Media and Social-Emotional Learning in Early Childhood: A Mixed-Methods Study in Nigeria

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Over four weeks, 200 children were exposed to foreign animated content during Weeks 1–2 and local Nigerian animation during Weeks 3–4. SEL behaviors—empathy, self-regulation, cooperation, and turn-taking—were assessed weekly using the Cartoon Social Behavioral Observation Scale (CSBOS), while teacher interviews provided qualitative insights. Quantitative analysis revealed statistically significant improvements in empathy and self-regulation following exposure to local content, as measured by paired samples t-tests. Descriptive findings also showed increases in cooperation and turn-taking during the local media phase. Thematic analysis of educator interviews identified three major themes: emotional resonance, behavioral reenactment, and cultural familiarity. Children demonstrated stronger verbal engagement, emotional expression, and peer modeling during the local content phase. The findings underscore the value of culturally relevant animated media as a pedagogical tool for SEL, highlighting its potential to support emotional development and identity formation when paired with guided reflection. These results have practical implications for educators, media developers, and policymakers seeking to integrate media into early childhood instruction. The study also contributes globally by advocating for culturally contextualized SEL frameworks in media-rich educational environments. Educational Philosophy and Theory social-emotional learning animated media early childhood education cultural relevance Nigerian classrooms media comparison Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Introduction Social-emotional learning (SEL) has become a central focus in early childhood education, globally recognized for its role in fostering emotional intelligence, prosocial behavior, and long-term academic and interpersonal success. SEL refers to the process through which individuals acquire and apply emotional knowledge, interpersonal skills, and ethical decision-making to navigate social contexts effectively (CASEL, 2020 ). In the early years of development, when foundational emotional and social capacities are still forming, high-quality SEL experiences are particularly critical (Denham et al., 2012 ; Zinsser et al., 2014 ). Numerous studies have demonstrated that SEL instruction contributes to improved empathy, behavior regulation, peer relationships, and classroom cooperation (Durlak et al., 2011 ; Blewitt et al., 2021 ). As educators seek innovative ways to deliver SEL instruction, animated media has emerged as a promising pedagogical tool. Animated media, as defined across the literature, refers to visually dynamic content that uses the sequential display of still images—often enhanced with sound, voice acting, and stylized motion—to create emotionally engaging narratives for children (Furniss, 2008 ; Guo et al., 2020 ; Hunt, 2021 ). In early childhood education, animated content has been shown to effectively model social behaviors, scaffold emotional understanding, and hold young learners’ attention through symbolic storytelling and simplified emotional expressions. Animation's narrative clarity, visual expressiveness, and symbolic modeling make it especially appealing to young children, allowing them to observe and interpret complex emotional cues in simplified formats (Furniss, 2008 ; Hunt, 2021 ). SEL-themed animation has been shown to promote emotional literacy, social problem-solving, and behavioral modeling (Mares & Pan, 2013 ; Shen et al., 2024 ). However, while research in Western settings has explored the effectiveness of animation for SEL in both home and school environments, there remains a significant gap in the literature regarding its application in African early childhood classrooms, particularly in structured, comparative contexts where content type (foreign vs. local) is systematically analyzed. Cultural context is a critical factor in SEL engagement and effectiveness. Media that reflects children's lived experiences, linguistic backgrounds, and cultural norms is more likely to evoke emotional resonance, identity affirmation, and meaningful interpretation (Zhang, 2021 ; Moreno et al., 2019 ). Reader-Response Theory (Rosenblatt, 1994 ) reinforces this by asserting that meaning is co-constructed between the viewer and the narrative, with the viewer's cultural background mediating interpretation. This suggests that culturally familiar animated content may support deeper SEL learning than foreign content, even when the behavioral messages are similar. By directly comparing SEL outcomes following foreign versus local media exposure, this study offers comparative insights into the influence of cultural familiarity on children's emotional development." In Nigerian classrooms, where both foreign and local animated media are increasingly accessible, educators face a critical decision about which content best supports SEL outcomes. Although foreign programs may benefit from global production standards and thematic richness, local animations may foster greater emotional engagement and relevance. To date, however, few empirical studies have examined this question using direct behavioral observations and educator reflections within an early childhood classroom context. Moreover, comparative studies examining SEL outcomes by media type using a repeated-measures framework remain notably absent from the literature. To address this gap, the current study used a within-subject, quasi-experimental crossover design to examine how exposure to foreign versus local animated media influences Nigerian preschool children's SEL development. Over a four-week period, children first viewed foreign animated content (Weeks 1–2) and then local content (Weeks 3–4). Their social-emotional behaviors were observed and rated weekly, and qualitative data were collected through post-intervention teacher interviews. Drawing on the CASEL framework (2020), Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1986 ), and Reader-Response Theory (Rosenblatt, 1994 ), the study was guided by the following research questions: RQ1: What social-emotional learning competencies do children demonstrate after exposure to foreign animated media content? RQ2: What social-emotional learning competencies do children demonstrate after exposure to local animated media content? RQ3: Do children demonstrate significantly different SEL competencies after exposure to local animated content compared to foreign animated content Literature Review Animation and Social-Emotional Learning in Early Childhood Education The evolving landscape of early childhood education has witnessed a growing emphasis on social-emotional learning (SEL) as a foundational element of holistic development. SEL encompasses the processes through which children acquire and effectively apply the knowledge, attitudes, and skills necessary to understand and manage emotions, set and achieve positive goals, feel and show empathy for others, establish and maintain positive relationships, and make responsible decisions (CASEL, 2020 ; Durlak et al., 2011 ; Blewitt et al., 2022). These competencies are particularly vital during early childhood, when children’s neural pathways for emotional processing, empathy, and social connection are most malleable (Denham et al., 2012 ; Moreno et al., 2019 ; Zinsser et al., 2014 ). Within this context, animated media have emerged as a significant tool for engaging children in the co-construction of SEL competencies. Animation—defined as the art of creating the illusion of movement through a sequence of still images—serves not only as entertainment but also as a pedagogical medium that can scaffold emotional understanding, prosocial behavior, and self-regulation (Furniss, 2008 ; Guo et al., 2020 ; Shen et al., 2024 ). Studies have shown that well-designed animated content, particularly that featuring age-appropriate emotional scenarios and relatable characters, can support emotional recognition, empathy, and problem-solving in young viewers (Hunt, 2021 ; Blewitt et al., 2022; Mares & Pan, 2013 ). More specifically, researchers have found that the emotional and social cues presented in animated stories can serve as cognitive models that children observe and internalize, aligning with Bandura’s ( 1977 ) Social Learning Theory. In a meta-analysis by Mares and Pan ( 2013 ), children who watched SEL-integrated television programming such as Sesame Street demonstrated improved emotional labeling, perspective-taking, and cooperative behavior. These findings are further corroborated by Shen et al. ( 2024 ), who reported that AI-assisted animated stories promoted self-awareness and emotional articulation, particularly when coupled with adult-guided reflection. In contrast to the abundance of studies on Western-produced animated media, few empirical investigations have examined how children from African contexts respond to both local and foreign animated content. The cultural dimension of children's media engagement remains underexplored in SEL research. Evidence from culturally relevant pedagogy suggests that children are more likely to engage with and internalize content when it reflects their own language, traditions, and lived experiences (Ladson-Billings, 1995 ; Zhang, 2021 ). Culturally aligned media helps ground learning in meaningful contexts and enhances the emotional resonance of modeled behaviors, potentially increasing the impact of SEL interventions. Recent scholarship underscores the importance of cultural familiarity in children’s engagement with educational content. Moreno et al. ( 2019 ) emphasized that cultural congruence in media can facilitate identity development and emotional security. O’Neil, Valadez, and Izuagie ( 2025 ) similarly demonstrated how immersive media can serve as a powerful tool for affirming identity and emotional expression among children with dyslexia. Their findings highlight that when digital media is designed with cultural sensitivity and narrative authenticity, it has the potential to elevate both self-concept and social-emotional capacity. This aligns with Reader-Response Theory, which posits that viewers construct meaning based on their own cultural and emotional frameworks (Rosenblatt, 1994 ). In practice, this suggests that local animated media may evoke stronger affective and behavioral responses than foreign content, a hypothesis that warrants direct comparative analysis through structured empirical studies. Despite the potential of both media types, studies comparing children’s SEL outcomes following exposure to foreign versus local animated content in African early childhood settings are scarce. While foreign content is often more accessible and higher in production value, local animations are better situated to reflect children's sociocultural environments. This study addresses the gap by using a within-subject, repeated-measures design to compare children’s SEL development across two phases: foreign animated content (Weeks 1–2) and local animated content (Weeks 3–4). This approach not only enables a direct behavioral comparison but also examines whether one media context promotes SEL competencies more effectively than the other. Theoretical Framework This study is grounded in an integrative theoretical framework that draws from four key bodies of scholarship: the CASEL framework for social-emotional learning (SEL), Bandura’s Social Learning Theory, Reader-Response Theory, and perspectives from visual and media literacy. Together, these frameworks offer a robust lens for examining how animated media, particularly when differentiated by cultural origin, can influence SEL development among preschool children in classroom contexts. The Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL, 2020 ) defines SEL as the process through which children acquire and apply emotional knowledge and social skills to manage relationships, make responsible decisions, and understand themselves and others. Its five core competencies—self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, relationship skills, and responsible decision-making—have been widely adopted in educational policy and practice (Zinsser et al., 2014 ; Blewitt et al., 2021 ). CASEL emphasizes that SEL should be delivered through developmentally appropriate, culturally responsive, and contextually embedded learning environments. In this study, the CASEL framework informs the operationalization of SEL outcomes through observable indicators: empathy, cooperation, turn-taking, and self-regulation—each of which is grounded in CASEL’s core domains. Bandura’s Social Learning Theory (1977, 1986) supports the argument that children learn through observation, imitation, and reinforcement. In the context of animation, characters serve as symbolic models—demonstrating both positive and negative emotional responses, social strategies, and moral decision-making (Mares & Pan, 2013 ; Hunt, 2021 ). Animated stories often externalize internal states through vivid expression, stylized action, and simplified cause-effect sequences, which make them ideal for modeling SEL competencies for young children. Bandura further argued that the effectiveness of modeled behavior is amplified when reinforced through social interactions—mirrored here through teacher-facilitated discussions that followed each media session (Shen et al., 2024 ; Blewitt et al., 2022). This theoretical framework provides the behavioral foundation for using animated media to foster SEL. Reader-Response Theory (Rosenblatt, 1994 ) extends this foundation by emphasizing the interpretive role of the viewer. Rather than assuming media messages are absorbed uniformly, this theory posits that meaning is co-constructed between the text and the viewer, shaped by the viewer’s culture, language, emotional readiness, and lived experience. In media contexts, this means children may engage more deeply with narratives and characters that reflect their sociocultural identities. Zhang ( 2021 ) and Moreno et al. ( 2019 ) both stress that culturally relevant narratives promote stronger emotional engagement, identity