Scales of Infant Development III (Spanish version BSID III) [34] was used to assess psychomotor and mental development at ages 6, 12, and 18 months. The BSID III measures overall cognitive development from 1–30 months of life, including gross and fine motor skills, language (receptive and expressive communication), IQ-cognition or mental development. Additionally, socio-emotional development was determined by parent-filled questionnaire. 2.5. Cognitive performance The cognitive tests and neuropsychological battery were performed at 4 and 6 years old as previously described [35]. Briefly, Kaufman Brief Intelligence test (K-BIT) was used to evaluate verbal and non-verbal intelligence, as well as a general IQ [36]. Oral language development was assessment by Oral Language Test of Navarra Revised (PLON-R) [37]. Finally, neuropsychological developmental domains (immediate and delayed memory, attention, visual motor coordination, verbal fluency and comprehension, processing speed and executive function) were measures by Computerized Battery for Neuropsychological Evaluation of Children (BENCI) [38,39]. 2.6. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) procedure Imaging data acquisition and neuroimage processing were described previously elsewhere [35]. Brain data were acquired using a 3T Magnetic Resonance Imaging scanner equipped with a 32-channel phased-array head coil for reception (Magnetom Trio Siemens Medical System, ERLANGEN, Germany), located at Mind, Brain and Behavior Research Centre (CIMCYC, University of Granada, Spain). 2.7. Statistical analysis The statistical analysis was performed using IBM® SPSS Statistics® program, version 24.0 (SPSS Inc. Chicago, IL, USA). Normally distributed variables were expressed as mean and standard deviation (SD), while non-normal variables as median and interquartile range (IQR). Categorical variables were displayed as frequencies and percentages. Test used included T-Student, ANOVA or Welch test for normally distributed variables, Kruskal Wallis test for non-normal continuous variables and Chi-square or Fisher test for categorical variables. Normal distribution was assumed using Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, and T-Student tests and one-way ANOVAs were used to examine differences in neurocognitive test scores, brain volumes and cortical thicknesses between SF, EF and BF groups by sex. Total intracranial volume was included as covariate in all brain volume analyses. Additional analyses of group comparisons were performed using a one-way analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) adjusted for potential confounders such as maternal age, familiar socioeconomic status, smoking during pregnancy, as well as age of the children [40–42]. In the event of significant group differences, Bonferroni corrected post hoc comparisons were used to determine significant pair-wise group differences. Finally, partial correlation analyses were performed to estimate relationship between child neurocognitive performance and brain volumes and thicknesses of regions that were statistically different. P- values < 0.05 were considered statistically significant. 3. Results 3.1. Background characteristics of the COGNIS parent-infant’ pairs The comparative baseline characteristics of parents and infants participating in the COGNIS study are shown in Table 1 . There were differences in maternal IQ and education level between study groups. Thus, mothers who breastfed their offspring had higher IQ ( P < 0.001) than those of both formula-feeding groups. No differences in paternal IQ were found. Furthermore, parents of BF infants had higher educational level (maternal P < 0.001, paternal P = 0.003). All mothers had adequate pre-conceptional BMI and GWG, and most were non-smokers during pregnancy. All infants were born at term, mostly via vaginal delivery, with adequate weight, length, and head circumference for gestational age. Due to the COGNIS study design, days of breastfed significantly differed between study groups ( P < 0.001). The study population was homogeneous regarding confounding factors, allowing for reliable and valid statistical analysis after accounting for significant confounding factors. Table 1 Baseline characteristics of the COGNIS study participants SF (n = 85) EF (n = 85) BF (n = 50) p 1 Mother Age (years) 32 (10.5) 30.50 (8.5) 32 (6.25) 0.068 pBMI (kg/m 2 ) 24.18 (5.86) 23.68 (6.16) 23.90 (4.36) 0.842 GWG (kg) 7 (6.5) 6 (6.5) 6 (5) 0.781 Smoking during pregnancy Yes 13 (18.8%) 10 (13.0%) 2 (4.7%) 0.098 Type of delivery Vaginal 62 (72.9%) 60 (70.6%) 37 (74.0%) 0.899 Caesarean 23 (27.0%) 25 (29.4%) 13 (26.0%) Postpartum Depression Yes 21 (24.7%) 22 (26.2%) 6 (12.0%) 0.131 IQ (points) 102 (19) a 100 (22) a 111 (19) b < 0.001 Educational level Primary 19 (22.4%) a 19 (22.4%) a 1 (2.0%) b < 0.001 Secondary 28 (32.9%) a 29 (34.1%) a 5 (10.0%) b VT 15 (17.6%) 21 (24.7%) 16 (32.0%) University 23 (27.1%) a 16 (18.8%) a 28 (56.0%) b Father Age (years) 32.68 ± 6.89 33.31 ± 7.03 35.07 ± 5.01 0.134 IQ (points) 108 (21) 102 (19) 108 (18) 0.062 Educational level Primary 28 (35.0%) a 36 (46.2%) a 6 (12.8%) b 0.003 Secondary 25 (31.3%) 16 (20.5%) 11 (23.4%) VT 13 (16.3%) 12 (15.4%) 12 (25.5%) University 14 (17.4%) a 14 (17.9%) a 18 (38.3%) b Familiar Siblings No 33 (38.8%) 42 (49.4%) 28 (56.0%) 0.128 Yes 52 (61.2%) 43 (50.6%) 22 (44.0%) Place of residence Urban 38 (44.7%) 28 (32.9%) 15 (30.0%) 0.148 Rural 47 (55.3%) 57(67.1%) 35 (70.0%) Newborn characteristics GA at delivery (weeks) 40 (2) 40 (1) 39.5 (2.25) 0.925 Sex (boy) 49 (57.6%) 51 (60.0%) 21 (42.0%) 0.105 Birth weight (g) 3266.25 ± 459.08 3347.76 ± 486.41 3321.20 ± 431.73 0.513 Birth length (cm) 50 (3) 51 (3) 51 (2) 0.431 Birth HC (cm) 35 (1.5) 34.25 (1) 35 (1.75) 0.481 Breastfeeding (days) 8 (22) a 7 (27) a 420 (270) b < 0.001 Data are presented as means ± SD for parametrically distributed data, n (%) for categorical data, and medians (IQRs) for non-parametrically distributed data. 1 P -values for overall differences between COGNIS-groups. ANOVA test for normally distributed variables, Kruskal Wallis test for non-normal continuous variables, and Chi-square or Fisher test for categorical variables. Values not sharing the same suffix (ab) were significantly different in the Bonferroni post hoc test. P -values < 0.05 are highlighted in bold. SF: Standard infant formula; EF: Experimental infant formula; BF: Breastfed infants; pBMI: Pre-conceptional body mass index; GWG: Gestational Weight Gain; IQ: Intelligence quotient; VT: Vocational training; GA: Gestational age; HC: Head circumference. 3.2. Sex-based neurocognitive differences in infants up to 18 months of age We first evaluate whether sex might influence infant neurodevelopment up to 18 months of age, regardless type of early nutrition. Having in mind that neuropsychological development in COGNIS infants scored within normal ranges by age and sex, our analysis showed sex-related differences. As shown in Table 2 , girls presented higher cognitive scores than boys ( P = 0.019, in an unadjusted model) at 18 months of age. After adjusting for maternal age, smoking during pregnancy, familiar socioeconomic status and COGNIS groups, no differences in infant neurodevelopment were found at 6 and 12 months of age. However, at 18 months, significant differences on the cognitive scale disappeared ( P = 0.065), but girls presented better language skills than boys ( P = 0.045). Table 2 Infant neurodevelopment up to 18 months old depending on their sex 1 Bayley's III Composite Scores 6 months 3 P 2 P adj 12 months 4 P 2 P adj 18 months 5 P 2 P adj Cognitive Boys 118.92 ± 11.86 0.088 0.191 134.10 ± 11.97 0.574 0.874 126.45 ± 13.24 0.019 0.065 Girls 121.71 ± 8.55 135.14 ± 10.71 131.38 ± 11.09 Language Boys 120.89 ± 9.70 0.807 0.411 120.01 ± 11.80 0.876 0.844 110.92 ± 12.24 0.124 0.045 Girls 120.54 ± 8.83 120.35 ± 14.25 114.23 ± 13.10 Motor skills Boys 112.61 ± 13.41 0.252 0.103 113.31 ± 16.56 0.785 0.797 119.79 ± 12.97 0.477 0.680 Girls 114.97 ± 13.15 114.09 ± 18.33 121.38 ± 13.57 Social-emotional Boys 100.86 ± 16.08 0.238 0.113 101.27 ± 16.04 0.421 0.230 101.18 ± 18.53 0.536 0.052 Girls 103.88 ± 16.98 103.31 ± 14.80 103.20 ± 19.97 1 Data are presented as means of composite score ± SD. 2 P -values for differences between groups. T-Test for normally distributed variables. P adj are univariate analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) adjusted by maternal age, smoking during pregnancy, familiar socioeconomic status and COGNIS groups. Bonferroni post hoc test was performed. P-values < 0.05 are highlighted in bold. 3 Infants at 6 months: Boys (n = 93); Girls (n = 76). 4 Infants at 12 months: Boys (n = 83); Girls (n = 69). 5 Infants at 18 months: Boys (n = 76); Girls (n = 65). <> 3.3. Combined effects of early nutrition and sex on infant neurodevelopment up to 18 months of life In order to analyze the potential combined effects of sex and type of feeding up to 18 months of life, study sample was divided into infant girls and boys and regrouped by COGNIS groups. The following analysis were adjusted by maternal age, smoking during pregnancy and familiar socioeconomic status (Table 3 ). Table 3 Infant neurodevelopment up to 18 months old depending on their sex and type of feeding 1 Bayley's III Composite Scores 6 months 3 P 2 P adj 12 months 4 P 2 P adj 18 months 5 P 2 P adj BOYS Cognitive SF 118.06 ± 14.46 0.843 0.976 132.67 ± 15.30 a,b < 0.001 0.038 126.43 ± 13.67 a,b 0.003 0.026 EF 119.64 ± 10.14 132.37 ± 9.85 a 122.12 ± 12.75 a BF 119.00 ± 9.86 141.33 ± 5.50 b 136.00 ± 8.06 b Language SF 120.75 ± 10.74 0.095 0.190 121.07 ± 11.45 0.629 0.599 112.75 ± 13.63 0.370 0.739 EF 122.64 ± 8.41 120.18 ± 12.84 111.06 ± 11.81 BF 116.33 ± 9.58 117.47 ± 9.96 107.20 ± 10.19 Motor skills SF 114.25 ± 16.65 0.476 0.726 117.27 ± 19.88 0.164 0.243 119.82 ± 12.53 a 0.007 0.007 EF 110.74 ± 10.77 109.68 ± 13.83 115.85 ± 13.45 a BF 113.93 ± 11.37 114.60 ± 14.56 128.40 ± 8.32 b Social-emotional SF 102.08 ± 16.01 0.751 0.769 101.00 ± 13.73 0.262 0.839 103.75 ± 20.58 0.583 0.332 EF 100.71 ± 16.14 103.68 ± 18.33 98.79 ± 18.46 BF 98.33 ± 16.87 95.67 ± 13.35 101.67 ± 14.72 GIRLS Cognitive SF 122.50 ± 8.97 0.300 0.522 138.57 ± 8.08 0.087 0.339 132.00 ± 10.05 0.507 0.375 EF 119.62 ± 8.59 136.00 ± 9.13 129.13 ± 13.45 BF 123.08 ± 8.01 131.09 ± 13.23 133.18 ± 9.20 Language SF 121.42 ± 10.51 0.426 0.149 124.71 ± 12.10 a 0.025 0.451 117.50 ± 15.42 0.409 0.472 EF 118.69 ± 8.80 122.56 ± 14.40 a,b 113.04 ± 11.21 BF 121.58 ± 7.02 113.96 ± 14.22 b 112.50 ± 12.71 Motor skills SF 116.42 ± 13.88 0.151 0.978 119.10 ± 20.89 0.176 0.437 123.15 ± 11.11 0.725 0.979 EF 110.96 ± 13.11 114.72 ± 18.60 119.70 ± 16.96 BF 117.65 ± 11.98 108.83 ± 14.53 121.55 ± 11.92 Social-emotional SF 105.21 ± 13.63 0.309 0.986 104.52 ± 13.12 0.893 0.072 106.00 ± 20.88 0.619 0.065 EF 99.81 ± 22.02 103.13 ± 16.80 100.00 ± 22.47 BF 106.73 ± 13.49 102.39 ± 14.61 103.86 ± 16.69 1 Data are presented as means of composite score ± SD. SF: standard infant formula; EF: experimental infant formula; BF: breastfed infants. 2 P -values for differences between COGNIS groups. ANOVA for normally distributed variables. P adj are univariate analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) adjusted by maternal age, smoking during pregnancy and familiar socioeconomic status. Values which do not share the same suffix (ab) are significantly different in a Bonferroni post-hoc test. P-values < 0.05 are highlighted in bold. BOYS : 3 Infants at 6 months: SF (n = 36); EF (n = 42); BF (n = 15); 4 Infants at 12 months: SF (n = 30); EF (n = 38); BF (n = 15); 5 Infants at 18 months: SF (n = 28); EF (n = 33); BF (n = 15). GIRLS : 3 Infants at 6 months: SF (n = 24); EF (n = 26); BF (n = 26); 4 Infants at 12 months: SF (n = 21); EF (n = 25); BF (n = 23); 5 Infants at 18 months: SF (n = 20); EF (n = 23); BF (n = 22). Regarding boys, we found that BF infants showed better cognitive development ( P < 0.001; P adj = 0.038) at 12 months than those in EF group. At 18 months, differences in cognitive ( P = 0.003; P adj = 0.026) and motor skills ( P = 0.007; P adj = 0.007) were also found. In this regard, BF infants presented higher scores in cognitive than EF infants as well as higher scores in motor skills than both infant formula groups (SF and EF). Interestingly, in the case of girls, we found that, in an unadjusted model, BF infants showed lower scores in language development compared to SF infants ( P = 0.025) at 12 months of life. However, these differences disappeared after adjusting for confounding factors (Table 3 ). <> 3.4. Sex-based neurocognitive differences in children aged 4 and 6 years We next examined whether sex-based neurocognitive differences observed at early life were maintained at 4 and 6 years old, regardless type of early feeding. Once again, it is necessary to state that neurodevelopmental outcomes obtained in COGNIS children at mentioned ages fall within the normal range for sex and age. When comparing boys and girls aged 4 years, we found that girls performed better a visuomotor task in unadjusted model, indicating that girls completed this task in less time ( P = 0.030) than boys. However, after adjusting by smoking during pregnancy, maternal age, familiar socioeconomic status and COGNIS-groups, these differences disappeared (Table 4 ). Table 4 Children neurocognitive function at 4 years old depending on their sex 1 Boys (n = 71) Girls (n = 51) p 2 p adj Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test (K-BIT) Vocabulary (typical score) 104.90 ± 14.11 103.45 ± 15.20 0.589 0.710 Matrices (typical score) 118.59 ± 13.69 117.18 ± 11.34 0.547 0.200 IQ (typical score) 111.07 ± 13.32 109.53 ± 11.92 0.512 0.331 Oral Language Test of Navarra - Revised (PLON-R) Form (typical score) 54.35 ± 17.74 59.86 ± 15.39 0.076 0.692 Content (typical score) 42.94 ± 17.88 47.04 ± 15.92 0.186 0.646 Use (typical score) 49.35 ± 11.93 49.37 ± 10.42 0.992 0.612 Total Score PLON-R (typical score) 49.35 ± 17.41 54.14 ± 16.86 0.132 0.559 Computerized Battery for Neuropsychological Evaluation of Children (BENCI) Verbal comprehension (successes) 7.71 ± 0.99 7.68 ± 0.94 0.849 0.969 Semantic fluency (successes) 4.47 ± 2.19 4.66 ± 2.31 0.663 0.219 Verbal short-term memory (successes) 2.64 ± 1.29 2.85 ± 1.17 0.377 0.799 Verbal long-term memory (successes) 0.94 ± 1.57 1.40 ± 1.75 0.136 0.421 Verbal long-term memory (recognition successes) 7.41 ± 2.08 7.72 ± 2.17 0.437 0.534 Visuomotor (mean seg) 15.43 ± 14.90 10.96 ± 6.89 0.030 0.080 Alternate visuomotor (mean seg) 43.55 ± 37.03 41.67 ± 27.36 0.762 0.926 1 Data are presented as means ± SD. 2 P -values for differences between COGNIS-groups. T-Test for normally distributed variables. P adj are univariate analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) adjusted by maternal age, smoking during pregnancy, familiar socioeconomic status and COGNIS-groups. Bonferroni post hoc test was performed. P-values < 0.05 are highlighted in bold. Interestingly, in unadjusted model, neurocognitive differences between girls and boys were more pronounced at 6 years old ( Table 5 ) . In fact, girls presented higher typical score in matrices ( P = 0.044) as well as better short and long-term verbal memory ( P < 0.001, P = 0.018 and P = 0.049) than boys. However, boys showed better reaction time compared to girls ( P = 0.005). Except in the case of errors of verbal short-term memory and reaction time ( P adj = 0.001 and P adj = 0.002, respectively), these differences disappeared after adjustment for confounding variables, including smoking during pregnancy, maternal age, familiar socioeconomic status and COGNIS-groups. Furthermore, in this adjusted model, boys presented more errors of commission in a Go/no-Go task ( P adj = 0.049) in comparison to girls (Table 5 ). Table 5 Children neurocognitive function at 6 years old depending on their sex 1 Boys (n = 62) Girls (n = 46) p 2 p adj Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test (K-BIT) Vocabulary (typical score) 107.95 ± 13.76 108.83 ± 14.47 0.750 0.864 Matrices (typical score) 110.26 ± 10.89 114.83 ± 12.28 0.044 0.056 IQ (typical score) 108.44 ± 11.46 111.24 ± 12.86 0.236 0.420 Oral Language Test of Navarra - Revised (PLON-R) Form (typical score) 47.06 ± 15.85 49.22 ± 14.01 0.465 0.557 Content (typical score) 55.29 ± 20.72 58.61 ± 19.47 0.400 0.597 Use (typical score) 52.81 ± 20.89 59.35 ± 20.19 0.106 0.158 Total Score PLON-R (typical score) 55.52 ± 22.80 61.00 ± 22.70 0.218 0.321 Computerized Battery for Neuropsychological Evaluation of Children (BENCI) Verbal comprehension (successes) 10.80 ± 2.00 11.29 ± 1.56 0.179 0.298 Continuous performance (successes) 52.09 ± 8.83 51.42 ± 7.17 0.683 0.884 Continuous performance (errors of commission) 10.60 ± 11.02 13.04 ± 16.02 0.362 0.753 Semantic fluency (successes) 7.51 ± 2.38 7.91 ± 2.44 0.396 0.464 Working memory (successes) 3.93 ± 1.40 4.13 ± 1.50 0.485 0.664 Verbal short-term memory (successes) 4.17 ± 1.06 4.86 ± 0.70 < 0.001 0.001 Verbal long-term memory (successes) 3.97 ± 1.92 4.80 ± 1.65 0.018 0.055 Verbal long-term memory (recognition successes) 10.61 ± 1.99 11.24 ± 1.30 0.049 0.087 Reaction time (mean ms) 526.54 ± 52.12 584.71 ± 126.27 0.005 0.002 Go/no-Go task (successes) 47.90 ± 5.44 47.30 ± 6.24 0.599 0.494 Go/no-Go task (errors of commission) 3.72 ± 2.56 2.89 ± 2.20 0.081 0.049 1 Data are presented as means ± SD. 2 P -values for differences between COGNIS-groups. T-Test for normally distributed variables. P adj are univariate analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) adjusted by smoking during pregnancy, maternal age, familiar socioeconomic status and COGNIS-groups. Bonferroni post hoc test was performed. P-values < 0.05 are highlighted in bold. 3.5. Long-term impact of infant formulas and sex on neurocognitive function in children at 4 and 6 years old Based on the above findings, we analyzed the potential long-term combined effects of type of infant formula and sex on neurocognitive function in children aged 4 and 6 years. As shown in Table 6 , at 4 years old, BF boys had a better typical score in Matrices compared with SF boys ( P = 0.015). Likewise, EF girls exhibited better verbal comprehension than BF girls ( P = 0.015). These differences disappeared after adjusting for smoking during pregnancy, maternal age and familiar socioeconomic status. Table 6 Children neurocognitive function at 4 years old according to sex and COGNIS groups 1 Boys (n = 71) Girls (n = 51) SF (n = 31) EF (n = 27) BF (n = 13) p 2 p adj SF (n = 15) EF (n = 16) BF (n = 20) p 2 p adj Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test (K-BIT) Vocabulary (typical score) 103.61 ± 14.38 106.07 ± 14.32 105.54 ± 13.84 0.795 0.540 102.40 ± 16.46 101.69 ± 15.31 105.65 ± 14.66 0.711 0.891 Matrices (typical score) 115.45 ± 13.66 a 117.59 ± 13.47 a,b 128.15 ± 10.29 b 0.015 0.200 118.80 ± 8.99 119.69 ± 13.53 113.95 ± 10.77 0.263 0.119 IQ (typical score) 108.52 ± 13.82 111.15 ± 13.43 117.00 ± 10.57 0.156 0.452 109.93 ± 11.55 109.88 ± 12.16 108.95 ± 12.57 0.963 0.688 Oral Language Test of Navarra-Revised (PLON-R) Form (typical score) 54.19 ± 19.15 55.11 ± 18.30 53.15 ± 13.82 0.947 0.718 56.2 ± 16.55 58.81 ± 14.56 63.45 ± 15.13 0.373 0.592 Content (typical score) 41.00 ± 17.44 41.56 ± 17.81 50.46 ± 18.53 0.246 0.096 42.53 ± 14.38 45.00 ± 18.93 52.05 ± 12.80 0.180 0.564 Use (typical score) 45.52 ± 12.02 52.07 ± 11.95 52.85 ± 9.61 0.055 0.077 47.00 ± 10.14 51.50 ± 10.00 49.45 ± 11.09 0.495 0.596 Total Score PLON-R (typical score) 46.55 ± 17.78 50.15 ± 17.81 54.38 ± 15.55 0.383 0.107 48.13 ± 15.47 53.06 ± 19.07 59.50 ± 14.98 0.136 0.508 Computerized Battery for Neuropsychological Evaluation of Children (BENCI) Verbal comprehension (successes) 7.77 ± 1.17 7.81 ± 0.92 7.38 ± 0.65 0.415 0.935 7.79 ± 0.70 a,b 8.13 ± 1.02 a 7.25 ± 0.85 b 0.015 0.121 Semantic fluency (successes) 4.34 ± 2.32 4.81 ± 1.90 4.08 ± 2.53 0.562 0.335 4.43 ± 2.24 4.25 ± 2.18 5.15 ± 2.48 0.471 0.558 Verbal short-term memory (successes) 2.81 ± 1.40 2.49 ± 1.21 2.56 ± 1.23 0.637 0.782 2.76 ± 1.25 2.58 ± 1.28 3.12 ± 1.02 0.388 0.561 Verbal long-term memory (successes) 1.03 ± 1.67 0.78 ± 1.40 1.08 ± 1.75 0.786 0.621 1.43 ± 1.99 1.31 ± 1.58 1.45 ± 1.79 0.972 0.561 Verbal long-term memory (recognition successes) 7.00 ± 1.70 7.70 ± 2.16 7.77 ± 2.65 0.357 0.137 7.14 ± 2.38 7.88 ± 1.82 8.00 ± 2.29 0.504 0.337 Visuomotor (mean seg) 16.34 ± 16.96 14.71 ± 14.89 14.83 ± 9.89 0.909 0.808 11.96 ± 9.64 10.86 ± 5.41 10.34 ± 5.89 0.801 0.887 Alternate visuomotor (mean seg) 49.91 ± 48.48 38.42 ± 26.93 39.53 ± 21.35 0.466 0.331 36.89 ± 21.47 39.10 ± 24.11 47.08 ± 33.22 0.519 0.668 1 Data are presented as means ± SD. 2 P -values for differences between COGNIS-groups. ANOVA test for normally distributed variables. P adj are univariate analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) adjusted by smoking during pregnancy, maternal age and familiar socioeconomic status. Values not sharing the same suffix (ab) were significantly different in the Bonferroni post hoc test. P -values < 0.05 are highlighted in bold. SF: Standard infant formula; EF: Experimental infant formula; BF: Breastfed infants. <> Table 7 shows neurocognitive function in children aged 6 years according to their sex and type of early nutrition. In this regard, both unadjusted and adjusted analysis showed that EF fed boys presented higher IQ ( P = 0.044; P adj = 0.040) in the K-BIT test compared to SF boys; nevertheless, BF boys showed more errors of commission in a continuous performance task ( P = 0.042; P adj = 0.026) compared to SF boys as well as better reaction time than EF boys ( P = 0.011; P adj = 0.027). Likewise, statistically significant differences in neurocognitive scores were found between COGNIS girls. In fact, BF girls showed more errors of commission in a Go/no-Go task ( P = 0.026) than SF girls, but this difference disappeared after adjusting for confounders variables. Adjusted analysis also revealed that SF girls showed higher scores in matrices than BF girls ( P adj = 0.043), while girls presented more errors of commission in a continuous performance task compared to SF girls ( P adj = 0.034). Finally, EF girls demonstrated better long-term memory in comparison to BF girls ( P adj = 0.006) (Table 7 ). Table 7 Children neurocognitive function at 6 years old according to sex and COGNIS groups 1 Boys (n = 62) Girls (n = 46) SF (n = 24) EF (n = 25) BF (n = 13) p 2 p adj SF (n = 13) EF (n = 14) BF (n = 19) p 2 p adj Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test (K-BIT) Vocabulary (typical score) 104.50 ± 13.67 111.92 ± 11.33 106.69 ± 17.02 0.158 0.056 107.23 ± 17.52 110.50 ± 15.01 108.68 ± 12.34 0.847 0.430 Matrices (typical score) 106.75 ± 8.88 113.64 ± 11.40 110.23 ± 11.97 0.084 0.091 121.94 ± 12.51 a 115.10 ± 13.41 a,b 109.72 ± 10.61 b 0.165 0.043 IQ (typical score) 104.25 ± 11.03 a 112.36 ± 9.45 b 108.62 ± 13.74 a,b 0.044 0.040 113.46 ± 15.54 110.79 ± 13.09 110.05 ± 11.13 0.761 0.188 Oral Language Test of Navarra - Revised (PLON-R) Form (typical score) 46.21 ± 18.01 46.84 ± 15.86 49.08 ± 12.13 0.871 1.000 48.23 ± 16.52 48.57 ± 13.48 50.37 ± 13.23 0.899 0.999 Content (typical score) 51.75 ± 25.13 57.44 ± 15.13 57.69 ± 21.77 0.624 0.666 60.85 ± 23.56 51.71 ± 15.24 62.16 ± 18.86 0.284 0.566 Use (typical score) 48.46 ± 24.27 54.60 ± 18.60 57.38 ± 18.15 0.403 0.760 60.38 ± 18.94 52.79 ± 26.35 63.47 ± 15.05 0.323 0.417 Total Score PLON-R (typical score) 52.00 ± 28.62 56.64 ± 17.42 59.85 ± 20.43 0.635 0.899 62.77 ± 24.29 52.93 ± 25.28 65.74 ± 18.87 0.267 0.602 Computerized Battery for Neuropsychological Evaluation of Children (BENCI) Verbal comprehension (successes) 10.21 ± 2.19 11.32 ± 1.60 10.92 ± 2.19 0.147 0.174 11.46 ± 1.56 10.85 ± 1.46 11.47 ± 1.65 0.490 0.513 Continuous performance (successes) 54.09 ± 5.37 50.17 ± 11.88 51.92 ± 6.92 0.328 0.189 53.62 ± 3.45 52.92 ± 5.24 48.89 ± 9.36 0.160 0.360 Continuous performance (errors of commission) 8.65 ± 8.38 a 8.87 ± 11.38 a,b 17.67 ± 12.69 b 0.042 0.026 7.23 ± 7.12 a 10.46 ± 13.51 a,b 18.79 ± 20.19 b 0.104 0.034 Semantic fluency (successes) 7.63 ± 2.78 7.08 ± 2.12 8.17 ± 2.04 0.418 0.613 7.69 ± 2.66 8.00 ± 2.04 8.00 ± 2.65 0.932 0.846 Working memory (successes) 3.92 ± 1.44 4.16 ± 1.43 3.50 ± 1.24 0.412 0.130 4.15 ± 1.46 3.85 ± 1.34 4.32 ± 1.67 0.694 0.938 Verbal short-term memory (successes) 4.21 ± 1.18 4.00 ± 1.02 4.47 ± 0.90 0.448 0.585 4.72 ± 0.88 a 4.56 ± 0.69 a 5.16 ± 0.45 a 0.040 0.212 Verbal long-term memory (successes) 4.13 ± 1.87 3.48 ± 2.20 4.67 ± 1.07 0.189 0.177 4.92 ± 1.44 4.85 ± 1.63 4.68 ± 1.86 0.919 0.325 Verbal long-term memory (recognition successes) 10.29 ± 1.97 10.64 ± 2.36 11.17 ± 0.83 0.465 0.562 11.46 ± 1.66 a,b 12.05 ± 0.87 a 10.54 ± 1.29 b 0.484 0.006 Reaction time (mean ms) 524.38 ± 44.79 a,b 545.40 ± 58.48 a 491.58 ± 31.77 b 0.011 0.027 577.15 ± 55.02 580.92 ± 72.36 592.47 ± 182.62 0.940 0.763 Go/no-Go task (successes) 47.25 ± 4.45 47.96 ± 6.43 49.08 ± 5.23 0.641 0.765 45.31 ± 4.50 48.86 ± 7.63 47.53 ± 6.08 0.337 0.197 Go/no-Go task (errors of commission) 4.08 ± 2.54 3.16 ± 2.64 4.17 ± 2.44 0.367 0.309 1.69 ± 1.55 a 2.79 ± 2.15 a,b 3.79 ± 2.30 b 0.026 0.073 1 Data are presented as means ± SD. 2 P -values for differences between COGNIS-groups. ANOVA test for normally distributed variables. P adj are univariate analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) adjusted by smoking during pregnancy, maternal age and familiar socioeconomic status. Values not sharing the same suffix (ab) were significantly different in the Bonferroni post hoc test. P -values < 0.05 are highlighted in bold. SF: Standard infant formula; EF: Experimental infant formula; BF: Breastfed infants. <> 3.6. Structural brain differences in COGNIS participants In addition to evaluate neurocognitive differences between sexes in COGNIS participants, we also analyzed whether sex might have long-term impact on brain structure at 6 years old. First, we determined potential sex-based differences in brain size (volume and cortical thickness) regardless type of early feeding (Table 8 and Fig. 2 ). Overall, adjusted analysis, including controlling for total intracranial volume, showed that boys presented higher regional brain volumes (both temporal lobes as wells as several insular and temporal regions) (all P adj < 0.05) in comparison to girls; however, girls showed greater brain volume in the left temporal transverse sulcus ( P adj = 0.002). Likewise, adjusted analysis showed that boys had greater cortical thickness in posterior brain regions, including left occipital lobe, left cuneus lateral orbital, both left calcarine sulcus and the right parieto occipital sulcus (all P adj < 0.027). Nevertheless, girls presented higher cortical thickness in cingulate regions (i.e.: anterior and middle cingulate gyrus, pericallosal sulcus) and frontal regions (i.e.: subcentral and inferior frontal cortices) compared to boys (all P adj < 0.033). Table 8 Differences in brain volume and thickness between boys and girls participating in COGNIS study at 6 years of life 1 Brain region Boys (n = 46) Girls (n = 32) p 2 p adj Volume (mm 3 ) Left temporal 65542.57 ± 5445.23 60271.03 ± 5823.90 0.043 0.016 Right temporal 64130.61 ± 5754.70 59116.13 ± 6098.28 0.025 0.005 Left inferior circular insular sulcus 2531.63 ± 349.89 2314.50 ± 296.77 0.009 0.040 Left intermedius primus sulcus 653.46 ± 245.37 644.69 ± 225.90 0.017 0.010 Left temporal transverse sulcus 699.22 ± 177.49 721.81 ± 198.78 0.006 0.002 Right planum temporale 2146.50 ± 361.29 2060.63 ± 415.21 0.012 0.013 Right middle temporal gyrus 10420.91 ± 1396.11 9971.50 ± 1285.16 0.008 0.002 Right inferior circular insular sulcus 1962.53 ± 270.02 1789.94 ± 281.71 0.048 0.018 Right parieto-occipital sulcus 4180.39 ± 628.50 3784.09 ± 848.90 0.024 0.011 Right inferior temporal sulcus 2470.83 ± 419.41 2319.75 ± 409.77 0.023 0.011 Cortical Thickness (mm) Left cingulate 2.881 ± 0.097 2.941 ± 0.157 0.034 0.032 Left occipital 2.359 ± 0.089 2.313 ± 0.083 0.011 0.017 Left anterior cingulate cortex 3.108 ± 0.130 3.206 ± 0.176 0.005 0.010 Left middle cingulate cortex 3.006 ± 0.141 3.103 ± 0.178 0.020 0.011 Left cuneus 2.204 ± 0.144 2.134 ± 0.140 0.007 0.002 Left planum polare of the superior temporal gyrus 2.973 ± 0.177 2.989 ± 0.175 0.043 0.033 Left calcarine sulcus 2.312 ± 0.115 2.227 ± 0.127 0.001 0.001 Left pericallosal sulcus 2.108 ± 0.174 2.237 ± 0.317 0.022 0.022 Left temporal transverse sulcus 2.614 ± 0.332 2.767 ± 0.285 0.036 0.033 Right subcentral cortex 2.909 ± 0.178 3.096 ± 0.218 0.001 < 0.001 Right anterior cingulate cortex 2.921 ± 0.139 3.028 ± 0.182 0.002 0.002 Right triangular part of the inferior frontal gyrus 2.962 ± 0.124 3.088 ± 2.962 0.003 0.002 Right calcarine sulcus 2.377 ± 0.142 2.291 ± 0.135 0.002 0.002 Right parieto-occipital sulcus 2.637 ± 0.138 2.565 ± 0.123 0.011 0.027 1 Data are presented as means ± SD. 2 P -values for differences between COGNIS-groups. T-Test for normally distributed variables. Volume analyses were corrected for total brain volume. P adj are univariate analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) adjusted by smoking during pregnancy, maternal age, familiar socioeconomic level, age and sex of the children and COGNIS groups. P -values < 0.05 are highlighted in bold. <> We next analyzed the combined influence of children sex and study group (type of early feeding) on volume brain and cortical thickness ( Table 9 and Fig. 3 ) . Compared to BF boys, EF boys presented higher brain volumes in the left inferior circular insular sulcus ( P adj =0.001), and the left orbital sulcus ( P adj =0.039). Additionally, BF boys showed reduced left inferior circular insular sulcus volumes compared to the SF group ( P adj =0.041). Conversely, BF boys presented higher left angular gyrus volume compared to boys fed with EF ( P adj =0.005). Finally, compared to SF boys, EF boys showed higher left occipital pole volume ( P adj =0.036). On the other side, cortical thickness was greater in EF boys in the right superior occipital gyrus and right intermedius primus sucus ( P adj =0.010, P adj =0.003, respectively) compared to BF boys, while left inferior circular sulcus showed higher thickness in EF boys compared to both BF and SF boys ( P adj =0.020 and