Explaining emigration intentions through the lens of the theory of planned behavior: Scales' validation in a developing Arab country context

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The Intention to Emigrate (ITE), Attitude Towards Emigration (ATE), Perceived Behavioral Control (PBC), and Subjective Social Norms (SSN) are measures that have been developed to assess the emigration intent and its possible contributors in a cultural setting. These scales lack a validated Arabic version suitable for the Arab context. This study aimed to translate, psychometrically validate, and culturally adapt the ITE, ATE, PBC, and SSN scales in Arabic in a sample of Lebanese university students. Methods Following the Snowball sampling method, participants (n = 471) were Lebanese students who answered demographic questions and completed the Arabic versions of the ITE, ATE, PBC, SSN, as well as the following measures for concurrent validity testing: dark Future, personality traits, risk propensity and depression. Results Confirmatory Factor Analysis showed a one-factor model of the ITE, ATE, PBC, and SSN. We found good internal consistency reliability for all scales: ITE (ω = .89; α = .89), ATE (ω = .86; α = .86), PBC (ω = .84; α = .84) and SSN (ω = .87; α = .87). Convergent validity and concurrent validity were proved through positive correlations with depression, Neuroticism, Agreeableness, risk propensity scores, and negative correlations with Openness scores. All scales showed invariance across sexes. Males scored significantly higher than females on the PBC scale, while no significant difference between sexes was observed for the ITE, ATE and SSN. Conclusion Our validated Arabic versions of the ITE, ATE, PBC, and SSN offer invaluable, culturally appropriate instruments for assessing emigration intentions and factors behind this intention. This shall boost research on emigration intentions and behaviors among Arabic*-speaking youth, help shape policies on emigration, and help social workers design targeted interventions for supporting potential emigrants. intention to emigrate attitude towards emigration perceived behavioral control subjective social norm Arabic translation factor analysis construct validity gender invariance Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 INTRODUCTION The definition of emigration has evolved and varies across disciplines, reflecting the complexity of emigration processes. Emigration refers to the act of leaving one's own country to settle in another where they will remain as permanent residents or future citizens without having citizenship in that country. This highlights the intent of permanence and future citizenship as distinguishing characteristics of emigration [ 1 ]. Emigration also involves a psycho-social-geographical transition that includes a series of losses and changes, most of them are obvious and expected, but some of them are hidden and unexpected, emphasizing the multifaceted nature of the emigration experience, including changes in identity as inner change tries to match outer change [ 2 ]. Also, the concept of transnationalism has been introduced to offer a new perspective on emigration, describing emigrants whose networks, activities, and patterns of life encompass both their host and home societies broadening the traditional view of emigration by considering the ongoing connections emigrants maintain with their country of origin [ 3 ]. Global emigration has significantly increased over the past decade, reaching historically high levels. According to a review, global emigration was at an all-time high, approaching 200 million persons per year around 2010, with expectations that emigration will continue at record high levels due to demographics and economic interdependence [ 4 ]. Recent data suggest that there were around 272 million international emigrants in the world in 2019, which equates to 3.5% of the global population [ 5 ]. These figures demonstrate the dynamic and growing nature of global emigration, contributing to the complexity of emigration patterns and policies worldwide. The Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region is significant in the global emigration landscape, serving both as a destination and origin for emigrants. The Gulf Cooperation Council countries, in particular, are major destinations due to their demand for foreign labor. Meanwhile, millions from this region work elsewhere, including Europe, driven by various factors including labor and humanitarian reasons [ 6 ]. In Lebanon, the net emigration rate is negative with around 21 migrants/1,000 population, and this number of emigrants is changing due to the economic crises that has been crippling the country since 2019 [ 7 ]. Why is it important to investigate Emigration intentions? The adverse effects of high emigration extend deeply into the social fabric, economy, and overall well-being of the countries facing significant outflows of their population. On the demographic front, emigration, especially of younger and more educated segments of the population, leads to a 'brain drain' that diminishes the human capital essential for economic development and innovation, which is particularly detrimental for sectors reliant on high-skilled labor, potentially stunting national growth and competitiveness on the global stage [ 8 ]. Countries like Uruguay have experienced major impacts on their growth rates and age structures due to the composition of the emigrant population, which primarily includes young, economically active, skilled individuals, and this demographic shift not only reduces the potential for domestic innovation but also burdens the remaining population with increased dependency ratios, further straining public resources and social support systems [ 8 ]. Economically, while emigrants' remittances can offer short-term alleviation to poverty and contribute to gross domestic product (GDP), the long-term effects are less optimistic. Studies suggest that for every 100 emigrants, countries might see a substantial reduction in firm creation, pointing to the dampening effect of emigration on entrepreneurial activity and, by extension, on economic dynamism and job creation [ 9 ]. Socially, the departure of family members disrupts traditional family structures and roles, leading to increased burdens on those left behind, who may face greater responsibilities in caring for the elderly and young. The separation of families by emigration can lead to psychological stress and a decline in social cohesion [ 10 ]. The emigration of a spouse or child can significantly increase stress and associated health risks such as acute coronary syndromes for the remaining family members, especially when financial support is not provided [ 11 ]. Moreover, the societal impact of emigration includes the potential for cultural fragmentation as communities lose core members who carry with them the traditions and social norms that bind people together. This fragmentation can lead to a weakening of social networks and support systems that are crucial for community resilience and development [ 10 ]. The loss of a significant portion of the younger, educated workforce engenders a cultural drain, eroding the cultural richness and diversity of the sending country, as nations like Lithuania and Romania, which have experienced significant outflows of their populations, face challenges in preserving their cultural heritage and maintaining a sense of national identity among their diaspora [ 12 ]. Additionally, the fiscal impact of emigration poses significant challenges. The departure of a substantial portion of the tax base can limit government revenues, crucial for funding public services, health care, and education, and this fiscal strain is exacerbated in countries with high emigration rates among the working-age population, leading to increased pressures on social welfare systems and a need for greater public expenditure to address the needs of an aging population [ 13 ]. Environmental sustainability is another aspect affected by high emigration. The departure of a significant portion of the population from rural areas, for example, can lead to land abandonment and changes in land use, potentially affecting biodiversity, landscape patterns, and ecosystem services, as in countries like Moldova and Albania, where large-scale emigration has led to the neglect of agricultural lands, which could have long-term implications for food security and environmental conservation [ 14 ]. Factors contributing to Emigration intention and behavior: The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) The TPB offers a comprehensive framework to understand emigration intentions, centering on the premise that individuals' decision-making is a reflective process influenced by attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control. Specifically, attitudes towards emigration—the individual’s personal evaluation of emigrating as favorable or unfavorable—are pivotal in shaping the intention to emigrate. This aspect of TPB underscores that positive perceptions and beliefs about the outcomes of emigration can significantly motivate the decision to emigrate [ 15 ]. Subjective norms, representing the perceived social pressure from family, friends, or society at large, to emigrate or stay, also play a crucial role. This element of TPB suggests that individuals are influenced by the expectations of others, where support or opposition from one's social circle can tip the scales in the decision-making process regarding emigration [ 16 ]. Lastly, perceived behavioral control—individuals’ perception of their ability to emigrate, encompassing factors that may facilitate or obstruct emigrating—critically influences emigration intentions. This dimension highlights the role of self-efficacy and control over the emigration process, suggesting that greater perceived control can increase the likelihood of forming and acting on emigration intentions [ 17 ]. Together, these components of the TPB model provide a nuanced understanding of the cognitive deliberations that precede the decision to emigrate. By integrating attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control, the TPB encapsulates the multifaceted nature of emigration intentions, offering valuable insights into how individuals navigate the complex interplay of personal beliefs, social influences, and perceived capabilities in the context of emigration [ 18 ]. Measurement instruments of Emigration intention and its contributing factors In order to study emigration, Leong et al. [ 19 ] developed the “Intention to Emigrate Scale (IES)”, validated on a group of Singaporean highschoolers, which measures how willing individuals were to leave their country and live abroad. The scale was made to include 5 items and showed validity and reliability in the initial study [ 19 ]. In the same paper [ 19 ], the researchers also developed the “Attitude Towards Emigration (ATE)” scale to measure how positively individuals viewed emigration. The 12-items represented push and pull factors of human geography and the theory of planned migration behaviors, and included components of social status and socioeconomic security. The “Perceived Behavioral Control (PBC)” [ 20 ] and “Subjective Social Norms (SSN)” [ 19 – 21 ] scales were developed in order to measure the variables of perceived behavioral control and subjective social norms in the scope of TPB. The PBC scale translated in our study was originally developed by Speelman et al. [ 20 ] in their paper on migration in the Maldives. The scale included 5-items and was the result of surveying the Maldivian population on migration expectations. The SSN scale pertinent to our study is the scale is a merge of two scales: the SSN scale developed by Leong et al. [ 19 ] after surveying the Singaporean public and the one developed by Speelman et al. [ 20 ] after surveys on the Maldivian public both using variables from the Theory of Planned Behavior adjusted to fit the scope of emigration. The resulting 6 item scale as used in the paper by Assfaw et al. [ 21 ]reliably measured the construct of Subjective Social Norms in Ethiopia. The four scales were translated and validated on a group of Ethiopian highschoolers by Assfaw et al. [ 21 ], and were shown to be psychometrically sound and showed similar factorial structure to the original scales. Measures for concurrent validity Emigration can be driven by a range of mental health problems. The association between emigration intent and psychological factors encompasses a variety of interrelated elements such as depression, anxiety, personality traits, and risk-taking behavior, which all play crucial roles in influencing individuals' migration decisions. Studies highlight that psychological distress, specifically high levels of stress, anxiety, and depression, significantly correlates with the intention to emigrate [ 22 ]. In a study on Turkish medical students, those exhibiting higher stress and depression levels showed a stronger inclination towards migration [ 23 ]. Personality traits also substantially influence migration intentions. Individuals with high openness are often more curious and open to new experiences, which can predispose them to consider living in different cultural settings, while low agreeableness, which might involve less concern for harmony and conformity, could also drive migration decisions, as these individuals may find fewer psychological barriers in leaving their social groups behind [ 23 ]. Additionally, risk proneness, often associated with sensation-seeking traits, has its own implications. High sensation-seekers, who are typically more prone to engaging in novel and potentially risky activities, might view emigration as an exciting challenge, linking this trait to migration intent [ 24 ]. The present study In Lebanon and the Arab world, no instruments that measure the constructs of intention to emigrate, attitude towards emigration, perceived behavioral control, and subjective social