affirmation, and behavioral modeling. The theory thus predicts that local animated media, which is more aligned with children’s everyday lives, may evoke stronger SEL responses than foreign media, even when both convey similar behavioral messages. Visual and media literacy perspectives further inform this study by framing media interpretation as an active process involving the decoding of visual, auditory, and symbolic cues. Hobbs ( 2006 ) and Callow ( 2013 ) argue that children learn not only from narrative content but also from tone, pacing, gesture, and symbolism—each of which can communicate emotional information. Animated media amplifies these elements through stylized storytelling, requiring children to make inferences and engage emotionally with the medium. Moreover, when these visual messages are culturally familiar, children are more likely to access and interpret them meaningfully (Guo et al., 2020 ). This reinforces the importance of cultural familiarity in media-mediated SEL, especially when adult guidance scaffolds the process. In addition to narrative content, the study emphasizes that children's interpretation of animated media relies heavily on visual literacy skills—decoding facial expressions, gestures, and symbolic imagery that convey emotional meaning Finally, the work of O’Neil, Valadez, and Izuagie ( 2025 ) underscores how immersive, culturally responsive media can facilitate not just SEL but also identity formation, self-advocacy, and relational competence in early learners. In their study involving children with dyslexia, the use of culturally grounded virtual reality narratives empowered learners to express emotions, develop empathy, and engage reflectively with content. Their findings suggest that media interventions are most effective when learners see themselves reflected in both form and message. This insight directly informs the current study’s comparative approach, which examines whether Nigerian children exhibit stronger SEL responses following local versus foreign animated media exposure. Together, these theories and supporting studies provide a comprehensive framework for understanding how children interpret and internalize social-emotional messages from animated media. They support the study’s central hypothesis that SEL outcomes are not only shaped by media content but are significantly influenced by the cultural congruence of that content with the learner’s identity and environment. Methodology Research Design This study employed a within-subject, two-phase, quasi-experimental crossover design embedded within a convergent mixed-methods framework. The design enabled a direct comparison of children's social-emotional learning (SEL) behaviors following exposure to two distinct types of animated media: foreign content in Weeks 1 and 2, and local Nigerian content in Weeks 3 and 4. The crossover structure allowed each child to serve as their own control, eliminating between-group variability and enhancing the internal validity of behavioral comparisons across the two phases. This design was particularly appropriate for the early childhood classroom context, where random assignment and fully controlled experimentation are often impractical. The quantitative component was complemented by qualitative interviews with classroom teachers to provide interpretive depth and to triangulate behavioral observations. Together, these approaches allowed the researchers to explore not only what changed in children’s SEL behaviors but also how and why these changes occurred in relation to the cultural framing of the media content. Participants Participants included 200 children between the ages of three and six, enrolled in four early childhood classrooms in Osun State, Nigeria. Classrooms were selected through purposive sampling based on administrative approval, consistent exposure to screen-based content, and willingness to participate in the four-week intervention period. All participating children had parental or guardian consent, and assent was obtained in age-appropriate forms. For the qualitative component, five early childhood educators were purposively selected based on their professional experience (minimum five years), familiarity with SEL pedagogy, and use of both foreign and local animated media in instruction. These educators participated in semi-structured interviews following the four-week observation period. The research protocol was approved by the Health Research Ethics Committee ([blinded]) of [blinded], Ile-Ife, under ethics number [insert number], and adhered to all institutional and international guidelines for research with human subjects. Intervention and Media Exposure The media-based SEL intervention consisted of 12 curated animated video sessions delivered over a four-week period—three sessions per week. Each session involved the screening of a 20–25 minute episode, selected for its alignment with SEL themes including empathy, self-regulation, cooperation, and turn-taking. In Weeks 1 and 2, children were exposed to foreign animated content, consisting of internationally produced programs such as Daniel Tiger’s Neighborhood and Pocoyo , which emphasize emotional literacy and social problem-solving. In Weeks 3 and 4, children viewed local animated content, including Bino and Fino and Ubongo Kids , which were selected for their cultural relevance, language accessibility, and portrayal of prosocial behavior within familiar Nigerian contexts. Following each session, teachers facilitated brief reflective discussions aimed at helping children interpret character actions, identify emotional cues, and relate the animated stories to their own experiences. These post-viewing conversations were designed to support the co-construction of SEL meaning, in alignment with both Social Learning Theory and Reader-Response Theory. Instruments Quantitative data were collected using the Cartoon Social Behavioral Observation Scale (CSBOS), a researcher-adapted rubric designed to assess SEL behaviors in classroom settings. The CSBOS included four domains: empathy, cooperation, turn-taking, and self-regulation. Each domain was scored on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not observed) to 5 (consistently demonstrated). The scale demonstrated good internal reliability (Cronbach’s α = .84) in a pilot phase conducted prior to data collection. Qualitative data were gathered through a semi-structured interview protocol, which asked educators to reflect on children's emotional responses, peer interactions, behavioral modeling, and the relative cultural relevance of the foreign and local animated content. Interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed, and translated where necessary, and were analyzed thematically as described in the Data Analysis section. Data Collection Procedure Behavioral data were collected at the end of each media week, resulting in four waves of data per child and a total of 800 data points. Observers were trained to apply the CSBOS consistently across classrooms, and interrater reliability was confirmed during the pilot. Teachers facilitated group discussions following each viewing session but did not explicitly instruct SEL content, preserving the distinction between media effects and formal instruction. Educator interviews were conducted after the final week of observation. These interviews lasted approximately 30–45 minutes and were conducted in English or Yoruba, depending on the participant’s preference Data Analysis Quantitative Analysis Quantitative data were analyzed using a within-subject, repeated-measures approach to examine changes in social-emotional learning (SEL) behaviors across the two media exposure phases: foreign animated media (Weeks 1–2) and local animated media (Weeks 3–4). For each child, weekly scores for empathy and self-regulation were averaged across the two-week intervals, resulting in two mean scores per domain—one representing the foreign phase and the other representing the local phase. To determine whether there were statistically significant differences in these SEL behaviors based on media type, paired samples t-tests were conducted. This method was selected due to the repeated-measures design and the continuous nature of the empathy and self-regulation scores, allowing for direct comparison within the same participants. Assumptions of normality were assessed through Shapiro-Wilk tests and inspection of Q-Q plots. All statistical analyses were conducted using SPSS version 26, with the significance level set at α = .05. For turn-taking and cooperation, behaviors were scored as categorical indicators (i.e., observed vs. not observed). As such, these domains were analyzed descriptively using frequency counts and percentages to summarize the proportion of children who demonstrated each behavior in each phase. While inferential statistics were not applied to these variables due to their binary nature and unequal distribution, the descriptive trends were used to inform interpretation. Qualitative Analysis Qualitative data were analyzed using Braun and Clarke’s ( 2006 ) six-phase thematic analysis method. Transcripts from teacher interviews were first read repeatedly for familiarity, then coded line-by-line using an inductive approach. Initial codes were grouped into subthemes and later refined into three overarching themes related to children's emotional expression, peer modeling, and cultural alignment with media content. Coding and analysis were conducted manually by the lead researcher, with peer debriefing used to validate coding decisions and ensure credibility. Emerging themes were compared against the quantitative findings to identify points of convergence and divergence, providing a richer understanding of how different media types influenced children’s SEL behaviors. The thematic structure also helped contextualize statistical differences and offered interpretive depth that numbers alone could not provide. Results Quantitative Findings Descriptive statistics indicated improvements across all four SEL domains between the foreign media phase (Weeks 1–2) and the local media phase (Weeks 3–4). Table 1 presents the means and standard deviations for empathy and self-regulation, which were analyzed inferentially. Paired samples t-tests revealed statistically significant differences in SEL outcomes based on media type. For empathy, mean scores increased from M = 2.75 (SD = 0.41) during the foreign media phase to M = 3.05 (SD = 0.36) during the local media phase, t (199) = 8.02, p < .001. Similarly, self-regulation scores rose from M = 2.30 (SD = 0.44) to M = 3.00 (SD = 0.40), t (199) = 10.61, p < .001, suggesting stronger internal control and emotional management following culturally familiar content (see Table 2 ). Descriptive statistics for turn-taking and cooperation—measured as binary indicators—also showed positive changes. Turn-taking increased from 48.5% during the foreign phase to 66.0% during the local phase, while cooperation rose from 50.5–64.5% (see Table 3 ). Though not subjected to inferential testing, these patterns support a broader trend of SEL improvement during the local media phase. Visual representations of these patterns are presented in Fig. 1, which compares empathy and self-regulation scores across the two media conditions, and Fig. 2 , which shows the weekly progression of SEL scores across Weeks 1 through 4. Both graphs illustrate a noticeable upward trend, particularly in Weeks 3 and 4 when local content was introduced. Qualitative Findings In addition to the quantitative results, qualitative data from teacher interviews provided rich, contextual insights into how children responded emotionally and behaviorally to the animated media exposure Thematic analysis of teacher interviews yielded three major themes: Emotional Resonance and Expressive Language, Behavioral Reenactment and Peer Modeling, and Cultural Familiarity and Classroom Engagement. Theme 1: Emotional Resonance and Expressive Language Teachers consistently observed richer emotional expression and verbalization during the local media phase. Children used affective language spontaneously and in their native dialects, often referencing characters' feelings or situations. One teacher noted, “They began to say things like, ‘She is angry because her friend took her toy,’ and they used words from home, even in Yoruba.” These observations reinforce Rosenblatt’s ( 1994 ) Reader-Response Theory and Zhang’s ( 2021 ) work on culturally relevant media, showing that identity-aligned narratives can evoke deeper emotional literacy. Theme 2: Behavioral Reenactment and Peer Modeling Children frequently reenacted SEL behaviors portrayed in the animations—especially during free play and cooperative tasks. These reenactments were more natural and socially embedded during the local media phase. One educator shared, “After watching a girl share food with her friend, they started offering pieces of their crayons to each other.” This aligns with Bandura’s ( 1986 ) Social Learning Theory, where modeled behaviors are internalized and then expressed through social interaction—particularly when children see those behaviors in culturally familiar settings. Theme 3: Cultural Familiarity and Classroom Engagement Teachers reported heightened attentiveness, excitement, and verbal participation when children viewed local animated content. Compared to the foreign media phase, local content prompted more questions, emotional outbursts, and spontaneous commentary. “They watched the foreign cartoons quietly, like they were in a movie theatre. But with the local ones, they were shouting, pointing, asking why the girl was crying,” one teacher explained. These observations resonate with findings from O’Neil, Valadez, and Izuagie ( 2025 ), who emphasized the SEL value of culturally affirming media that reflects children's linguistic and sociocultural backgrounds. The following tables and figures present the descriptive statistics and inferential analyses illustrating the social-emotional learning (SEL) outcomes observed across the foreign and local media exposure phases. Table 1 Means and Standard Deviations for SEL Scores by Media Type SEL Domain Foreign Media (Weeks 1–2) Local Media (Weeks 