P adj =0.035) ( Table 9 and Fig. 3 A ) . Interestingly, differences in brain volume and thickness in girls aged 6 years, according to their early feeding, were less pronounced. In fact, BF group showed higher right transverse occipital sulcus volume compared to the SF group ( P adj =0.040), while they also presented increased cortical thickness in the left calcarine cortex compared to both infant formula groups ( P adj =0.008 and P adj =0.003, respectively) (Table 9 and Fig. 3 B). Table 9 Differences in brain volume and thickness between children fed with EF, SF or BF according to sex of the child at 6 years old 1 Boys (n = 46) Brain regions SF (n = 20) EF (n = 18) BF (n = 8) p 2 p adj Volume (mm 3 ) Left angular gyrus 8226.50 ± 1048.35 a,b 7951.11 ± 1427.79 a 9338.50 ± 1062.03 b 0.015 0.005 Left occipital pole 3232.05 ± 483.29 a 3635.56 ± 439.50 b 3406.88 ± 383.69 a,b 0.042 0.005 Left inferior circular insular sulcus 2498.60 ± 319.60 a 2660.28 ± 411.12 a 2324.75 ± 68.57 b 0.008 0.001 Left orbital sulcus 3107.35 ± 413.23 a,b 3284.39 ± 449.13 a 2831.75 ± 565.03 b 0.043 0.025 Cortical Thickness (mm) Left inferior circular insular sulcus 3.113 ± 0.173 a 3.235 ± 0.209 b 3.012 ± 0.140 a 0.016 0.006 Right superior occipital gyrus 2.540 ± 0.160 a,b 2.608 ± 0.165 a 2.422 ± 0.156 b 0.032 0.012 Right intermedius primus sulcus 2.637 ± 0.208 a,b 2.726 ± 0.158 a 2.419 ± 0.196 b 0.002 0.003 Girls (n = 32) Brain regions SF (n = 10) EF (n = 9) BF (n = 13) p 2 p adj Volume (mm 3 ) Right transverse occipital sulcus 1951.00 ± 250.41 a 2152.67 ± 224.74 a,b 2395.38 ± 402.93 b 0.004 0.042 Cortical Thickness (mm) Left calcarine 2.166 ± 0.135 a 2.161 ± 0.071 a 2.321 ± 0.095 b 0.001 0.001 1 Data are presented as means ± SD. 2 P -values for differences between COGNIS-groups. ANOVA test for normally distributed variables. Volume analyses were corrected for total brain volume. P adj are univariate analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) adjusted by smoking during pregnancy, maternal age, familiar socioeconomic level, age and sex of the children. Values not sharing the same suffix (ab) were significantly different in the Bonferroni post hoc test. P -values < 0.05 are highlighted in bold. SF: Standard infant formula; EF: Experimental infant formula; BF: Breastfed infants. <> 3.7. Relationship between brain structure and neurocognitive development in COGNIS children at 6 years old Finally, partial correlation analyses were performed to evaluate potential associations between child neurocognitive function and brain structure in those regions in which significant results were previously found. These analyses were adjusted by maternal age, smoking during pregnancy, socioeconomic status and COGNIS group, and were performed differentially in both boys and girls at 6 years of life. To better understand this procedure, we will first describe those neurocognitive results in which there were sex-specific differences, taking also account of brain structure results ( Tables 5 , 8 and 9 ) , and general sex-specific dissimilarities will be analyzed (Figs. 4 and 5 ). The potential long-term effects of early nutrition will be added to the obtained results. Previous results showed in Table 5 highlighted sex-specific neurocognitive differences in COGNIS children aged 6 years old, particularly in matrices, verbal long and short-term memory, reaction time and errors of commission during the Go/no-Go task. In fact, girls presented better performance in matrices section (K-BIT) compared to boys. Further partial correlation analysis indicated that lower left occipital thickness was significantly associated with greater performance on matrices (r = -0.474; P = 0.030) (Fig. 4 A), which is supported by the fact that, at 6 years, girls showed lower cortical thickness in this area compared to boys ( Table 8 ) . Regarding recognition successes in a verbal long-term memory task (BENCI), boys did not show an association with any of the brain areas of interest. Conversely, girls presented lower cortical thickness on the left calcarine sulcus, which was statistically significant associated with the greater number of successes in recognition at 6 years old (r = -0.465; P = 0.034) (Fig. 4 B). According to this, girls showed less cortical thickness than boys in this area (Table 8 ). Our previous analyses also indicated sex-specific differences in cognitive sections at 6 years old in terms of reaction times and errors of commission in the Go-no Go task of the BENCI (Table 5 ). Regarding reaction time during the performance, girls performed poorer than boys, and further correlation analyses showed a positive association between left pericallosal sulcus cortical thickness and number of milliseconds during execution (r = 0.369; P = 0.032) (Fig. 5 A). This finding is consistent with greater cortical thickness in this area previously observed in girls at 6 years old (Table 8 ). A positive correlation was also found between left planum polare of the superior temporal gyrus thickness and reaction time (r = 0.443, P = 0.044) (Fig. 4 C). In this line, at 6 years old, girls presented greater thickness in this region (Table 8 ) and more milliseconds (worse) in the execution of a reaction time task (Table 5 ). Finally, concerning the number of errors in the Go/no-Go task, in which boys aged 6 years showed lower number of errors, the right middle temporal gyrus was negatively associated to the number of errors of commission (r = -0.344, P = 0.046) (Fig. 5 B). This correlation result was consistent with the fact that boys exhibited a greater volume of this area in comparison to girls at 6 years old (Table 8 ). Overall, there were more statistically significant results between cognitive performance and brain structure in COGNIS girls aged 6 years, especially related to left hemisphere and brain cortices. In particular, we found that greater volume in left temporal transverse sulcus was correlated with better typical score in vocabulary (K-BIT) (r = 0.593, P = 0.005) and better verbal comprehension (r = 0.576, P = 0.006) (Fig. 4 D and Fig. 4 E, respectively). In concordance to this, at the mentioned age, girls presented greater volume in this region (Table 8 ) and higher, but not statistically significant, typical score in vocabulary as well as more successes in a verbal comprehension task (Table 5 ). In fact, verbal comprehension exhibited a greater number of positive statistically significant correlations in brain volumes in girls compared to boys, particularly in the most parts of the right and left temporal areas analyzed (i. e., left temporal and transverse sulcus, left occipital and right temporal and circular insular sulcus). However, these correlations were not statistically significant greater in girls except for the left temporal transverse sulcus (Table 8 ). Sex-specific differences were also identified in the continuous performance task at 6 years old. In relation to the number of successes, only boys exhibited significant association with brain structure (Fig. 5 C), whereas for the number of errors during the performance, brain structure associations with neurocognitive function were found exclusively in girls (Fig. 4 F and 4 G). More specifically, in infant boys, larger volume of the left part of the lateral orbital sulcus was associated with better execution on the continuous performance task (r = 0.358, P = 0.038) (Fig. 5 C). In line, at 6 years old, boys presented better performance than girl on this function, although not statistically significant (Table 5 ). Concerning girls, the greater volume in the left intermedius primus sulcus was correlated with a greater number of errors during the task (r = 0.312, P = 0.018) (Fig. 4 F); moreover, lower cortical thickness in the left temporal transverse sulcus was associated with greater number of errors (r = -0.490, P = 0.024) (Fig. 4 G). Nonetheless, although girls presented lower volume in the intermedius sulcus and lower thickness in the left temporal transverse sulcus than boys (Table 8 ), they exhibited a greater number of errors than boys at 6 years old, although these differences were not statistically significant (Table 5 ). Taken together and considering those neurocognitive functions with sex-specific differences and their associations with brain structure, our findings suggest major differences in the left hemisphere and cortices associations, as well as for continuous attention and language functions. Therefore, at 6 years old, infant girls show a more specific neurocognitive pattern than infant boys. <> Finally, potential correlations between brain structure and neurocognitive development at 6 years old according to children sex and COGNIS groups were also explored. Thus, EF girls presented greater number of successes in recognition (Table 7 ), and negative correlation between this score and cortical thickness of the left calcarine was found (r = -0.465, P = 0.034). Accordingly, EF girls showed lower cortical thickness in this area compared with BF and SF girls (Table 9 ). 4. Discussion The early years of life are a crucial period for brain development, and nutrition plays a key role in shaping neurodevelopment and brain structure. Likewise, recent research has focused about potential impact of sex on cognitive and behavioral performance at developmental ages [43]. Sex-specific neurodevelopmental differences may be partly explained by the impact of genetic and hormonal factors on brain structure and function [44]. However, it is also well established that nutritional needs and nutrient utilization are different between males and females [45], which could also explain abovementioned sex-specific outcomes. Based on these considerations, current longitudinal study examines the short- and long-term differences between sexes in neurodevelopment, cognitive function and brain structure in healthy children up to 6 years old. Moreover, potential combined effects of early nutrition and sex on later brain structure and function have been also evaluated. Having in mind that both neurodevelopmental and cognitive outcomes, as well as brain structures of all participants are within the normal range, results obtained here not only support the short- and long-term impact of optimal early nutrition on neurodevelopment but, more importantly, also suggest combined and complex effects of type of early nutrition and sex on children´s brain structure and function. Within the COGNIS study, we have previously reported both short- and long-term positive effects of optimal early nutrition on cognitive performance as well as brain maturation and function {positive impact of an infant formula supplemented with milk fat globule membrane components (MFGM), long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFAs) and synbiotics}[46–48]. In addition to this, current analysis also suggests sex-based differences in neurocognitive development at both short- and long-term. In fact, at 18 months of age, infant girls scored higher in cognitive areas, and they also demonstrated better performance in a Go/no-Go task at 6 years old, which involves selective attention, inhibitory control, processing speed, and cognitive flexibility [49]. Conversely, boys aged 6 years exhibited lower reaction times during execution, indicating enhanced processing speed. These neurocognitive differences can be explained by sex-specific variation in the timing and rate of both brain development and cognitive milestones [50]. Thus, in accordance with our results, previous studies have shown that boys tend to exhibit earlier and more rapid brain growth and development than girls, particularly in those regions associated with motor skills and spatial abilities. On the contrary, it has been found that girls undergo earlier and faster brain development in areas linked to cognitive abilities, language skills, and social-emotional processing [51]. Interestingly, studies performed to date also suggest differences in brain structure between sexes, with slightly larger overall brain volumes in males. Furthermore, focusing on size and connectivity of specific brain regions, males tend to exhibit greater cortical thickness in regions associated with perception and action, particularly in posterior brain areas [52–54]. On the other hand, females seem to show greater thickness across regions related to emotion processing and social cognition [55,56], such as cingulate regions [57] and frontal areas [58,59]. However, it is important to note that these differences are not absolute but may be influenced by various factors including environmental conditions, upbringing, and cultural norms [60,61], as well as hormonal factors, particularly the effects of testosterone on brain development during fetal and early postnatal life [62]. Consistent with these findings, our analysis also found sex-specific differences in regional brain volumes and cortical thickness. Specifically, girls aged 6 years showed greater regional brain volumes in temporal lobes, insular and temporal areas, as well as greater cortical thickness in cingulate and frontal areas. On the other hand, at the same age, boys were characterized by greater cortical thickness in posterior brain areas such as the occipital lobe and parieto-occipital sulcus. More interestingly, further partial correlation analysis showed potential associations between brain structure and neurocognitive development in children, mainly in girls, suggesting that specific brain regions may be associated with different aspects of neurocognitive function, mainly in terms of intelligence skills, verbal comprehension, verbal short-term memory, reaction time and attention. Finally, findings obtained here have an added value suggesting more pronounced structural and functional differences at 6 years old, in accordance with previous studies that show higher cognitive growth in later childhood. This developmental pattern seems to be correlated with the maturation of neural systems involved in higher-order cognitive functions, such as attention, memory, and problem-solving. As the brain undergoes structural and functional changes, children become increasingly adept at processing and integrating information, leading to more rapid and sustained cognitive growth [63,64]. Taken together, these findings emphasize the need to better understand the dynamics of cognitive development during early childhood for optimizing nutritional and neuropsychological interventions and educational approaches. Additionally, based on sex differences in brain structure and function abovementioned, together with sex-specific susceptibility to neurodevelopmental disorders [65,66], our data also suggest that biological sex should be considered as key variable for improving diagnostic and therapeutic strategies. As mentioned above, this sex-bias may be explained partly by an influence of early nutrition, which it is supported by sex-specific differences in human milk composition [67], combined with the fact that both sexes react differently to nutritional stimuli during early life [68,69]. Consequently, once sex-specific differences in neurodevelopment and brain structure appear clear, we next evaluated the potential combined effects of early nutrition and sex on both outcomes. In this regard, significant neurodevelopmental differences according to sex and type of early nutrition were observed at both early and later childhood. In fact, at 18 months of life, we found that boys who were breastfed (BF) showed better cognitive and motor development than those who were fed with bioactive compounds-enriched infant formula (EF). Interestingly, type of early nutrition had not effect on neurodevelopmental outcomes in girls during their first 18 months of life. Similar as described above, combined effects of early nutrition and sex on neurodevelopment were more pronounced at 6 years old. Thus, both BF-fed and EF-fed boys presented higher IQ scores compared to those boys who received standard infant formula (SF) during early life; however, worse reaction time, but better attention, were observed in SF boys compared to BF-fed boys. Curiously, SF girls had higher scores in matrices and better attention than BF girls, as well as better long-term memory compared to EF girls. Interestingly, early feeding-based effects on brain structure seem to be also more apparent in boys than in girls aged 6 years. Specifically, EF boys presented greater volumes in frontal and parietal areas, as well as greater cortical thickness in occipital areas. On the other hand, BF girls showed greater volumes and cortical thickness in occipital areas. Overall, our findings provide insight into the potential relationships between brain structure and neurocognitive development in children depending on early type of nutrition and sex. Moreover, results obtained here suggest that, in EF girls, the left calcarine thickness is negatively associated with verbal long-term memory. To gain greater knowledge about these findings, it is important to note that both breastfeeding and currently available infant formula provide key nutrients for optimal brain development, as suggested by the presence of minimal significant differences in neurodevelopmental outcomes, all of them within normal ranges [70–73]. Nevertheless, breastfeeding is still considered the gold standard for infant nutrition as it offers a range of immunological benefits and bioactive components that promote both short- and long-term infant health [74]. Consequently, the current tested infant formula aims to replicate the functional effects associated to human milk by including different bioactive nutrients, such as LC-PUFAs, MFGM, nucleotides, and synbiotics, [35,75,76]. In this regard, the present results suggest that it would be possible to reduce the neurodevelopmental disparities between breastfed and formula-fed infants, boys and girls, by adding these bioactive compounds in a personalize way considering sex-dependent differences. In fact, we previously reported similar neurodevelopmental, behavior and language outcomes and brain developmental trajectories between bioactive compound-enriched formula-fed infants and BF infants [26,27,35,77]. These findings highlight the importance of providing optimal nutrition and nurturing environments for infants. Thus, the use of enriched infant formula contains a range of bioactive compounds found in human milk could help to address the nutritional and functional differences between infant fed with formula and those who are breastfed [78]; however, due to the sex differences observed here, new approaches should be considered when designing and developing new infant formulas for boys and girls. Despite the notions raised above, it is important to emphasize that our findings do not diminish the importance of adhering to current breastfeeding recommendations [79], in particular if one bears in mind that its nutrient composition and consumption change depending on infant sex [80]. Furthermore, other factors such as maternal education, socioeconomic status, caregiver-infant interactions, and the home environment, could also be responsible for the lack of differences in neurodevelopmental outcomes [81,82]. Properly controlling for these confounding variables has demonstrated the limited impact of feeding choices on neurodevelopmental trajectories [83,84]. Finally, our data suggests a greater positive impact of bioactive compounds-enriched infant formula on cognitive development and brain structure in boys, compared to girls, at 6 years old. In this line, Isaacs et al. [85], in a randomized trial using LC-PUFAs-supplemented infant formula, observed no overall group effects, but sex and diet-specific effects were identified. Moreover, boys and girls not only respond differently to environmental stimuli, showing different growth trajectories [86,87], but also have varying nutritional and hormonal needs based on their sex [88]. In fact, as mentioned above, breast milk composition may differ depending on the sex of the infant, although studies on this topic are limited and conflicting [86,89]. Finally, a growing body of evidence suggests that differences in gut microbiota composition between males and females could impact the effects of early nutrition on neurodevelopment [90]. While our findings suggest the need for sex-specific nutritional strategies for boys and girls to optimize their neurodevelopment, it is important to avoid making any definitive conclusions, and further highlighted the need for studies to clarify the effects of sex on brain structure and cognitive performance, and the potential sex-different impact of early type of feeding. Having in mind these considerations, it is clear that cognitive development process during early childhood is complex and multifaceted. Our data suggest that certain brain structures and areas are linked to various neurocognitive functions, and that sex and type of feeding during early life seem to have long-term impact on these relationships. This study not only offers valuable insights into the influence of early nutrition on neurodevelopment and cognitive function, but also emphasizes the significance of considering together sex and type of feeding when evaluating brain development in children. To our knowledge regarding early brain development advances, it is crucial to promote evidence-based guidance that prioritizes the provision of enough amount and high quality of feeding, regardless of the method chosen, to support optimal neurodevelopment and establish the groundwork for lifelong well-being. The main strength of the COGNIS study is its design as a prospective, randomized, double-blind longitudinal study, the long-term intervention 0–2 to 18 months of life, and the long-term follow-up. Likewise, to our knowledge, COGNIS study, in accordance with current recommendations, is the only study to compare an infant formula enriched with LC-PUFAs, MFGM and synbiotics, with others lacking these nutrients. In addition, a key contribution is the use of a longitudinal approach, which involves assessing neurodevelopmental trajectories during the first years of life (at 6, 12, and 18 months, and 4 and 6 years old). This strategy contrasts with a cross-sectional approach, where each measurement is considered independently. Moreover, cognitive assessment has not been limited to a single brain domain, but instead employs a wide range of valid, reliable, and age-appropriate tests, along with neuroimaging studies. Furthermore, it is essential to recognise that various environmental factors, including child nutritional status, maternal education, or socioeconomic status, among others, can influence neurodevelopment and brain structure in children [91–94]. Therefore, our statistical analysis considered several previously identified confounding factors [40–42] to ensure reliable and consistent results and conclusions. Nonetheless, it is important to recognise the existence of several limitations in the current study that require some consideration. One limitation arises from the relatively small sample size of our study groups regarding brain MRI assessment, which resulted from dropouts during the long-term follow-up and the requirement for children to remain still during MRI. The limited number of participants may restrict the generalizability of the findings, especially in analyses based on sex. However, although some participants dropped out at the 6-year follow-up, the study still had 80% statistical power to detect a minimum difference of 0.7 SD. This level of sensitivity is sufficient to identify meaningful differences in cognitive development between the study groups in the neuropsychological assessment. Additionally, a statistical threshold of P-value < 0.05 was used, but corrections for multiple comparisons were not applied to the brain structural analysis, which still is of interest because the lack of data regarding sex differences in the brain associated to early type of nutrition. However, it is important to note that results obtained are correlational, and therefore, causation cannot be inferred. This is an exploratory study, and future studies with larger sample sizes will be necessary to confirm our results and hypotheses. Finally, lack of diet analysis at 4 or 6 years could be considered as additional potential limitation. However, although its present lifelong, brain plasticity is more prominent in early postnatal life, when nutritional stimuli largely impact on both maturation of neural circuits and mental development [95]. Interestingly, data obtained from current study might provide a better knowledge about impact of early nutritional interventions on neuropsychological outcomes later in life. Overall, the combined effects of early type of feeding and sex on neurodevelopment and brain structure are complex and multifactorial. Sex itself seem to influence brain development and structure, although early nutrition might modulate these effects in a different way between boys and girls. Future research is needed to expand our understanding of these interactions and to develop targeted interventions aimed at optimizing sex-specific brain development. According to our findings, this study provides valuable insights into the combined effects of early nutrition and sex on neurodevelopment and brain structure. In particular, our data suggest that bioactive nutrient-enriched infant formula might have more beneficial effects on neurocognitive development and brain structure in boys than in girls. Likewise, it emphasizes the importance of optimal nutrition and nurturing environments for infants, regardless of the chosen feeding method, to support optimal neurodevelopment and lifelong well-being. Abbreviations ADHD: attention deficit hyperactivity disorder; BENCI: Computerized Battery for Neuropsychological Evaluation of Children; BF: breastfed infants; BSID III: Bayley’s Scales of Infant Development III; EF: experimental infant formula; FOS: fructooligosaccharides; GWG: gestational weight gain; IQ: intelligence quotient; K-BIT: Kaufman Brief Intelligence test; LC-PUFAs: long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids; MFGM: milk fat globule membrane; MRI: magnetic resonance imaging; NDDs: neurodevelopmental disorders; PLON-R: Oral Language Test of Navarra Revised; RCT: randomized clinical trial; SF: standard infant formula. Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Institutional Review Board (or Ethics Committee) of Research Ethics Committee of the University of Granada, the Bioethical Committees for Clinical Research of the Clinical University Hospital San Cecilio and the Mother-Infant University Hospital of Granada, Spain. The project was registered at www.ClinicalTrial.gov no.: NCT02094547.Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study. Consent for publication Not applicable Availability of data and materials The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding authors. The data are not publicly available due to ethical reasons. Competing interests Roser De-Castellar, José A. Moreno-Muñoz and María Teresa Pérez-Hernández are employees of Laboratorios Ordesa S.L., a company that has partially funded the COGNIS study. Funding This project has been funded by Laboratorios Ordesa, S.L. Contract University of Granada General Foundation, No. 3349 and by the CDTI (Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación de España) and the Fondo Europeo de Desarrollo Regional (FEDER; Acronym: SMARTFOODS, project number IDI-20141206) Contract University of Granada General Foundation, No. 4003, Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry and Competitiveness; and partially funded by HORIZON 2020 EU DynaHEALTH Project (GA No. 633595). Author Contributions The authors’ responsibilities were as follows— CC, designed the research; AN-R, FH and RB-L conducted the research; AC and AN-R analyzed the data; AN-R and AJ wrote the first draft of the manuscript; JAG-S and CC reviewed and edited the manuscript; CC and JAG-S, had primary responsibility for the final content and funding; and all authors critically revised the manuscript for important intellectual content and read and approved the final manuscript. 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Supplementary Files Additionalfile1Table2.docx Additionalfile2Table3.docx Additionalfile3Table6.docx Additionalfile4Table7.