norms exists. Lebanon, a country with a rich history of emigration, offers a poignant case study of these effects. The Lebanese diaspora, estimated at around three times the size of the country's domestic population, has been a critical factor in Lebanon's economy through remittances. However, this diaspora also represents a significant brain drain, impacting various sectors, including healthcare, education, and technology, as the departure of highly skilled professionals has led to gaps in these critical sectors, slowing progress and development [ 25 ]. The emigration of young, educated Lebanese, particularly to the Gulf States and Western countries, has led to demographic shifts that strain the social fabric and future economic prospects of Lebanon [ 26 ]. Emigration can also have negative effects on the individual level, including psychological, social, and economic impacts. One of the primary challenges faced by emigrants is the social and cultural adjustment in a new country, which can lead to mental health issues such as increased risk for psychosis and other psychological disorders due to the distress of adapting to different cultural and social environments [ 27 ]. Additionally, emigration can weaken social ties and community cohesion, both for the emigrant and those left behind, creating a sense of isolation and loss of social support. This social disintegration can negatively affect the overall well-being and mental health of individuals involved [ 11 ]. The aim of the present study was to translate the IES, ATE, PBC, and SSN scales into Arabic and evaluate their psychometric properties. This is important for many reasons, particularly for ensuring the accuracy and cultural relevance of these tools for Arab immigrants. Such translations facilitate the assessment and understanding of the emigration experience, including its psychological causes. The adaptation and translation of the aforementioned scales into Arabic also contributes to more effective interventions and support for Arab immigrants, recognizing the diversity and specificity of their experiences. Our objectives are assessing the internal consistency, convergent validity, and concurrent validity of our Arabic translations of the IES, ATE, PBC, and SNN. We hypothesize that the Arabic versions of the IES, ATE, PBC, and SSN will show a one-factor solution each in line with the original versions [ 19 – 21 ]. We expect the translations of the scales to be invariant across sexes. We also predict the ATE, PBC, and SSN will correlate adequately with the IES scale. Based on the above-mentioned literature, we also expect the IES scale to correlate positively with measures of risk proneness, depression, anxiety, and maladaptive personality traits and negatively with adaptive personality traits. METHODS Participants The survey was disseminated using a Google Form link, targeting Arabic-speaking Lebanese university students aged 18 and above. They were requested to fill out the survey and further share the link with their friends and family, who then were encouraged to share it further, utilizing the Snowball sampling method. Only Lebanese university students over the age of 18 were eligible to participate. The study began with an introduction explaining the study's goals. Participants gave digital informed consent before proceeding to fill out the necessary scales within the Google Form. The participation was designed to be anonymous, confidential, voluntary, and offered no financial rewards. Ethical approval was granted by the ethics committee at Rayak University Hospital (ECO-R-307). Measures Sociodemographic information: Participants were asked to provide their age, gender, and the number of persons and rooms in their household. Index scales Intention to emigrate (ITE) scale [ 19 ] Is a 5-item scale. Respondents rate the frequency with which they thought of working or living in another country for multiple reasons (e.g., “overseas education”). Each of the five measurements is scored on a 5-item Likert scale ranging from 1 (Never) to 5 (All the time). Higher scores indicate a greater desire to relocate overseas. Attitude toward emigration (ATE) scale [ 19 ] is an 12-item scale measuring Social Status (e.g., “‘People who have successfully emigrated overseas enjoy a higher social status”), and Socio-Economic security (“Emigrating overseas can provide a backup plan in case my country fails”). Each item is rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 5 (Strongly Disagree). A higher score represents a more positive attitude towards emigration. Perceived Behavioral Control (PBC) scale [ 20 ] is a 5-item scale measuring an individual's perceived ease or difficulty of emigration, influenced by both internal and external factors (e.g. “I have friends and family who migrated”). Each item is measured on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 5 (Strongly Disagree). A higher scare represents a better perceived ease of emigrating. Subjective social norms scale [ 21 ] is a 6—item scale measuring the construct of social norms regarding migration (e.g., “If I move that must be for the benefit of my family”). Each item is measured on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 5 (Strongly Disagree). A higher score indicates experiencing higher pressure from important persons to migrate. Translation procedure Before being used in the current study, each of the four scales were translated and culturally adapted for the Arabic language and environment. This involved converting the scales into Arabic to keep the meaning consistent with the original version, following international norms and guidelines [ 28 ]. The translation process utilized a forward-backward technique. First, a Lebanese translator not involved in the research translated the scales from English to Arabic. Then, a Lebanese psychologist who is fluent in English translated them back to English. This method was designed to ensure a balance between literal and contextual translation. Both the original and the back-translated English versions were examined by a group of experts, including two psychiatrists, one psychologist, the research team, and the translators, to resolve any inconsistencies and confirm the accuracy of the translation [ 29 ]. The scales were also tailored to fit the specific context of the study to eliminate any unclear items and make interpretation easier, maintaining the scales’ conceptual consistency in both the original and Arabic settings [ 30 ]. A pilot study was then conducted to ensure the questions were clear, with no need for further adjustments. Scales for concurrent validity Dark Future Scale (DFS) [ 31 ] is a 5-item scale measuring anxiety towards the future (e.g., “I am afraid that the problems that trouble me now will continue for a long time”). Each item is measured on a 7-point Likert scale from 0 (decidedly false) to 6 (decidedly true). Higher scores indicate greater levels of future anxiety. Arabic Big Five Personality Inventory (ABFPI) [ 32 ] is a 30-item scale in Arabic divided into 5 factors where each factor comprises 6 items: Neuroticism (e.g., I feel tense), Openness (e.g., I like to do creative things), Agreeableness (e.g., I care about others’ feelings), Extraversion (e.g., I am a social person), Conscientiousness (e.g., I am an organized and disciplined person). Each item is answered on a 4-point Likert scale: 1 (No), 2 (Some), 3 (Much), Always (4). Total score of each factor could range from 6 to 24. Higher scores on each factor indicate a higher trait standing. General Risk Propensity Scale (GRiPS) [ 33 ] is an 8-item scale designed to measure an individual's overall tendency to engage in risk-taking behaviors across different areas of life (e.g. “I enjoy taking risks in most aspects of my life”). Each item is answered on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 5 (Strongly Agree). The total score is obtained by summing responses, with higher scores indicating higher individual's propensity to take risks across various domains. The Arabic version validated on a group of Lebanese adults was used [ 34 ]. The Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9) [ 35 ] is a 9-item self-report measure assessing the presence and severity of depression symptoms. It measures each of the 9 criteria for depression (e.g., "Little interest or pleasure in doing things") on a 4-point Likert scale ranging from 0 (not at all) to 3 (nearly every day). Scores range from 0 to 27, with higher scores indicating more severe depressive symptoms. The Arabic version validated on the Lebanese population was used [ 36 ]. Generalized Anxiety Disorder 7-item (GAD-7) scale is a 7-item self-administered questionnaire used to assess the severity of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) (e.g., "Feeling nervous, anxious, or on edge”). Responses range from 0 (not at all) to 3 (nearly every day), focusing on symptoms of anxiety over the last two weeks. Scores range from 0 to 21, indicating anxiety severity: 0–4 (minimal), 5–9 (mild), 10–14 (moderate), and 15–21 (severe). The Arabic version validated on the Lebanese population was used [ 36 ]. Analytic Strategy There were no missing responses in the dataset. To examine the factor structure of the scales, we conducted a Confirmatory Factor Analysis using the data from the total sample via SPSS AMOS v.29 software. A minimum sample size of 220 participants was deemed adequate based on 3 to 20 times the number of the scale’s variables [ 37 ]. Parameter estimates were obtained using the maximum likelihood method. Calculated fit indices were the normed model chi-square (χ²/df), the Steiger-Lind root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), the standardized root mean square residual (SRMR), the Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI) and the comparative fit index (CFI). Values ≤ 5 for χ²/df, ≤ .08 for RMSEA, ≤ .05 for SRMR and ≥ .90 for CFI and TLI showed good fit of the data [ 38 ]. Multivariate normality was not verified at first (Critical ratio > 5; Bollen-Stine p = .008); therefore we performed non-parametric bootstrapping procedure. Gender invariance. To examine gender invariance of the scales, we conducted multi-group CFA using the total sample [ 39 ]. Measurement invariance was assessed at the configural, metric, and scalar levels [ 40 ]. We accepted ΔCFI ≤ .010 and ΔRMSEA ≤ .015 or ΔSRMR ≤ .010 as evidence of invariance [ 39 ]. Comparison between males and females was done using the Student t -test only if scalar or partial scalar invariance. Further analyses. Composite reliability in both subsamples was assessed using McDonald’s ω and Cronbach’s alpha, with values greater than .70 reflecting adequate composite reliability. Normality of the scores was verified since the skewness and kurtosis values varied between − 1 and + 1 [ 41 ]. To assess concurrent validity, Pearson test was used to correlate two scores. Results Description of the sample Four hundred seventy-one university students filled the survey, with a mean age of 19.99 ± 2.20 years, 72.8% females and 98.9% single. Moreover, the mean HCI was 1.24 ± .57 and that of the financial satisfaction 4.88 ± 2.25. Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the PSS CFA indicated that fit of the one-factor model of intention to emigrate scale was adequate for all scales, but borderline for the attitude towards emigration scale (Table 1 ). The standardized estimates of factor loadings were adequate for the ITE (Fig. 1 ), ATE (Fig. 2 ), PBC (Fig. 3 ) and SSN (Fig. 4 ) scales. Internal reliability was satisfactory for all scales: ITE (ω = .89; α = .89), ATE (ω = .86; α = .86), PBC (ω = .84; α = .84) and SSN (ω = .87; α = .87). Table 1 Standardized Estimates of Factor Loadings from the Confirmatory Factor Analysis of each scale in the total sample. Scale name χ 2 /df RMSEA [90% CI] SRMR CFI TLI Intention to emigrate 21.57/5 = 4.31 .084 [.050; .122] .021 .987 .974 Attitude towards emigration 233.26/44 = 5.30 .096 [.084; .108] .057 .889 .862 Perceived behavioral control 16.84/5 = 3.37 .071 [.036; .110] .027 .987 .974 Subjective social norms 43.89/14 = 3.14 .067 [.045; .090] .035 .977 .966 χ²/df = normed model chi-square; TLI = Tucker-Lewis Index; CFI = Comparative fit index; RMSEA = Steiger-Lind root mean square error of approximation; SRMR = Standardised root mean square residual. Gender invariance Indices suggested that configural, metric, and scalar invariance was supported across gender (Table 2 ). Higher PBC scores were found in males compared to females (17.57 ± 3.96 vs 16.76 ± 3.77, t (469) = 2.05, p = .041. No significant difference between sexes was observed for the IES (17.51 ± 4.70 vs 17.29 ± 4.63, t(469) = .46, p = .645), ATI (39.80 ± 7.50 vs 40.43 ± 7.22, t(469) = − .83, p = .406) and SSN (25.61 ± 5.74 vs 24.93 ± 5.64, t(469) = 1.16, p = .245). Table 2 Measurement Invariance across Gender in the total sample. Model CFI RMSEA SRMR Model Comparison ΔCFI ΔRMSEA ΔSRMR Scale 1: Intention to emigrate Configural .979 .077 .034 Metric .976 .068 .037 Configural vs metric .003 .009 .003 Scalar .976 .061 .037 Metric vs scalar < .001 .007 < .001 Scale 2: Attitude towards emigration Configural .885 .069 .077 Metric .885 .066 .085 Configural vs metric < .001 .003 .008 Scalar .886 .062 .084 Metric vs scalar .001 .004 .001 Scale 3: Perceived behavioural control Configural .986 .052 .038 Metric .988 .040 .039 Configural vs metric .002 .012 .001 Scalar .989 .034 .038 Metric vs scalar .001 .006 .001 Scale 4: Subjective social norms Configural .977 .048 .041 Metric .980 .041 .049 Configural vs metric .003 .007 .008 Scalar .974 .043 .049 Metric vs scalar .006 .002 < .001 Note. CFI = Comparative fit index; RMSEA = Steiger-Lind root mean square error of approximation; SRMR = Standardized root mean square residual. Concurrent validity Higher ITE scores were associated with higher ATE, SSN, PBC, depression, neuroticism, agreeableness, and risk proneness and with lower openness (Table 3 ). Table 3 Pearson correlation coefficients. Mean ± SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1. ITE 17.35 ± 4.64 1 2. ATE 40.25 ± 7.30 .65*** 1 3. SSN 25.11 ± 5.67 .72*** .68*** 1 4. PBC 16.98 ± 3.84 .32*** .34*** .36*** 1 5. Dark future 20.57 ± 8.12 − .04 .03 − .01 − .25*** 1 6. Depression 11.10 ± 6.17 .10* .13** .13** − .06 .31*** 1 7. Anxiety 9.19 ± 5.39 .08 .13** .12** − .04 .37*** .67*** 1 8. Extraversion 6.79 ± 2.72 − .06 -08 − .04 .06 − .14** − .06 − .02 1 9. Neuroticism 5.97 ± 3.61 .14** .18*** .16** .02 .29*** .50*** .52*** − .08 1 10. Openness 10.36 ± 3.75 − .11* − .08 − .05 − .16** .17*** .08 .12* .27*** .16** 1 11. Agreeableness 9.84 ± 3.50 .14** .03 .07 .004 .08 − .02 .07 .35*** .10* .55*** 1 12. Conscientiousness 10.23 ± 3.53 .02 .001 .02 − .10* .09* − .10* .002 .25*** .06 .57*** .67*** 1 13. Risk proneness 20.88 ± 4.67 .24*** .16*** .16*** .23*** − .22*** .12* − .11* .09 − .09* − .12* .15** .02 *p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001. ITE = Intention to emigrate; ATE = Attitude towards emigration; SSN = Subjective social norms; PBC = Perceived behavioural control DISCUSSION The IES, ATE, SSN, and PBC scales were developed to quantitatively assess and understand individuals' intentions to emigrate and their influencing complex psychological and social factors following the TPB, particularly within diverse cultural contexts. Our Arabic translation of these four scales proved to be reliable and psychometrically validated. We proved the factorial, convergent, and concurrent validity of these scales. We also found our translation of the scales to be invariant across sexes. This suggests that the IES, ATE, SSN, and PBC scales are suitable for use on Arab individuals. Factorial analysis supported the one factor solution for all of the four scales, as seen with the original versions [ 19 – 21 ] and the Ethiopian translations [ 21 ]. This factorial invariance ensures that the underlying factors measured by the scales remain consistent, allowing for meaningful comparisons across diverse populations. More translations are encouraged to trace a trend in the factorial solutions of each of the scales under study, in order to prove the universality of the constructs measured by the scales. Furthermore, the IES, ATE, SSN, and PBC scales were shown to have adequate internal reliability, with a Cronbach’s α coefficients of 0.89, 0.86, 0.84, and 0.87 and McDonald’s omega coefficients of 0.89, 0.86, 0.84, and 0.87, respectively, similar to the original version [ 19 – 21 ] and Ethiopian translations [ 21 ]. The IES, ATE, SSN, and PBC scales all showed sex invariance, which is crucial for ensuring that the scales measure the same construct in the same way across different genders. While similar IES, ATE, and SSN scores were obtained by females and males in our sample, we noticed that males scored higher than females on the PBC scale. Why males scored higher than females on the PBC scale could be attributed to a combination of psychological and sociological factors. Traditional sex roles and societal norms often socialize males to value independence and assertiveness, potentially leading them to perceive higher levels of control over their actions, including decisions related to migration [ 42 ]. Additionally, research has shown that males typically report higher self-efficacy and are more inclined towards risk-taking behaviors than females, which could further contribute to higher scores on measures of perceived behavioral control [ 43 , 44 ]. Cultural expectations that favor male autonomy and provide males with greater access to economic and educational opportunities might also influence these perceptions, as males may view themselves as having fewer barriers to engaging in behaviors such as migration [ 45 , 46 ]. The IES scores correlated well with ATE, SSN, and PBC scores. The strong correlation can be explained through the TPB framework proposed by Icek Ajzen [ 47 ]. According to TPB, an individual’s intention to perform a behavior (in this case, emigration) is influenced by three core components: their attitude towards the behavior, perceived behavioral control, and subjective norms surrounding the behavior. Attitude Towards Emigration reflects an individual’s positive or negative evaluations of emigrating; if someone views emigration favorably, they are more likely to intend to emigrate. This is because attitudes encapsulate the perceived benefits and drawbacks of emigrating, influencing decision-making towards actions perceived as beneficial [ 47 ]. Perceived Behavioral Control relates to the individual’s assessment of their ability to emigrate, incorporating factors like resources, opportunities, and obstacles. Higher PBC suggests that individuals feel capable of managing the emigration process, thereby increasing their intention to emigrate [ 47 ]. Subjective Social Norms refer to the perceived social pressure to perform or not perform the behavior. If individuals believe significant others think they should emigrate, or if emigration is viewed positively in their social circle, their intention to emigrate is likely to be stronger [ 47 ]. Furthermore, IES scores correlated positively with depression scores. This is similar to previous research that linked migration intentions with overall well-being [ 48 ]. Migration, as a significant life decision, is often influenced by various stressors and perceived opportunities for improvement in life circumstances. According to the stress-vulnerability model, individuals experiencing high levels of stress, such as that associated with dissatisfaction with current living conditions or perceived lack of opportunity, may exhibit higher levels of depression [ 49 ]. The decision to emigrate can be seen as a coping mechanism, reflecting an individual’s desire to escape from a stressful environment to one that promises better prospects [ 50 ]. The IES scores also correlated with higher neuroticism, agreeableness, and lower openness, which is also similar to previous research. Neuroticism, characterized by emotional instability and proneness to experience negative emotions, may drive individuals towards considering emigration as a strategy to escape from environments that exacerbate their stress or dissatisfaction [ 51 ], and these individuals might perceive emigration as a means to improve their personal well-being and reduce their exposure to stressors that trigger their neurotic tendencies. Agreeableness, involving a propensity towards altruism, trust, and cooperation, might correlate with the intention to emigrate due to a desire to seek more harmonious social environments or to reunite with family and communities abroad, valuing relational harmony over personal achievement or exploration [ 52 ]. Lower openness, which entails a lower propensity for novelty, creativity, and variety, might seem counterintuitive in the context of emigration. However, this might reflect a more nuanced aspect of openness related to the comfort with familiar settings and a preference for stability over change [ 52 ]. Individuals scoring lower on openness might not necessarily seek new experiences for their sake but rather consider emigration as a necessary step towards achieving a more stable or predictable environment that aligns with their personal values and needs [ 53 ]. Higher IES scores also correlated with higher risk proneness. Previous research has shown that risk proneness is a trait that significantly influences life choices, including the decision to emigrate, as this trait is reflective of an individual’s tolerance for ambiguity and uncertainty, factors that are inherently involved in the process of emigrating to a new country [ 54 ]. From a psychological perspective, individuals with higher risk proneness might view the challenges and uncertainties of emigrating not as deterrents but as opportunities for significant personal or professional development [ 55 ]. All of the above attests to the concurrent validity of the IES, ATE, PBC, and SSN scales. Practical Implications The translation of scales measuring Intention to Emigrate, Attitude Towards Emigration, Perceived Behavioral Control, and Subjective Social Norms into Arabic offers immense practical applications across numerous fields, significantly boosting research, policymaking, community support, and advocacy within Arabic-speaking communities. These culturally adapted scales facilitate cross-cultural emigration studies by revealing how various factors, including cultural ones, affect migration intentions and behaviors in Arabic contexts, thereby enriching global migration discourse with diverse cultural perspectives. Policymakers can use these insights to develop culturally sensitive migration policies that target specific emigration drivers like employment opportunities or legal barriers, ultimately fostering better socio-economic environments that affect emigration decisions. In community and social work, understanding the influence of social norms and perceived control allows for the creation of targeted support programs addressing the unique needs and concerns of potential migrants or those contemplating return, improving community support structures and resources. NGOs in the migration sector can use these scales to refine their advocacy and support services, ensuring their interventions align with the real attitudes, perceptions, and social pressures migrants face. The Arabic translations of these measures provide valuable tools for a holistic approach to understanding and addressing migration dynamics within Arabic-speaking communities, leading to more effective, culturally congruent strategies in migration-related fields. Limitations Validating the Arabic translation of scales measuring emigration intentions among Lebanese university students through a cross-sectional study design comes with distinct limitations. Firstly, the cross-sectional nature implies data collection at a singular point in time, which did not allow to verify that scales’ validity holds across different time periods. Secondly, although snowball sampling is effective for accessing certain populations, it may lead to selection bias. This method depends on participant referrals, potentially resulting in a homogenous sample that doesn't adequately capture the diversity of perspectives among the broader Lebanese university student population, restricting the findings' applicability to all Arab individuals. These limitations underscore the necessity of interpreting the study's results with caution and advocate for the validation of findings through longitudinal research employing more representative sampling methods. CONCLUSION In conclusion, the translation and validation of the IES, ATE, SSN, and PBC scales into Arabic and their application among Lebanese university students provides valuable insights into the emigration intentions within this population. Despite the inherent limitations, this study makes a significant contribution to the research field of emigration, and holds promise to the understanding of the complex interplay of factors influencing emigration decisions among Arabic-speaking populations. Ultimately, this study adds to the growing body of literature on migration studies and offers a foundation for future research, policy formulation, and targeted interventions aimed at addressing the multifaceted nature of emigration in the Middle East and beyond. Declarations Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate: Ethical approval was granted by the ethics committee at Rayak University Hospital (ECO-R-307). A written informed consent was considered obtained from each participant when submitting the online form. All methods were performed in accordance with the relevant guidelines and regulations. Consent for publication : Not applicable. Availability of data and materials : The datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are not publicly available but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. Competing interests : The authors have nothing to disclose. Funding : None. Author contributions : FFR, MF and SH designed the study; AH drafted the manuscript; SH carried out the analysis and interpreted the results; MF collected the data; all authors reviewed the final version of the paper for intellectual content and gave their consent. Acknowledgements : The authors would like to thank all participants. References Kourkouta L, Koukourikos K, Papathanasiou I, Areti T: Immigration and Mental Disorders . 2019, 2 :36. Lee T-Y: The Loss and Grief in Immigration: Pastoral Care for Immigrants . Pastoral Psychology 2010, 59 (2):159-169. SCHILLER NG, BASCH L, BLANC-SZANTON C: Transnationalism: A New Analytic Framework for Understanding Migration . Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1992, 645 (1):1-24. Schenker MB: A global perspective of migration and occupational health . Am J Ind Med 2010, 53 (4):329-337. Abel GJ: Estimates of Global Bilateral Migration Flows by Gender between 1960 and 20151 . International Migration Review 2018, 52 (3):809-852. 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Sawaya H, Atoui M, Hamadeh A, Zeinoun P, Nahas Z: Adaptation and initial validation of the Patient Health Questionnaire - 9 (PHQ-9) and the Generalized Anxiety Disorder - 7 Questionnaire (GAD-7) in an Arabic speaking Lebanese psychiatric outpatient sample . Psychiatry Res 2016, 239 :245-252. Mundfrom DJ, Shaw DG, Ke TL: Minimum sample size recommendations for conducting factor analyses . International journal of testing 2005, 5 (2):159-168. Hu Lt, Bentler PM: Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives . Structural equation modeling: a multidisciplinary journal 1999, 6 (1):1-55. Chen FF: Sensitivity of goodness of fit indexes to lack of measurement invariance . Structural equation modeling: a multidisciplinary journal 2007, 14 (3):464-504. Vadenberg R, Lance C: A review and synthesis of the measurement in variance literature: Suggestions, practices, and recommendations for organizational research . Organ Res Methods 2000, 3 :4-70. Hair Jr JF, Sarstedt M, Ringle CM, Gudergan SP: Advanced issues in partial least squares structural equation modeling : saGe publications; 2017. Eagly A, Wood W: The Origins of Sex Differences in Human Behavior: Evolved Dispositions Versus Social Roles . American Psychologist 1999, 54 :408-423. Bandura A: Self-efficacy: The exercise of control . New York, NY, US: W H Freeman/Times Books/ Henry Holt & Co; 1997. Byrnes JP, Miller DC, Schafer WD: Gender differences in risk taking: A meta-analysis . Psychological Bulletin 1999, 125 (3):367-383. Bem SL: Gender schema theory: A cognitive account of sex typing . Psychological Review 1981, 88 (4):354-364. Grieco EM, Boyd M: Women and migration: incorporating gender into international migration theory . In : 1998 ; 1998. Ajzen I: The Theory of Planned Behavior . Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 1991, 50 :179-211. Koehn P: Mental health and migration . In . , edn.; 2013. Zubin J, Spring B: Vulnerability: A new view of schizophrenia . Journal of Abnormal Psychology 1977, 86 (2):103-126. Berry JW: Immigration, Acculturation, and Adaptation . Applied Psychology 1997, 46 (1):5-34. McCrae R, Costa P: Validation of the Five-Factor Model of Personality Across Instruments and Observers . Journal of personality and social psychology 1987, 52 :81-90. Graziano WG, Eisenberg N: Chapter 30 - Agreeableness: A Dimension of Personality . In: Handbook of Personality Psychology. edn. Edited by Hogan R, Johnson J, Briggs S. San Diego: Academic Press; 1997: 795-824. McCrae RR, Sutin AR: Openness to experience . In: Handbook of individual differences in social behavior. edn. New York, NY, US: The Guilford Press; 2009: 257-273. Weber E, Milliman R: Perceived Risk Attitudes: Relating Risk Perception to Risky Choice . Management Science 1997, 43 :123-144. Nicholson N, Soane E, Fenton-O'Creevy M, Willman P: Personality and Domain-Specific Risk Taking . Journal of Risk Research 2005, 8 . Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-4310860","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":298924428,"identity":"3523a059-4bd1-4603-9aff-0037cc96a787","order_by":0,"name":"Ali Hemade","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Lebanese University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ali","middleName":"","lastName":"Hemade","suffix":""},{"id":298924429,"identity":"c2b42ee5-60bf-4fda-9a91-8baab7566d4d","order_by":1,"name":"Souheil 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scale.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4310860/v1/5013594345c4cb0fee399367.png"},{"id":56036861,"identity":"2683360f-2d2d-4c71-b62a-990216df71ca","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-05-07 18:47:35","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":159415,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAttitude towards emigration (ATE) scale.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4310860/v1/c15fdf328708a938ac6cb73c.png"},{"id":56036864,"identity":"3d370a15-20e2-4385-a9b2-a15c4fcfa66f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-05-07 18:47:36","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":100648,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePerceived Behavioural Control (PBC) scale.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4310860/v1/9d8f63c8b595bdd8cfaa2d6b.png"},{"id":56036862,"identity":"594bc876-6505-4dd1-b9dc-a6a63d29769c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-05-07 18:47:35","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":134029,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSubjective social norms (SSN) scale.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4310860/v1/c6e064a6d98c8d9ac9d6b379.png"},{"id":73146351,"identity":"796b4340-80bc-4c51-8269-aae0cfffb1d3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-01-07 07:47:12","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2154684,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4310860/v1/17b4fa53-0355-428a-8789-1dc797ddc9c3.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Explaining emigration intentions through the lens of the theory of planned behavior: Scales' validation in a developing Arab country context","fulltext":[{"header":"INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe definition of emigration has evolved and varies across disciplines, reflecting the complexity of emigration processes. Emigration refers to the act of leaving one's own country to settle in another where they will remain as permanent residents or future citizens without having citizenship in that country. This highlights the intent of permanence and future citizenship as distinguishing characteristics of emigration [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. Emigration also involves a psycho-social-geographical transition that includes a series of losses and changes, most of them are obvious and expected, but some of them are hidden and unexpected, emphasizing the multifaceted nature of the emigration experience, including changes in identity as inner change tries to match outer change [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. Also, the concept of transnationalism has been introduced to offer a new perspective on emigration, describing emigrants whose networks, activities, and patterns of life encompass both their host and home societies broadening the traditional view of emigration by considering the ongoing connections emigrants maintain with their country of origin [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. Global emigration has significantly increased over the past decade, reaching historically high levels. According to a review, global emigration was at an all-time high, approaching 200\u0026nbsp;million persons per year around 2010, with expectations that emigration will continue at record high levels due to demographics and economic interdependence [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. Recent data suggest that there were around 272\u0026nbsp;million international emigrants in the world in 2019, which equates to 3.5% of the global population [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. These figures demonstrate the dynamic and growing nature of global emigration, contributing to the complexity of emigration patterns and policies worldwide. The Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region is significant in the global emigration landscape, serving both as a destination and origin for emigrants. The Gulf Cooperation Council countries, in particular, are major destinations due to their demand for foreign labor. Meanwhile, millions from this region work elsewhere, including Europe, driven by various factors including labor and humanitarian reasons [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. In Lebanon, the net emigration rate is negative with around 21 migrants/1,000 population, and this number of emigrants is changing due to the economic crises that has been crippling the country since 2019 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec2\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eWhy is it important to investigate Emigration intentions?\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe adverse effects of high emigration extend deeply into the social fabric, economy, and overall well-being of the countries facing significant outflows of their population. On the demographic front, emigration, especially of younger and more educated segments of the population, leads to a 'brain drain' that diminishes the human capital essential for economic development and innovation, which is particularly detrimental for sectors reliant on high-skilled labor, potentially stunting national growth and competitiveness on the global stage [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. Countries like Uruguay have experienced major impacts on their growth rates and age structures due to the composition of the emigrant population, which primarily includes young, economically active, skilled individuals, and this demographic shift not only reduces the potential for domestic innovation but also burdens the remaining population with increased dependency ratios, further straining public resources and social support systems [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. Economically, while emigrants' remittances can offer short-term alleviation to poverty and contribute to gross domestic product (GDP), the long-term effects are less optimistic. Studies suggest that for every 100 emigrants, countries might see a substantial reduction in firm creation, pointing to the dampening effect of emigration on entrepreneurial activity and, by extension, on economic dynamism and job creation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. Socially, the departure of family members disrupts traditional family structures and roles, leading to increased burdens on those left behind, who may face greater responsibilities in caring for the elderly and young. The separation of families by emigration can lead to psychological stress and a decline in social cohesion [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. The emigration of a spouse or child can significantly increase stress and associated health risks such as acute coronary syndromes for the remaining family members, especially when financial support is not provided [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoreover, the societal impact of emigration includes the potential for cultural fragmentation as communities lose core members who carry with them the traditions and social norms that bind people together. This fragmentation can lead to a weakening of social networks and support systems that are crucial for community resilience and development [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. The loss of a significant portion of the younger, educated workforce engenders a cultural drain, eroding the cultural richness and diversity of the sending country, as nations like Lithuania and Romania, which have experienced significant outflows of their populations, face challenges in preserving their cultural heritage and maintaining a sense of national identity among their diaspora [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdditionally, the fiscal impact of emigration poses significant challenges. The departure of a substantial portion of the tax base can limit government revenues, crucial for funding public services, health care, and education, and this fiscal strain is exacerbated in countries with high emigration rates among the working-age population, leading to increased pressures on social welfare systems and a need for greater public expenditure to address the needs of an aging population [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. Environmental sustainability is another aspect affected by high emigration. The departure of a significant portion of the population from rural areas, for example, can lead to land abandonment and changes in land use, potentially affecting biodiversity, landscape patterns, and ecosystem services, as in countries like Moldova and Albania, where large-scale emigration has led to the neglect of agricultural lands, which could have long-term implications for food security and environmental conservation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eFactors contributing to Emigration intention and behavior: The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe TPB offers a comprehensive framework to understand emigration intentions, centering on the premise that individuals' decision-making is a reflective process influenced by attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control. Specifically, attitudes towards emigration\u0026mdash;the individual\u0026rsquo;s personal evaluation of emigrating as favorable or unfavorable\u0026mdash;are pivotal in shaping the intention to emigrate. This aspect of TPB underscores that positive perceptions and beliefs about the outcomes of emigration can significantly motivate the decision to emigrate [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e]. Subjective norms, representing the perceived social pressure from family, friends, or society at large, to emigrate or stay, also play a crucial role. This element of TPB suggests that individuals are influenced by the expectations of others, where support or opposition from one's social circle can tip the scales in the decision-making process regarding emigration [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]. Lastly, perceived behavioral control\u0026mdash;individuals\u0026rsquo; perception of their ability to emigrate, encompassing factors that may facilitate or obstruct emigrating\u0026mdash;critically influences emigration intentions. This dimension highlights the role of self-efficacy and control over the emigration process, suggesting that greater perceived control can increase the likelihood of forming and acting on emigration intentions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]. Together, these components of the TPB model provide a nuanced understanding of the cognitive deliberations that precede the decision to emigrate. By integrating attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control, the TPB encapsulates the multifaceted nature of emigration intentions, offering valuable insights into how individuals navigate the complex interplay of personal beliefs, social influences, and perceived capabilities in the context of emigration [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMeasurement instruments of Emigration intention and its contributing factors\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn order to study emigration, Leong et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e] developed the \u0026ldquo;Intention to Emigrate Scale (IES)\u0026rdquo;, validated on a group of Singaporean highschoolers, which measures how willing individuals were to leave their country and live abroad. The scale was made to include 5 items and