Experimental study on the performance and emission properties of variable compression ratio engine at different compression ratios

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Venkataramana, P.V. Subhanjaneyulu, P. Madhu Raghava, S.N. Pradeep Kumar Reddy This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-4640642/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This study experiments on a single-cylinder, four-stroke, variable compression ratio diesel engine by comparing the performance and emission properties of diesel and linseed biodiesel blends. The biodiesel blends were obtained using a volume basis of 10%,20%,30%, and 40% of the linseed biodiesel blends, respectively, for experimentation. The linseed biodiesel blends are compared to identify the optimum biodiesel blend under changing compression ratios from 13.5:1 to 16.5:1 with a speed of 1500 rpm. The outcomes show that a combination of 20% linseed biodiesel with 80% diesel gives maximum performance compared to all other blends. The blends exhibited increased mechanical efficiency and brake power. Blends LD10 to LD40 demonstrated 2.6% more excellent mechanical efficiency and 13.4% higher brake power than diesel at a 16.5:1 compression ratio. For the blends LD10 to LD40, the exhaust gas temperature was 54.7℃ lower than diesel. In addition, hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emissions were reduced by 47% in the maximum blend percentage, and compared to diesel emissions, carbon dioxide emissions were 38.3% greater. Compression ratio emission biodiesel blend diesel linseed oil Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 Figure 12 Figure 13 1. Introduction Given the significance of biofuels in our everyday exists and the necessity to stop eco-friendly degradation caused by fossil fuels, the society requires environmentally acceptable energy sources to replace significantly degraded energy sources such as biofuels and biodiesels [ 1 ]. We are producing biodiesel from animal facts, which is crucial to halting the rise in crude oil prices and protecting the environment. Approximately 5 percent of the world’s biodiesel consumption may be produced annually from animal facts [ 2 ]. Two kg of animal facts are used for every kilogram of harvested grain. Frequently, the facts are burned on-site to destroy it. Thus, biodiesel may be produced from leftover animal facts used as a clean energy source without harming the environment [ 3 ]. Regarding cellulose’s capacity to change into sugars, animal facts showed a range of exposure. After seven fermentation days, acidic behavior with ultrasound and enzyme therapy produced the highest biodiesel concentration [ 4 ]. Compared to residential generated gas, the domestic gas producer operation increased by 12.2% and 18.65 in brake thermal efficiency under optimal operating circumstances and a 70% load. Sayyed et al. [ 5 ] pure diesel and a combination of karanji oil in percentages from 10 to 50 were examined in a diesel engine running at a constant speed. The results show diesel with 20% Karanji oil had the best emission characteristics and engine performance. Hydrocarbon emissions dropped by 12.3%, and carbon monoxide emissions by 21.6%. An experiment was carried out using ester as a solvent to improve the stability of the ethanol/jatropha biodiesel combination. Including ethanol can reduce greenhouse gas emissions and specific fuel consumption values compared to jatropha biodiesel [ 6 ]. Using rice-straw and waste food preparation oil in a diesel engine achieved the highest mass output of 87.2%, and the weight of methyl ester was 93.4%. At the optimal settings, the converting world carbon monoxide’s highest conversion efficiency was 90.38% [ 7 ]. When using crude rice bran oil, a VCR diesel engine brake-specific fuel consumption drops by 12.7%, but its brake thermal efficiency rises by 13.8% [ 8 ]. Furthermore, cylinder pressure increased in conjunction with an increase in compression ratio. Bora et al. [ 9 ] studied the rice bran biodiesel using dual-fuel diesel engines powered by biogas; it was found that, under the same loading conditions, the most significant liquid fuel substitute for compression ratios of 18,17 and 16 is 79.45,76.8% and 77.3%, respectively. A four stroke engine was supplied with a blend of fuel and Undi biodiesel. The Undi biodiesel improvement resulted in improvements to the hydrocarbons, cylinder pressure, and BTE, but a reduction in the emission of pollution gases [ 10 ]. To test deviations in load and compression ratio, the test is run in the full load of operation using producer gas and karanji biodiesel blends at 05,50%, and 100%. Producer gas utilizes left-over biomass, such as vegetable waste [ 1 ], and cow dung, to increase energy production and waste management [ 11 ]. Biofuels have higher soot-forming potential, cetane number [ 12 ], density, flash point temperature, and lower CV than diesel [ 13 ]. Because of these properties, brake thermal efficiency, brake thermal efficiency, NOx, carbon monoxide, and HC levels are reduced. The primary source of energy usage by fuel type between 2020 and 2040 is shown in Table 1 . Emissions from consuming fossil fuels harm the surroundings and public health. Oil contributed to 22% of the increase in emissions, with fuel, coal, and natural gas contributing 36% each. World CO2 emissions from energy consumption are expected to rise by 32% by 2040. In 2040, global emissions will have almost doubled from 2020 levels. The cost of petroleum goods is rising, global environmental concerns are growing, and fossil diesel fuel is running out quickly [ 14 ]. These factors have prompted researchers to look for other sources of fuel that would allow diesel engines to produce cleaner combustion. Consequently, developing clean energy sources that are domestically accessible, suitable to the environment, and economically feasible has taken on worldwide significance. The Energy Policy Act of 2020 (United States) states that the use of energy management and cost-effective energy systems for lowering greenhouse gas emissions, fossil fuel use, and exhaust emissions are electricity, biofuel, and natural gas [ 15 ]. Biofuels with functional features similar to diesel fuel, including ethanol and biodiesel, are the most significant alternative fuel because of their environmentally beneficial behavior. Table 2 shows the properties linseed oil. Table 1 Global energy consumption by source [ 16 ] Sources 2020 2040* Energy consumption Share (%) Energy consumption Share (%) Oil 4543.4 33.35 5463.2 28.15 Natural gas 3285.3 23.39 5094.1 26.12 Coal 4103.5 29.63 5216.1 27.06 Nuclear 616.6 5.26 944.7 4.30 Hydropower 914.2 6.25 1369.5 7.60 Renewable 260.3 2.12 1229.8 6.77 Total 13723.3 100 19317.4 100 * Prediction Table 2 illustrates the properties of linseed oil [ 17 ] Parameter Value color Yellow Specific gravity 0.92 (g/cm 3 ) Acid value 3.5% Refractive index 1.479 Melting point 0 Iodine value 182 Saponification value 187 (KOH/g) This study aims to esterify linseed oil with a heterogeneous support substance to prepare biodiesel and evaluate its performance and emission properties. The linseed biodiesel blends are compared to identify the optimum biodiesel blend under changing compression ratios from 13.5:1 to 16.5:1 with a constant speed of 1500 rpm. Every experiment was conducted three times to confirm the reliability. 2. Preparation of Linseed oil-based biodiesel Even though the seeds are tiny, many are in every linseed plant. They have a hard outer layer and can withstand moderate humidity at atmospheric temperature Akbari et al. [ 18 ]. The seeds can be conserved long if kept in dry conditions and treated correctly. Linseed seeds contain cells with thin membranes and, in addition, have a high oil content in the endosperm. The seeds contain around 200 grams per kilogram of oil. The fatty acid content of linseed seed oil was measured using Uniphos fatty acid meter Xu et al. [ 19 ]. The fatty acid content analysis revealed that linseed oil has an elevated proportion of unsaturated fatty acids. The greatest mutual saturated and unsaturated fatty acids in linseed oil are linoleic and palmitic acids. As an outcome, the quantity of fatty acids in the linseed oil was used to determine its drying properties. The performance measurements like BTE and specific fuel consumption can be applied to check and validate the oil's sufficient claims Castresana et al. [ 20 ]. Linseeds were brought from central research institute and exposed to the sunlight for 36 hours to remove additional moisture. It was then processed in a grinder for milling in 10 minutes earlier exposed to an oil removal operation using Soxhlet equipment. After heating to 60 ℃, the vapour condensed into a liquid phase to fresh crushed linseed seeds in a container with a circular bottom. This technique is performed to extract linseed oil, with 5 minutes between each extraction to evaporate content at 80 ℃. The engine can run on LD 10, LD 20, LD 30, and LD 40 linseed oil-based biodiesel blends without modification because a blend with less than 20% biodiesel has the same potential as pure diesel. In this study, the formulated linseed oil-based biodiesel blends are represented as 10% biodiesel in 90% of diesel (LD10), 20% biodiesel in 80% of diesel (LD20), 30% biodiesel in 70% of diesel (LD30), and 40% biodiesel in 60% of diesel (LD40) Balaji Ramachandran et al. [ 21 ]. Figure 1 (a-c) depicts images of the linseed seed, linseed oil, and linseed oil-based biodiesel blend. In addition, linseed oil underwent a two-step transesterification procedure. To counterbalance the oil's naturally high acidity, it was heated to 60 ℃ earlier being blended with 250 ml of linseed oil. The magnetic stirrer keeps the blend at 60 ℃ and 300 rpm for six hours Soudagar et al. [ 22 ]. Maintaining a temperature of 100 ℃ in pre-treated oil decreases acid content and removes extra moisture. Under regular circumstances, the oil's triglyceride undergoes a transesterification process enhanced by NaOH to form fatty acid methyl ester. The American Society for Analyzing and Materials (ASM) developed the procedures for analyzing the oil's fuel properties and ester. After running the reaction mixture for 60 minutes, it was chilled and improved with glycerol to acid in the settle down process during the next 8 hours. Glycerol and biodiesel might separate, and this point is due to layer separation. Figure 2 shows the separation of biodiesel from glycerol. 