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7067933","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":486456162,"identity":"fb178337-2930-44d5-b835-2635b1464446","order_by":0,"name":"Ana Nieto-Ruiz","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Granada","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ana","middleName":"","lastName":"Nieto-Ruiz","suffix":""},{"id":486456163,"identity":"82ce7cb7-36ba-4f54-824f-f91619ee7283","order_by":1,"name":"Antonio Jerez","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Granada","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Antonio","middleName":"","lastName":"Jerez","suffix":""},{"id":486456164,"identity":"fe932d60-2818-43c9-ac7b-aa1ed0129949","order_by":2,"name":"Florian Herrmann","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"EURISTIKOS Excellence Centre for Paediatric Research, University of Granada","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Florian","middleName":"","lastName":"Herrmann","suffix":""},{"id":486456165,"identity":"29c9163d-5ab3-4e58-bcf6-f45d7c2275b4","order_by":3,"name":"Rocío Bonillo-León","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"EURISTIKOS Excellence Centre for Paediatric Research, University of Granada","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Rocío","middleName":"","lastName":"Bonillo-León","suffix":""},{"id":486456166,"identity":"f34ab99a-3fc5-46a8-8b0c-8ca97c041fe1","order_by":4,"name":"Roser De-Castellar","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Laboratorios Ordesa, S.L","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Roser","middleName":"","lastName":"De-Castellar","suffix":""},{"id":486456167,"identity":"de8ce52f-4dd2-4e60-9b22-1239e1049145","order_by":5,"name":"José A. Moreno-Muñoz","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Laboratorios Ordesa, S.L","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"José","middleName":"A.","lastName":"Moreno-Muñoz","suffix":""},{"id":486456168,"identity":"d8c0ff20-673c-43e5-a822-d1fdd617287d","order_by":6,"name":"María Teresa Pérez-Hernández","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Laboratorios Ordesa, S.L","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"María","middleName":"Teresa","lastName":"Pérez-Hernández","suffix":""},{"id":486456169,"identity":"4f1a480e-b788-46a8-aaa6-1ff71a21ad83","order_by":7,"name":"Andrés Catena","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Granada","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Andrés","middleName":"","lastName":"Catena","suffix":""},{"id":486456170,"identity":"dc7ad73a-3004-467b-81f6-a8fe67b290fa","order_by":8,"name":"José A. García-Santos","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Granada","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"José","middleName":"A.","lastName":"García-Santos","suffix":""},{"id":486456171,"identity":"05e521a2-d16d-4bf3-8a57-a7c16cc405e9","order_by":9,"name":"Cristina Campoy","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAsElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBADOdK1GJOuJbGBaKX87Yefbi6oOJy+4fzaBwwf/hChReJMmtntGWcO52648dyAcWYbEVoMJBjMbvO2gbQcY2DmJcZ5BhLs30Ba0g1AWv4Q4zADCR6wLQkG59sYmBnYiNAicSanDOiXdMOZN9gYDvYS4xf+9uPbbhdUWMvznT/G+OAHMQ4DAWYGhmagfQkMB4jUANZSB7SPeA2jYBSMglEwwgAARAU5w7Qzs1kAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"University of Granada","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Cristina","middleName":"","lastName":"Campoy","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-07-07 17:53:10","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7067933/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7067933/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":87038254,"identity":"c947b355-b4b0-464d-bc7f-b72f6f4cbdbf","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-18 13:26:57","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":363787,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eParticipant flow-chart from baseline visit to 6 years old. BF: Breastfed infants; D: Drop-outs; E: Exclusions; EF: Experimental infant formula; MRI: Magnetic Resonance Imaging; n: Sample size; SF: Standard infant formula.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003ea \u003c/sup\u003eBF infants were randomized between 0–6 months of age.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNeurodevelopment data were obtained using the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development\u0026nbsp;at 6, 12 and 18 months old. At 4 and 6 years old, cognitive data were obtained using Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test (K-BIT), Oral Language Test of Navarra - Revised (PLON-R) and the Computerized Battery for Neuropsychological Evaluation of Children (BENCI).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e*At 6 years old, 2 children did not attend to cognitive assessment.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMRI data from some participants (n=30) were eliminated given that quality of the brain images was not adequate to be analyzed due to excessive movement of children inside the scanner: †Unable to analyze the data from 7 children; ‡Unable to analyze the data from 12 children; §Unable to analyze the data from 11 children.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7067933/v1/72c286e798c8e8d7e22c0ab8.png"},{"id":87035990,"identity":"fff28cd0-76af-4bce-93e3-cd24ba72fdbe","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-18 13:18:57","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":49759,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDifferences in brain volume and thickness between girls and boys at 6 years of life. Analysis adjusted by smoking during pregnancy, maternal age, familiar socioeconomic level, COGNIS groups, age and sex of the children and total intracranial volume. Purple represents: Girls \u0026gt; Boys; orange: Boys \u0026gt; Girls.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure2.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7067933/v1/38d832bf0dce1d21951ef00f.jpg"},{"id":87038258,"identity":"f35e1318-ae02-4652-8fea-77e289fd8fe4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-18 13:26:57","extension":"jpg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":67738,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDifferences in brain volume and thickness between boys \u003cstrong\u003e(A)\u003c/strong\u003e and girls \u003cstrong\u003e(B)\u003c/strong\u003e fed with EF, SF or BF at 6 years of life. Analysis adjusted by smoking during pregnancy, maternal age, familiar socioeconomic level, age and sex of the children and total intracranial volume. Light blue represents: EF\u0026gt;SF; dark blue: EF\u0026gt;BF; light red: BF\u0026gt;SF; dark red: BF\u0026gt;EF; green: SF\u0026gt;BF \u0026amp; EF\u0026gt;BF and EF\u0026gt;SF \u0026amp; EF\u0026gt;BF and yellow: BF\u0026gt;SF \u0026amp; BF\u0026gt;EF.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure3.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7067933/v1/b8b11c4daf0f0453398b2cfd.jpg"},{"id":87035996,"identity":"22d73c50-9ddd-42ac-897f-8be6d80cc7dc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-18 13:18:57","extension":"jpg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":365527,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e-values for partial correlations (adjusted by maternal age, smoking during pregnancy, socioeconomic status and COGNIS group) between brain structure and neurocognitive development in girls. r: correlation coefficient.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure4.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7067933/v1/fcb82e5b7330dc4c3fb47975.jpg"},{"id":87036006,"identity":"3b76b798-2c65-4a49-9138-592a930b5286","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-18 13:18:57","extension":"jpg","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":237089,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e-values for partial correlations (adjusted by maternal age, smoking during pregnancy, socioeconomic status and COGNIS group) between brain structure and neurocognitive development in boys. r: correlation coefficient\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure5.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7067933/v1/b974d33292cec0ab566c994f.jpg"},{"id":105755767,"identity":"b5a42665-8fa6-4bcd-a98c-b3efc2ae6142","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-30 16:30:20","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":4190209,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7067933/v1/d3bc7d1b-93ba-4382-9034-db787c917222.pdf"},{"id":87035988,"identity":"093a908f-6adf-4de9-a5ca-7507d7201f21","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-18 13:18:57","extension":"docx","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":16191,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Additionalfile1Table2.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7067933/v1/c2bf325c46dd906b8d7d4e27.docx"},{"id":87038255,"identity":"717ec391-4f02-47a9-8ce6-bf65d4624ffe","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-18 13:26:57","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":20299,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Additionalfile2Table3.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7067933/v1/cb14aa6fa8f6633a49a0b109.docx"},{"id":87038883,"identity":"7b945b94-4c96-405c-aa9a-05137af95d84","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-18 13:34:57","extension":"docx","order_by":2,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":19439,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Additionalfile3Table6.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7067933/v1/c351e393100dcfd1f66c1b8a.docx"},{"id":87038259,"identity":"cfd82bcc-7db5-4e06-b95f-0f298efc6e16","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-18 13:26:57","extension":"docx","order_by":3,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":19978,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Additionalfile4Table7.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7067933/v1/36cd23c3f0bef5f322d53591.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Sex-specific impact of early nutrition on neurodevelopment, cognition and brain structure in healthy children up to 6-year-old: Findings from the COGNIS study","fulltext":[{"header":"Highlights","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1. Infant formula enriched with MFGM, LC-PUFAs and Synbiotic\u003c/strong\u003e may enhance cognitive outcomes and modulate brain structure in a sex-specific manner, with notable improvements in IQ and memory observed in boys.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2. Sex appears to influence neurodevelopmental trajectories\u003c/strong\u003e: at 6 years, girls outperformed boys in cognitive and executive domains, while boys exhibited\u0026nbsp;faster reaction time performance potentially related with increased processing speed.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3. Evidence of neuroanatomical sexual dimorphism of the brain\u003c/strong\u003e is suggested, with boys showing greater posterior cortical thickness and temporal lobe volumes, and girls demonstrating enhanced thickness in cingulate and frontal cortices. \u0026nbsp;Combined influence of sex and type of early feeding on brain structure were less pronounced in girls.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4. Distinct neurocognitive-brain morphometry associations\u003c/strong\u003e were more pronounced in girls, especially in language-related brain areas.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e5. These findings suggest sex-specific neurodevelopmental responses to early-life nutrition\u003c/strong\u003e, highlighting the relevance of individualized dietary strategies for optimizing pediatric brain development.\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eNeurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs) are a group of conditions that affect the development of the brain and nervous system, leading to problems related to behavior, learning, communication, and social interaction. These disorders are prevalent worldwide, affecting a significant proportion of children and adolescents. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the global prevalence of NDDs among children aged 0\u0026ndash;14 years is estimated to be around 10\u0026ndash;15%, with some estimates suggesting that the figure could be as high as 25% [1,2]. Additionally, sex-based differences in the prevalence of neurodevelopmental disorders, such as autism and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), have been reported [3]. The etiology of NDD is complex and multifactorial, involving genetic, environmental and social factors. While some risk factors are beyond our control, there are modifiable factors, mainly nutrition and early childhood development, that can be targeted for prevention and early intervention [4].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe human brain is a complex organ that undergoes a remarkable period of development during the first few years of life. This period, known as early neurodevelopment, is crucial for laying the foundation for a child's cognitive, emotional, and social development throughout their lifespan [5]. Various factors, including genetic background, environmental influences, and nutrition, can have long-term consequences on child brain structure and function [6]. Among them, it is well established that adequate nutrition, especially during the first 1000 days of life in which the brain is rapidly developing, is essential for building a strong foundation for brain growth and function [7]. Consequently, nutritional deficiencies during this critical period can lead to developmental delays, impaired cognitive function, and other neurodevelopmental disorders [8].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHuman milk is the gold standard for infant nutrition due to it contains various bioactive compounds (growth and satiety factors, hormone, cytokines and microRNA, among others) that play crucial roles in infant physiology and development [9]. Although many of these bioactive substances seem to follow sex-specific secretion pathways in adults, children [10,11], and cord blood [12,13], there is limited knowledge regarding their sex-specific distribution in human milk. In this regard, both male and female infants exhibit different responses to their early nutritional environment, suggesting sex-specific requirements for optimal growth and development during this early life stage [14]. Interestingly, the data obtained so far suggest that the composition of human milk in term infants may present sex-specific variations in terms of high calorie, carbohydrate and fat content in human milk for male-term infants compared to female-term infants [15\u0026ndash;18]. Moreover, proteins related to metabolic processes seem to be up-regulated for mothers of male infants and in the mature stage of lactation, while those related to defense appear to be abundant in mothers of female infants and in the colostrum phase [19]. Despite this, there are currently no guidelines that establish sex-specific nutritional strategies or requirements for infants [20]. Therefore, gaining a better understanding of whether male and female infants receive different nutritional and hormonal intakes through human milk could provide valuable insights into the potential need for sex-specific nutritional strategies in clinical and community settings.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn addition, recent efforts have focused on potential impact of sex on early neurodevelopment, with some studies suggesting that boys and girls may develop at different rates and have different nutritional requirements [21,22]. Interestingly, there is important but inconclusive evidence concerning sex differences in brain structure and function. In fact, the adult male brain has \u0026asymp;\u0026thinsp;10% greater volume than the adult female brain, but lower cortical thickness and white matter tract complexity [23]. Studies performed in children also show sex-based effects on brain structure, suggesting that boys seem to have greater variability in brain structure compared to girls [24,25]. However, other factors or educational experiences, but not sex, seem to be decisive in brain-cognitive differences between boys and girls [25].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOverall, a better understanding of the impact of early nutrition and sex on brain structure and function should be critical for developing effective strategies to promote healthy brain development in children, thus reducing the risk of neurodevelopmental disorders at both early and later ages. Having in mind these considerations, the current study aimed to analyze the short and long-term sex-specific impact, as well as combined effects of sex and type of early feeding, on neurodevelopment, cognitive function, and brain structure in healthy children up to 6 years old.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.1. Study design and subjects\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe COGNIS study is a double-blind randomized clinical trial (RCT) with a nutritional intervention using a new infant formula supplemented/enriched with bioactive nutrients (registered at \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e\u003ca href=\"http://www.ClinicalTrials.gov\" target=\"_blank\"\u003ewww.ClinicalTrials.gov\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"http://www.ClinicalTrials.gov\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e, Identifier: NCT02094547). Both COGNIS project and formula composition have been previously described elsewhere [26\u0026ndash;28]. Briefly, a total of 220 healthy Spanish infants were enrolled; of them, 170 infants, aged 0\u0026ndash;2 months, were randomly assigned (ratio 1:1) to receive, during their first 18 months of life, either a standard infant formula (SF: n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;85) or an experimental infant formula (EF: n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;85) containing milk fat globule membrane (MFGM) components [10% of total protein content (wt:wt)], synbiotics [Fructooligosaccharides (FOS): Inulin proportion 1:1; \u003cem\u003eBifidobacterium longum\u003c/em\u003e subsp. \u003cem\u003einfantis\u003c/em\u003e CECT7210 (\u003cem\u003eBifidobacterium infantis\u003c/em\u003e IM1\u0026reg;) and \u003cem\u003eLactobacillus rhamnosus\u003c/em\u003e LCS-74], long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFAs), gangliosides, nucleotides and sialic acid. Additionally, 50 exclusively breastfed infants (BF), for at least 2 months, between 0\u0026ndash;6 months of age, were recruited as a reference group.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIndependently of the principal outcome of the COGNIS Study, the current exploratory study included 171 infants evaluated at 6 months, 76 of them girls (SF\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;60, 24 girls; EF\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;68, 26 girls; BF\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;41, 26 girls), 152 infants at 12 months (69 girls) (SF\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;51, 21 girls; EF\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;63, 25 girls; BF\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;38, 23 girls), and 141 infants at 18 months (65 girls) (SF\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;48, 20 girls; EF\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;56, 23 girls; BF\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;37, 22 girls). Follow-up at 4 and 6 years old was conducted with neuropsychological assessments. After drop-outs, 122 children were evaluated at 4 years old, 51 of them girls (SF\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;46, 15 girls; EF\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;43, 16 girls; BF\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;33, 20 girls). Likewise, neuropsychological evaluation was performed in108 children at 6 years old (46 girls) (SF\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;37, 13 girls; EF\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;39, 14 girls; BF\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;32, 19 girls). Finally, participants were also invited to undergo a Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) at 6 years old; however, data from 30 participants were excluded due to excessive motion during acquisition. A participant flowchart from baseline visit to 6 years old is shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026lt;Insert\u003c/em\u003e Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e \u003cem\u003esomewhere here\u0026gt;\u0026gt;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2.2. Ethical approval declarations\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e This study was performed according to the updated Declaration of Helsinki Principles [29,30], and all procedures were approved by the Research Ethical Committee of the University of Granada and the Bioethical Committees for Clinical Research of the University San Cecilio and Mother-Infant Hospitals in Granada (Spain). All families were informed about all procedures during the follow-up and signed informed consent was obtained from each parent or legal guardian before involving each child in the study.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.3. Data collection and assessment\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eBaseline characteristics of infant participants were collected using validated questionnaires and medical records, including gestational age, delivery type, sex, sibling information, and breastfeeding period. Information about the parents was also obtained, including age, pre-conceptional maternal weight and BMI, gestational weight gain (GWG), smoking during pregnancy, education, place of residence, and socioeconomic status. The Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (Spanish version) was used to evaluate postpartum depression [31], and parental intelligence quotient (IQ) was assessed with the Cattell Intelligence test (G Factor) [32,33].\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.4. Neurodevelopment assessment\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eBayley\u0026acute;s Scales of Infant Development III (Spanish version BSID III) [34] was used to assess psychomotor and mental development at ages 6, 12, and 18 months. The BSID III measures overall cognitive development from 1\u0026ndash;30 months of life, including gross and fine motor skills, language (receptive and expressive communication), IQ-cognition or mental development. Additionally, socio-emotional development was determined by parent-filled questionnaire.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.5. Cognitive performance\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe cognitive tests and neuropsychological battery were performed at 4 and 6 years old as previously described [35]. Briefly, Kaufman Brief Intelligence test (K-BIT) was used to evaluate verbal and non-verbal intelligence, as well as a general IQ [36]. Oral language development was assessment by Oral Language Test of Navarra Revised (PLON-R) [37]. Finally, neuropsychological developmental domains (immediate and delayed memory, attention, visual motor coordination, verbal fluency and comprehension, processing speed and executive function) were measures by Computerized Battery for Neuropsychological Evaluation of Children (BENCI) [38,39].\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.6. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) procedure\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eImaging data acquisition and neuroimage processing were described previously elsewhere [35]. Brain data were acquired using a 3T Magnetic Resonance Imaging scanner equipped with a 32-channel phased-array head coil for reception (Magnetom Trio Siemens Medical System, ERLANGEN, Germany), located at Mind, Brain and Behavior Research Centre (CIMCYC, University of Granada, Spain).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.7. Statistical analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe statistical analysis was performed using IBM\u0026reg; SPSS Statistics\u0026reg; program, version 24.0 (SPSS Inc. Chicago, IL, USA). Normally distributed variables were expressed as mean and standard deviation (SD), while non-normal variables as median and interquartile range (IQR). Categorical variables were displayed as frequencies and percentages. Test used included T-Student, ANOVA or Welch test for normally distributed variables, Kruskal Wallis test for non-normal continuous variables and Chi-square or Fisher test for categorical variables. Normal distribution was assumed using Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, and T-Student tests and one-way ANOVAs were used to examine differences in neurocognitive test scores, brain volumes and cortical thicknesses between SF, EF and BF groups by sex. Total intracranial volume was included as covariate in all brain volume analyses. Additional analyses of group comparisons were performed using a one-way analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) adjusted for potential confounders such as \u003cem\u003ematernal age, familiar socioeconomic status, smoking during pregnancy, as well as age of the children\u003c/em\u003e [40\u0026ndash;42]. In the event of significant group differences, Bonferroni corrected \u003cem\u003epost hoc\u003c/em\u003e comparisons were used to determine significant pair-wise group differences. Finally, partial correlation analyses were performed to estimate relationship between child neurocognitive performance and brain volumes and thicknesses of regions that were statistically different. \u003cem\u003eP-\u003c/em\u003evalues\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05 were considered statistically significant.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1. Background characteristics of the COGNIS parent-infant\u0026rsquo; pairs\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe comparative baseline characteristics of parents and infants participating in the COGNIS study are shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. There were differences in maternal IQ and education level between study groups. Thus, mothers who breastfed their offspring had higher IQ (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001) than those of both formula-feeding groups. No differences in paternal IQ were found. Furthermore, parents of BF infants had higher educational level (maternal \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001, paternal \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.003). All mothers had adequate pre-conceptional BMI and GWG, and most were non-smokers during pregnancy. All infants were born at term, mostly via vaginal delivery, with adequate weight, length, and head circumference for gestational age. Due to the COGNIS study design, days of breastfed significantly differed between study groups (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). The study population was homogeneous regarding confounding factors, allowing for reliable and valid statistical analysis after accounting for significant confounding factors.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBaseline characteristics of the COGNIS study participants\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSF (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;85)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEF (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;85)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBF (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;50)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"6\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMother\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAge (years)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e32 (10.5)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30.50 (8.5)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e32 (6.25)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.068\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003epBMI (kg/m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e24.18 (5.86)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23.68 (6.16)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23.90 (4.36)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.842\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGWG (kg)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7 (6.5)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6 (6.5)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6 (5)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.781\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSmoking during pregnancy\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13 (18.8%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10 (13.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2 (4.7%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.098\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eType of delivery\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVaginal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e62 (72.9%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e60 (70.6%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e37 (74.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.899\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCaesarean\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23 (27.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25 (29.4%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13 (26.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePostpartum Depression\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21 (24.7%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22 (26.2%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6 (12.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.131\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIQ (points)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e102 (19)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100 (22)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e111 (19)\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEducational level\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePrimary\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19 (22.4%)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19 (22.4%)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1 (2.0%)\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSecondary\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28 (32.9%)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e29 (34.1%)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5 (10.0%)\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVT\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15 (17.6%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21 (24.7%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16 (32.