showed validity and reliability in the initial study [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. In the same paper [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e], the researchers also developed the \u0026ldquo;Attitude Towards Emigration (ATE)\u0026rdquo; scale to measure how positively individuals viewed emigration. The 12-items represented push and pull factors of human geography and the theory of planned migration behaviors, and included components of social status and socioeconomic security. The \u0026ldquo;Perceived Behavioral Control (PBC)\u0026rdquo; [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e] and \u0026ldquo;Subjective Social Norms (SSN)\u0026rdquo; [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR20\" citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e] scales were developed in order to measure the variables of perceived behavioral control and subjective social norms in the scope of TPB. The PBC scale translated in our study was originally developed by Speelman et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e] in their paper on migration in the Maldives. The scale included 5-items and was the result of surveying the Maldivian population on migration expectations. The SSN scale pertinent to our study is the scale is a merge of two scales: the SSN scale developed by Leong et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e] after surveying the Singaporean public and the one developed by Speelman et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e] after surveys on the Maldivian public both using variables from the Theory of Planned Behavior adjusted to fit the scope of emigration. The resulting 6 item scale as used in the paper by Assfaw et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e]reliably measured the construct of Subjective Social Norms in Ethiopia. The four scales were translated and validated on a group of Ethiopian highschoolers by Assfaw et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e], and were shown to be psychometrically sound and showed similar factorial structure to the original scales.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMeasures for concurrent validity\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmigration can be driven by a range of mental health problems. The association between emigration intent and psychological factors encompasses a variety of interrelated elements such as depression, anxiety, personality traits, and risk-taking behavior, which all play crucial roles in influencing individuals' migration decisions. Studies highlight that psychological distress, specifically high levels of stress, anxiety, and depression, significantly correlates with the intention to emigrate [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. In a study on Turkish medical students, those exhibiting higher stress and depression levels showed a stronger inclination towards migration [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e]. Personality traits also substantially influence migration intentions. Individuals with high openness are often more curious and open to new experiences, which can predispose them to consider living in different cultural settings, while low agreeableness, which might involve less concern for harmony and conformity, could also drive migration decisions, as these individuals may find fewer psychological barriers in leaving their social groups behind [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e]. Additionally, risk proneness, often associated with sensation-seeking traits, has its own implications. High sensation-seekers, who are typically more prone to engaging in novel and potentially risky activities, might view emigration as an exciting challenge, linking this trait to migration intent [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eThe present study\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn Lebanon and the Arab world, no instruments that measure the constructs of intention to emigrate, attitude towards emigration, perceived behavioral control, and subjective social norms exists. Lebanon, a country with a rich history of emigration, offers a poignant case study of these effects. The Lebanese diaspora, estimated at around three times the size of the country's domestic population, has been a critical factor in Lebanon's economy through remittances. However, this diaspora also represents a significant brain drain, impacting various sectors, including healthcare, education, and technology, as the departure of highly skilled professionals has led to gaps in these critical sectors, slowing progress and development [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e]. The emigration of young, educated Lebanese, particularly to the Gulf States and Western countries, has led to demographic shifts that strain the social fabric and future economic prospects of Lebanon [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e]. Emigration can also have negative effects on the individual level, including psychological, social, and economic impacts. One of the primary challenges faced by emigrants is the social and cultural adjustment in a new country, which can lead to mental health issues such as increased risk for psychosis and other psychological disorders due to the distress of adapting to different cultural and social environments [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]. Additionally, emigration can weaken social ties and community cohesion, both for the emigrant and those left behind, creating a sense of isolation and loss of social support. This social disintegration can negatively affect the overall well-being and mental health of individuals involved [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe aim of the present study was to translate the IES, ATE, PBC, and SSN scales into Arabic and evaluate their psychometric properties. This is important for many reasons, particularly for ensuring the accuracy and cultural relevance of these tools for Arab immigrants. Such translations facilitate the assessment and understanding of the emigration experience, including its psychological causes. The adaptation and translation of the aforementioned scales into Arabic also contributes to more effective interventions and support for Arab immigrants, recognizing the diversity and specificity of their experiences. Our objectives are assessing the internal consistency, convergent validity, and concurrent validity of our Arabic translations of the IES, ATE, PBC, and SNN. We hypothesize that the Arabic versions of the IES, ATE, PBC, and SSN will show a one-factor solution each in line with the original versions [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR20\" citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e]. We expect the translations of the scales to be invariant across sexes. We also predict the ATE, PBC, and SSN will correlate adequately with the IES scale. Based on the above-mentioned literature, we also expect the IES scale to correlate positively with measures of risk proneness, depression, anxiety, and maladaptive personality traits and negatively with adaptive personality traits.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"METHODS","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eParticipants\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe survey was disseminated using a Google Form link, targeting Arabic-speaking Lebanese university students aged 18 and above. They were requested to fill out the survey and further share the link with their friends and family, who then were encouraged to share it further, utilizing the Snowball sampling method. Only Lebanese university students over the age of 18 were eligible to participate. The study began with an introduction explaining the study's goals. Participants gave digital informed consent before proceeding to fill out the necessary scales within the Google Form. The participation was designed to be anonymous, confidential, voluntary, and offered no financial rewards. Ethical approval was granted by the ethics committee at Rayak University Hospital (ECO-R-307).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMeasures\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSociodemographic information:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eParticipants were asked to provide their age, gender, and the number of persons and rooms in their household.\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eIndex scales\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eIntention to emigrate\u003c/em\u003e (ITE) scale [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e] Is a 5-item scale. Respondents rate the frequency with which they thought of working or living in another country for multiple reasons (e.g., \u0026ldquo;overseas education\u0026rdquo;). Each of the five measurements is scored on a 5-item Likert scale ranging from 1 (Never) to 5 (All the time). Higher scores indicate a greater desire to relocate overseas.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eAttitude toward emigration (ATE) scale\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e] is an 12-item scale measuring Social Status (e.g., \u0026ldquo;\u0026lsquo;People who have successfully emigrated overseas enjoy a higher social status\u0026rdquo;), and Socio-Economic security (\u0026ldquo;Emigrating overseas can provide a backup plan in case my country fails\u0026rdquo;). Each item is rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 5 (Strongly Disagree). A higher score represents a more positive attitude towards emigration.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003ePerceived Behavioral Control (PBC) scale\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e] is a 5-item scale measuring an individual's perceived ease or difficulty of emigration, influenced by both internal and external factors (e.g. \u0026ldquo;I have friends and family who migrated\u0026rdquo;). Each item is measured on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 5 (Strongly Disagree). A higher scare represents a better perceived ease of emigrating.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eSubjective social norms scale\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e] is a 6\u0026mdash;item scale measuring the construct of social norms regarding migration (e.g., \u0026ldquo;If I move that must be for the benefit of my family\u0026rdquo;). Each item is measured on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 5 (Strongly Disagree). A higher score indicates experiencing higher pressure from important persons to migrate.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eTranslation procedure\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eBefore being used in the current study, each of the four scales were translated and culturally adapted for the Arabic language and environment. This involved converting the scales into Arabic to keep the meaning consistent with the original version, following international norms and guidelines [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e]. The translation process utilized a forward-backward technique. First, a Lebanese translator not involved in the research translated the scales from English to Arabic. Then, a Lebanese psychologist who is fluent in English translated them back to English. This method was designed to ensure a balance between literal and contextual translation. Both the original and the back-translated English versions were examined by a group of experts, including two psychiatrists, one psychologist, the research team, and the translators, to resolve any inconsistencies and confirm the accuracy of the translation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e]. The scales were also tailored to fit the specific context of the study to eliminate any unclear items and make interpretation easier, maintaining the scales\u0026rsquo; conceptual consistency in both the original and Arabic settings [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e]. A pilot study was then conducted to ensure the questions were clear, with no need for further adjustments.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eScales for concurrent validity\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eDark Future Scale (DFS)\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e] is a 5-item scale measuring anxiety towards the future (e.g., \u0026ldquo;I am afraid that the problems that trouble me now will continue for a long time\u0026rdquo;). Each item is measured on a 7-point Likert scale from 0 (decidedly false) to 6 (decidedly true). Higher scores indicate greater levels of future anxiety.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eArabic Big Five Personality Inventory (ABFPI)\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e] is a 30-item scale in Arabic divided into 5 factors where each factor comprises 6 items: Neuroticism (e.g., I feel tense), Openness (e.g., I like to do creative things), Agreeableness (e.g., I care about others\u0026rsquo; feelings), Extraversion (e.g., I am a social person), Conscientiousness (e.g., I am an organized and disciplined person). Each item is answered on a 4-point Likert scale: 1 (No), 2 (Some), 3 (Much), Always (4). Total score of each factor could range from 6 to 24. Higher scores on each factor indicate a higher trait standing.