3–4) Empathy M = 2.75, SD = 0.41 M = 3.05, SD = 0.36 Self-Regulation M = 2.30, SD = 0.44 M = 3.00, SD = 0.40 Note. SEL = social-emotional learning. Foreign media exposure refers to Weeks 1–2; local media exposure refers to Weeks 3–4. Table 2 Paired Samples t-Test Results for Empathy and Self-Regulation SEL Domain t df p-value Empathy 8.02 199 < .001 Self-Regulation 10.61 199 < .001 Note. Paired samples t-tests compared SEL outcomes following foreign and local animated media exposure. Table 3 Descriptive Statistics for Turn-Taking and Cooperation SEL Domain Foreign Media (Weeks 1–2) Local Media (Weeks 3–4) Turn-Taking 48.5% 66.0% Cooperation 50.5% 64.5% Note. Percentages reflect the proportion of children observed demonstrating each SEL competency during each media phase. Discussion This study explored the role of animated media—both foreign and local—in shaping young children’s social-emotional learning (SEL) within Nigerian early childhood classrooms. Using a quasi-experimental crossover design with repeated observations and teacher interviews, the study found that children demonstrated measurable improvements in key SEL domains following media exposure. These improvements were most notable during the local animation phase, which produced statistically higher scores in empathy and self-regulation. These findings offer important insights into how culturally aligned animated content can foster SEL growth and support children’s emotional development in early educational settings. Children showed observable SEL growth following exposure to both foreign and local animated media. Empathy, self-regulation, cooperation, and turn-taking were all positively influenced by animated content that modeled these behaviors. This aligns with Bandura’s ( 1986 ) Social Learning Theory, which posits that children learn through observation and imitation, especially when modeled behaviors are reinforced socially. Prior research has shown that children internalize and practice behaviors seen in animated characters (Mares & Pan, 2013 ; Shen et al., 2024 ), and this study extends those findings to a Nigerian classroom context. The emotional cues and moral dilemmas presented in both foreign and local content served as effective symbolic models for SEL learning. The paired samples t-test revealed that children demonstrated significantly higher empathy and self-regulation scores following exposure to local animated content. This result supports the hypothesis that cultural familiarity enhances SEL engagement, consistent with Reader-Response Theory (Rosenblatt, 1994 ) and recent findings by Zhang ( 2021 ) and Moreno et al. ( 2019 ). When children recognize familiar language, social customs, and settings in media, they are more likely to connect emotionally with the characters and internalize the social behaviors portrayed. Teachers also reported higher levels of verbal participation, emotional expressiveness, and peer interaction during the local animation phase—qualitative findings that validate and enrich the quantitative outcomes. These findings echo the work of O’Neil, Valadez, and Izuagie ( 2025 ), who found that culturally grounded, immersive media not only enhances learners' emotional expression but also fosters identity affirmation and self-efficacy. In that study, children engaged more meaningfully with content that reflected their lived experiences, suggesting that representation in media is not merely symbolic—it has real implications for how learners perceive themselves and relate to others. Similarly, in the current study, local animated content elicited more spontaneous emotion labeling, peer modeling, and social initiation, indicating that SEL is deeply intertwined with cultural context. The comparative design provides important evidence on how culturally congruent versus culturally distant media content differentially shapes SEL competencies While foreign media contributed positively, especially in providing structure, curiosity, and novelty, their effects were less relational. Children appeared to engage cognitively with the foreign content, but their emotional expressiveness and social responsiveness were less pronounced. This suggests that while foreign animation can support behavioral modeling, local media may be more effective in activating the emotional depth and contextual resonance needed for SEL development. These findings also align with the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989), affirming children's rights to emotional expression, cultural identity, and participation in educational experiences that respect their developmental needs. Limitations While this study provides valuable insights into the role of animated media in supporting social-emotional learning (SEL) in early childhood, several limitations must be acknowledged. First, the study employed a quasi-experimental crossover design without counterbalancing the order of media exposure. All children were exposed to foreign animation before local animation, which raises the possibility of order effects or maturation influencing outcomes. Although the within-subjects design controlled for individual variability, it did not fully eliminate potential temporal confounds. Second, the absence of a traditional control group limits the ability to isolate the effects of media exposure from other classroom influences. Although this design mirrors real-world classroom settings where ethical constraints make it difficult to withhold educational content, it limits causal claims. Additionally, while paired samples t-tests were employed to examine changes in empathy and self-regulation, other SEL domains, such as turn-taking and cooperation, were analyzed descriptively due to their categorical format. Future studies should consider using more advanced statistical models, such as generalized estimating equations or multilevel modeling, to account for nested data structures and variable types. Third, data were collected from a single geographical region in southwestern Nigeria, which may affect the generalizability of findings. Sociocultural norms, language, and media preferences vary widely across African contexts, and the responses observed in this study may not reflect the experiences of children in other regions or countries. Moreover, while teachers’ perspectives enriched the qualitative findings, the study did not include direct child voice through interviews or self-reports, which may have provided additional insights into internal emotional responses and meaning making. Finally, the media content used in the study was selected based on availability, language accessibility, and SEL alignment, but differences in production quality and animation style between the foreign and local content may have introduced unintended variables. Although efforts were made to match content thematically, future studies should use more tightly controlled media samples or compare equivalent productions from diverse cultural sources. Implications for Practice The findings of this study have important implications for educators, content developers, and policymakers seeking to enhance social-emotional learning (SEL) outcomes in early childhood settings through the use of animated media. As shown in both the quantitative and qualitative results, children demonstrated stronger SEL responses, particularly in empathy and self-regulation, after exposure to culturally relevant local animated content. These outcomes suggest that media can be a powerful instructional tool when its design and implementation are responsive to the social and cultural contexts of its audience. For educators, the study reinforces the importance of intentional media integration into classroom practice. Rather than viewing animated content as passive entertainment or a classroom filler, teachers can use curated animations as SEL prompts, followed by reflective discussions that reinforce observed behaviors. The findings support the idea that post-viewing mediation is critical in translating on-screen modeling into real-life behavioral change (Bandura, 1986 ; Shen et al., 2024 ). Teachers should also be encouraged to select media that reflects children’s cultural environments, as such content not only models’ prosocial behavior but also deepens emotional engagement and verbal participation. For media content developers, the results point to a pressing need to invest in culturally grounded animated programming that is linguistically accessible and contextually relevant to the children it serves. While global media products often have a wide reach, they may lack the relational and cultural resonance necessary for deep emotional learning. As emphasized in O’Neil, Valadez, and Izuagie ( 2025 ), media that reflect children’s identities, languages, and social norms contribute to more authentic emotional development and increase learners’ willingness to engage, reflect, and express themselves. Developers should collaborate with educators, child psychologists, and local artists to create content that balances SEL goals with cultural authenticity. For policymakers, this study highlights the potential of animated media as a scalable and cost-effective intervention for SEL development in early childhood education, especially in contexts where teacher capacity or resources may be limited. Policies should support the development of national SEL guidelines that include provisions for high-quality, culturally relevant media. Additionally, funding for local animation studios and training for educators in media-based instruction can help bridge equity gaps and ensure that SEL programming reflects the diversity of children's lived experiences. Media literacy should also be integrated into teacher training programs to enable educators to evaluate, select, and implement media with pedagogical intention. Beyond its national context, the findings of this study hold important implications for global early childhood education. As digital media becomes increasingly accessible across continents, educators and policymakers worldwide face the challenge of curating content that is not only developmentally appropriate but also culturally responsive. This study highlights the importance of embedding SEL objectives within media narratives that reflect children's sociocultural identities—a principle that transcends geographic boundaries. Whether in Lagos, Nairobi, Mumbai, or São Paulo, the emotional salience of media is more likely to be amplified when children see their languages, customs, and community values represented on screen. Thus, international education initiatives aimed at advancing SEL should prioritize investments in localized media production, cross-cultural content adaptation, and teacher training in media facilitation. A global shift toward culturally relevant media in SEL programming would not only enhance engagement but also foster emotional inclusion and equity for learners in diverse educational systems. In summary, this study demonstrates that animation is not merely a visual tool but a culturally responsive pedagogical strategy with the potential to enhance emotional intelligence, cooperation, and relational skills in young learners, especially when thoughtfully embedded within the social and linguistic context of the classroom. Conclusion This study explored the impact of animated media—foreign and local—on the development of social-emotional learning (SEL) competencies in early childhood classrooms in Nigeria. Through a within-subject, quasi-experimental crossover design and a convergent mixed-methods approach, the study examined changes in empathy, self-regulation, cooperation, and turn-taking across a four-week media intervention. Findings from both quantitative and qualitative strands indicated that while children responded positively to both foreign and local animated content, the local media phase elicited significantly stronger gains in empathy and self-regulation, along with higher levels of emotional expression and classroom engagement. These results contribute to a growing body of research that emphasizes the importance of culturally responsive pedagogy in early childhood SEL development (CASEL, 2020 ; Moreno et al., 2019 ; Zhang, 2021 ). The study supports theoretical assertions from Bandura’s Social Learning Theory and Reader-Response Theory that children learn best when modeled behaviors are emotionally salient and culturally meaningful. It also affirms the critical role that identity-affirming media plays in shaping how children interpret, internalize, and apply social-emotional messages (O’Neil, Valadez, & Izuagie, 2025 ). In practice, the study demonstrates that animated media can serve as more than just an instructional aid—it can be a powerful emotional and relational scaffold when it mirrors children’s lived experiences. By intentionally curating media that reflects children’s cultural contexts, educators and media developers can enhance the authenticity and depth of SEL outcomes. Policymakers, in turn, must recognize media’s potential not only as a classroom tool but also as a public good that contributes to emotional development, identity formation, and educational equity. Finally, while the study was situated in a Nigerian context, its implications extend globally. In an increasingly connected world where media often transcends borders, the need to localize content without losing pedagogical integrity is both a challenge and an opportunity. Future research should explore these dynamics across diverse cultural and linguistic contexts, using longitudinal and multimodal approaches to capture the evolving relationship between media, identity, and emotional learning in the early years. Although situated within a Nigerian context, the implications of this study resonate globally, especially for early childhood systems seeking to integrate culturally responsive media to advance SEL outcomes. Declarations Ethical Approval Statement This study was reviewed and approved by the Health Research Ethics Committee ([blinded]) of [blinded], Ile-Ife, Nigeria. The research protocol was granted approval under reference number [insert approval number], and all procedures adhered to institutional and international ethical standards for research involving human participants. Consent to Participate and Consent for Publication Informed consent was obtained from all participants’ parents or legal guardians prior to the commencement of the study. Educators who participated in interviews provided verbal and written consent for both participation and the publication of anonymized excerpts from their contributions. In addition to obtaining parental or guardian consent, verbal assent was obtained from children in an age-appropriate manner prior to participation. Funding Disclosure This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. Conflict of Interest Disclosure The authors declare no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. Data Availability Statement The datasets generated and analyzed during the current study are not publicly available due to participant confidentiality but are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. AI Acknowledgement The author of this study used OpenAI, specifically ChatGPT, to help with language refinement, formatting guidance, and structural alignment with the journal submission standard. The author takes full responsibility for all contents, interpretations, and conclusions of this study. References Bandura, A. (1977) ‘Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change’, Psychological Review , 84(2), pp. 191–215. Bandura, A. (1986) Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory . Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Blewitt, C. et al. (2021) ‘A systematic review of targeted social and emotional learning interventions in early childhood education and care settings’, Early Child Development and Care , 191(14), pp. 2159–2187. Braun, V. and Clarke, V. (2006) ‘Using thematic analysis in psychology’, Qualitative Research in Psychology , 3(2), pp. 77–101. Callow, J. (2013) ‘The shape of text to come: Some reflections on multiliteracies’, Australian Journal of Language and Literacy , 36(1), pp. 1–9. CASEL (2020) ‘What is SEL?’ Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning . Available at: https://casel.org Collie, R.J. et al. (2012) ‘School climate and social–emotional learning: Predicting teacher stress, job satisfaction, and teaching efficacy’, Journal of Educational Psychology , 104(4), pp. 1189–1204. Creswell, J.W. and Plano Clark, V.L. (2018) Designing and conducting mixed methods research (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. Darling-Hammond, L. (2015) The flat world and education: How America's commitment to equity will determine our future . New York: Teachers College Press. Denham, S.A., Bassett, H.H. and Zinsser, K. (2012) ‘Early childhood teachers as socializers of young children’s emotional competence’, Early Childhood Education Journal , 40, pp. 137–143. Durlak, J.A. et al. (2011) ‘The impact of enhancing students’ social and emotional learning: A meta‐analysis of school‐based universal interventions’, Child Development , 82(1), pp. 405–432. Furniss, M. (2008) Art in motion: Animation aesthetics . Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. Guo, Y. et al. (2020) ‘Using digital media to promote social-emotional learning in young children’, Early Childhood Research Quarterly , 51, pp. 134–147. Hobbs, R. (2006) ‘Non‐optimal uses of video in the classroom’, Learning, Media and Technology , 31(1), pp. 35–50. Hunt, D.E. (2021) ‘Social emotional learning from live-action and animated characters in children’s television’, Journal of Children and Media , 15(2), pp. 241–258. Kaspar, K.L. and Massey, S.L. (2023) ‘Implementing social-emotional learning in the elementary classroom’, Early Childhood Education Journal , 51(4), pp. 641–650. Ladson-Billings, G. (1995) ‘Toward a theory of culturally relevant pedagogy’, American Educational Research Journal , 32(3), pp. 465–491. Mares, M.L. and Pan, Z. (2013) ‘Effects of Sesame Street: A meta-analysis of children's learning in 15 countries’, Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology , 34(3), pp. 140–151. Messaris, P. (1994) Visual 'literacy': Image, mind, and reality . Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Mondi, C.F., Woods, S.N. and Rafi, J. (2018) ‘The role of media in children's socialization to gender roles: A meta-analytic review’, Communication Research Reports , 35(1), pp. 76–84. Moreno, A.J., Nagasawa, M.K. and Schwartz, T. (2019) ‘Social and emotional learning and early childhood education: Redundant terms?’, Contemporary Issues in Early Childhood , 20(3), pp. 221–235. O’Neil, A., Valadez, C. and Izuagie, L. (2025) ‘Dyslexic voices unveiled: Elevating literate selves with virtual reality’, Journal of Research in Childhood Education , 1–18. https://doi:10.1080/02568543.2025.247813 Pantaleo, S. (2015) ‘Exploring student responses to visual and multimodal texts’, Language and Literacy , 17(2), pp. 22–45. Rosenblatt, L.M. (1994) The reader, the text, the poem: The transactional theory of the literary work . Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press. Shen, L. et al. (2024) ‘Promoting social-emotional learning and parent-child interaction through AI-mediated content consumption’, Current Psychology . United Nations. (1989). Convention on the Rights of the Child . Treaty Series, 1577, 3. https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/convention-rights-child Zhang, Y. (2021) ‘Positive effects of prosocial cartoon viewing on aggression among children: The potential mediating role of aggressive motivation’, Child Indicators Research , 14, pp. 1–19. Zinsser, K.M., Weissberg, R.P. and Dusenbury, L. (2014) ‘Social and emotional learning: A critical component of children’s development’, in Tremblay, R.E., Boivin, M. and Peters, R.D.V. (eds) Encyclopedia on early childhood development . Additional Declarations The authors declare no competing interests. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6551100","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":449351453,"identity":"5a12bfa8-74ba-4f43-af89-5737eedfe8ab","order_by":0,"name":"Lawrence Izuagie","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA5ElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACAwi2qWdjbwAxLYjWkpbAz3MAxJQgTgsQHE6QnJEAYhCjhf2MQcHPNuY8g5vPr274USDBwN/enYBfC0+OgWFvG1uxwe2csps9QIdJnDm7gYDDcjcY8LbxMG64nZN2gweoxUAil4AW/rcbDP+2STBuuHkm7eYforQAFRjzthkkzpzBfuw2cbZIvP9gLHMuwZifJ4fttoyBBA9Bv9j3p6UZvin7L8fGfvzZzTd/bOT423vxawECNgNGNhDNA44jHkLKQYD5AcMfEM3+gBjVo2AUjIJRMAIBAE9TR/tD5ToIAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0007-1434-0590","institution":"Texas A\u0026M University Corpus Christi","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Lawrence","middleName":"","lastName":"Izuagie","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-04-28 23:12:32","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":{"humanSubjects":false,"vertebrateSubjects":false,"conflictsOfInterestStatement":false,"humanSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false,"humanSubjectConsent":false,"humanSubjectClinicalTrial":false,"humanSubjectCaseReport":false,"vertebrateSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false},"doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6551100/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6551100/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":81957181,"identity":"70d9d8a8-12bb-4776-ba2d-e8db85e8aeec","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-05 10:05:42","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":360755,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTheoretical Model Linking Media Exposure to SEL Outcomes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote. Conceptual pathway illustrating how media exposure influences SEL competencies through visual engagement and observational learning\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6551100/v1/c7a58d626fa1de20e53dc855.png"},{"id":81956643,"identity":"cf7a8eef-49a7-4df5-8de9-9bcbca6a08e5","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-05 09:57:42","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":65546,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote. Comparison of mean SEL scores following foreign and local animated media exposure.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6551100/v1/f7daec24ca5ddec2e4f24c7b.png"},{"id":81956644,"identity":"d089a832-1ed1-42f5-8477-cdf69b40dfdb","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-05 09:57:42","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":70895,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote. Trends in empathy and self-regulation scores across four weeks of media exposure\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6551100/v1/6081b53609eef9ba538b7a63.png"},{"id":81958243,"identity":"ea22d7bd-fc40-4b64-bfe9-748fc4d62299","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-05 10:13:48","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1154820,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6551100/v1/15788a5f-693a-40fb-8008-c1b9f826a374.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"The authors declare no competing interests.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMedia and Social-Emotional Learning in Early Childhood: A Mixed-Methods Study in Nigeria\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eSocial-emotional learning (SEL) has become a central focus in early childhood education, globally recognized for its role in fostering emotional intelligence, prosocial behavior, and long-term academic and interpersonal success. SEL refers to the process through which individuals acquire and apply emotional knowledge, interpersonal skills, and ethical decision-making to navigate social contexts effectively (CASEL, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). In the early years of development, when foundational emotional and social capacities are still forming, high-quality SEL experiences are particularly critical (Denham et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Zinsser et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Numerous studies have demonstrated that SEL instruction contributes to improved empathy, behavior regulation, peer relationships, and classroom cooperation (Durlak et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Blewitt et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs educators seek innovative ways to deliver SEL instruction, animated media has emerged as a promising pedagogical tool. Animated media, as defined across the literature, refers to visually dynamic content that uses the sequential display of still images\u0026mdash;often enhanced with sound, voice acting, and stylized motion\u0026mdash;to create emotionally engaging narratives for children (Furniss, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Guo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Hunt, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). In early childhood education, animated content has been shown to effectively model social behaviors, scaffold emotional understanding, and hold young learners\u0026rsquo; attention through symbolic storytelling and simplified emotional expressions. Animation's narrative clarity, visual expressiveness, and symbolic modeling make it especially appealing to young children, allowing them to observe and interpret complex emotional cues in simplified formats (Furniss, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Hunt, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). SEL-themed animation has been shown to promote emotional literacy, social problem-solving, and behavioral modeling (Mares \u0026amp; Pan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Shen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). However, while research in Western settings has explored the effectiveness of animation for SEL in both home and school environments, there remains a significant gap in the literature regarding its application in African early childhood classrooms, particularly in structured, comparative contexts where content type (foreign vs. local) is systematically analyzed.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCultural context is a critical factor in SEL engagement and effectiveness. Media that reflects children's lived experiences, linguistic backgrounds, and cultural norms is more likely to evoke emotional resonance, identity affirmation, and meaningful interpretation (Zhang, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Moreno et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Reader-Response Theory (Rosenblatt, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e) reinforces this by asserting that meaning is co-constructed between the viewer and the narrative, with the viewer's cultural background mediating interpretation. This suggests that culturally familiar animated content may support deeper SEL learning than foreign content, even when the behavioral messages are similar. By directly comparing SEL outcomes following foreign versus local media exposure, this study offers comparative insights into the influence of cultural familiarity on children's emotional development.\"\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Nigerian classrooms, where both foreign and local animated media are increasingly accessible, educators face a critical decision about which content best supports SEL outcomes. Although foreign programs may benefit from global production standards and thematic richness, local animations may foster greater emotional engagement and relevance. To date, however, few empirical studies have examined this question using direct behavioral observations and educator reflections within an early childhood classroom context. Moreover, comparative studies examining SEL outcomes by media type using a repeated-measures framework remain notably absent from the literature.