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUniversity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23 (27.1%)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16 (18.8%)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28 (56.0%)\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFather\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAge (years)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e32.68\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.89\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e33.31\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e35.07\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.134\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIQ (points)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e108 (21)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e102 (19)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e108 (18)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.062\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEducational level\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePrimary\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28 (35.0%)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e36 (46.2%)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6 (12.8%)\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.003\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSecondary\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25 (31.3%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16 (20.5%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11 (23.4%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVT\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13 (16.3%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12 (15.4%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12 (25.5%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUniversity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14 (17.4%)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14 (17.9%)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18 (38.3%)\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFamiliar\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSiblings\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e33 (38.8%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e42 (49.4%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28 (56.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.128\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e52 (61.2%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e43 (50.6%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22 (44.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePlace of residence\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUrban\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e38 (44.7%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28 (32.9%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15 (30.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.148\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRural\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e47 (55.3%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e57(67.1%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e35 (70.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"6\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNewborn characteristics\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGA at delivery (weeks)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e40 (2)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e40 (1)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e39.5 (2.25)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.925\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSex (boy)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e49 (57.6%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e51 (60.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21 (42.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.105\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBirth weight (g)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3266.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;459.08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3347.76\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;486.41\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3321.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;431.73\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.513\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBirth length (cm)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50 (3)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e51 (3)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e51 (2)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.431\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBirth HC (cm)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e35 (1.5)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e34.25 (1)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e35 (1.75)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.481\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBreastfeeding (days)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8 (22)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7 (27)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e420 (270)\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eData are presented as means\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SD for parametrically distributed data, n (%) for categorical data, and medians (IQRs) for non-parametrically distributed data.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e-values for overall differences between COGNIS-groups. ANOVA test for normally distributed variables, Kruskal Wallis test for non-normal continuous variables, and Chi-square or Fisher test for categorical variables. Values not sharing the same suffix (ab) were significantly different in the Bonferroni post hoc test. \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e-values\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05 are highlighted in bold.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSF: Standard infant formula; EF: Experimental infant formula; BF: Breastfed infants; pBMI: Pre-conceptional body mass index; GWG: Gestational Weight Gain; IQ: Intelligence quotient; VT: Vocational training; GA: Gestational age; HC: Head circumference.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2. Sex-based neurocognitive differences in infants up to 18 months of age\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe first evaluate whether sex might influence infant neurodevelopment up to 18 months of age, regardless type of early nutrition. Having in mind that neuropsychological development in COGNIS infants scored within normal ranges by age and sex, our analysis showed sex-related differences. As shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, girls presented higher cognitive scores than boys (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.019, in an unadjusted model) at 18 months of age. After adjusting for maternal age, smoking during pregnancy, familiar socioeconomic status and COGNIS groups, no differences in infant neurodevelopment were found at 6 and 12 months of age. However, at 18 months, significant differences on the cognitive scale disappeared (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.065), but girls presented better language skills than boys (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.045).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInfant neurodevelopment up to 18 months old depending on their sex\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"11\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBayley's III Composite Scores\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6 months\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eadj\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12 months\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eadj\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18 months\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eadj\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCognitive\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBoys\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e118.92\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.86\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.088\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.191\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e134.10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.97\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.574\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.874\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e126.45\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.24\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.019\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.065\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGirls\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e121.71\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;8.55\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e135.14\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;10.71\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e131.38\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.09\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLanguage\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBoys\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e120.89\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;9.70\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.807\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.411\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e120.01\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.80\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.876\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.844\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e110.92\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;12.24\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.124\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.045\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGirls\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e120.54\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;8.83\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e120.35\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;14.25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e114.23\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMotor skills\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBoys\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e112.61\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.41\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.252\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.103\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e113.31\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;16.56\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.785\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.797\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e119.79\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;12.97\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.477\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.680\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGirls\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e114.97\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e114.09\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;18.33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e121.38\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.57\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSocial-emotional\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBoys\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100.86\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;16.08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.238\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.113\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e101.27\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;16.04\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.421\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.230\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e101.18\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;18.53\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.536\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.052\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGirls\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e103.88\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;16.98\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e103.31\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;14.80\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e103.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;19.97\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"11\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003eData are presented as means of composite score\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SD.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"11\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e-values for differences between groups. T-Test for normally distributed variables.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"11\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eadj\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e are univariate analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) adjusted by maternal age, smoking during pregnancy, familiar socioeconomic status and COGNIS groups. Bonferroni post hoc test was performed. P-values\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05 are highlighted in bold.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"11\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003eInfants at 6 months: Boys (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;93); Girls (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;76).\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"11\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003eInfants at 12 months: Boys (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;83); Girls (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;69).\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"11\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003eInfants at 18 months: Boys (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;76); Girls (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;65).\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026lt;Insert\u003c/em\u003e Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e \u003cem\u003esomewhere here\u0026gt;\u0026gt;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e3.3. Combined effects of early nutrition and sex on infant neurodevelopment up to 18 months of life\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn order to analyze the potential combined effects of sex and type of feeding up to 18 months of life, study sample was divided into infant girls and boys and regrouped by COGNIS groups. The following analysis were adjusted by maternal age, smoking during pregnancy and familiar socioeconomic status (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInfant neurodevelopment up to 18 months old depending on their sex and type of feeding\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"13\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c13\" colnum=\"13\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBayley's III Composite Scores\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6 months\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eadj\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12 months\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eadj\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18 months\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eadj\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"13\" nameend=\"c13\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBOYS\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCognitive\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e118.06\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;14.46\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.843\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.976\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e132.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;15.30\u003csup\u003ea,b\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.038\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e126.43\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.67\u003csup\u003ea,b\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.003\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.026\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e119.64\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;10.14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e132.37\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;9.85\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e122.12\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;12.75\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e119.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;9.86\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e141.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.50\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e136.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;8.06\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLanguage\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e120.75\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;10.74\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.095\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.190\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e121.07\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.45\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.629\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.599\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e112.75\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.63\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.370\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.739\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e122.64\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;8.41\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e120.18\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;12.84\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e111.06\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.81\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e116.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;9.58\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e117.47\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;9.96\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e107.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;10.19\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMotor skills\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e114.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;16.65\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.476\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.726\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e117.27\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;19.88\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.164\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.243\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e119.82\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;12.53\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.007\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.007\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e110.74\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;10.77\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e109.68\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.83\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e115.85\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.45\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e113.93\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.37\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e114.60\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;14.56\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e128.40\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;8.32\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSocial-emotional\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e102.08\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;16.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.751\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.769\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e101.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.73\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.262\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.839\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e103.75\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;20.58\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.583\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.332\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100.71\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;16.14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e103.68\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;18.33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e98.79\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;18.46\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e98.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;16.87\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e95.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.35\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e101.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;14.72\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"13\" nameend=\"c13\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eGIRLS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCognitive\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e122.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;8.97\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.300\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.522\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e138.57\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;8.08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.087\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.339\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e132.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;10.05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.507\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.375\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e119.62\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;8.59\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e136.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;9.13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e129.13\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.45\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e123.08\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;8.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e131.09\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e133.18\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;9.20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLanguage\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e121.42\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;10.51\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.426\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.149\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e124.71\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;12.10\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.025\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.451\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e117.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;15.42\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.409\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.472\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e118.69\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;8.80\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e122.56\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;14.40\u003csup\u003ea,b\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e113.04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.21\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e121.58\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e113.96\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;14.22\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e112.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;12.71\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMotor skills\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e116.42\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.88\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.151\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.978\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e119.10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;20.89\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.176\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.437\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e123.15\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.725\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.979\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e110.96\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e114.72\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;18.60\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e119.70\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;16.96\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e117.65\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.98\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e108.83\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;14.53\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e121.55\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.92\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSocial-emotional\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e105.21\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.63\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.309\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.986\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e104.52\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.893\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.072\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e106.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;20.88\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.619\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.065\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e99.81\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;22.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e103.13\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;16.80\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;22.47\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e106.73\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.49\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e102.39\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;14.61\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e103.86\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;16.69\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"13\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003eData are presented as means of composite score\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SD. SF: standard infant formula; EF: experimental infant formula; BF: breastfed infants.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"13\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e-values for differences between COGNIS groups. ANOVA for normally distributed variables.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"13\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eadj\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e are univariate analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) adjusted by maternal age, smoking during pregnancy and familiar socioeconomic status. Values which do not share the same suffix (ab) are significantly different in a Bonferroni post-hoc test. P-values\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05 are highlighted in bold.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"13\"\u003e\u003cb\u003eBOYS\u003c/b\u003e: \u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003eInfants at 6 months: SF (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;36); EF (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;42); BF (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;15); \u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003eInfants at 12 months: SF (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;30); EF (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;38); BF (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;15); \u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003eInfants at 18 months: SF (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;28); EF (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;33); BF (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;15).\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"13\"\u003e\u003cb\u003eGIRLS\u003c/b\u003e: \u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003eInfants at 6 months: SF (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;24); EF (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;26); BF (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;26); \u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003eInfants at 12 months: SF (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;21); EF (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;25); BF (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;23); \u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003eInfants at 18 months: SF (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;20); EF (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;23); BF (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;22).