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eGeneral Risk Propensity Scale (GRiPS)\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e] is an 8-item scale designed to measure an individual's overall tendency to engage in risk-taking behaviors across different areas of life (e.g. \u0026ldquo;I enjoy taking risks in most aspects of my life\u0026rdquo;). Each item is answered on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 5 (Strongly Agree). The total score is obtained by summing responses, with higher scores indicating higher individual's propensity to take risks across various domains. The Arabic version validated on a group of Lebanese adults was used [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eThe Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9)\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e] \u003cem\u003eis a 9-item self-report measure assessing the\u003c/em\u003e presence and severity of depression symptoms. It measures each of the 9 criteria for depression (e.g., \"Little interest or pleasure in doing things\") on a 4-point Likert scale ranging from 0 (not at all) to 3 (nearly every day). Scores range from 0 to 27, with higher scores indicating more severe depressive symptoms. The Arabic version validated on the Lebanese population was used [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eGeneralized Anxiety Disorder 7-item (GAD-7)\u003c/em\u003e scale is a 7-item self-administered questionnaire used to assess the severity of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) (e.g., \"Feeling nervous, anxious, or on edge\u0026rdquo;). Responses range from 0 (not at all) to 3 (nearly every day), focusing on symptoms of anxiety over the last two weeks. Scores range from 0 to 21, indicating anxiety severity: 0\u0026ndash;4 (minimal), 5\u0026ndash;9 (mild), 10\u0026ndash;14 (moderate), and 15\u0026ndash;21 (severe). The Arabic version validated on the Lebanese population was used [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eAnalytic Strategy\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThere were no missing responses in the dataset. To examine the factor structure of the scales, we conducted a Confirmatory Factor Analysis using the data from the total sample via SPSS AMOS v.29 software. A minimum sample size of 220 participants was deemed adequate based on 3 to 20 times the number of the scale\u0026rsquo;s variables [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e]. Parameter estimates were obtained using the maximum likelihood method. Calculated fit indices were the normed model chi-square (χ\u0026sup2;/df), the Steiger-Lind root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), the standardized root mean square residual (SRMR), the Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI) and the comparative fit index (CFI). Values\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;5 for χ\u0026sup2;/df, \u0026le; .08 for RMSEA, \u0026le; .05 for SRMR and \u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;.90 for CFI and TLI showed good fit of the data [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e]. Multivariate normality was not verified at first (Critical ratio\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;5; Bollen-Stine \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.008); therefore we performed non-parametric bootstrapping procedure.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eGender invariance.\u003c/em\u003e To examine gender invariance of the scales, we conducted multi-group CFA using the total sample [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e]. Measurement invariance was assessed at the configural, metric, and scalar levels [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e]. We accepted ΔCFI\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;.010 and ΔRMSEA\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;.015 or ΔSRMR\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;.010 as evidence of invariance [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e]. Comparison between males and females was done using the Student \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e-test only if scalar or partial scalar invariance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eFurther analyses.\u003c/em\u003e Composite reliability in both subsamples was assessed using McDonald\u0026rsquo;s ω and Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha, with values greater than .70 reflecting adequate composite reliability. Normality of the scores was verified since the skewness and kurtosis values varied between \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1 and +\u0026thinsp;1 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e]. To assess concurrent validity, Pearson test was used to correlate two scores.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eDescription of the sample\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFour hundred seventy-one university students filled the survey, with a mean age of 19.99\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.20 years, 72.8% females and 98.9% single. Moreover, the mean HCI was 1.24\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;.57 and that of the financial satisfaction 4.88\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.25.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eConfirmatory Factor Analysis of the PSS\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eCFA indicated that fit of the one-factor model of intention to emigrate scale was adequate for all scales, but borderline for the attitude towards emigration scale (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). The standardized estimates of factor loadings were adequate for the ITE (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e), ATE (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e), PBC (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e) and SSN (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e) scales. Internal reliability was satisfactory for all scales: ITE (ω\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.89; α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.89), ATE (ω\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.86; α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.86), PBC (ω\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.84; α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.84) and SSN (ω\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.87; α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.87).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eStandardized Estimates of Factor Loadings from the Confirmatory Factor Analysis of each scale in the total sample.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eScale name\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eχ\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e/df\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRMSEA\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[90% CI]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSRMR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCFI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTLI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIntention to emigrate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.57/5\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.084 [.050; .122]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.021\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.987\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.974\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAttitude towards emigration\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e233.26/44\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.096 [.084; .108]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.057\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.889\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.862\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePerceived behavioral control\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.84/5\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.071 [.036; .110]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.027\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.987\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.974\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSubjective social norms\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43.89/14\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.067 [.045; .090]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.035\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.977\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.966\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eχ\u0026sup2;/df\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;normed model chi-square; TLI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Tucker-Lewis Index; CFI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Comparative fit index; RMSEA\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Steiger-Lind root mean square error of approximation; SRMR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Standardised root mean square residual.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eGender invariance\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndices suggested that configural, metric, and scalar invariance was supported across gender (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Higher PBC scores were found in males compared to females (17.57\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.96 vs 16.76\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.77, \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e(469)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.05, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.041. No significant difference between sexes was observed for the IES (17.51\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.70 vs 17.29\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.63, t(469)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.46, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.645), ATI (39.80\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7.50 vs 40.43\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7.22, t(469)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.83, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.406) and SSN (25.61\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.74 vs 24.93\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.64, t(469)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.16, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.245).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMeasurement Invariance across Gender in the total sample.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModel\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCFI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRMSEA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSRMR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModel Comparison\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eΔCFI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eΔRMSEA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eΔSRMR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"8\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eScale 1: Intention to emigrate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConfigural\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.979\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.077\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.034\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMetric\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.976\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.068\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.037\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConfigural vs metric\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.003\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.009\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.003\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eScalar\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.976\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.061\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.037\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMetric vs scalar\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.007\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"8\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eScale 2: Attitude towards emigration\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConfigural\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.885\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.069\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.077\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMetric\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.885\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.066\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.085\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConfigural vs metric\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.003\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.008\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eScalar\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.886\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.062\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.084\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMetric vs scalar\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.004\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"8\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eScale 3: Perceived behavioural control\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConfigural\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.986\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.052\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.038\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMetric\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.988\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.040\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.039\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConfigural vs metric\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.002\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.012\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eScalar\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.989\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.034\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.038\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMetric vs scalar\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.006\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"8\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eScale 4: Subjective social norms\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConfigural\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.977\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.048\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.041\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMetric\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.980\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.041\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.049\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConfigural vs metric\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.003\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.007\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.008\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eScalar\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.974\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.043\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.049\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMetric vs scalar\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.006\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.002\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"8\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote.\u003c/em\u003e CFI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Comparative fit index; RMSEA\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Steiger-Lind root mean square error of approximation; SRMR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Standardized root mean square residual.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eConcurrent validity\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigher ITE scores were associated with higher ATE, SSN, PBC, depression, neuroticism, agreeableness, and risk proneness and with lower openness (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePearson correlation coefficients.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"15\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c13\" colnum=\"13\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c14\" colnum=\"14\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c15\" colnum=\"15\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. ITE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.35\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. ATE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.65***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3. SSN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.11\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.72***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.68***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4. PBC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.98\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.84\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.32***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.34***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.36***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5. Dark future\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.57\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;8.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.25***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6. Depression\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.10*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.13**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.13**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.31***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7. Anxiety\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.19\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.13**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.12**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.37***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.67***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8. Extraversion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.79\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.14**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9. Neuroticism\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.97\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.14**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.18***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.16**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.29***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.50***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.52***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10. Openness\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.36\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.11*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.16**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.17***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.12*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.27***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.16**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11. Agreeableness\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.84\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.14**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.004\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.35***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.10*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.55***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12. Conscientiousness\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.23\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.10*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.09*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.10*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.002\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.25***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.57***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.67***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13. Risk proneness\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.88\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.24***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.16***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.16***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.23***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.22***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.12*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.11*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.09*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.12*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.15**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"15\"\u003e*p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.05; **p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01; ***p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001. ITE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Intention to emigrate; ATE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Attitude towards emigration; SSN\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Subjective social norms; PBC\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Perceived behavioural control\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe IES, ATE, SSN, and PBC scales were developed to quantitatively assess and understand individuals' intentions to emigrate and their influencing complex psychological and social factors following the TPB, particularly within diverse cultural contexts. Our Arabic translation of these four scales proved to be reliable and psychometrically validated. We proved the factorial, convergent, and concurrent validity of these scales. We also found our translation of the scales to be invariant across sexes. This suggests that the IES, ATE, SSN, and PBC scales are suitable for use on Arab individuals.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFactorial analysis supported the one factor solution for all of the four scales, as seen with the original versions [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR20\" citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e] and the Ethiopian translations [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e]. This factorial invariance ensures that the underlying factors measured by the scales remain consistent, allowing for meaningful comparisons across diverse populations. More translations are encouraged to trace a trend in the factorial solutions of each of the scales under study, in order to prove the universality of the constructs measured by the scales. Furthermore, the IES, ATE, SSN, and PBC scales were shown to have adequate internal reliability, with a Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s α coefficients of 0.89, 0.86, 0.84, and 0.87 and McDonald\u0026rsquo;s omega coefficients of 0.89, 0.86, 0.84, and 0.87, respectively, similar to the original version [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR20\" citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e] and Ethiopian translations [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe IES, ATE, SSN, and PBC scales all showed sex invariance, which is crucial for ensuring that the scales measure the same construct in the same way across different genders. While similar IES, ATE, and SSN scores were obtained by females and males in our sample, we noticed that males scored higher than females on the PBC scale. Why males scored higher than females on the PBC scale could be attributed to a combination of psychological and sociological factors. Traditional sex roles and societal norms often socialize males to value independence and assertiveness, potentially leading them to perceive higher levels of control over their actions, including decisions related to migration [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e]. Additionally, research has shown that males typically report higher self-efficacy and are more inclined towards risk-taking behaviors than females, which could further contribute to higher scores on measures of perceived behavioral control [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e]. Cultural expectations that favor male autonomy and provide males with greater access to economic and educational opportunities might also influence these perceptions, as males may view themselves as having fewer barriers to engaging in behaviors such as migration [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe IES scores correlated well with ATE, SSN, and PBC scores. The strong correlation can be explained through the TPB framework proposed by Icek Ajzen [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e]. According to TPB, an individual\u0026rsquo;s intention to perform a behavior (in this case, emigration) is influenced by three core components: their attitude towards the behavior, perceived behavioral control, and subjective norms surrounding the behavior. Attitude Towards Emigration reflects an individual\u0026rsquo;s positive or negative evaluations of emigrating; if someone views emigration favorably, they are more likely to intend to emigrate. This is because attitudes encapsulate the perceived benefits and drawbacks of emigrating, influencing decision-making towards actions perceived as beneficial [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e]. Perceived Behavioral Control relates to the individual\u0026rsquo;s assessment of their ability to emigrate, incorporating factors like resources, opportunities, and obstacles. Higher PBC suggests that individuals feel capable of managing the emigration process, thereby increasing their intention to emigrate [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e]. Subjective Social Norms refer to the perceived social pressure to perform or not perform the behavior. If individuals believe significant others think they should emigrate, or if emigration is viewed positively in their social circle, their intention to emigrate is likely to be stronger [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, IES scores correlated positively with depression scores. This is similar to previous research that linked migration intentions with overall well-being [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e]. Migration, as a significant life decision, is often influenced by various stressors and perceived opportunities for improvement in life circumstances. According to the stress-vulnerability model, individuals experiencing high levels of stress, such as that associated with dissatisfaction with current living conditions or perceived lack of opportunity, may exhibit higher levels of depression [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e]. The decision to emigrate can be seen as a coping mechanism, reflecting an individual\u0026rsquo;s desire to escape from a stressful environment to one that promises better prospects [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e]. The IES scores also correlated with higher neuroticism, agreeableness, and lower openness, which is also similar to previous research. Neuroticism, characterized by emotional instability and proneness to experience negative emotions, may drive individuals towards considering emigration as a strategy to escape from environments that exacerbate their stress or dissatisfaction [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e], and these individuals might perceive emigration as a means to improve their personal well-being and reduce their exposure to stressors that trigger their neurotic tendencies. Agreeableness, involving a propensity towards altruism, trust, and cooperation, might correlate with the intention to emigrate due to a desire to seek more harmonious social environments or to reunite with family and communities abroad, valuing relational harmony over personal achievement or exploration [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e]. Lower openness, which entails a lower propensity for novelty, creativity, and variety, might seem counterintuitive in the context of emigration. However, this might reflect a more nuanced aspect of openness related to the comfort with familiar settings and a preference for stability over change [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e]. Individuals scoring lower on openness might not necessarily seek new experiences for their sake but rather consider emigration as a necessary step towards achieving a more stable or predictable environment that aligns with their personal values and needs [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e]. Higher IES scores also correlated with higher risk proneness. Previous research has shown that risk proneness is a trait that significantly influences life choices, including the decision to emigrate, as this trait is reflective of an individual\u0026rsquo;s tolerance for ambiguity and uncertainty, factors that are inherently involved in the process of emigrating to a new country [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e]. From a psychological perspective, individuals with higher risk proneness might view the challenges and uncertainties of emigrating not as deterrents but as opportunities for significant personal or professional development [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e]. All of the above attests to the concurrent validity of the IES, ATE, PBC, and SSN scales.