2.1 Thermophysical properties The properties of linseed oil, diesel and linseed biodiesel blends is calculated by splitting their densities by an accepted standard. Use a Gay-Isaac specific gravity bottle to get a precise specific gravity. The procedure is as follows: empty the bottle before measuring the liquid. To enable any excess liquid to escape, replace the perforated bottle lid with linseed oil before weighing the contents. It is possible to calculate oil density by comparing the two weights. At 20 ℃, diesel and linseed oil had specific gravities of 0.938 g/cm 3 and 0.9172 g/cm 3 Bindra et al. [ 23 ]. However, at 20 ℃ the values increased to 0.879 g/cm 3 , 0.886 g/cm 3 , and 0.091 g/cm 3 , 0.921 g/cm 3 for the LD10, LD 20, LD 30, and LD 40 biodiesel bends. Kinematic viscosity measures a fluid's intrinsic viscosity in the presence of gravitational forces Asadi et al. [ 24 ]. The viscosity of a solution is determined using the brook field viscometer, which measures the energy required to revolve a shaft at a certain speed after it has been submerged in the oil. Consider the effort required to maintain this velocity as a measure of viscosity. At 20 ℃, diesel and linseed oil anticipated kinematic viscosities of 0.352 and 0.93 stokes, respectively. In the contest, the values for the LD10, LD 20, LD 30, and LD 40 biodiesel blends climbed to 0.358, 0.382,0.391, and 0.412 stokes, respectively. Figure 3 depicts the flash and fire points of diesel, linseed oil mixtures, and LD10, LD20, LD30, and LD 40 biodiesels. Table 3 shows the thermophysical properties of diesel, linseed oil and biodiesel blends. Table 3 Thermophysical properties of diesel, linseed oil and biodiesel blends [ 25 ] Property Units Diesel Linseed oil Biodiesel Blends LD 10 LD 20 LD 30 LD 40 Flash point ℃ 56.7 162.4 57.3 62.5 76.8 89.8 Fire point ℃ 60.7 179.8 66.2 62.9 82.5 96.3 Water content Mg/kg 8.684 218.65 42.6 68.79 79.24 88.54 pH 6 6.5 5.9 5.7 5.5 5.4 Cloud point ℃ -12 - -3 -5 -8 -11 Pour point ℃ -26 - -16 -21 -24 -25 The Cleveland flash/fire point device was used to find the flash point of diesel and linseed oil, which were found to be 57.7 ℃ and 159.2 ℃, is shown in Fig. 3 . The biodiesel blends LD10, LD 20, LD 30, and LD 40 resulted in enhanced temperatures of 57.3℃, 62.5℃,76.8℃ and 89.8℃. Biodiesel has a much higher flash point than regular diesel Kaushik et al. [ 26 ]. The diesel and linseed oil fire points were 60.7℃ and 179.8℃, respectively. The blends of LD10, LD 20, LD 30, and LD 40 biodiesel increase to 66.2 ℃,62℃.9,82.5℃, and 96.3℃. In the measured experimental circumstances, the estimated thermophysical characteristics of biodiesel blends are much higher than those of diesel and linseed oil Balaji Ramachandran et al. [ 21 ]. This is because biodiesel molecules contain longer carbon chains and polar ester functional groups, which produce greater dispersion forces. The temperature may affect the viscosity of the oil. The higher concentration of fatty acids in biodiesel contributes to is high viscosity when compared to biodiesel Ramirez-Khethiwe et al. [ 27 ]. However, blends of biodiesel based on linseed oil still have a greater viscosity than petroleum diesel. It is important to remember that the biodiesel has a significantly lower viscosity than the vegetable oil from which it was prepared. 2.2 Description of Gas analyzer A gas analyzer model named as arivisor (AVG-500) was used to analyze the emissions of a VCR engine. The analyzer was connected to the engine’s exhaust pipe. Figure 4 shows pictorial view of the exhaust gas analyzer (EGA), and Table 4 shows its specifications. Table 4 Specifications of AVG 500 gas analyzer [ 28 ] Parameter Value Dimensions 294 mm x 430 mm x 260 mm Weight 9 kg EGT 25℃ Power 230 volts Frequency 50 Hz Measurement range up to CO 10% vol. CO 2 20% vol. UHC 2000 ppm Warmup period 10 minutes 3. Experimental setup Figure 5 (a-b) shows the engine's experimental setup and Pictorial view of a single-cylinder, 4-stroke VCR engine positioned vertically with variable compression ratios and eddy current dynamometer loading. It rotates at a steady 1500 rpm. The engine setup includes equipment for measuring operating data such as flow rates of air/fuel, crank angle, temperatures, cylinder pressure, and load. The data-gathering system communicates via signals directly with the computer and the various measuring instruments. Throughout the research, the engine was running with various compression ratios, and a speed controller was used to maintain its operation even when the fuel supply varied. Throughout the experiment, water from the storage tank was used to ensure a constant mass flow rate for cooling. The engine's exhaust and suction sides were fitted with analyzer and air induction boxes. Finally, a dynamometer was attached to the engine's output shaft to provide an electric load. 3.1 Uncertainty analysis The discrepancy between the measured and actual values is called an error. Testing under various situations changes random errors, but structural errors remain the same. Ghahari et al. [ 29 ] also proposed a systematic approach to quantifying uncertainty in experimental research. The study’s independent parameters are all equally distributed, allowing the measurement uncertainties to be calculated based on the accuracy and calibrating qualities of the device. The factors, such as the environment and the standardization of research tools and apparatus, might contribute to experimentation errors. To ensure the experiments accuracy, an uncertainty analysis must be performed. The evaluation process is as outlined by Usta et al. [ 30 ]. Using the author’s approach, the uncertainty for the entire experiment was arbitrated to be ± 0.26%. Table 5 shows the uncertainty limits for the VCR engine configurations. Table 5 Summary of uncertainty values Emission parameter Accuracy(%) Uncertainty (%) Nox ± 14 ppm ± 0.2 CO ± 0.01% vol. ± 0.1 HC ± 11 ppm ± 0.1 CO 2 ± 0.5% vol. ± 0.12 3.2 Regression analysis Microsoft Excel software develops mathematical models and related statistical regression analysis. With this model, linear equations for the fuel exhaust emission features and combustion characteristics of different biodiesel blends are developed. These equations may be used for changes in blend proportion and compression ratio made up of mineral diesel. For the statistical evaluation and to predict the limitations for any specified compression ratio and blend percentage to enhance the attributes of the sample blends utilized, the generated linear equations and the corresponding regression coefficient may be employed successfully. A few other scholars have also attempted to develop models for biodiesel blends. Exhaust gas analysis was done using the AVG-500 gas analyzer, shown under technical characteristics in Table 6 . Table 6 Measuring ranges of gas analyzer [ 26 ] Measuring range Value NOx (ppm) 0 -500 CO (% vol.) 0–10 HC (ppm) 0-20000 CO 2 (% vol.) 0–20 SO 2 (ppm) 0-500 4. Results and discussions The engine has the following specifications: a bore of 87.5 mm diameter, a speed of 1500 rpm, a stroke of 110 mm, a rated power of 3.5 KW. During the experiments, the dynamometer affected the engine's speed and torque Menon et al. [ 31 ]. Furthermore, the water-cooling system, which powers electronic equipment like gas analyzers and smoke alarms, was linked to the energy generated by the eddy current dynamometer. To ensure accuracy, each experimental probe was repeated three times. An engine's performance was measured by studying the specific fuel consumption, air/fuel ratio, and brake thermal efficiency. However, the engine's emission profile comprised exhaust gas, nitrous oxide, carbon dioxide, unburned hydrocarbons, and carbon monoxide. Total fuel consumption \(\left(\text{T}\text{F}\text{C}\right)=\frac{\left(\text{q} \text{x} \text{f}\text{u}\text{e}\text{l} \text{d}\text{e}\text{n}\text{s}\text{i}\text{t}\text{y} \text{x} 3600\right)}{\text{t}\text{i}\text{m}\text{e}}\) (1) Brake power \(\left(\text{B}\text{P}\right)=\left(\frac{\text{V} \text{x} \text{I} \text{x} \text{p}\text{o}\text{w}\text{e}\text{r} \text{f}\text{a}\text{c}\text{t}\text{o}\text{r}}{1000}\right) \text{x} \text{g}\text{e}\text{n}\text{e}\text{r}\text{a}\text{t}\text{o}\text{r} \text{e}\text{f}\text{f}\text{i}\text{c}\text{i}\text{e}\text{n}\text{c}\text{y}\) (2) $$\text{B}\text{r}\text{a}\text{k}\text{e} \text{t}\text{h}\text{e}\text{r}\text{m}\text{a}\text{l} \text{e}\text{f}\text{f}\text{i}\text{c}\text{i}\text{e}\text{n}\text{c}\text{y} \left(\text{B}\text{T}\text{E}\right)=\frac{\left(\text{b}\text{r}\text{a}\text{k}\text{e} \text{p}\text{o}\text{w}\text{e}\text{r} \text{x} 100\right)}{\left(\text{t}\text{o}\text{t}\text{a}\text{l} \text{f}\text{u}\text{e}\text{l} \text{c}\text{o}\text{n}\text{s}\text{u}\text{m}\text{p}\text{t}\text{i}\text{o}\text{n} \text{x} \text{c}\text{a}\text{l}\text{o}\text{r}\text{i}\text{f}\text{i}\text{c} \text{v}\text{a}\text{l}\text{v}\text{e}\right)}$$ 3 Specific fuel consumption \(\left(\text{S}\text{F}\text{C}\right)=\frac{\text{t}\text{o}\text{t}\text{a}\text{l} \text{f}\text{u}\text{e}\text{l} \text{c}\text{o}\text{n}\text{s}\text{u}\text{m}\text{p}\text{t}\text{i}\text{o}\text{n}}{ \text{p}\text{o}\text{w}\text{e}\text{r}}\) (4) 4.1 Brake power Figure 6 displays the BP with the difference in compression ratio for different evaluated linseed biodiesel blends. The outcomes showed that BP increased as the compression ratio increased. Blend LD40 was found to have highest brake power (0.994 KW) at lower compression ratio of 13:5.1. In comparison, the exact blend also yielded the highest brake power (1.283 KW) with a compression ratio of 16.5:1. LD40 outperformed other fuel blends in performance, outperforming diesel by 1.58% at a compression ratio of 16.5:1. When the compression ratio increases at fixed loading, the brake power also increases dramatically. The other blend exhibited superior BP associated with diesel at various CRs. While working on palm biodiesel, Rosha et al. [ 32 ] also observed increased brake power per concentration in the biodiesel blend. Improvements in the air-fuel ratio mixture improved atomization-spraying properties, and appropriate fuel combustion due to preheating might cause the same. Another factor can be the LD40 blend’s higher density compared to diesel. Engine brake power increases when a denser fuel-air combination enters the cylinder [ 33 ]. 