\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eRegarding boys, we found that BF infants showed better cognitive development (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001; \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eadj\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e = 0.038) at 12 months than those in EF group. At 18 months, differences in cognitive (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.003; \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eadj\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e = 0.026) and motor skills (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.007; \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eadj\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e = 0.007) were also found. In this regard, BF infants presented higher scores in cognitive than EF infants as well as higher scores in motor skills than both infant formula groups (SF and EF). Interestingly, in the case of girls, we found that, in an unadjusted model, BF infants showed lower scores in language development compared to SF infants (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.025) at 12 months of life. However, these differences disappeared after adjusting for confounding factors (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026lt;Insert Table somewhere 3 here\u0026gt;\u0026gt;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.4. Sex-based neurocognitive differences in children aged 4 and 6 years\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe next examined whether sex-based neurocognitive differences observed at early life were maintained at 4 and 6 years old, regardless type of early feeding. Once again, it is necessary to state that neurodevelopmental outcomes obtained in COGNIS children at mentioned ages fall within the normal range for sex and age. When comparing boys and girls aged 4 years, we found that girls performed better a visuomotor task in unadjusted model, indicating that girls completed this task in less time (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.030) than boys. However, after adjusting by smoking during pregnancy, maternal age, familiar socioeconomic status and COGNIS-groups, these differences disappeared (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChildren neurocognitive function at 4 years old depending on their sex\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBoys (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;71)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGirls (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;51)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003eadj\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"5\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eKaufman Brief Intelligence Test (K-BIT)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVocabulary (typical score)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e104.90\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;14.11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e103.45\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;15.20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.589\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.710\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMatrices (typical score)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e118.59\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.69\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e117.18\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.34\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.547\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.200\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIQ (typical score)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e111.07\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e109.53\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.92\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.512\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.331\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"5\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eOral Language Test of Navarra -\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRevised (PLON-R)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eForm (typical score)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e54.35\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;17.74\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e59.86\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;15.39\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.076\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.692\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eContent (typical score)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e42.94\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;17.88\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e47.04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;15.92\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.186\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.646\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUse (typical score)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e49.35\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.93\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e49.37\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;10.42\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.992\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.612\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal Score PLON-R (typical score)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e49.35\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;17.41\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e54.14\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;16.86\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.132\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.559\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"5\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eComputerized Battery for Neuropsychological\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEvaluation of Children (BENCI)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVerbal comprehension (successes)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.71\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.99\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.68\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.94\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.849\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.969\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSemantic fluency (successes)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.47\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.19\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.66\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.31\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.663\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.219\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVerbal short-term memory (successes)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.64\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.85\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.377\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.799\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVerbal long-term memory (successes)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.94\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.57\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.40\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.136\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.421\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVerbal long-term memory (recognition successes)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.41\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.72\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.437\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.534\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVisuomotor (mean seg)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15.43\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;14.90\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.96\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.89\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.030\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.080\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlternate visuomotor (mean seg)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e43.55\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;37.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e41.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;27.36\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.762\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.926\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003eData are presented as means\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SD.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e-values for differences between COGNIS-groups. T-Test for normally distributed variables.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eadj\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e are univariate analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) adjusted by maternal age, smoking during pregnancy, familiar socioeconomic status and COGNIS-groups. Bonferroni post hoc test was performed. P-values\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05 are highlighted in bold.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eInterestingly, in unadjusted model, neurocognitive differences between girls and boys were more pronounced at 6 years old \u003cb\u003e(\u003c/b\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e\u003cb\u003e)\u003c/b\u003e. In fact, girls presented higher typical score in matrices (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.044) as well as better short and long-term verbal memory (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.018 and \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.049) than boys. However, boys showed better reaction time compared to girls (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.005). Except in the case of errors of verbal short-term memory and reaction time (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eadj\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e = 0.001 and \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eadj\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e = 0.002, respectively), these differences disappeared after adjustment for confounding variables, including smoking during pregnancy, maternal age, familiar socioeconomic status and COGNIS-groups. Furthermore, in this adjusted model, boys presented more errors of commission in a Go/no-Go task (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eadj\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e = 0.049) in comparison to girls (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChildren neurocognitive function at 6 years old depending on their sex\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBoys (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;62)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGirls (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;46)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003eadj\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"5\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eKaufman Brief Intelligence Test (K-BIT)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVocabulary (typical score)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e107.95\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.76\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e108.83\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;14.47\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.750\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.864\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMatrices (typical score)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e110.26\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;10.89\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e114.83\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;12.28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.044\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.056\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIQ (typical score)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e108.44\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.46\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e111.24\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;12.86\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.236\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.420\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"5\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eOral Language Test of Navarra -\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRevised (PLON-R)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eForm (typical score)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e47.06\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;15.85\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e49.22\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;14.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.465\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.557\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eContent (typical score)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e55.29\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;20.72\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e58.61\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;19.47\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.400\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.597\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUse (typical score)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e52.81\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;20.89\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e59.35\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;20.19\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.106\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.158\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal Score PLON-R (typical score)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e55.52\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;22.80\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e61.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;22.70\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.218\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.321\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"5\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eComputerized Battery for Neuropsychological\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEvaluation of Children (BENCI)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVerbal comprehension (successes)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.80\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.29\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.56\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.179\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.298\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eContinuous performance (successes)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e52.09\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;8.83\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e51.42\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7.17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.683\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.884\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eContinuous performance (errors of commission)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.60\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;16.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.362\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.753\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSemantic fluency (successes)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.51\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.38\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.91\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.44\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.396\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.464\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWorking memory (successes)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.93\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.40\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.13\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.485\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.664\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVerbal short-term memory (successes)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.17\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.06\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.86\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.70\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVerbal long-term memory (successes)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.97\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.92\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.80\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.65\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.018\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.055\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVerbal long-term memory (recognition successes)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.61\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.99\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.24\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.049\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.087\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eReaction time (mean ms)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e526.54\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;52.12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e584.71\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;126.27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.005\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.002\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGo/no-Go task (successes)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e47.90\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.44\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e47.30\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.24\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.599\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.494\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGo/no-Go task (errors of commission)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.72\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.56\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.89\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.081\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.049\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003eData are presented as means\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SD.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e-values for differences between COGNIS-groups. T-Test for normally distributed variables.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eadj\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e are univariate analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) adjusted by smoking during pregnancy, maternal age, familiar socioeconomic status and COGNIS-groups. Bonferroni post hoc test was performed. P-values\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05 are highlighted in bold.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e3.5. Long-term impact of infant formulas and sex on neurocognitive function in children at 4 and 6 years old\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBased on the above findings, we analyzed the potential long-term combined effects of type of infant formula and sex on neurocognitive function in children aged 4 and 6 years.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, at 4 years old, BF boys had a better typical score in Matrices compared with SF boys (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.015). Likewise, EF girls exhibited better verbal comprehension than BF girls (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.015). These differences disappeared after adjusting for smoking during pregnancy, maternal age and familiar socioeconomic status.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 6\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChildren neurocognitive function at 4 years old according to sex and COGNIS groups\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"13\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c13\" colnum=\"13\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"5\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBoys (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;71)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"5\" nameend=\"c13\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGirls (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;51)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSF (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;31)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEF (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;27)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBF (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;13)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003eadj\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSF (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;15)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEF (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;16)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBF (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;20)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003eadj\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"13\" nameend=\"c13\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eKaufman Brief Intelligence Test (K-BIT)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVocabulary (typical score)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e103.61\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;14.38\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e106.07\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;14.32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e105.54\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.84\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.795\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.540\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e102.40\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;16.46\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e101.69\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;15.31\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e105.65\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;14.66\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.711\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.891\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMatrices (typical score)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e115.45\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.66\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e117.59\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.47\u003csup\u003ea,b\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e128.15\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;10.29\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.015\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.200\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e118.80\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;8.99\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e119.69\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.53\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e113.95\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;10.77\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.263\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.119\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIQ (typical score)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e108.52\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.82\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e111.15\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.43\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e117.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;10.57\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.156\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.452\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e109.93\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.55\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e109.88\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;12.16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e108.95\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;12.57\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.963\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.688\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"13\" nameend=\"c13\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eOral Language Test of Navarra-Revised (PLON-R)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eForm (typical score)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e54.19\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;19.15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e55.11\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;18.30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e53.15\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.82\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.947\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.718\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e56.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;16.55\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e58.81\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;14.56\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e63.45\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;15.13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.373\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.592\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eContent (typical score)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e41.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;17.44\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e41.56\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;17.81\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50.46\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;18.53\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.246\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.096\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e42.53\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;14.38\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e45.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;18.93\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e52.05\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;12.80\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.180\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.564\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUse (typical score)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e45.52\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;12.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e52.07\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.95\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e52.85\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;9.61\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.055\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.077\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e47.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;10.14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e51.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;10.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e49.45\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.09\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.495\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.596\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal Score PLON-R (typical score)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e46.55\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;17.78\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50.15\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;17.81\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e54.38\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;15.55\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.383\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.107\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e48.13\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;15.47\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e53.06\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;19.07\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e59.