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo address this gap, the current study used a within-subject, quasi-experimental crossover design to examine how exposure to foreign versus local animated media influences Nigerian preschool children's SEL development. Over a four-week period, children first viewed foreign animated content (Weeks 1\u0026ndash;2) and then local content (Weeks 3\u0026ndash;4). Their social-emotional behaviors were observed and rated weekly, and qualitative data were collected through post-intervention teacher interviews. Drawing on the CASEL framework (2020), Social Learning Theory (Bandura, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e), and Reader-Response Theory (Rosenblatt, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e), the study was guided by the following research questions:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRQ1: What social-emotional learning competencies do children demonstrate after exposure to foreign animated media content?\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eRQ2: What social-emotional learning competencies do children demonstrate after exposure to local animated media content?\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eRQ3: Do children demonstrate significantly different SEL competencies after exposure to local animated content compared to foreign animated content\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Literature Review","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eAnimation and Social-Emotional Learning in Early Childhood Education\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe evolving landscape of early childhood education has witnessed a growing emphasis on social-emotional learning (SEL) as a foundational element of holistic development. SEL encompasses the processes through which children acquire and effectively apply the knowledge, attitudes, and skills necessary to understand and manage emotions, set and achieve positive goals, feel and show empathy for others, establish and maintain positive relationships, and make responsible decisions (CASEL, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Durlak et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Blewitt et al., 2022). These competencies are particularly vital during early childhood, when children\u0026rsquo;s neural pathways for emotional processing, empathy, and social connection are most malleable (Denham et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Moreno et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Zinsser et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWithin this context, animated media have emerged as a significant tool for engaging children in the co-construction of SEL competencies. Animation\u0026mdash;defined as the art of creating the illusion of movement through a sequence of still images\u0026mdash;serves not only as entertainment but also as a pedagogical medium that can scaffold emotional understanding, prosocial behavior, and self-regulation (Furniss, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Guo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Shen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Studies have shown that well-designed animated content, particularly that featuring age-appropriate emotional scenarios and relatable characters, can support emotional recognition, empathy, and problem-solving in young viewers (Hunt, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Blewitt et al., 2022; Mares \u0026amp; Pan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMore specifically, researchers have found that the emotional and social cues presented in animated stories can serve as cognitive models that children observe and internalize, aligning with Bandura\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1977\u003c/span\u003e) Social Learning Theory. In a meta-analysis by Mares and Pan (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e), children who watched SEL-integrated television programming such as \u003cem\u003eSesame Street\u003c/em\u003e demonstrated improved emotional labeling, perspective-taking, and cooperative behavior. These findings are further corroborated by Shen et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), who reported that AI-assisted animated stories promoted self-awareness and emotional articulation, particularly when coupled with adult-guided reflection.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn contrast to the abundance of studies on Western-produced animated media, few empirical investigations have examined how children from African contexts respond to both local and foreign animated content. The cultural dimension of children's media engagement remains underexplored in SEL research. Evidence from culturally relevant pedagogy suggests that children are more likely to engage with and internalize content when it reflects their own language, traditions, and lived experiences (Ladson-Billings, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e; Zhang, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Culturally aligned media helps ground learning in meaningful contexts and enhances the emotional resonance of modeled behaviors, potentially increasing the impact of SEL interventions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRecent scholarship underscores the importance of cultural familiarity in children\u0026rsquo;s engagement with educational content. Moreno et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) emphasized that cultural congruence in media can facilitate identity development and emotional security. O\u0026rsquo;Neil, Valadez, and Izuagie (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e) similarly demonstrated how immersive media can serve as a powerful tool for affirming identity and emotional expression among children with dyslexia. Their findings highlight that when digital media is designed with cultural sensitivity and narrative authenticity, it has the potential to elevate both self-concept and social-emotional capacity. This aligns with Reader-Response Theory, which posits that viewers construct meaning based on their own cultural and emotional frameworks (Rosenblatt, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e). In practice, this suggests that local animated media may evoke stronger affective and behavioral responses than foreign content, a hypothesis that warrants direct comparative analysis through structured empirical studies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite the potential of both media types, studies comparing children\u0026rsquo;s SEL outcomes following exposure to foreign versus local animated content in African early childhood settings are scarce. While foreign content is often more accessible and higher in production value, local animations are better situated to reflect children's sociocultural environments. This study addresses the gap by using a within-subject, repeated-measures design to compare children\u0026rsquo;s SEL development across two phases: foreign animated content (Weeks 1\u0026ndash;2) and local animated content (Weeks 3\u0026ndash;4). This approach not only enables a direct behavioral comparison but also examines whether one media context promotes SEL competencies more effectively than the other.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Theoretical Framework","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study is grounded in an integrative theoretical framework that draws from four key bodies of scholarship: the CASEL framework for social-emotional learning (SEL), Bandura\u0026rsquo;s Social Learning Theory, Reader-Response Theory, and perspectives from visual and media literacy. Together, these frameworks offer a robust lens for examining how animated media, particularly when differentiated by cultural origin, can influence SEL development among preschool children in classroom contexts.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) defines SEL as the process through which children acquire and apply emotional knowledge and social skills to manage relationships, make responsible decisions, and understand themselves and others. Its five core competencies\u0026mdash;self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, relationship skills, and responsible decision-making\u0026mdash;have been widely adopted in educational policy and practice (Zinsser et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Blewitt et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). CASEL emphasizes that SEL should be delivered through developmentally appropriate, culturally responsive, and contextually embedded learning environments. In this study, the CASEL framework informs the operationalization of SEL outcomes through observable indicators: empathy, cooperation, turn-taking, and self-regulation\u0026mdash;each of which is grounded in CASEL\u0026rsquo;s core domains.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBandura\u0026rsquo;s Social Learning Theory (1977, 1986) supports the argument that children learn through observation, imitation, and reinforcement. In the context of animation, characters serve as symbolic models\u0026mdash;demonstrating both positive and negative emotional responses, social strategies, and moral decision-making (Mares \u0026amp; Pan, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Hunt, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Animated stories often externalize internal states through vivid expression, stylized action, and simplified cause-effect sequences, which make them ideal for modeling SEL competencies for young children. Bandura further argued that the effectiveness of modeled behavior is amplified when reinforced through social interactions\u0026mdash;mirrored here through teacher-facilitated discussions that followed each media session (Shen et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Blewitt et al., 2022). This theoretical framework provides the behavioral foundation for using animated media to foster SEL.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eReader-Response Theory (Rosenblatt, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e) extends this foundation by emphasizing the interpretive role of the viewer. Rather than assuming media messages are absorbed uniformly, this theory posits that meaning is co-constructed between the text and the viewer, shaped by the viewer\u0026rsquo;s culture, language, emotional readiness, and lived experience. In media contexts, this means children may engage more deeply with narratives and characters that reflect their sociocultural identities. Zhang (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) and Moreno et al. (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) both stress that culturally relevant narratives promote stronger emotional engagement, identity affirmation, and behavioral modeling. The theory thus predicts that local animated media, which is more aligned with children\u0026rsquo;s everyday lives, may evoke stronger SEL responses than foreign media, even when both convey similar behavioral messages.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eVisual and media literacy perspectives further inform this study by framing media interpretation as an active process involving the decoding of visual, auditory, and symbolic cues. Hobbs (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e) and Callow (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) argue that children learn not only from narrative content but also from tone, pacing, gesture, and symbolism\u0026mdash;each of which can communicate emotional information. Animated media amplifies these elements through stylized storytelling, requiring children to make inferences and engage emotionally with the medium. Moreover, when these visual messages are culturally familiar, children are more likely to access and interpret them meaningfully (Guo et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). This reinforces the importance of cultural familiarity in media-mediated SEL, especially when adult guidance scaffolds the process. In addition to narrative content, the study emphasizes that children\u0026apos;s interpretation of animated media relies heavily on visual literacy skills\u0026mdash;decoding facial expressions, gestures, and symbolic imagery that convey emotional meaning\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFinally, the work of O\u0026rsquo;Neil, Valadez, and Izuagie (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e) underscores how immersive, culturally responsive media can facilitate not just SEL but also identity formation, self-advocacy, and relational competence in early learners. In their study involving children with dyslexia, the use of culturally grounded virtual reality narratives empowered learners to express emotions, develop empathy, and engage reflectively with content. Their findings suggest that media interventions are most effective when learners see themselves reflected in both form and message. This insight directly informs the current study\u0026rsquo;s comparative approach, which examines whether Nigerian children exhibit stronger SEL responses following local versus foreign animated media exposure.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTogether, these theories and supporting studies provide a comprehensive framework for understanding how children interpret and internalize social-emotional messages from animated media. They support the study\u0026rsquo;s central hypothesis that SEL outcomes are not only shaped by media content but are significantly influenced by the cultural congruence of that content with the learner\u0026rsquo;s identity and environment.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methodology","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eResearch Design\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study employed a within-subject, two-phase, quasi-experimental crossover design embedded within a convergent mixed-methods framework. The design enabled a direct comparison of children's social-emotional learning (SEL) behaviors following exposure to two distinct types of animated media: foreign content in Weeks 1 and 2, and local Nigerian content in Weeks 3 and 4. The crossover structure allowed each child to serve as their own control, eliminating between-group variability and enhancing the internal validity of behavioral comparisons across the two phases.