4.2 Mechanical efficiency Figure 7 displays the mechanical efficiency of different linseed biodiesel blends at various CRs. It was observed that the linseed biodiesel blend's total mechanical efficiency increased as the compression ratio increased, indicating a direct relationship between the variance in compression ratio and the variation in mechanical efficiency of the linseed biodiesel. At a compression ratio of 13.5:1, ME was found to be 17.4%,19.9%,20.6%, and 21.7% for LD10, LD20, LD30, and LD40, respectively. The results for LD10, LD20, LD30, and LD40 showed that, with a higher compression ratio of 16.5:1, the percentages were 28.4%,29.6%,30.5%, and 31.7%, respectively. For diesel, the mechanical efficiency was 17.6% and 21.3% at 13.5:1 and 16.5:1 compression ratios. The blend LD40 had a mechanical efficiency of 31.6% for CR16.5:1. Moreover, it was 10.3% more than the diesel, which was usually used. In the case of Karnaja biodiesel blends, our research aligns with the findings of Lee et al. [ 34 ], who also observed an increase in mechanical efficiency with the growth in blend proportion at a higher compression ratio. This observation is intriguing as it suggests that the fuel utilized for burning, which contains methyl esters, maybe the critical factor contributing to the superior lubricating qualities of blended biodiesel. This novel insight adds to the growing knowledge of alternative fuels and engine performance. 4.3 Specific fuel consumption For every tested linseed biodiesel blend, the SFC gradually decreased as the CR increased from 13.5:1 to 16.5:1, and a similar pattern was also seen for diesel. The SFC was determined to be 1.23 (LD10),1.62 (LD20),1.69 (LD30), and 1.70 (LD40) kg/KW-s at a CR of 13.5:1. It was lesser at 1.21 (LD10), 1.33 (LD20), 1.52 (LD30), and 1.66 (LD40) at CR of 16.5:1. It was clear that the fuel’s SFC improved in conjunction with the blend percentage. Compared to diesel, the blend LD 40 had the maximum SFC at a CR of 16.5:1, which was 19.6% higher. This might be because, compared to diesel, the linseed biodiesel blends have a higher methyl ester content, resulting in a lower heat content value of LD40. Warkhade al. [ 35 ] observed similar findings in their study on biodiesel made from used cooking oil. Figure 8 shows the change in the SFC variation of linseed biodiesel blends at various CRs. 4.4 Exhaust gas temperature Figure 9 displays EGT values for various linseed biodiesel blends. When the CR was increased from 13.5:1 to 16.5:1, the findings demonstrated that the EGT was lower for all the blends than the EGT of diesel. However, the LD10 blend’s EGT values were almost identical to diesel’s, tested at 197.6℃ at the lower CR and 286.5℃ at the higher CR. Of all the blends examined, the LD40 blend had the lowest EGT. The lowest and greatest measured compression ratios were 132.1℃ and 220.7℃, respectively. The EGT was 67.6℃ lower for the highest blend, LD40, than diesel for various CRs. The biodiesel has a lower temperature relative to the linseed biodiesel, which may cause the decreased EGT observed for the linseed biodiesel blends [ 36 ]. 4.5 Carbon monoxide emission Figure 10 shows the exhaust pattern of linseed biodiesel blends at different CRs. The results show that the CO emissions for blends LD10, LD20, LD30, and LD40 are 0.05%,0.06%,0.06%, and 0.07% at a CR of 13.5:1. Furthermore, it was shown that CO emissions were much lower with an increase in CR. In that order, blends LD10, LD20, LD30, and LD40 were 0.06%,0.05%,0.4%, and 0.2%. Compared to diesel, this proportion was much lower. At different CRs, the CO emission of other blends was also lower than diesel's. All linseed biodiesel blends emit less Co gas because the preheating procedure enhances fuel vaporization and spray properties [ 37 ]. The investigation's findings made it abundantly clear that a higher blend proportion of biodiesel produces reduced emissions of harmful CO [ 38 ]. Dubey and Gupta et al. [ 39 ] observed reduced CO emissions when using a single-cylinder diesel engine to examine Jatropha and turpentine biodiesel at a steady state. Dubey and Gupta et al. [ 40 ] also observed similar outcomes when Jatropha biodiesel blends were used in a diesel engine. 4.6 Carbon dioxide emission Figure 11 shows the pattern of CO2 emission of linseed biodiesel blends at varying CR. As CR increases, all blends release more CO2 than diesel. For all linseed biodiesel blends, the CO2emissions were found to be reduced by 1.23%,1.36%,1.57%, and 1.8%, with CR of 13.5:1, for blends LD10, LD20, LD30, and LD40. However, when the compression ratio increased, the emissions values correspondingly increased. For blends LD10, LD20, LD30, and LD40, it was found to be 1.6%,1.7%,1.9%, and 2.2% at a higher CR of 16.5:1. diesel has 0.67% with a lower CR of 13.5:1, while 1.3% was reported at a higher CR of 16.5:1. The CO2 emissions were 42.85% lower than those of the blend with the highest percentage of biodiesel. Because the linseed biodiesel blends have a higher oxygen concentration, more air fuel may be burning inside the cylinder, which might account for the higher CO2 emissions. Dubey and Gupta et al. [ 41 ] studied the Jatropha and turpentine dual biodiesel mixes in a CI engine and reported similar results for other biodiesel blends. 4.7 Hydrocarbon emission Figure 12 displays the pattern of hydrocarbon emission for several biodiesel blends at varying CR. For stable load conditions, the HC emissions of all the linseed biodiesel blends were lower than those of diesel at all CRs. Diesel had the highest observed HC emissions at the lowest CR of 13.5:1. However, HC emissions decreased when CR increased and were only found at 27 ppm for diesel. Compared to the diesel, the linseed biodiesel blends exhibited reduced hydrocarbon emissions. In addition, at all CRs, it was discovered that the blend percentage with the greatest LD40 had the lowest HC emission. In addition, at all CRs, the HC emissions of the other blends were lesser than those of diesel. The increased temperature within the engine cylinder caused by the rise in CR may cause a reduction in HC emissions. Diesel and LD10 blends had 27% and 295 emissions, respectively. Furthermore, at a CR 16.5:1, the DC emissions of the blends LD20, LD30, and LD40 were 19%,17%, and 13% respectively. Nalgundwar et al. [ 42 ] examined Jatropha biodiesel blends on diesel engine and found that biodiesel produced less HC emissions than diesel. 4.8 Nitrogen oxide emission The EGT, the duration of the fuel reaction, and the fuel’s oxygen content all affect the amount of NOx that forms. The NOx production reductions for all evaluated fuels with increased compression ratio are shown in Fig. 13 . However, at full load, they significantly dropped. Compared to full-load diesel, the NOx emissions for LD10, LD20, LD30, and LD40 were 12.3%,16.4%,19.6%, and 29.4% higher, respectively. An extended biodiesel ignition delay improves premixed combustion by enabling more fuel to be injected before ignition. This may potentially contribute to elevated NOx levels, as reduced heat release is another factor contributing to elevated NOx [ 43 ]. Conclusions The following conclusions were reached during an experiment using a conventional diesel engine run on pure diesel and different mixes of linseed biodiesel without any engine modifications. Blend LD40 was found to have highest brake power (0.994 KW) at lower compression ratio of 13:5.1. LD40 outperformed other fuel blends in performance, outperforming diesel by 1.58% at a compression ratio of 16.5:1. When the compression ratio increases at fixed loading, the brake power also increases dramatically. At a compression ratio of 13.5:1, mechanical efficiency was found to be 17.4%,19.9%,20.6%, and 21.7% for LD10, LD20, LD30, and LD40 and with a higher compression ratio of 16.5:1, the percentages were 28.4%,29.6%,30.5%, and 31.7%. For every tested linseed biodiesel blend, the SFC gradually decreased as the CR increased from 13.5:1 to 16.5:1. Compared to diesel, the blend LD 40 had the maximum SFC at a CR of 16.5:1, which was 19.6% higher. The CO emissions for blends LD10, LD20, LD30, and LD40 are 0.05%,0.06%,0.06%, and 0.07% at a CR of 13.5:1. It was shown that CO emissions were much lower with an increase in CR. The hydrocarbon emissions of all the linseed biodiesel blends were lower than those of diesel at all CRs. Diesel had the highest observed HC emissions at the lowest CR of 13.5:1. Abbreviations BP brake power BTE brake thermal efficiency CO carbon monoxide CO 2 carbon dioxide CR compression ration CV calorific valve HC hydrocarbons LD linseed biodiesel VCR variable compression ratio Declarations The authors declare (s) that no funds and grants received during the preparation of this manuscript Acknowledgements The authors would like to credit the Department of Mechanical Engineering at Sri Venkateswara College of Engineering and Technology, Chittoor, Andhra Pradesh, India, for testing services and facilities used in this study. Conflict of interest There is no conflict of interest Author (s) contribution The author (s) confirm contribution to the manuscript as follows: concept study, material preparation, and data collection were done by P. Venkataramana, analysis and interpretation of results were performed by P.V. Subhanjaneyulu, the draft of the paper was written by P. Madhu Raghava and study supervision, S.N Pradeep Kumar Reddy did grammatical checking. References Mohapatra T, Mishra S, Sudhansu S, Sahoo S, Aliashim Albani M, Mohamed A (2023) Performance,emissions, and economic evaluation of a VCRCI engine using a bio-ethanol and diesel fuelcombination with Al 2 O 3 nanoparticles. CaseStudies in Thermal Engineering. Azadbakht M, Safieddin Ardebili S, Rahmani M (2023) A study on biodiesel production using agricultural wastes and animal fats. 