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;14.98\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.136\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.508\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"13\" nameend=\"c13\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eComputerized Battery for Neuropsychological\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEvaluation of Children (BENCI)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVerbal comprehension (successes)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.77\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.81\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.92\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.38\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.65\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.415\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.935\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.79\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.70\u003csup\u003ea,b\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.13\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.02\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.85\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.015\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.121\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSemantic fluency (successes)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.34\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.81\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.90\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.08\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.53\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.562\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.335\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.43\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.24\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.15\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.48\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.471\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.558\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVerbal short-term memory (successes)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.81\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.40\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.49\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.21\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.56\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.637\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.782\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.76\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.58\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.12\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.388\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.561\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVerbal long-term memory (successes)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.03\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.67\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.78\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.40\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.08\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.786\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.621\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.43\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.99\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.31\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.58\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.45\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.79\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.972\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.561\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVerbal long-term memory (recognition successes)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.70\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.70\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.77\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.65\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.357\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.137\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.14\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.38\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.88\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.82\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.504\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.337\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVisuomotor (mean seg)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16.34\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;16.96\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14.71\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;14.89\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14.83\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;9.89\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.909\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.808\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.96\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;9.64\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.86\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.41\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.34\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.89\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.801\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.887\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlternate visuomotor (mean seg)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e49.91\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;48.48\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e38.42\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;26.93\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e39.53\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;21.35\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.466\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.331\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e36.89\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;21.47\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e39.10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;24.11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e47.08\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;33.22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.519\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.668\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"13\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003eData are presented as means\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SD.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"13\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e-values for differences between COGNIS-groups. ANOVA test for normally distributed variables.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"13\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eadj\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e are univariate analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) adjusted by smoking during pregnancy, maternal age and familiar socioeconomic status. Values not sharing the same suffix (ab) were significantly different in the Bonferroni post hoc test. \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e-values\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05 are highlighted in bold.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"13\"\u003eSF: Standard infant formula; EF: Experimental infant formula; BF: Breastfed infants.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026lt;Insert\u003c/em\u003e Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e \u003cem\u003esomewhere here\u0026gt;\u0026gt;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e shows neurocognitive function in children aged 6 years according to their sex and type of early nutrition. In this regard, both unadjusted and adjusted analysis showed that EF fed boys presented higher IQ (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.044; \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eadj\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e = 0.040) in the K-BIT test compared to SF boys; nevertheless, BF boys showed more errors of commission in a continuous performance task (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.042; \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eadj\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e = 0.026) compared to SF boys as well as better reaction time than EF boys (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.011; \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eadj\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e = 0.027). Likewise, statistically significant differences in neurocognitive scores were found between COGNIS girls. In fact, BF girls showed more errors of commission in a Go/no-Go task (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.026) than SF girls, but this difference disappeared after adjusting for confounders variables. Adjusted analysis also revealed that SF girls showed higher scores in matrices than BF girls (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eadj\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e = 0.043), while girls presented more errors of commission in a continuous performance task compared to SF girls (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eadj\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e = 0.034). Finally, EF girls demonstrated better long-term memory in comparison to BF girls (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eadj\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e = 0.006) (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab7\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 7\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChildren neurocognitive function at 6 years old according to sex and COGNIS groups\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"13\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c13\" colnum=\"13\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"5\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBoys (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;62)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"5\" nameend=\"c13\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGirls (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;46)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSF (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;24)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEF (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;25)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBF (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;13)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003eadj\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSF (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;13)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEF (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;14)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBF (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;19)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003eadj\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"13\" nameend=\"c13\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eKaufman Brief Intelligence Test (K-BIT)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVocabulary (typical score)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e104.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.67\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e111.92\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e106.69\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;17.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.158\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.056\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e107.23\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;17.52\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e110.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;15.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e108.68\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;12.34\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.847\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.430\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMatrices (typical score)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e106.75\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;8.88\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e113.64\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.40\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e110.23\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.97\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.084\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.091\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e121.94\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;12.51\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e115.10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.41\u003csup\u003ea,b\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e109.72\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;10.61\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.165\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.043\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIQ (typical score)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e104.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.03\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e112.36\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;9.45\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e108.62\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.74\u003csup\u003ea,b\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.044\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.040\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e113.46\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;15.54\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e110.79\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.09\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e110.05\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.761\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.188\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"13\" nameend=\"c13\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eOral Language Test of Navarra -\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRevised (PLON-R)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eForm (typical score)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e46.21\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;18.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e46.84\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;15.86\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e49.08\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;12.13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.871\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e48.23\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;16.52\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e48.57\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.48\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50.37\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.899\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.999\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eContent (typical score)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e51.75\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;25.13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e57.44\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;15.13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e57.69\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;21.77\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.624\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.666\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e60.85\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;23.56\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e51.71\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;15.24\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e62.16\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;18.86\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.284\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.566\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUse (typical score)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e48.46\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;24.27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e54.60\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;18.60\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e57.38\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;18.15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.403\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.760\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e60.38\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;18.94\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e52.79\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;26.35\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e63.47\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;15.05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.323\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.417\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal Score PLON-R (typical score)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e52.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;28.62\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e56.64\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;17.42\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e59.85\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;20.43\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.635\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.899\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e62.77\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;24.29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e52.93\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;25.28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e65.74\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;18.87\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.267\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.602\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"13\" nameend=\"c13\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eComputerized Battery for Neuropsychological\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEvaluation of Children (BENCI)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVerbal comprehension (successes)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.21\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.19\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.32\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.60\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.92\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.19\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.147\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.174\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.46\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.56\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.85\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.46\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.47\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.65\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.490\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.513\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eContinuous performance (successes)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e54.09\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.37\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50.17\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.88\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e51.92\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.92\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.328\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.189\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e53.62\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.45\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e52.92\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.24\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e48.89\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;9.36\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.160\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.360\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eContinuous performance (errors of commission)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.65\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;8.38\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.87\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.38\u003csup\u003ea,b\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;12.69\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.042\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.026\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.23\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7.12\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.46\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.51\u003csup\u003ea,b\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18.79\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;20.19\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.104\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.034\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSemantic fluency (successes)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.63\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.78\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.08\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.17\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.04\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.418\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.613\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.69\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.66\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.04\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.65\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.932\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.846\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWorking memory (successes)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.92\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.44\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.16\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.43\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.24\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.412\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.130\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.15\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.46\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.85\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.34\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.32\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.67\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.694\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.938\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVerbal short-term memory (successes)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.21\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.47\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.90\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.448\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.585\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.72\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.88\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.56\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.69\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.16\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.45\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.040\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.212\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVerbal long-term memory (successes)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.13\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.87\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.48\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.07\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.189\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.177\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.92\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.44\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.85\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.63\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.68\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.86\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.919\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.325\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVerbal long-term memory (recognition successes)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.29\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.97\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.64\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.36\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.17\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.83\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.465\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.562\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.46\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.66\u003csup\u003ea,b\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.05\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.87\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.54\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.29\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.484\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.006\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eReaction time (mean ms)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e524.38\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;44.79\u003csup\u003ea,b\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e545.40\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;58.48\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e491.58\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;31.77\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.011\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.027\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e577.15\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;55.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e580.92\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;72.36\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e592.47\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;182.62\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.940\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.763\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGo/no-Go task (successes)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e47.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.45\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e47.96\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.43\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e49.08\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.641\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.765\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e45.31\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e48.86\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7.63\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e47.53\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.337\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.197\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGo/no-Go task (errors of commission)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.08\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.54\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.16\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.64\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.17\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.44\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.367\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.309\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.69\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.55\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.79\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.15\u003csup\u003ea,b\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.79\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.30\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.026\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.073\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"13\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003eData are presented as means\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SD.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"13\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e-values for differences between COGNIS-groups. ANOVA test for normally distributed variables.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"13\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eadj\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e are univariate analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) adjusted by smoking during pregnancy, maternal age and familiar socioeconomic status. Values not sharing the same suffix (ab) were significantly different in the Bonferroni post hoc test. \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e-values\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05 are highlighted in bold.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"13\"\u003eSF: Standard infant formula; EF: Experimental infant formula; BF: Breastfed infants.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026lt;Insert\u003c/em\u003e Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e \u003cem\u003esomewhere here\u0026gt;\u0026gt;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.6. Structural brain differences in COGNIS participants\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn addition to evaluate neurocognitive differences between sexes in COGNIS participants, we also analyzed whether sex might have long-term impact on brain structure at 6 years old.