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis design was particularly appropriate for the early childhood classroom context, where random assignment and fully controlled experimentation are often impractical. The quantitative component was complemented by qualitative interviews with classroom teachers to provide interpretive depth and to triangulate behavioral observations. Together, these approaches allowed the researchers to explore not only \u003cem\u003ewhat\u003c/em\u003e changed in children\u0026rsquo;s SEL behaviors but also \u003cem\u003ehow and why\u003c/em\u003e these changes occurred in relation to the cultural framing of the media content.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eParticipants\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants included 200 children between the ages of three and six, enrolled in four early childhood classrooms in Osun State, Nigeria. Classrooms were selected through purposive sampling based on administrative approval, consistent exposure to screen-based content, and willingness to participate in the four-week intervention period. All participating children had parental or guardian consent, and assent was obtained in age-appropriate forms.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor the qualitative component, five early childhood educators were purposively selected based on their professional experience (minimum five years), familiarity with SEL pedagogy, and use of both foreign and local animated media in instruction. These educators participated in semi-structured interviews following the four-week observation period. The research protocol was approved by the Health Research Ethics Committee ([blinded]) of [blinded], Ile-Ife, under ethics number [insert number], and adhered to all institutional and international guidelines for research with human subjects.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eIntervention and Media Exposure\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe media-based SEL intervention consisted of 12 curated animated video sessions delivered over a four-week period\u0026mdash;three sessions per week. Each session involved the screening of a 20\u0026ndash;25 minute episode, selected for its alignment with SEL themes including empathy, self-regulation, cooperation, and turn-taking.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Weeks 1 and 2, children were exposed to foreign animated content, consisting of internationally produced programs such as \u003cem\u003eDaniel Tiger\u0026rsquo;s Neighborhood\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003ePocoyo\u003c/em\u003e, which emphasize emotional literacy and social problem-solving. In Weeks 3 and 4, children viewed local animated content, including \u003cem\u003eBino and Fino\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eUbongo Kids\u003c/em\u003e, which were selected for their cultural relevance, language accessibility, and portrayal of prosocial behavior within familiar Nigerian contexts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFollowing each session, teachers facilitated brief reflective discussions aimed at helping children interpret character actions, identify emotional cues, and relate the animated stories to their own experiences. These post-viewing conversations were designed to support the co-construction of SEL meaning, in alignment with both Social Learning Theory and Reader-Response Theory.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eInstruments\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eQuantitative data were collected using the Cartoon Social Behavioral Observation Scale (CSBOS), a researcher-adapted rubric designed to assess SEL behaviors in classroom settings. The CSBOS included four domains: empathy, cooperation, turn-taking, and self-regulation. Each domain was scored on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not observed) to 5 (consistently demonstrated). The scale demonstrated good internal reliability (Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.84) in a pilot phase conducted prior to data collection.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eQualitative data were gathered through a semi-structured interview protocol, which asked educators to reflect on children's emotional responses, peer interactions, behavioral modeling, and the relative cultural relevance of the foreign and local animated content. Interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed, and translated where necessary, and were analyzed thematically as described in the Data Analysis section.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eData Collection Procedure\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eBehavioral data were collected at the end of each media week, resulting in four waves of data per child and a total of 800 data points. Observers were trained to apply the CSBOS consistently across classrooms, and interrater reliability was confirmed during the pilot. Teachers facilitated group discussions following each viewing session but did not explicitly instruct SEL content, preserving the distinction between media effects and formal instruction.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEducator interviews were conducted after the final week of observation. These interviews lasted approximately 30\u0026ndash;45 minutes and were conducted in English or Yoruba, depending on the participant\u0026rsquo;s preference\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eData Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eQuantitative Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eQuantitative data were analyzed using a within-subject, repeated-measures approach to examine changes in social-emotional learning (SEL) behaviors across the two media exposure phases: foreign animated media (Weeks 1\u0026ndash;2) and local animated media (Weeks 3\u0026ndash;4). For each child, weekly scores for empathy and self-regulation were averaged across the two-week intervals, resulting in two mean scores per domain\u0026mdash;one representing the foreign phase and the other representing the local phase.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo determine whether there were statistically significant differences in these SEL behaviors based on media type, paired samples t-tests were conducted. This method was selected due to the repeated-measures design and the continuous nature of the empathy and self-regulation scores, allowing for direct comparison within the same participants. Assumptions of normality were assessed through Shapiro-Wilk tests and inspection of Q-Q plots. All statistical analyses were conducted using SPSS version 26, with the significance level set at α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.05.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor turn-taking and cooperation, behaviors were scored as categorical indicators (i.e., observed vs. not observed). As such, these domains were analyzed descriptively using frequency counts and percentages to summarize the proportion of children who demonstrated each behavior in each phase. While inferential statistics were not applied to these variables due to their binary nature and unequal distribution, the descriptive trends were used to inform interpretation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eQualitative Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eQualitative data were analyzed using Braun and Clarke\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e\u003cb\u003e)\u003c/b\u003e six-phase thematic analysis method. Transcripts from teacher interviews were first read repeatedly for familiarity, then coded line-by-line using an inductive approach. Initial codes were grouped into subthemes and later refined into three overarching themes related to children's emotional expression, peer modeling, and cultural alignment with media content.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoding and analysis were conducted manually by the lead researcher, with peer debriefing used to validate coding decisions and ensure credibility. Emerging themes were compared against the quantitative findings to identify points of convergence and divergence, providing a richer understanding of how different media types influenced children\u0026rsquo;s SEL behaviors. The thematic structure also helped contextualize statistical differences and offered interpretive depth that numbers alone could not provide.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eQuantitative Findings\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDescriptive statistics indicated improvements across all four SEL domains between the foreign media phase (Weeks 1\u0026ndash;2) and the local media phase (Weeks 3\u0026ndash;4). Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e presents the means and standard deviations for empathy and self-regulation, which were analyzed inferentially.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePaired samples t-tests revealed statistically significant differences in SEL outcomes based on media type. For empathy, mean scores increased from M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.75 (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.41) during the foreign media phase to M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.05 (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.36) during the local media phase, \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e(199)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;8.02, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001. Similarly, self-regulation scores rose from M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.30 (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.44) to M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.00 (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.40), \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e(199)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;10.61, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001, suggesting stronger internal control and emotional management following culturally familiar content (see Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDescriptive statistics for turn-taking and cooperation\u0026mdash;measured as binary indicators\u0026mdash;also showed positive changes. Turn-taking increased from 48.5% during the foreign phase to 66.0% during the local phase, while cooperation rose from 50.5\u0026ndash;64.5% (see Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Though not subjected to inferential testing, these patterns support a broader trend of SEL improvement during the local media phase.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVisual representations of these patterns are presented in Fig. 1, which compares empathy and self-regulation scores across the two media conditions, and Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, which shows the weekly progression of SEL scores across Weeks 1 through 4. Both graphs illustrate a noticeable upward trend, particularly in Weeks 3 and 4 when local content was introduced.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eQualitative Findings\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn addition to the quantitative results, qualitative data from teacher interviews provided rich, contextual insights into how children responded emotionally and behaviorally to the animated media exposure\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThematic analysis of teacher interviews yielded three major themes:\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEmotional Resonance and Expressive Language,\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBehavioral Reenactment and Peer Modeling, and\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCultural Familiarity and Classroom Engagement.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eTheme 1: Emotional Resonance and Expressive Language\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTeachers consistently observed richer emotional expression and verbalization during the local media phase. Children used affective language spontaneously and in their native dialects, often referencing characters\u0026apos; feelings or situations. One teacher noted, \u0026ldquo;They began to say things like, \u0026lsquo;She is angry because her friend took her toy,\u0026rsquo; and they used words from home, even in Yoruba.\u0026rdquo; These observations reinforce Rosenblatt\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e) Reader-Response Theory and Zhang\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) work on culturally relevant media, showing that identity-aligned narratives can evoke deeper emotional literacy.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eTheme 2: Behavioral Reenactment and Peer Modeling\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChildren frequently reenacted SEL behaviors portrayed in the animations\u0026mdash;especially during free play and cooperative tasks. These reenactments were more natural and socially embedded during the local media phase. One educator shared, \u0026ldquo;After watching a girl share food with her friend, they started offering pieces of their crayons to each other.\u0026rdquo; This aligns with Bandura\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e) Social Learning Theory, where modeled behaviors are internalized and then expressed through social interaction\u0026mdash;particularly when children see those behaviors in culturally familiar settings.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eTheme 3: Cultural Familiarity and Classroom Engagement\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTeachers reported heightened attentiveness, excitement, and verbal participation when children viewed local animated content. Compared to the foreign media phase, local content prompted more questions, emotional outbursts, and spontaneous commentary. \u0026ldquo;They watched the foreign cartoons quietly, like they were in a movie theatre. But with the local ones, they were shouting, pointing, asking why the girl was crying,\u0026rdquo; one teacher explained. These observations resonate with findings from O\u0026rsquo;Neil, Valadez, and Izuagie (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e), who emphasized the SEL value of culturally affirming media that reflects children\u0026apos;s linguistic and sociocultural backgrounds.