Fitness consequences of chronic exposure to different light pollution wavelengths in nocturnal and diurnal rodents

Use of artificial at night (ALAN) exposes the world to continuously increasing levels and distribution of light pollution. Our understanding of the adverse effects of ALAN is based on observational or laboratory studies, and its effects are probably underestimated. Demonstration of direct experimental fitness consequences of ALAN is missing. We studied the effects of chronic light pollution at different wavelengths on fitness and stress hormone levels under semi-natural conditions in two closely related species: the nocturnal common spiny mouse ( Acomys cahirinus ) and the diurnal golden spiny mouse ( Acomys russatus ). Our results clearly demonstrate the adverse effects of ALAN exposure on fitness of both nocturnal and diurnal species, manifested by changes in cortisol levels and reproductive timing, reduced reproductive output and reduced survival, which differed between species and wavelengths. In A. russatus exposure to blue ALAN had the strongest effect on fitness, followed by white and yellow ALAN exposure. In A. cahirinus results are more complex and suggest it suffered from combined effect of ALAN and competition. Our research shows that light pollution presents a real threat to both nocturnal and diurnal species, affecting the species fitness directly and through its interspecific interactions. Worryingly, these effects are probably not specific to spiny mice. The clear adverse effects we documented, as well as the differences between wave lengths, contribute to our ability present science-based recommendations to decision makers regarding the use of artificial light at night. Such information and guidelines are highly important nowadays when lighting systems are being replaced to promote energy efficiency.