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFirst, we determined potential sex-based differences in brain size (volume and cortical thickness) regardless type of early feeding (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e and Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Overall, adjusted analysis, including controlling for total intracranial volume, showed that boys presented higher regional brain volumes (both temporal lobes as wells as several insular and temporal regions) (all \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eadj\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e \u0026lt; 0.05) in comparison to girls; however, girls showed greater brain volume in the left temporal transverse sulcus (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eadj\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e = 0.002). Likewise, adjusted analysis showed that boys had greater cortical thickness in posterior brain regions, including left occipital lobe, left cuneus lateral orbital, both left calcarine sulcus and the right parieto occipital sulcus (all \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eadj\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e \u0026lt; 0.027). Nevertheless, girls presented higher cortical thickness in cingulate regions (i.e.: anterior and middle cingulate gyrus, pericallosal sulcus) and frontal regions (i.e.: subcentral and inferior frontal cortices) compared to boys (all \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eadj\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e \u0026lt; 0.033).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab8\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 8\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDifferences in brain volume and thickness between boys and girls participating in COGNIS study at 6 years of life\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBrain region\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBoys (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;46)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGirls (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;32)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003eadj\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVolume (mm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLeft temporal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e65542.57\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5445.23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e60271.03\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5823.90\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.043\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.016\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRight temporal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e64130.61\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5754.70\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e59116.13\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6098.28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.025\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.005\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLeft inferior circular insular sulcus\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2531.63\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;349.89\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2314.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;296.77\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.009\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.040\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLeft intermedius primus sulcus\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e653.46\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;245.37\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e644.69\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;225.90\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.017\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.010\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLeft temporal transverse sulcus\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e699.22\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;177.49\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e721.81\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;198.78\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.006\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.002\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRight planum temporale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2146.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;361.29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2060.63\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;415.21\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.012\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.013\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRight middle temporal gyrus\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10420.91\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1396.11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9971.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1285.16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.008\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.002\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRight inferior circular insular sulcus\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1962.53\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;270.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1789.94\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;281.71\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.048\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.018\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRight parieto-occipital sulcus\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4180.39\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;628.50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3784.09\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;848.90\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.024\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.011\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRight inferior temporal sulcus\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2470.83\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;419.41\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2319.75\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;409.77\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.023\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.011\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCortical Thickness (mm)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLeft cingulate\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.881\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.097\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.941\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.157\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.034\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.032\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLeft occipital\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.359\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.089\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.313\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.083\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.011\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.017\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLeft anterior cingulate cortex\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.108\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.130\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.206\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.176\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.005\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.010\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLeft middle cingulate cortex\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.006\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.141\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.103\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.178\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.020\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.011\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLeft cuneus\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.204\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.144\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.134\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.140\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.007\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.002\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLeft planum polare of the superior temporal gyrus\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.973\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.177\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.989\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.175\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.043\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.033\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLeft calcarine sulcus\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.312\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.115\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.227\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.127\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLeft pericallosal sulcus\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.108\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.174\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.237\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.317\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.022\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.022\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLeft temporal transverse sulcus\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.614\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.332\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.767\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.285\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.036\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.033\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRight subcentral cortex\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.909\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.178\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.096\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.218\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRight anterior cingulate cortex\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.921\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.139\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.028\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.182\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.002\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.002\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRight triangular part of the inferior frontal gyrus\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.962\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.124\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.088\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.962\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.003\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.002\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRight calcarine sulcus\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.377\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.142\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.291\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.135\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.002\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.002\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRight parieto-occipital sulcus\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.637\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.138\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.565\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.123\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.011\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.027\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003eData are presented as means\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SD.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e-values for differences between COGNIS-groups. T-Test for normally distributed variables. Volume analyses were corrected for total brain volume.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eadj\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e are univariate analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) adjusted by smoking during pregnancy, maternal age, familiar socioeconomic level, age and sex of the children and COGNIS groups. \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e-values\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05 are highlighted in bold.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026lt;Insert\u003c/em\u003e Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e \u003cem\u003esomewhere here\u0026gt;\u0026gt;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe next analyzed the combined influence of children sex and study group \u003cem\u003e(type of early feeding)\u003c/em\u003e on volume brain and cortical thickness \u003cb\u003e(\u003c/b\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e \u003cb\u003eand\u003c/b\u003e Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e\u003cb\u003e)\u003c/b\u003e. Compared to BF boys, EF boys presented higher brain volumes in the left inferior circular insular sulcus (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eadj\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e=0.001), and the left orbital sulcus (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eadj\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e=0.039). Additionally, BF boys showed reduced left inferior circular insular sulcus volumes compared to the SF group (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eadj\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e=0.041). Conversely, BF boys presented higher left angular gyrus volume compared to boys fed with EF (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eadj\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e=0.005). Finally, compared to SF boys, EF boys showed higher left occipital pole volume (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eadj\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e=0.036). On the other side, cortical thickness was greater in EF boys in the right superior occipital gyrus and right intermedius primus sucus (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eadj\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e=0.010, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eadj\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e=0.003, respectively) compared to BF boys, while left inferior circular sulcus showed higher thickness in EF boys compared to both BF and SF boys (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eadj\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e=0.020 and \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eadj\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e=0.035) \u003cb\u003e(\u003c/b\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e \u003cb\u003eand\u003c/b\u003e Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eA\u003cb\u003e)\u003c/b\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eInterestingly, differences in brain volume and thickness in girls aged 6 years, according to their early feeding, were less pronounced. In fact, BF group showed higher right transverse occipital sulcus volume compared to the SF group (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eadj\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e=0.040), while they also presented increased cortical thickness in the left calcarine cortex compared to both infant formula groups (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eadj\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e=0.008 and \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eadj\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e=0.003, respectively) (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e \u003cb\u003eand\u003c/b\u003e Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eB).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab9\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 9\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDifferences in brain volume and thickness between children fed with EF, SF or BF according to sex of the child at 6 years old\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"6\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBoys (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;46)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBrain regions\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSF (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;20)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEF (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;18)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBF (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;8)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003eadj\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVolume (mm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLeft angular gyrus\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8226.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1048.35\u003csup\u003ea,b\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7951.11\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1427.79\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9338.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1062.03\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.015\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.005\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLeft occipital pole\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3232.05\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;483.29\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3635.56\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;439.50\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3406.88\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;383.69\u003csup\u003ea,b\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.042\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.005\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLeft inferior circular insular sulcus\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2498.60\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;319.60\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2660.28\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;411.12\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2324.75\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;68.57\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.008\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLeft orbital sulcus\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3107.35\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;413.23\u003csup\u003ea,b\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3284.39\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;449.13\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2831.75\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;565.03\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.043\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.025\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCortical Thickness (mm)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLeft inferior circular insular sulcus\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.113\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.173\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.235\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.209\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.012\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.140\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.016\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.006\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRight superior occipital gyrus\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.540\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.160\u003csup\u003ea,b\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.608\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.165\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.422\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.156\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.032\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.012\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRight intermedius primus sulcus\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.637\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.208\u003csup\u003ea,b\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.726\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.158\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.419\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.196\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.002\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.003\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"6\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eGirls (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;32)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eBrain regions\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSF (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;10)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEF (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;9)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eBF (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;13)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ep\u003c/b\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cb\u003e2\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ep\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003eadj\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eVolume (mm\u003c/b\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cb\u003e3\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cb\u003e)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRight transverse occipital sulcus\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1951.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;250.41\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2152.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;224.74\u003csup\u003ea,b\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2395.38\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;402.93\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.004\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.042\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCortical Thickness (mm)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLeft calcarine\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.166\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.135\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.161\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.071\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.321\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.095\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003eData are presented as means\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SD.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e-values for differences between COGNIS-groups. ANOVA test for normally distributed variables. Volume analyses were corrected for total brain volume.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eadj\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e are univariate analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) adjusted by smoking during pregnancy, maternal age, familiar socioeconomic level, age and sex of the children. Values not sharing the same suffix (ab) were significantly different in the Bonferroni post hoc test. \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e-values\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05 are highlighted in bold.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSF: Standard infant formula; EF: Experimental infant formula; BF: Breastfed infants.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026lt;Insert\u003c/em\u003e Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e \u003cem\u003esomewhere here\u0026gt;\u0026gt;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.7. Relationship between brain structure and neurocognitive development in COGNIS children at 6 years old\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eFinally, partial correlation analyses were performed to evaluate potential associations between child neurocognitive function and brain structure in those regions in which significant results were previously found. These analyses were adjusted by maternal age, smoking during pregnancy, socioeconomic status and COGNIS group, and were performed differentially in both boys and girls at 6 years of life. To better understand this procedure, we will first describe those neurocognitive results in which there were sex-specific differences, taking also account of brain structure results \u003cb\u003e(\u003c/b\u003eTables\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan refid=\"Tab8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan refid=\"Tab9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e\u003cb\u003e)\u003c/b\u003e, and general sex-specific dissimilarities will be analyzed (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan refid=\"Fig10\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). The potential long-term effects of early nutrition will be added to the obtained results.