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Renewable Energy. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2017.09.055 . 115,1294 – 302 Nalgundwar A, Paul B, Sharma SK (2016) Comparison of performance and emissions characteristics of DI CI engine fueled with dual biodiesel blends of palm and jatropha. Fuel 173:172–179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2016.01.022 Hoekman SK, Robbins C (2012) Review of the effects of biodiesel on NOx emissions. Fuel Processing Technology 96:237 – 49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2011.12.036 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-4640642","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":329508486,"identity":"f78360fd-b539-464c-a091-711f6582e109","order_by":0,"name":"P. 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Experimental setup (b). Pictorial view of a VCR engine\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4640642/v1/2d1f8494969319d4db91ff91.jpg"},{"id":60838731,"identity":"9d3c1b5f-d1d1-497b-a150-dcc1e94d7d4b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-07-22 16:41:21","extension":"jpg","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":19956,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eVariation of BP vs. compression ratio\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4640642/v1/e1dfb6c80947afebea958f0f.jpg"},{"id":60838724,"identity":"8a08d8be-8200-4746-8af3-343c4616feda","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-07-22 16:41:21","extension":"jpg","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":21615,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eVariation of ME vs. compression ratio\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"7.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4640642/v1/97203360a5368e5d5010b607.jpg"},{"id":60839095,"identity":"d2ae9140-edd3-4245-8654-1a892f659dec","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-07-22 16:49:21","extension":"jpg","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":21794,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eVariation of SFC vs. compression ratio\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"8.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4640642/v1/06f5a803108366b15b4bceb6.jpg"},{"id":60838728,"identity":"82d4b2fb-efd9-4fab-a41f-e516e35044d5","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-07-22 16:41:21","extension":"jpg","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":22748,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eVariation of EGT vs. compression ratio\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"9.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4640642/v1/fe296d94d11ef9c824a4fb81.jpg"},{"id":60839098,"identity":"c1aeb1c2-5547-4273-8bc0-d07cc7b057a1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-07-22 16:49:22","extension":"jpg","order_by":10,"title":"Figure 10","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":21736,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eVariation of CO emissions vs. compression ratio\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"10.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4640642/v1/7477b274ed2215d680114202.jpg"},{"id":60839958,"identity":"17ab6589-16d9-4c97-bba1-b69d8644c1a3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-07-22 17:05:21","extension":"jpg","order_by":11,"title":"Figure 11","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":21518,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eVariation of CO\u003c/strong\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e emissions vs. compression ratio\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"11.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4640642/v1/1416ec6ff233da376f0e2235.jpg"},{"id":60838730,"identity":"ce246f91-3be5-4f06-93c7-da08d04ddeb6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-07-22 16:41:21","extension":"jpg","order_by":12,"title":"Figure 12","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":22635,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eVariation of HC emissions vs. compression ratio\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"12.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4640642/v1/3e412161382b11787d75e1f1.jpg"},{"id":60839097,"identity":"4d3f5e2d-c53f-4e3d-9fae-c8e8c59cb46e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-07-22 16:49:21","extension":"jpg","order_by":13,"title":"Figure 13","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":22706,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eVariation of NOx emissions vs. compression ratio\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"13.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4640642/v1/eabe88c272cfe701f8337f37.jpg"},{"id":63274950,"identity":"3bad125b-50ee-4762-8262-7ce580be6779","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-26 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Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eGiven the significance of biofuels in our everyday exists and the necessity to stop eco-friendly degradation caused by fossil fuels, the society requires environmentally acceptable energy sources to replace significantly degraded energy sources such as biofuels and biodiesels [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. We are producing biodiesel from animal facts, which is crucial to halting the rise in crude oil prices and protecting the environment. Approximately 5 percent of the world\u0026rsquo;s biodiesel consumption may be produced annually from animal facts [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. Two kg of animal facts are used for every kilogram of harvested grain. Frequently, the facts are burned on-site to destroy it. Thus, biodiesel may be produced from leftover animal facts used as a clean energy source without harming the environment [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegarding cellulose\u0026rsquo;s capacity to change into sugars, animal facts showed a range of exposure. After seven fermentation days, acidic behavior with ultrasound and enzyme therapy produced the highest biodiesel concentration [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. Compared to residential generated gas, the domestic gas producer operation increased by 12.2% and 18.65 in brake thermal efficiency under optimal operating circumstances and a 70% load. Sayyed et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e] pure diesel and a combination of karanji oil in percentages from 10 to 50 were examined in a diesel engine running at a constant speed. The results show diesel with 20% Karanji oil had the best emission characteristics and engine performance. Hydrocarbon emissions dropped by 12.3%, and carbon monoxide emissions by 21.6%.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAn experiment was carried out using ester as a solvent to improve the stability of the ethanol/jatropha biodiesel combination. Including ethanol can reduce greenhouse gas emissions and specific fuel consumption values compared to jatropha biodiesel [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. Using rice-straw and waste food preparation oil in a diesel engine achieved the highest mass output of 87.2%, and the weight of methyl ester was 93.4%. At the optimal settings, the converting world carbon monoxide\u0026rsquo;s highest conversion efficiency was 90.38% [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. When using crude rice bran oil, a VCR diesel engine brake-specific fuel consumption drops by 12.7%, but its brake thermal efficiency rises by 13.8% [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. Furthermore, cylinder pressure increased in conjunction with an increase in compression ratio.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBora et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e] studied the rice bran biodiesel using dual-fuel diesel engines powered by biogas; it was found that, under the same loading conditions, the most significant liquid fuel substitute for compression ratios of 18,17 and 16 is 79.45,76.8% and 77.3%, respectively. A four stroke engine was supplied with a blend of fuel and Undi biodiesel. The Undi biodiesel improvement resulted in improvements to the hydrocarbons, cylinder pressure, and BTE, but a reduction in the emission of pollution gases [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. To test deviations in load and compression ratio, the test is run in the full load of operation using producer gas and karanji biodiesel blends at 05,50%, and 100%. Producer gas utilizes left-over biomass, such as vegetable waste [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e], and cow dung, to increase energy production and waste management [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. Biofuels have higher soot-forming potential, cetane number [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e], density, flash point temperature, and lower CV than diesel [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. Because of these properties, brake thermal efficiency, brake thermal efficiency, NOx, carbon monoxide, and HC levels are reduced.