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eThe following tables and figures present the descriptive statistics and inferential analyses illustrating the social-emotional learning (SEL) outcomes observed across the foreign and local media exposure phases.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003ctable id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMeans and Standard Deviations for SEL Scores by Media Type\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSEL Domain\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eForeign Media (Weeks 1\u0026ndash;2)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLocal Media (Weeks 3\u0026ndash;4)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEmpathy\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.75, SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.41\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.05, SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.36\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSelf-Regulation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.30, SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.44\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.00, SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.40\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003ctfoot\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote. SEL\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;social-emotional learning. Foreign media exposure refers to Weeks 1\u0026ndash;2; local media exposure refers to Weeks 3\u0026ndash;4.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tfoot\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003ctable id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePaired Samples t-Test Results for Empathy and Self-Regulation\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSEL Domain\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003et\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003edf\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ep-value\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEmpathy\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e199\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSelf-Regulation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.61\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e199\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003ctfoot\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"4\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote. Paired samples t-tests compared SEL outcomes following foreign and local animated media exposure.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tfoot\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv align=\"char\" class=\"colspec\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003ctable id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\" class=\"fr-table-selection-hover\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDescriptive Statistics for Turn-Taking and Cooperation\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSEL Domain\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eForeign Media (Weeks 1\u0026ndash;2)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLocal Media (Weeks 3\u0026ndash;4)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTurn-Taking\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e48.5%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e66.0%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCooperation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50.5%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e64.5%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003ctfoot\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote. Percentages reflect the proportion of children observed demonstrating each SEL competency during each media phase.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tfoot\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study explored the role of animated media\u0026mdash;both foreign and local\u0026mdash;in shaping young children\u0026rsquo;s social-emotional learning (SEL) within Nigerian early childhood classrooms. Using a quasi-experimental crossover design with repeated observations and teacher interviews, the study found that children demonstrated measurable improvements in key SEL domains following media exposure. These improvements were most notable during the local animation phase, which produced statistically higher scores in empathy and self-regulation. These findings offer important insights into how culturally aligned animated content can foster SEL growth and support children\u0026rsquo;s emotional development in early educational settings.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eChildren showed observable SEL growth following exposure to both foreign and local animated media. Empathy, self-regulation, cooperation, and turn-taking were all positively influenced by animated content that modeled these behaviors. This aligns with Bandura\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e) Social Learning Theory, which posits that children learn through observation and imitation, especially when modeled behaviors are reinforced socially. Prior research has shown that children internalize and practice behaviors seen in animated characters (Mares \u0026amp; Pan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Shen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), and this study extends those findings to a Nigerian classroom context. The emotional cues and moral dilemmas presented in both foreign and local content served as effective symbolic models for SEL learning.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe paired samples t-test revealed that children demonstrated significantly higher empathy and self-regulation scores following exposure to local animated content. This result supports the hypothesis that cultural familiarity enhances SEL engagement, consistent with Reader-Response Theory (Rosenblatt, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e) and recent findings by Zhang (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) and Moreno et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). When children recognize familiar language, social customs, and settings in media, they are more likely to connect emotionally with the characters and internalize the social behaviors portrayed. Teachers also reported higher levels of verbal participation, emotional expressiveness, and peer interaction during the local animation phase\u0026mdash;qualitative findings that validate and enrich the quantitative outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese findings echo the work of O\u0026rsquo;Neil, Valadez, and Izuagie (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e), who found that culturally grounded, immersive media not only enhances learners' emotional expression but also fosters identity affirmation and self-efficacy. In that study, children engaged more meaningfully with content that reflected their lived experiences, suggesting that representation in media is not merely symbolic\u0026mdash;it has real implications for how learners perceive themselves and relate to others. Similarly, in the current study, local animated content elicited more spontaneous emotion labeling, peer modeling, and social initiation, indicating that SEL is deeply intertwined with cultural context. The comparative design provides important evidence on how culturally congruent versus culturally distant media content differentially shapes SEL competencies\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhile foreign media contributed positively, especially in providing structure, curiosity, and novelty, their effects were less relational. Children appeared to engage cognitively with the foreign content, but their emotional expressiveness and social responsiveness were less pronounced. This suggests that while foreign animation can support behavioral modeling, local media may be more effective in activating the emotional depth and contextual resonance needed for SEL development. These findings also align with the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989), affirming children's rights to emotional expression, cultural identity, and participation in educational experiences that respect their developmental needs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec23\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eLimitations\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhile this study provides valuable insights into the role of animated media in supporting social-emotional learning (SEL) in early childhood, several limitations must be acknowledged. First, the study employed a quasi-experimental crossover design without counterbalancing the order of media exposure. All children were exposed to foreign animation before local animation, which raises the possibility of order effects or maturation influencing outcomes. Although the within-subjects design controlled for individual variability, it did not fully eliminate potential temporal confounds.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecond, the absence of a traditional control group limits the ability to isolate the effects of media exposure from other classroom influences. Although this design mirrors real-world classroom settings where ethical constraints make it difficult to withhold educational content, it limits causal claims. Additionally, while paired samples t-tests were employed to examine changes in empathy and self-regulation, other SEL domains, such as turn-taking and cooperation, were analyzed descriptively due to their categorical format. Future studies should consider using more advanced statistical models, such as generalized estimating equations or multilevel modeling, to account for nested data structures and variable types.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThird, data were collected from a single geographical region in southwestern Nigeria, which may affect the generalizability of findings. Sociocultural norms, language, and media preferences vary widely across African contexts, and the responses observed in this study may not reflect the experiences of children in other regions or countries. Moreover, while teachers\u0026rsquo; perspectives enriched the qualitative findings, the study did not include direct child voice through interviews or self-reports, which may have provided additional insights into internal emotional responses and meaning making.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinally, the media content used in the study was selected based on availability, language accessibility, and SEL alignment, but differences in production quality and animation style between the foreign and local content may have introduced unintended variables. Although efforts were made to match content thematically, future studies should use more tightly controlled media samples or compare equivalent productions from diverse cultural sources.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec24\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eImplications for Practice\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings of this study have important implications for educators, content developers, and policymakers seeking to enhance social-emotional learning (SEL) outcomes in early childhood settings through the use of animated media. As shown in both the quantitative and qualitative results, children demonstrated stronger SEL responses, particularly in empathy and self-regulation, after exposure to culturally relevant local animated content. These outcomes suggest that media can be a powerful instructional tool when its design and implementation are responsive to the social and cultural contexts of its audience.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor educators, the study reinforces the importance of intentional media integration into classroom practice. Rather than viewing animated content as passive entertainment or a classroom filler, teachers can use curated animations as SEL prompts, followed by reflective discussions that reinforce observed behaviors. The findings support the idea that post-viewing mediation is critical in translating on-screen modeling into real-life behavioral change (Bandura, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e; Shen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Teachers should also be encouraged to select media that reflects children\u0026rsquo;s cultural environments, as such content not only models\u0026rsquo; prosocial behavior but also deepens emotional engagement and verbal participation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor media content developers, the results point to a pressing need to invest in culturally grounded animated programming that is linguistically accessible and contextually relevant to the children it serves. While global media products often have a wide reach, they may lack the relational and cultural resonance necessary for deep emotional learning. As emphasized in O\u0026rsquo;Neil, Valadez, and Izuagie (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e), media that reflect children\u0026rsquo;s identities, languages, and social norms contribute to more authentic emotional development and increase learners\u0026rsquo; willingness to engage, reflect, and express themselves. Developers should collaborate with educators, child psychologists, and local artists to create content that balances SEL goals with cultural authenticity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor policymakers, this study highlights the potential of animated media as a scalable and cost-effective intervention for SEL development in early childhood education, especially in contexts where teacher capacity or resources may be limited. Policies should support the development of national SEL guidelines that include provisions for high-quality, culturally relevant media. Additionally, funding for local animation studios and training for educators in media-based instruction can help bridge equity gaps and ensure that SEL programming reflects the diversity of children's lived experiences. Media literacy should also be integrated into teacher training programs to enable educators to evaluate, select, and implement media with pedagogical intention.