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePrevious results showed in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e highlighted sex-specific neurocognitive differences in COGNIS children aged 6 years old, particularly in matrices, verbal long and short-term memory, reaction time and errors of commission during the Go/no-Go task. In fact, girls presented better performance in matrices section (K-BIT) compared to boys. Further partial correlation analysis indicated that lower left occipital thickness was significantly associated with greater performance on matrices (r = -0.474; \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.030) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eA), which is supported by the fact that, at 6 years, girls showed lower cortical thickness in this area compared to boys \u003cb\u003e(\u003c/b\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e\u003cb\u003e)\u003c/b\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e Regarding recognition successes in a verbal long-term memory task (BENCI), boys did not show an association with any of the brain areas of interest. Conversely, girls presented lower cortical thickness on the left calcarine sulcus, which was statistically significant associated with the greater number of successes in recognition at 6 years old (r = -0.465; \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.034) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eB). According to this, girls showed less cortical thickness than boys in this area (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOur previous analyses also indicated sex-specific differences in cognitive sections at 6 years old in terms of reaction times and errors of commission in the Go-no Go task of the BENCI (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). Regarding reaction time during the performance, girls performed poorer than boys, and further correlation analyses showed a positive association between left pericallosal sulcus cortical thickness and number of milliseconds during execution (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.369; \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.032) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig10\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003eA). This finding is consistent with greater cortical thickness in this area previously observed in girls at 6 years old (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e). A positive correlation was also found between left planum polare of the superior temporal gyrus thickness and reaction time (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.443, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.044) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eC). In this line, at 6 years old, girls presented greater thickness in this region (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e) and more milliseconds (worse) in the execution of a reaction time task (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). Finally, concerning the number of errors in the Go/no-Go task, in which boys aged 6 years showed lower number of errors, the right middle temporal gyrus was negatively associated to the number of errors of commission (r = -0.344, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.046) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig10\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003eB). This correlation result was consistent with the fact that boys exhibited a greater volume of this area in comparison to girls at 6 years old (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOverall, there were more statistically significant results between cognitive performance and brain structure in COGNIS girls aged 6 years, especially related to left hemisphere and brain cortices. In particular, we found that greater volume in left temporal transverse sulcus was correlated with better typical score in vocabulary (K-BIT) (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.593, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.005) and better verbal comprehension (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.576, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.006) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eD \u003cb\u003eand\u003c/b\u003e Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eE, respectively). In concordance to this, at the mentioned age, girls presented greater volume in this region (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e) and higher, but not statistically significant, typical score in vocabulary as well as more successes in a verbal comprehension task (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). In fact, verbal comprehension exhibited a greater number of positive statistically significant correlations in brain volumes in girls compared to boys, particularly in the most parts of the right and left temporal areas analyzed (i. e., left temporal and transverse sulcus, left occipital and right temporal and circular insular sulcus). However, these correlations were not statistically significant greater in girls except for the left temporal transverse sulcus (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSex-specific differences were also identified in the continuous performance task at 6 years old. In relation to the number of successes, only boys exhibited significant association with brain structure (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig10\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003eC), whereas for the number of errors during the performance, brain structure associations with neurocognitive function were found exclusively in girls (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eF and \u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eG). More specifically, in infant boys, larger volume of the left part of the lateral orbital sulcus was associated with better execution on the continuous performance task (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.358, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.038) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig10\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003eC). In line, at 6 years old, boys presented better performance than girl on this function, although not statistically significant (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). Concerning girls, the greater volume in the left intermedius primus sulcus was correlated with a greater number of errors during the task (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.312, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.018) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eF); moreover, lower cortical thickness in the left temporal transverse sulcus was associated with greater number of errors (r = -0.490, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.024) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eG). Nonetheless, although girls presented lower volume in the intermedius sulcus and lower thickness in the left temporal transverse sulcus than boys (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e), they exhibited a greater number of errors than boys at 6 years old, although these differences were not statistically significant (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTaken together and considering those neurocognitive functions with sex-specific differences and their associations with brain structure, our findings suggest major differences in the left hemisphere and cortices associations, as well as for continuous attention and language functions. Therefore, at 6 years old, infant girls show a more specific neurocognitive pattern than infant boys.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026lt;Insert\u003c/em\u003e Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e \u003cem\u003eand\u003c/em\u003e Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig10\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e \u003cem\u003esomewhere here\u0026gt;\u0026gt;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFinally, potential correlations between brain structure and neurocognitive development at 6 years old according to children sex and COGNIS groups were also explored. Thus, EF girls presented greater number of successes in recognition (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e), and negative correlation between this score and cortical thickness of the left calcarine was found (r = -0.465, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.034). Accordingly, EF girls showed lower cortical thickness in this area compared with BF and SF girls (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe early years of life are a crucial period for brain development, and nutrition plays a key role in shaping neurodevelopment and brain structure. Likewise, recent research has focused about potential impact of sex on cognitive and behavioral performance at developmental ages [43]. Sex-specific neurodevelopmental differences may be partly explained by the impact of genetic and hormonal factors on brain structure and function [44]. However, it is also well established that nutritional needs and nutrient utilization are different between males and females [45], which could also explain abovementioned sex-specific outcomes. Based on these considerations, current longitudinal study examines the short- and long-term differences between sexes in neurodevelopment, cognitive function and brain structure in healthy children up to 6 years old. Moreover, potential combined effects of early nutrition and sex on later brain structure and function have been also evaluated. Having in mind that both neurodevelopmental and cognitive outcomes, as well as brain structures of all participants are within the normal range, results obtained here not only support the short- and long-term impact of optimal early nutrition on neurodevelopment but, more importantly, also suggest combined and complex effects of type of early nutrition and sex on children\u0026acute;s brain structure and function.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWithin the COGNIS study, we have previously reported both short- and long-term positive effects of optimal early nutrition on cognitive performance as well as brain maturation and function {positive impact of an infant formula supplemented with milk fat globule membrane components (MFGM), long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFAs) and synbiotics}[46\u0026ndash;48]. In addition to this, current analysis also suggests sex-based differences in neurocognitive development at both short- and long-term. In fact, at 18 months of age, infant girls scored higher in cognitive areas, and they also demonstrated better performance in a Go/no-Go task at 6 years old, which involves selective attention, inhibitory control, processing speed, and cognitive flexibility [49]. Conversely, boys aged 6 years exhibited lower reaction times during execution, indicating enhanced processing speed. These neurocognitive differences can be explained by sex-specific variation in the timing and rate of both brain development and cognitive milestones [50]. Thus, in accordance with our results, previous studies have shown that boys tend to exhibit earlier and more rapid brain growth and development than girls, particularly in those regions associated with motor skills and spatial abilities. On the contrary, it has been found that girls undergo earlier and faster brain development in areas linked to cognitive abilities, language skills, and social-emotional processing [51]. Interestingly, studies performed to date also suggest differences in brain structure between sexes, with slightly larger overall brain volumes in males. Furthermore, focusing on size and connectivity of specific brain regions, males tend to exhibit greater cortical thickness in regions associated with perception and action, particularly in posterior brain areas [52\u0026ndash;54]. On the other hand, females seem to show greater thickness across regions related to emotion processing and social cognition [55,56], such as cingulate regions [57] and frontal areas [58,59]. However, it is important to note that these differences are not absolute but may be influenced by various factors including environmental conditions, upbringing, and cultural norms [60,61], as well as hormonal factors, particularly the effects of testosterone on brain development during fetal and early postnatal life [62]. Consistent with these findings, our analysis also found sex-specific differences in regional brain volumes and cortical thickness. Specifically, girls aged 6 years showed greater regional brain volumes in temporal lobes, insular and temporal areas, as well as greater cortical thickness in cingulate and frontal areas. On the other hand, at the same age, boys were characterized by greater cortical thickness in posterior brain areas such as the occipital lobe and parieto-occipital sulcus. More interestingly, further partial correlation analysis showed potential associations between brain structure and neurocognitive development in children, mainly in girls, suggesting that specific brain regions may be associated with different aspects of neurocognitive function, mainly in terms of intelligence skills, verbal comprehension, verbal short-term memory, reaction time and attention. Finally, findings obtained here have an added value suggesting more pronounced structural and functional differences at 6 years old, in accordance with previous studies that show higher cognitive growth in later childhood. This developmental pattern seems to be correlated with the maturation of neural systems involved in higher-order cognitive functions, such as attention, memory, and problem-solving. As the brain undergoes structural and functional changes, children become increasingly adept at processing and integrating information, leading to more rapid and sustained cognitive growth [63,64]. Taken together, these findings emphasize the need to better understand the dynamics of cognitive development during early childhood for optimizing nutritional and neuropsychological interventions and educational approaches. Additionally, based on sex differences in brain structure and function abovementioned, together with sex-specific susceptibility to neurodevelopmental disorders [65,66], our data also suggest that biological sex should be considered as key variable for improving diagnostic and therapeutic strategies.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs mentioned above, this sex-bias may be explained partly by an influence of early nutrition, which it is supported by sex-specific differences in human milk composition [67], combined with the fact that both sexes react differently to nutritional stimuli during early life [68,69]. Consequently, once sex-specific differences in neurodevelopment and brain structure appear clear, we next evaluated the potential combined effects of early nutrition and sex on both outcomes. In this regard, significant neurodevelopmental differences according to sex and type of early nutrition were observed at both early and later childhood. In fact, at 18 months of life, we found that boys who were breastfed (BF) showed better cognitive and motor development than those who were fed with bioactive compounds-enriched infant formula (EF). Interestingly, type of early nutrition had not effect on neurodevelopmental outcomes in girls during their first 18 months of life. Similar as described above, combined effects of early nutrition and sex on neurodevelopment were more pronounced at 6 years old. Thus, both BF-fed and EF-fed boys presented higher IQ scores compared to those boys who received standard infant formula (SF) during early life; however, worse reaction time, but better attention, were observed in SF boys compared to BF-fed boys. Curiously, SF girls had higher scores in matrices and better attention than BF girls, as well as better long-term memory compared to EF girls.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eInterestingly, early feeding-based effects on brain structure seem to be also more apparent in boys than in girls aged 6 years. Specifically, EF boys presented greater volumes in frontal and parietal areas, as well as greater cortical thickness in occipital areas. On the other hand, BF girls showed greater volumes and cortical thickness in occipital areas. Overall, our findings provide insight into the potential relationships between brain structure and neurocognitive development in children depending on early type of nutrition and sex. Moreover, results obtained here suggest that, in EF girls, the left calcarine thickness is negatively associated with verbal long-term memory.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo gain greater knowledge about these findings, it is important to note that both breastfeeding and currently available infant formula provide key nutrients for optimal brain development, as suggested by the presence of minimal significant differences in neurodevelopmental outcomes, all of them within normal ranges [70\u0026ndash;73]. Nevertheless, breastfeeding is still considered the gold standard for infant nutrition as it offers a range of immunological benefits and bioactive components that promote both short- and long-term infant health [74]. Consequently, the current tested infant formula aims to replicate the functional effects associated to human milk by including different bioactive nutrients, such as LC-PUFAs, MFGM, nucleotides, and synbiotics, [35,75,76]. In this regard, the present results suggest that it would be possible to reduce the neurodevelopmental disparities between breastfed and formula-fed infants, boys and girls, by adding these bioactive compounds in a personalize way considering sex-dependent differences. In fact, we previously reported similar neurodevelopmental, behavior and language outcomes and brain developmental trajectories between bioactive compound-enriched formula-fed infants and BF infants [26,27,35,77]. These findings highlight the importance of providing optimal nutrition and nurturing environments for infants. Thus, the use of enriched infant formula contains a range of bioactive compounds found in human milk could help to address the nutritional and functional differences between infant fed with formula and those who are breastfed [78]; however, due to the sex differences observed here, new approaches should be considered when designing and developing new infant formulas for boys and girls. Despite the notions raised above, it is important to emphasize that our findings do not diminish the importance of adhering to current breastfeeding recommendations [79], in particular if one bears in mind that its nutrient composition and consumption change depending on infant sex [80]. Furthermore, other factors such as maternal education, socioeconomic status, caregiver-infant interactions, and the home environment, could also be responsible for the lack of differences in neurodevelopmental outcomes [81,82]. Properly controlling for these confounding variables has demonstrated the limited impact of feeding choices on neurodevelopmental trajectories [83,84].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFinally, our data suggests a greater positive impact of bioactive compounds-enriched infant formula on cognitive development and brain structure in boys, compared to girls, at 6 years old. In this line, Isaacs \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e [85], in a randomized trial using LC-PUFAs-supplemented infant formula, observed no overall group effects, but sex and diet-specific effects were identified. Moreover, boys and girls not only respond differently to environmental stimuli, showing different growth trajectories [86,87], but also have varying nutritional and hormonal needs based on their sex [88]. In fact, as mentioned above, breast milk composition may differ depending on the sex of the infant, although studies on this topic are limited and conflicting [86,89]. Finally, a growing body of evidence suggests that differences in gut microbiota composition between males and females could impact the effects of early nutrition on neurodevelopment [90]. While our findings suggest the need for sex-specific nutritional strategies for boys and girls to optimize their neurodevelopment, it is important to avoid making any definitive conclusions, and further highlighted the need for studies to clarify the effects of sex on brain structure and cognitive performance, and the potential sex-different impact of early type of feeding.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHaving in mind these considerations, it is clear that cognitive development process during early childhood is complex and multifaceted. Our data suggest that certain brain structures and areas are linked to various neurocognitive functions, and that sex and type of feeding during early life seem to have long-term impact on these relationships. This study not only offers valuable insights into the influence of early nutrition on neurodevelopment and cognitive function, but also emphasizes the significance of considering together sex and type of feeding when evaluating brain development in children. To our knowledge regarding early brain development advances, it is crucial to promote evidence-based guidance that prioritizes the provision of enough amount and high quality of feeding, regardless of the method chosen, to support optimal neurodevelopment and establish the groundwork for lifelong well-being.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe main strength of the COGNIS study is its design as a prospective, randomized, double-blind longitudinal study, the long-term intervention 0\u0026ndash;2 to 18 months of life, and the long-term follow-up. Likewise, to our knowledge, COGNIS study, in accordance with current recommendations, is the only study to compare an infant formula enriched with LC-PUFAs, MFGM and synbiotics, with others lacking these nutrients. In addition, a key contribution is the use of a longitudinal approach, which involves assessing neurodevelopmental trajectories during the first years of life (at 6, 12, and 18 months, and 4 and 6 years old). This strategy contrasts with a cross-sectional approach, where each measurement is considered independently. Moreover, cognitive assessment has not been limited to a single brain domain, but instead employs a wide range of valid, reliable, and age-appropriate tests, along with neuroimaging studies. Furthermore, it is essential to recognise that various environmental factors, including child nutritional status, maternal education, or socioeconomic status, among others, can influence neurodevelopment and brain structure in children [91\u0026ndash;94]. Therefore, our statistical analysis considered several previously identified confounding factors [40\u0026ndash;42] to ensure reliable and consistent results and conclusions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eNonetheless, it is important to recognise the existence of several limitations in the current study that require some consideration. One limitation arises from the relatively small sample size of our study groups regarding brain MRI assessment, which resulted from dropouts during the long-term follow-up and the requirement for children to remain still during MRI. The limited number of participants may restrict the generalizability of the findings, especially in analyses based on sex. However, although some participants dropped out at the 6-year follow-up, the study still had 80% statistical power to detect a minimum difference of 0.7 SD. This level of sensitivity is sufficient to identify meaningful differences in cognitive development between the study groups in the neuropsychological assessment. Additionally, a statistical threshold of P-value\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05 was used, but corrections for multiple comparisons were not applied to the brain structural analysis, which still is of interest because the lack of data regarding sex differences in the brain associated to early type of nutrition. However, it is important to note that results obtained are correlational, and therefore, causation cannot be inferred. This is an exploratory study, and future studies with larger sample sizes will be necessary to confirm our results and hypotheses. Finally, lack of diet analysis at 4 or 6 years could be considered as additional potential limitation. However, although its present lifelong, brain plasticity is more prominent in early postnatal life, when nutritional stimuli largely impact on both maturation of neural circuits and mental development [95]. Interestingly, data obtained from current study might provide a better knowledge about impact of early nutritional interventions on neuropsychological outcomes later in life.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOverall, the combined effects of early type of feeding and sex on neurodevelopment and brain structure are complex and multifactorial. Sex itself seem to influence brain development and structure, although early nutrition might modulate these effects in a different way between boys and girls. Future research is needed to expand our understanding of these interactions and to develop targeted interventions aimed at optimizing sex-specific brain development. According to our findings, this study provides valuable insights into the combined effects of early nutrition and sex on neurodevelopment and brain structure. In particular, our data suggest that bioactive nutrient-enriched infant formula might have more beneficial effects on neurocognitive development and brain structure in boys than in girls. Likewise, it emphasizes the importance of optimal nutrition and nurturing environments for infants, regardless of the chosen feeding method, to support optimal neurodevelopment and lifelong well-being.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003cp\u003eADHD: attention deficit hyperactivity disorder; BENCI: Computerized Battery for Neuropsychological Evaluation of Children; BF: breastfed infants; BSID III: Bayley’s Scales of Infant Development III; EF: experimental infant formula; FOS: fructooligosaccharides; GWG: gestational weight gain; IQ: intelligence quotient; K-BIT: Kaufman Brief Intelligence test; LC-PUFAs: long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids; MFGM: milk fat globule membrane; MRI: magnetic resonance imaging; NDDs: neurodevelopmental disorders; PLON-R: Oral Language Test of Navarra Revised; RCT: randomized clinical trial; SF: standard infant formula.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Institutional Review Board (or Ethics Committee) of Research Ethics Committee of the University of Granada, the Bioethical Committees for Clinical Research of the Clinical University Hospital San Cecilio and the Mother-Infant University Hospital of Granada, Spain. The project was registered at www.ClinicalTrial.gov no.: NCT02094547.Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and materials\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding authors. The data are not publicly available due to ethical reasons.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRoser De-Castellar, Jos\u0026eacute; A. Moreno-Mu\u0026ntilde;oz and Mar\u0026iacute;a Teresa P\u0026eacute;rez-Hern\u0026aacute;ndez are employees of Laboratorios Ordesa S.L., a company that has partially funded the COGNIS study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis project has been funded by Laboratorios Ordesa, S.L. Contract University of Granada General Foundation, No. 3349 and by the CDTI (Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovaci\u0026oacute;n de Espa\u0026ntilde;a) and the Fondo Europeo de Desarrollo Regional (FEDER; Acronym: SMARTFOODS, project number IDI-20141206)\u0026nbsp;Contract University of Granada General Foundation, No. 4003, Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry and Competitiveness; and partially funded by HORIZON 2020 EU DynaHEALTH Project (GA No. 633595).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor Contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors\u0026rsquo; responsibilities were as follows\u0026mdash; CC, designed the research; AN-R, FH and RB-L conducted the research; AC and AN-R analyzed the data; AN-R and AJ wrote the first draft of the manuscript; JAG-S and CC reviewed and edited the manuscript; CC and JAG-S, had primary responsibility for the final content and funding; and all authors critically revised the manuscript for important intellectual content and read and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgments\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors want to acknowledge the parents and children who participated in the study, as well as the pediatricians and technicians of the EURISTIKOS team at the Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of Granada, Spain, and also Laboratorios Ordesa, S.L. Barcelona, Spain.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePrevention C for DC and. National health interview survey 2014. National center for health statistics, health data interactive from www cdc gov/nchs/hdi htm. 2018;\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eOlusanya BO, Kancherla V, Shaheen A, Ogbo FA, Davis AC. Global and regional prevalence of disabilities among children and adolescents: Analysis of findings from global health databases. Frontiers in Public Health. 2022.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMay T, Adesina I, McGillivray J, Rinehart NJ. Sex differences in neurodevelopmental disorders. Curr Opin Neurol. 2019;32:622–6.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCarlsson T, Molander F, Taylor MJ, Jonsson U, Bölte S. Early environmental risk factors for neurodevelopmental disorders - a systematic review of twin and sibling studies. Dev Psychopathol. 2021;33:1448–95.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTierney AL, Nelson CA 3rd. 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Dev Med Child Neurol. 2015;57:4–9.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"cognition, neuroimaging, early nutrition, infant formula, breastfeeding","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7067933/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7067933/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003eBackground\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eearly nutrition plays a critical role in brain development, but the potential combined effects of sex and nutrition are still relatively understudied.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eObjective\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eto explore whether sex can influence the long-term impact of early nutrition on neurodevelopment, cognitive function, and brain structure in healthy infants up to 6 years old.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethods\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003ethe current study involved healthy children up to 6 years old participating in the COGNIS Study. Infants were randomized to receive, during their first 18 months of life, a standard (SF) or an experimental infant formula (EF) enriched with bioactive nutrients including long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFAs), milk fat globule membrane (MFGM) and synbiotics, among others. As a reference group, breastfed (BF) children were included. A total of 108 children, were followed-up to 6 years old (SF, n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;37; EF, n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;39; BF, n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;32).\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003egirls presented better cognitive development at 18 months of life and better execution in a Go/no-Go task at 6 years old, while boys showed better reaction time at 6 years. Girls showed greater regional brain volumes in temporal lobes. Boys presented greater cortical thickness in posterior brain areas, while girls had greater cortical thickness in cingulate and frontal areas. Additionally, EF fed boys showed higher intelligence quotient (IQ), as well as better long-term verbal memory than SF fed boys. EF boys also presented higher volumes in different regions of the right parietal lobule, and lower cortical thickness in right frontal sulcus, compared to SF boys. Finally, higher volumes and lower cortical thickness of different brain areas, particularly in girls, were associated with better cognitive development.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusions\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eour findings suggest that infant formula enriched with bioactive nutrients may exert long-term, sex-specific beneficial effects on neurocognitive development and brain structure, particularly in boys. These results underscore the potential importance of developing sex-specific nutritional interventions during early life to optimize neurodevelopmental outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Sex-specific impact of early nutrition on neurodevelopment, cognition and brain structure in healthy children up to 6-year-old: Findings from the COGNIS study","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-07-18 13:18:52","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7067933/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"357ff864-9a5b-4765-9ef2-7f8da5b036f0","owner":[],"postedDate":"July 18th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-03-30T16:22:44+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-07-18 13:18:52","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7067933","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7067933","identity":"rs-7067933","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}