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe primary source of energy usage by fuel type between 2020 and 2040 is shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. Emissions from consuming fossil fuels harm the surroundings and public health. Oil contributed to 22% of the increase in emissions, with fuel, coal, and natural gas contributing 36% each. World CO2 emissions from energy consumption are expected to rise by 32% by 2040. In 2040, global emissions will have almost doubled from 2020 levels. The cost of petroleum goods is rising, global environmental concerns are growing, and fossil diesel fuel is running out quickly [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. These factors have prompted researchers to look for other sources of fuel that would allow diesel engines to produce cleaner combustion.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eConsequently, developing clean energy sources that are domestically accessible, suitable to the environment, and economically feasible has taken on worldwide significance. The Energy Policy Act of 2020 (United States) states that the use of energy management and cost-effective energy systems for lowering greenhouse gas emissions, fossil fuel use, and exhaust emissions are electricity, biofuel, and natural gas [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e]. Biofuels with functional features similar to diesel fuel, including ethanol and biodiesel, are the most significant alternative fuel because of their environmentally beneficial behavior. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e shows the properties linseed oil.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGlobal energy consumption by source [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSources\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2020\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2040*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnergy consumption\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eShare (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnergy consumption\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eShare (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOil\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4543.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33.35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5463.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNatural gas\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3285.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5094.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4103.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29.63\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5216.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNuclear\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e616.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e944.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHydropower\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e914.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1369.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRenewable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e260.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1229.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.77\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13723.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19317.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"5\"\u003e* Prediction\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eillustrates the properties of linseed oil [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParameter\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eValue\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ecolor\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYellow\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecific gravity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.92 (g/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcid value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.5%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRefractive index\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.479\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMelting point\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIodine value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e182\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSaponification value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e187 (KOH/g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study aims to esterify linseed oil with a heterogeneous support substance to prepare biodiesel and evaluate its performance and emission properties. The linseed biodiesel blends are compared to identify the optimum biodiesel blend under changing compression ratios from 13.5:1 to 16.5:1 with a constant speed of 1500 rpm. Every experiment was conducted three times to confirm the reliability.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Preparation of Linseed oil-based biodiesel","content":"\u003cp\u003eEven though the seeds are tiny, many are in every linseed plant. They have a hard outer layer and can withstand moderate humidity at atmospheric temperature Akbari et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e]. The seeds can be conserved long if kept in dry conditions and treated correctly. Linseed seeds contain cells with thin membranes and, in addition, have a high oil content in the endosperm. The seeds contain around 200 grams per kilogram of oil.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe fatty acid content of linseed seed oil was measured using Uniphos fatty acid meter Xu et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. The fatty acid content analysis revealed that linseed oil has an elevated proportion of unsaturated fatty acids. The greatest mutual saturated and unsaturated fatty acids in linseed oil are linoleic and palmitic acids. As an outcome, the quantity of fatty acids in the linseed oil was used to determine its drying properties. The performance measurements like BTE and specific fuel consumption can be applied to check and validate the oil's sufficient claims Castresana et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]. Linseeds were brought from central research institute and exposed to the sunlight for 36 hours to remove additional moisture.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt was then processed in a grinder for milling in 10 minutes earlier exposed to an oil removal operation using Soxhlet equipment. After heating to 60 ℃, the vapour condensed into a liquid phase to fresh crushed linseed seeds in a container with a circular bottom. This technique is performed to extract linseed oil, with 5 minutes between each extraction to evaporate content at 80 ℃. The engine can run on LD 10, LD 20, LD 30, and LD 40 linseed oil-based biodiesel blends without modification because a blend with less than 20% biodiesel has the same potential as pure diesel. In this study, the formulated linseed oil-based biodiesel blends are represented as 10% biodiesel in 90% of diesel (LD10), 20% biodiesel in 80% of diesel (LD20), 30% biodiesel in 70% of diesel (LD30), and 40% biodiesel in 60% of diesel (LD40) Balaji Ramachandran et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e]. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e (a-c) depicts images of the linseed seed, linseed oil, and linseed oil-based biodiesel blend.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition, linseed oil underwent a two-step transesterification procedure. To counterbalance the oil's naturally high acidity, it was heated to 60 ℃ earlier being blended with 250 ml of linseed oil. The magnetic stirrer keeps the blend at 60 ℃ and 300 rpm for six hours Soudagar et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. Maintaining a temperature of 100 ℃ in pre-treated oil decreases acid content and removes extra moisture. Under regular circumstances, the oil's triglyceride undergoes a transesterification process enhanced by NaOH to form fatty acid methyl ester. The American Society for Analyzing and Materials (ASM) developed the procedures for analyzing the oil's fuel properties and ester. After running the reaction mixture for 60 minutes, it was chilled and improved with glycerol to acid in the settle down process during the next 8 hours. Glycerol and biodiesel might separate, and this point is due to layer separation. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e shows the separation of biodiesel from glycerol.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Thermophysical properties\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe properties of linseed oil, diesel and linseed biodiesel blends is calculated by splitting their densities by an accepted standard. Use a Gay-Isaac specific gravity bottle to get a precise specific gravity. The procedure is as follows: empty the bottle before measuring the liquid. To enable any excess liquid to escape, replace the perforated bottle lid with linseed oil before weighing the contents. It is possible to calculate oil density by comparing the two weights. At 20 ℃, diesel and linseed oil had specific gravities of 0.938 g/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e and 0.9172 g/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e Bindra et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, at 20 ℃ the values increased to 0.879 g/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e, 0.886 g/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e, and 0.091 g/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e, 0.921 g/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e for the LD10, LD 20, LD 30, and LD 40 biodiesel bends. Kinematic viscosity measures a fluid's intrinsic viscosity in the presence of gravitational forces Asadi et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. The viscosity of a solution is determined using the brook field viscometer, which measures the energy required to revolve a shaft at a certain speed after it has been submerged in the oil. Consider the effort required to maintain this velocity as a measure of viscosity. At 20 ℃, diesel and linseed oil anticipated kinematic viscosities of 0.352 and 0.93 stokes, respectively. In the contest, the values for the LD10, LD 20, LD 30, and LD 40 biodiesel blends climbed to 0.358, 0.382,0.391, and 0.412 stokes, respectively. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e depicts the flash and fire points of diesel, linseed oil mixtures, and LD10, LD20, LD30, and LD 40 biodiesels. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e shows the thermophysical properties of diesel, linseed oil and biodiesel blends.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThermophysical properties of diesel, linseed oil and biodiesel blends [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProperty\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnits\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDiesel\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLinseed oil\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBiodiesel Blends\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLD 10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLD 20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLD 30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLD 40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFlash point\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e℃\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e56.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e162.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e57.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e89.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFire point\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e℃\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e179.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e66.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e82.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e96.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWater content\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMg/kg\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.684\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e218.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e68.79\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e79.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e88.54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003epH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCloud point\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e℃\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePour point\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e℃\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Cleveland flash/fire point device was used to find the flash point of diesel and linseed oil, which were found to be 57.7 ℃ and 159.2 ℃, is shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e. The biodiesel blends LD10, LD 20, LD 30, and LD 40 resulted in enhanced temperatures of 57.3℃, 62.5℃,76.8℃ and 89.8℃. Biodiesel has a much higher flash point than regular diesel Kaushik et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e]. The diesel and linseed oil fire points were 60.7℃ and 179.8℃, respectively. The blends of LD10, LD 20, LD 30, and LD 40 biodiesel increase to 66.2 ℃,62℃.9,82.5℃, and 96.3℃. In the measured experimental circumstances, the estimated thermophysical characteristics of biodiesel blends are much higher than those of diesel and linseed oil Balaji Ramachandran et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e]. This is because biodiesel molecules contain longer carbon chains and polar ester functional groups, which produce greater dispersion forces. The temperature may affect the viscosity of the oil. The higher concentration of fatty acids in biodiesel contributes to is high viscosity when compared to biodiesel Ramirez-Khethiwe et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]. However, blends of biodiesel based on linseed oil still have a greater viscosity than petroleum diesel. It is important to remember that the biodiesel has a significantly lower viscosity than the vegetable oil from which it was prepared.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2 Description of Gas analyzer\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA gas analyzer model named as arivisor (AVG-500) was used to analyze the emissions of a VCR engine. The analyzer was connected to the engine\u0026rsquo;s exhaust pipe. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e shows pictorial view of the exhaust gas analyzer (EGA), and Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e shows its specifications.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecifications of AVG 500 gas analyzer [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParameter\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eValue\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDimensions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e294 mm x 430 mm x 260 mm\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWeight\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9 kg\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEGT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25℃\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePower\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e230 volts\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrequency\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50 Hz\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMeasurement range up to\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCO 10% vol.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e 20% vol.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUHC 2000 ppm\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWarmup period\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10 minutes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Experimental setup","content":"\u003cp\u003eFigure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e (a-b) shows the engine's experimental setup and Pictorial view of a single-cylinder, 4-stroke VCR engine positioned vertically with variable compression ratios and eddy current dynamometer loading. It rotates at a steady 1500 rpm. The engine setup includes equipment for measuring operating data such as flow rates of air/fuel, crank angle, temperatures, cylinder pressure, and load. The data-gathering system communicates via signals directly with the computer and the various measuring instruments.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThroughout the research, the engine was running with various compression ratios, and a speed controller was used to maintain its operation even when the fuel supply varied. Throughout the experiment, water from the storage tank was used to ensure a constant mass flow rate for cooling. The engine's exhaust and suction sides were fitted with analyzer and air induction boxes. Finally, a dynamometer was attached to the engine's output shaft to provide an electric load.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1 Uncertainty analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe discrepancy between the measured and actual values is called an error. Testing under various situations changes random errors, but structural errors remain the same. Ghahari et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e] also proposed a systematic approach to quantifying uncertainty in experimental research. The study\u0026rsquo;s independent parameters are all equally distributed, allowing the measurement uncertainties to be calculated based on the accuracy and calibrating qualities of the device. The factors, such as the environment and the standardization of research tools and apparatus, might contribute to experimentation errors. To ensure the experiments accuracy, an uncertainty analysis must be performed. The evaluation process is as outlined by Usta et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e]. Using the author\u0026rsquo;s approach, the uncertainty for the entire experiment was arbitrated to be \u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.26%. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e shows the uncertainty limits for the VCR engine configurations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSummary of uncertainty values\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmission parameter\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccuracy(%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUncertainty (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNox\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;14 ppm\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCO\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01% vol.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11 ppm\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.5% vol.