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePractical Implications\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe translation of scales measuring Intention to Emigrate, Attitude Towards Emigration, Perceived Behavioral Control, and Subjective Social Norms into Arabic offers immense practical applications across numerous fields, significantly boosting research, policymaking, community support, and advocacy within Arabic-speaking communities. These culturally adapted scales facilitate cross-cultural emigration studies by revealing how various factors, including cultural ones, affect migration intentions and behaviors in Arabic contexts, thereby enriching global migration discourse with diverse cultural perspectives. Policymakers can use these insights to develop culturally sensitive migration policies that target specific emigration drivers like employment opportunities or legal barriers, ultimately fostering better socio-economic environments that affect emigration decisions. In community and social work, understanding the influence of social norms and perceived control allows for the creation of targeted support programs addressing the unique needs and concerns of potential migrants or those contemplating return, improving community support structures and resources. NGOs in the migration sector can use these scales to refine their advocacy and support services, ensuring their interventions align with the real attitudes, perceptions, and social pressures migrants face. The Arabic translations of these measures provide valuable tools for a holistic approach to understanding and addressing migration dynamics within Arabic-speaking communities, leading to more effective, culturally congruent strategies in migration-related fields.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eLimitations\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eValidating the Arabic translation of scales measuring emigration intentions among Lebanese university students through a cross-sectional study design comes with distinct limitations. Firstly, the cross-sectional nature implies data collection at a singular point in time, which did not allow to verify that scales\u0026rsquo; validity holds across different time periods. Secondly, although snowball sampling is effective for accessing certain populations, it may lead to selection bias. This method depends on participant referrals, potentially resulting in a homogenous sample that doesn't adequately capture the diversity of perspectives among the broader Lebanese university student population, restricting the findings' applicability to all Arab individuals. These limitations underscore the necessity of interpreting the study's results with caution and advocate for the validation of findings through longitudinal research employing more representative sampling methods.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"CONCLUSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn conclusion, the translation and validation of the IES, ATE, SSN, and PBC scales into Arabic and their application among Lebanese university students provides valuable insights into the emigration intentions within this population. Despite the inherent limitations, this study makes a significant contribution to the research field of emigration, and holds promise to the understanding of the complex interplay of factors influencing emigration decisions among Arabic-speaking populations. Ultimately, this study adds to the growing body of literature on migration studies and offers a foundation for future research, policy formulation, and targeted interventions aimed at addressing the multifaceted nature of emigration in the Middle East and beyond.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics Approval and Consent to Participate:\u003c/strong\u003e Ethical approval was granted by the ethics committee at Rayak University Hospital (ECO-R-307). A written informed consent was considered obtained from each participant when submitting the online form. All methods were performed in accordance with the relevant guidelines and regulations.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e: Not applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and materials\u003c/strong\u003e: The datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are not publicly available but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e: The authors have nothing to disclose.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e: None.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor contributions\u003c/strong\u003e: FFR, MF and SH designed the study; AH drafted the manuscript; SH carried out the analysis and interpreted the results; MF collected the data; all authors reviewed the final version of the paper for intellectual content and gave their consent.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e: The authors would like to thank all participants.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eKourkouta L, Koukourikos K, Papathanasiou I, Areti T: \u003cstrong\u003eImmigration and Mental Disorders\u003c/strong\u003e. 2019, \u003cstrong\u003e2\u003c/strong\u003e:36.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eLee T-Y: \u003cstrong\u003eThe Loss and Grief in Immigration: Pastoral Care for Immigrants\u003c/strong\u003e. \u003cem\u003ePastoral Psychology\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e2010, \u003cstrong\u003e59\u003c/strong\u003e(2):159-169.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSCHILLER NG, BASCH L, BLANC-SZANTON C: \u003cstrong\u003eTransnationalism: A New Analytic Framework for Understanding Migration\u003c/strong\u003e. \u003cem\u003eAnnals of the New York Academy of Sciences\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e1992, \u003cstrong\u003e645\u003c/strong\u003e(1):1-24.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSchenker MB: \u003cstrong\u003eA global perspective of migration and occupational health\u003c/strong\u003e. \u003cem\u003eAm J Ind Med\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e2010, \u003cstrong\u003e53\u003c/strong\u003e(4):329-337.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAbel GJ: \u003cstrong\u003eEstimates of Global Bilateral Migration Flows by Gender between 1960 and 20151\u003c/strong\u003e. \u003cem\u003eInternational Migration Review\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e2018, \u003cstrong\u003e52\u003c/strong\u003e(3):809-852.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMiddle East \u0026amp; North Africa\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e[https://www.migrationpolicy.org/regions/middle-east-north-africa]\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e[https://www.iom.int/countries/lebanon]\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003ePetruccelli JL: \u003cstrong\u003eConsequences of Uruguayan Emigration: Research Note\u003c/strong\u003e. \u003cem\u003eInternational Migration Review\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e1979, \u003cstrong\u003e13\u003c/strong\u003e(3):519-526.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAnelli M, Basso G, Ippedico G, Peri G: \u003cstrong\u003eDoes Emigration Drain Entrepreneurs?\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cem\u003eSSRN Electronic Journal\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e2020.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eLindstrom D: \u003cstrong\u003eEmigration: Consequences for Social Structure in the Sending Population\u003c/strong\u003e. 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New York, NY, US: The Guilford Press; 2009: 257-273.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eWeber E, Milliman R: \u003cstrong\u003ePerceived Risk Attitudes: Relating Risk Perception to Risky Choice\u003c/strong\u003e. \u003cem\u003eManagement Science\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e1997, \u003cstrong\u003e43\u003c/strong\u003e:123-144.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eNicholson N, Soane E, Fenton-O\u0026apos;Creevy M, Willman P: \u003cstrong\u003ePersonality and Domain-Specific Risk Taking\u003c/strong\u003e. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Risk Research\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e2005, \u003cstrong\u003e8\u003c/strong\u003e.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"intention to emigrate, attitude towards emigration, perceived behavioral control, subjective social norm, Arabic translation, factor analysis, construct validity, gender invariance","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4310860/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4310860/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003eBackground\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmigration is a multifaceted phenomenon that is changing the demographics of many countries. The Intention to Emigrate (ITE), Attitude Towards Emigration (ATE), Perceived Behavioral Control (PBC), and Subjective Social Norms (SSN) are measures that have been developed to assess the emigration intent and its possible contributors in a cultural setting. These scales lack a validated Arabic version suitable for the Arab context. This study aimed to translate, psychometrically validate, and culturally adapt the ITE, ATE, PBC, and SSN scales in Arabic in a sample of Lebanese university students.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethods\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFollowing the Snowball sampling method, participants (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;471) were Lebanese students who answered demographic questions and completed the Arabic versions of the ITE, ATE, PBC, SSN, as well as the following measures for concurrent validity testing: dark Future, personality traits, risk propensity and depression.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eConfirmatory Factor Analysis showed a one-factor model of the ITE, ATE, PBC, and SSN. We found good internal consistency reliability for all scales: ITE (ω\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.89; α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.89), ATE (ω\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.86; α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.86), PBC (ω\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.84; α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.84) and SSN (ω\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.87; α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.87). Convergent validity and concurrent validity were proved through positive correlations with depression, Neuroticism, Agreeableness, risk propensity scores, and negative correlations with Openness scores. All scales showed invariance across sexes. Males scored significantly higher than females on the PBC scale, while no significant difference between sexes was observed for the ITE, ATE and SSN.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusion\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur validated Arabic versions of the ITE, ATE, PBC, and SSN offer invaluable, culturally appropriate instruments for assessing emigration intentions and factors behind this intention. This shall boost research on emigration intentions and behaviors among Arabic*-speaking youth, help shape policies on emigration, and help social workers design targeted interventions for supporting potential emigrants.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Explaining emigration intentions through the lens of the theory of planned behavior: Scales' validation in a developing Arab country context","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-05-07 18:47:31","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4310860/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"e006af4a-4651-48be-92b3-f1f6e1660d47","owner":[],"postedDate":"May 7th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-01-07T07:39:04+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-05-07 18:47:31","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-4310860","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-4310860","identity":"rs-4310860","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}