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBeyond its national context, the findings of this study hold important implications for global early childhood education. As digital media becomes increasingly accessible across continents, educators and policymakers worldwide face the challenge of curating content that is not only developmentally appropriate but also culturally responsive. This study highlights the importance of embedding SEL objectives within media narratives that reflect children's sociocultural identities\u0026mdash;a principle that transcends geographic boundaries. Whether in Lagos, Nairobi, Mumbai, or S\u0026atilde;o Paulo, the emotional salience of media is more likely to be amplified when children see their languages, customs, and community values represented on screen. Thus, international education initiatives aimed at advancing SEL should prioritize investments in localized media production, cross-cultural content adaptation, and teacher training in media facilitation. A global shift toward culturally relevant media in SEL programming would not only enhance engagement but also foster emotional inclusion and equity for learners in diverse educational systems.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn summary, this study demonstrates that animation is not merely a visual tool but a culturally responsive pedagogical strategy with the potential to enhance emotional intelligence, cooperation, and relational skills in young learners, especially when thoughtfully embedded within the social and linguistic context of the classroom.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study explored the impact of animated media\u0026mdash;foreign and local\u0026mdash;on the development of social-emotional learning (SEL) competencies in early childhood classrooms in Nigeria. Through a within-subject, quasi-experimental crossover design and a convergent mixed-methods approach, the study examined changes in empathy, self-regulation, cooperation, and turn-taking across a four-week media intervention. Findings from both quantitative and qualitative strands indicated that while children responded positively to both foreign and local animated content, the local media phase elicited significantly stronger gains in empathy and self-regulation, along with higher levels of emotional expression and classroom engagement.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese results contribute to a growing body of research that emphasizes the importance of culturally responsive pedagogy in early childhood SEL development (CASEL, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Moreno et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Zhang, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The study supports theoretical assertions from Bandura\u0026rsquo;s Social Learning Theory and Reader-Response Theory that children learn best when modeled behaviors are emotionally salient and culturally meaningful. It also affirms the critical role that identity-affirming media plays in shaping how children interpret, internalize, and apply social-emotional messages (O\u0026rsquo;Neil, Valadez, \u0026amp; Izuagie, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn practice, the study demonstrates that animated media can serve as more than just an instructional aid\u0026mdash;it can be a powerful emotional and relational scaffold when it mirrors children\u0026rsquo;s lived experiences. By intentionally curating media that reflects children\u0026rsquo;s cultural contexts, educators and media developers can enhance the authenticity and depth of SEL outcomes. Policymakers, in turn, must recognize media\u0026rsquo;s potential not only as a classroom tool but also as a public good that contributes to emotional development, identity formation, and educational equity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinally, while the study was situated in a Nigerian context, its implications extend globally. In an increasingly connected world where media often transcends borders, the need to localize content without losing pedagogical integrity is both a challenge and an opportunity. Future research should explore these dynamics across diverse cultural and linguistic contexts, using longitudinal and multimodal approaches to capture the evolving relationship between media, identity, and emotional learning in the early years. Although situated within a Nigerian context, the implications of this study resonate globally, especially for early childhood systems seeking to integrate culturally responsive media to advance SEL outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical Approval Statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;This study was reviewed and approved by the Health Research Ethics Committee ([blinded]) of [blinded], Ile-Ife, Nigeria. The research protocol was granted approval under reference number [insert approval number], and all procedures adhered to institutional and international ethical standards for research involving human participants.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Participate and Consent for Publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;Informed consent was obtained from all participants\u0026rsquo; parents or legal guardians prior to the commencement of the study. Educators who participated in interviews provided verbal and written consent for both participation and the publication of anonymized excerpts from their contributions. In addition to obtaining parental or guardian consent, verbal assent was obtained from children in an age-appropriate manner prior to participation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding Disclosure\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict of Interest Disclosure\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;The authors declare no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Availability Statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;The datasets generated and analyzed during the current study are not publicly available due to participant confidentiality but are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAI Acknowledgement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe author of this study used OpenAI, specifically ChatGPT, to help with language refinement, formatting guidance, and structural alignment with the journal submission standard. The author takes full responsibility for all contents, interpretations, and conclusions of this study.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBandura, A. (1977) \u0026lsquo;Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change\u0026rsquo;, \u003cem\u003ePsychological Review\u003c/em\u003e, 84(2), pp. 191\u0026ndash;215.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBandura, A. (1986) \u003cem\u003eSocial foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory\u003c/em\u003e. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBlewitt, C. et al. (2021) \u0026lsquo;A systematic review of targeted social and emotional learning interventions in early childhood education and care settings\u0026rsquo;, \u003cem\u003eEarly Child Development and Care\u003c/em\u003e, 191(14), pp. 2159\u0026ndash;2187.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBraun, V. and Clarke, V. 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(2018) \u003cem\u003eDesigning and conducting mixed methods research\u003c/em\u003e (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDarling-Hammond, L. (2015) \u003cem\u003eThe flat world and education: How America\u0026apos;s commitment to equity will determine our future\u003c/em\u003e. New York: Teachers College Press.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDenham, S.A., Bassett, H.H. and Zinsser, K. (2012) \u0026lsquo;Early childhood teachers as socializers of young children\u0026rsquo;s emotional competence\u0026rsquo;, \u003cem\u003eEarly Childhood Education Journal\u003c/em\u003e, 40, pp. 137\u0026ndash;143.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDurlak, J.A. et al. (2011) \u0026lsquo;The impact of enhancing students\u0026rsquo; social and emotional learning: A meta‐analysis of school‐based universal interventions\u0026rsquo;, \u003cem\u003eChild Development\u003c/em\u003e, 82(1), pp. 405\u0026ndash;432.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFurniss, M. (2008) \u003cem\u003eArt in motion: Animation aesthetics\u003c/em\u003e. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGuo, Y. et al. (2020) \u0026lsquo;Using digital media to promote social-emotional learning in young children\u0026rsquo;, \u003cem\u003eEarly Childhood Research Quarterly\u003c/em\u003e, 51, pp. 134\u0026ndash;147.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHobbs, R. (2006) \u0026lsquo;Non‐optimal uses of video in the classroom\u0026rsquo;, \u003cem\u003eLearning, Media and Technology\u003c/em\u003e, 31(1), pp. 35\u0026ndash;50.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHunt, D.E. (2021) \u0026lsquo;Social emotional learning from live-action and animated characters in children\u0026rsquo;s television\u0026rsquo;, \u003cem\u003eJournal of Children and Media\u003c/em\u003e, 15(2), pp. 241\u0026ndash;258.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKaspar, K.L. and Massey, S.L. (2023) \u0026lsquo;Implementing social-emotional learning in the elementary classroom\u0026rsquo;, \u003cem\u003eEarly Childhood Education Journal\u003c/em\u003e, 51(4), pp. 641\u0026ndash;650.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLadson-Billings, G. (1995) \u0026lsquo;Toward a theory of culturally relevant pedagogy\u0026rsquo;, \u003cem\u003eAmerican Educational Research Journal\u003c/em\u003e, 32(3), pp. 465\u0026ndash;491.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMares, M.L. and Pan, Z. (2013) \u0026lsquo;Effects of Sesame Street: A meta-analysis of children\u0026apos;s learning in 15 countries\u0026rsquo;, \u003cem\u003eJournal of Applied Developmental Psychology\u003c/em\u003e, 34(3), pp. 140\u0026ndash;151.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMessaris, P. (1994) \u003cem\u003eVisual \u0026apos;literacy\u0026apos;: Image, mind, and reality\u003c/em\u003e. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMondi, C.F., Woods, S.N. and Rafi, J. 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(2021) \u0026lsquo;Positive effects of prosocial cartoon viewing on aggression among children: The potential mediating role of aggressive motivation\u0026rsquo;, \u003cem\u003eChild Indicators Research\u003c/em\u003e, 14, pp. 1\u0026ndash;19.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZinsser, K.M., Weissberg, R.P. and Dusenbury, L. (2014) \u0026lsquo;Social and emotional learning: A critical component of children\u0026rsquo;s development\u0026rsquo;, in Tremblay, R.E., Boivin, M. and Peters, R.D.V. (eds) \u003cem\u003eEncyclopedia on early childhood development\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"Texas A\u0026M University – Corpus Christi","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"social-emotional learning, animated media, early childhood education, cultural relevance, Nigerian classrooms, media comparison","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6551100/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6551100/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study examined the impact of animated media on social-emotional learning (SEL) among Nigerian preschoolers using a within-subject, quasi-experimental crossover design. Over four weeks, 200 children were exposed to foreign animated content during Weeks 1\u0026ndash;2 and local Nigerian animation during Weeks 3\u0026ndash;4. SEL behaviors\u0026mdash;empathy, self-regulation, cooperation, and turn-taking\u0026mdash;were assessed weekly using the Cartoon Social Behavioral Observation Scale (CSBOS), while teacher interviews provided qualitative insights. Quantitative analysis revealed statistically significant improvements in empathy and self-regulation following exposure to local content, as measured by paired samples t-tests. Descriptive findings also showed increases in cooperation and turn-taking during the local media phase. Thematic analysis of educator interviews identified three major themes: emotional resonance, behavioral reenactment, and cultural familiarity. Children demonstrated stronger verbal engagement, emotional expression, and peer modeling during the local content phase. The findings underscore the value of culturally relevant animated media as a pedagogical tool for SEL, highlighting its potential to support emotional development and identity formation when paired with guided reflection. These results have practical implications for educators, media developers, and policymakers seeking to integrate media into early childhood instruction. The study also contributes globally by advocating for culturally contextualized SEL frameworks in media-rich educational environments.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Media and Social-Emotional Learning in Early Childhood: A Mixed-Methods Study in Nigeria","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-05-05 09:57:38","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6551100/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"a94220fe-fae5-43c0-be65-8c4f4db7d3be","owner":[],"postedDate":"May 5th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":47817296,"name":"Educational Philosophy and Theory"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-05-05T09:57:38+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-05-05 09:57:38","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6551100","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6551100","identity":"rs-6551100","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}