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2 Regression analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMicrosoft Excel software develops mathematical models and related statistical regression analysis. With this model, linear equations for the fuel exhaust emission features and combustion characteristics of different biodiesel blends are developed. These equations may be used for changes in blend proportion and compression ratio made up of mineral diesel. For the statistical evaluation and to predict the limitations for any specified compression ratio and blend percentage to enhance the attributes of the sample blends utilized, the generated linear equations and the corresponding regression coefficient may be employed successfully. A few other scholars have also attempted to develop models for biodiesel blends. Exhaust gas analysis was done using the AVG-500 gas analyzer, shown under technical characteristics in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 6\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMeasuring ranges of gas analyzer [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMeasuring range\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eValue\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNOx (ppm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0 -500\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCO (% vol.)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHC (ppm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0-20000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e (% vol.)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e (ppm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0-500\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Results and discussions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe engine has the following specifications: a bore of 87.5 mm diameter, a speed of 1500 rpm, a stroke of 110 mm, a rated power of 3.5 KW. During the experiments, the dynamometer affected the engine's speed and torque Menon et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e]. Furthermore, the water-cooling system, which powers electronic equipment like gas analyzers and smoke alarms, was linked to the energy generated by the eddy current dynamometer. To ensure accuracy, each experimental probe was repeated three times. An engine's performance was measured by studying the specific fuel consumption, air/fuel ratio, and brake thermal efficiency. However, the engine's emission profile comprised exhaust gas, nitrous oxide, carbon dioxide, unburned hydrocarbons, and carbon monoxide.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal fuel consumption \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\left(\\text{T}\\text{F}\\text{C}\\right)=\\frac{\\left(\\text{q} \\text{x} \\text{f}\\text{u}\\text{e}\\text{l} \\text{d}\\text{e}\\text{n}\\text{s}\\text{i}\\text{t}\\text{y} \\text{x} 3600\\right)}{\\text{t}\\text{i}\\text{m}\\text{e}}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e (1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBrake power\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\left(\\text{B}\\text{P}\\right)=\\left(\\frac{\\text{V} \\text{x} \\text{I} \\text{x} \\text{p}\\text{o}\\text{w}\\text{e}\\text{r} \\text{f}\\text{a}\\text{c}\\text{t}\\text{o}\\text{r}}{1000}\\right) \\text{x} \\text{g}\\text{e}\\text{n}\\text{e}\\text{r}\\text{a}\\text{t}\\text{o}\\text{r} \\text{e}\\text{f}\\text{f}\\text{i}\\text{c}\\text{i}\\text{e}\\text{n}\\text{c}\\text{y}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e (2)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Equ1\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ1\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\text{B}\\text{r}\\text{a}\\text{k}\\text{e} \\text{t}\\text{h}\\text{e}\\text{r}\\text{m}\\text{a}\\text{l} \\text{e}\\text{f}\\text{f}\\text{i}\\text{c}\\text{i}\\text{e}\\text{n}\\text{c}\\text{y} \\left(\\text{B}\\text{T}\\text{E}\\right)=\\frac{\\left(\\text{b}\\text{r}\\text{a}\\text{k}\\text{e} \\text{p}\\text{o}\\text{w}\\text{e}\\text{r} \\text{x} 100\\right)}{\\left(\\text{t}\\text{o}\\text{t}\\text{a}\\text{l} \\text{f}\\text{u}\\text{e}\\text{l} \\text{c}\\text{o}\\text{n}\\text{s}\\text{u}\\text{m}\\text{p}\\text{t}\\text{i}\\text{o}\\text{n} \\text{x} \\text{c}\\text{a}\\text{l}\\text{o}\\text{r}\\text{i}\\text{f}\\text{i}\\text{c} \\text{v}\\text{a}\\text{l}\\text{v}\\text{e}\\right)}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e3\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecific fuel consumption\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\left(\\text{S}\\text{F}\\text{C}\\right)=\\frac{\\text{t}\\text{o}\\text{t}\\text{a}\\text{l} \\text{f}\\text{u}\\text{e}\\text{l} \\text{c}\\text{o}\\text{n}\\text{s}\\text{u}\\text{m}\\text{p}\\text{t}\\text{i}\\text{o}\\text{n}}{ \\text{p}\\text{o}\\text{w}\\text{e}\\text{r}}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e (4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.1 Brake power\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e displays the BP with the difference in compression ratio for different evaluated linseed biodiesel blends. The outcomes showed that BP increased as the compression ratio increased. Blend LD40 was found to have highest brake power (0.994 KW) at lower compression ratio of 13:5.1. In comparison, the exact blend also yielded the highest brake power (1.283 KW) with a compression ratio of 16.5:1. LD40 outperformed other fuel blends in performance, outperforming diesel by 1.58% at a compression ratio of 16.5:1. When the compression ratio increases at fixed loading, the brake power also increases dramatically. The other blend exhibited superior BP associated with diesel at various CRs. While working on palm biodiesel, Rosha et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e] also observed increased brake power per concentration in the biodiesel blend. Improvements in the air-fuel ratio mixture improved atomization-spraying properties, and appropriate fuel combustion due to preheating might cause the same. Another factor can be the LD40 blend’s higher density compared to diesel. Engine brake power increases when a denser fuel-air combination enters the cylinder [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2 Mechanical efficiency\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e displays the mechanical efficiency of different linseed biodiesel blends at various CRs. It was observed that the linseed biodiesel blend's total mechanical efficiency increased as the compression ratio increased, indicating a direct relationship between the variance in compression ratio and the variation in mechanical efficiency of the linseed biodiesel. At a compression ratio of 13.5:1, ME was found to be 17.4%,19.9%,20.6%, and 21.7% for LD10, LD20, LD30, and LD40, respectively. The results for LD10, LD20, LD30, and LD40 showed that, with a higher compression ratio of 16.5:1, the percentages were 28.4%,29.6%,30.5%, and 31.7%, respectively. For diesel, the mechanical efficiency was 17.6% and 21.3% at 13.5:1 and 16.5:1 compression ratios. The blend LD40 had a mechanical efficiency of 31.6% for CR16.5:1. Moreover, it was 10.3% more than the diesel, which was usually used.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the case of Karnaja biodiesel blends, our research aligns with the findings of Lee et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e], who also observed an increase in mechanical efficiency with the growth in blend proportion at a higher compression ratio. This observation is intriguing as it suggests that the fuel utilized for burning, which contains methyl esters, maybe the critical factor contributing to the superior lubricating qualities of blended biodiesel. This novel insight adds to the growing knowledge of alternative fuels and engine performance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.3 Specific fuel consumption\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor every tested linseed biodiesel blend, the SFC gradually decreased as the CR increased from 13.5:1 to 16.5:1, and a similar pattern was also seen for diesel. The SFC was determined to be 1.23 (LD10),1.62 (LD20),1.69 (LD30), and 1.70 (LD40) kg/KW-s at a CR of 13.5:1. It was lesser at 1.21 (LD10), 1.33 (LD20), 1.52 (LD30), and 1.66 (LD40) at CR of 16.5:1. It was clear that the fuel’s SFC improved in conjunction with the blend percentage. Compared to diesel, the blend LD 40 had the maximum SFC at a CR of 16.5:1, which was 19.6% higher. This might be because, compared to diesel, the linseed biodiesel blends have a higher methyl ester content, resulting in a lower heat content value of LD40. Warkhade al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e] observed similar findings in their study on biodiesel made from used cooking oil. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e shows the change in the SFC variation of linseed biodiesel blends at various CRs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.4 Exhaust gas temperature\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e displays EGT values for various linseed biodiesel blends. When the CR was increased from 13.5:1 to 16.5:1, the findings demonstrated that the EGT was lower for all the blends than the EGT of diesel. However, the LD10 blend’s EGT values were almost identical to diesel’s, tested at 197.6℃ at the lower CR and 286.5℃ at the higher CR. Of all the blends examined, the LD40 blend had the lowest EGT. The lowest and greatest measured compression ratios were 132.1℃ and 220.7℃, respectively. The EGT was 67.6℃ lower for the highest blend, LD40, than diesel for various CRs. The biodiesel has a lower temperature relative to the linseed biodiesel, which may cause the decreased EGT observed for the linseed biodiesel blends [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.5 Carbon monoxide emission\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig10\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e shows the exhaust pattern of linseed biodiesel blends at different CRs. The results show that the CO emissions for blends LD10, LD20, LD30, and LD40 are 0.05%,0.06%,0.06%, and 0.07% at a CR of 13.5:1. Furthermore, it was shown that CO emissions were much lower with an increase in CR. In that order, blends LD10, LD20, LD30, and LD40 were 0.06%,0.05%,0.4%, and 0.2%. Compared to diesel, this proportion was much lower. At different CRs, the CO emission of other blends was also lower than diesel's. All linseed biodiesel blends emit less Co gas because the preheating procedure enhances fuel vaporization and spray properties [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e]. The investigation's findings made it abundantly clear that a higher blend proportion of biodiesel produces reduced emissions of harmful CO [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDubey and Gupta et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e] observed reduced CO emissions when using a single-cylinder diesel engine to examine Jatropha and turpentine biodiesel at a steady state. Dubey and Gupta et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e] also observed similar outcomes when Jatropha biodiesel blends were used in a diesel engine.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.6 Carbon dioxide emission\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig11\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e shows the pattern of CO2 emission of linseed biodiesel blends at varying CR. As CR increases, all blends release more CO2 than diesel. For all linseed biodiesel blends, the CO2emissions were found to be reduced by 1.23%,1.36%,1.57%, and 1.8%, with CR of 13.5:1, for blends LD10, LD20, LD30, and LD40. However, when the compression ratio increased, the emissions values correspondingly increased. For blends LD10, LD20, LD30, and LD40, it was found to be 1.6%,1.7%,1.9%, and 2.2% at a higher CR of 16.5:1. diesel has 0.67% with a lower CR of 13.5:1, while 1.3% was reported at a higher CR of 16.5:1. The CO2 emissions were 42.85% lower than those of the blend with the highest percentage of biodiesel. Because the linseed biodiesel blends have a higher oxygen concentration, more air fuel may be burning inside the cylinder, which might account for the higher CO2 emissions. Dubey and Gupta et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e] studied the Jatropha and turpentine dual biodiesel mixes in a CI engine and reported similar results for other biodiesel blends.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.7 Hydrocarbon emission\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig12\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e displays the pattern of hydrocarbon emission for several biodiesel blends at varying CR. For stable load conditions, the HC emissions of all the linseed biodiesel blends were lower than those of diesel at all CRs. Diesel had the highest observed HC emissions at the lowest CR of 13.5:1. However, HC emissions decreased when CR increased and were only found at 27 ppm for diesel. Compared to the diesel, the linseed biodiesel blends exhibited reduced hydrocarbon emissions. In addition, at all CRs, it was discovered that the blend percentage with the greatest LD40 had the lowest HC emission. In addition, at all CRs, the HC emissions of the other blends were lesser than those of diesel. The increased temperature within the engine cylinder caused by the rise in CR may cause a reduction in HC emissions. Diesel and LD10 blends had 27% and 295 emissions, respectively. Furthermore, at a CR 16.5:1, the DC emissions of the blends LD20, LD30, and LD40 were 19%,17%, and 13% respectively. Nalgundwar et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e] examined Jatropha biodiesel blends on diesel engine and found that biodiesel produced less HC emissions than diesel.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.8 Nitrogen oxide emission\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe EGT, the duration of the fuel reaction, and the fuel’s oxygen content all affect the amount of NOx that forms. The NOx production reductions for all evaluated fuels with increased compression ratio are shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig13\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e. However, at full load, they significantly dropped. Compared to full-load diesel, the NOx emissions for LD10, LD20, LD30, and LD40 were 12.3%,16.4%,19.6%, and 29.4% higher, respectively. An extended biodiesel ignition delay improves premixed combustion by enabling more fuel to be injected before ignition. This may potentially contribute to elevated NOx levels, as reduced heat release is another factor contributing to elevated NOx [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe following conclusions were reached during an experiment using a conventional diesel engine run on pure diesel and different mixes of linseed biodiesel without any engine modifications.\u003c/p\u003e\u003col\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eBlend LD40 was found to have highest brake power (0.994 KW) at lower compression ratio of 13:5.1. LD40 outperformed other fuel blends in performance, outperforming diesel by 1.58% at a compression ratio of 16.5:1. When the compression ratio increases at fixed loading, the brake power also increases dramatically.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eAt a compression ratio of 13.5:1, mechanical efficiency was found to be 17.4%,19.9%,20.6%, and 21.7% for LD10, LD20, LD30, and LD40 and with a higher compression ratio of 16.5:1, the percentages were 28.4%,29.6%,30.5%, and 31.7%.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor every tested linseed biodiesel blend, the SFC gradually decreased as the CR increased from 13.5:1 to 16.5:1. Compared to diesel, the blend LD 40 had the maximum SFC at a CR of 16.5:1, which was 19.6% higher.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe CO emissions for blends LD10, LD20, LD30, and LD40 are 0.05%,0.06%,0.06%, and 0.07% at a CR of 13.5:1. It was shown that CO emissions were much lower with an increase in CR.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe hydrocarbon emissions of all the linseed biodiesel blends were lower than those of diesel at all CRs. Diesel had the highest observed HC emissions at the lowest CR of 13.5:1.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003cp\u003eBP brake power\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBTE brake thermal efficiency\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCO carbon monoxide\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e carbon dioxide\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCR compression ration\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCV calorific valve\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHC hydrocarbons\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLD linseed biodiesel\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eVCR variable compression ratio\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare (s) that no funds and grants received during the preparation of this manuscript\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors would like to credit the Department of Mechanical Engineering at Sri Venkateswara College of Engineering and Technology, Chittoor, Andhra Pradesh, India, for testing services and facilities used in this study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict of interest\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThere is no conflict of interest\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor (s) contribution\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe author (s) confirm contribution to the manuscript as follows: concept study, material preparation, and data collection were done by P. 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Fuel Processing Technology 96:237\u0026thinsp;\u0026ndash;\u0026thinsp;49. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2011.12.036\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.fuproc.2011.12.036\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Compression ratio, emission, biodiesel blend, diesel, linseed oil","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4640642/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4640642/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study experiments on a single-cylinder, four-stroke, variable compression ratio diesel engine by comparing the performance and emission properties of diesel and linseed biodiesel blends. The biodiesel blends were obtained using a volume basis of 10%,20%,30%, and 40% of the linseed biodiesel blends, respectively, for experimentation. The linseed biodiesel blends are compared to identify the optimum biodiesel blend under changing compression ratios from 13.5:1 to 16.5:1 with a speed of 1500 rpm. The outcomes show that a combination of 20% linseed biodiesel with 80% diesel gives maximum performance compared to all other blends. The blends exhibited increased mechanical efficiency and brake power. Blends LD10 to LD40 demonstrated 2.6% more excellent mechanical efficiency and 13.4% higher brake power than diesel at a 16.5:1 compression ratio. For the blends LD10 to LD40, the exhaust gas temperature was 54.7℃ lower than diesel. In addition, hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emissions were reduced by 47% in the maximum blend percentage, and compared to diesel emissions, carbon dioxide emissions were 38.3% greater.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Experimental study on the performance and emission properties of variable compression ratio engine at different compression ratios","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-07-22 16:41:17","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4640642/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"b81701d7-85d6-494b-93d5-8621e93af14d","owner":[],"postedDate":"July 22nd, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-08-26T11:51:31+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-07-22 16:41:17","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-4640642","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-4640642","identity":"rs-4640642","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}