Assessing the environmental footprint of the mining industry: A case study on the bauxite and iron mining projects of Boke and Kerouane, Guinea

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This study employs a mixed-methods approach to evaluate the environmental impact of bauxite and iron mining projects in Boke and Kerouane, Guinea. Primary data were collected from October 2022 to January 2023, with a focus on water pollution, soil, noise, air quality, vegetation, fauna, and flora. A reference matrix was used to assess the impact of mining activities, categorizing them as negligible, moderate, or significant. This study analyzed 400 soil samples from 21 sites to evaluate water quality, measured noise levels using an NL52 Class 1 sound level meter, and monitored air quality using the DustMate system. Biodiversity surveys were conducted to identify potential impacts on the receptors. The results showed that the pH of the water averaged between 5.79 and 8.66, and some companies exceeded the average value of electrical conductivity. The soil composition showed the presence of Cr, Cu, Ni, and Zn in both the mining regions. Noise and particulate matter pollution exceeded the guideline values at some sites. This project will result in the direct loss of natural and modified habitats, including erosion of lateritic soil in ridge areas. Non-native plant species have been identified in the Kerouane Iron Project. This study underscores the need for policymakers to integrate climate change mitigation strategies into land use planning and use an integrated index of economic and environmental performance to improve sustainability in the mining industry. Environmental concern Mining projects Natural resources Monitoring Sustainability Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 1. Introduction Traditionally, the mining industry has been a significant contributor to environmental degradation, and the pressing need for sustainable practices in this sector has become increasingly apparent in recent years (Muhirwa et al. 2023 ). In response to growing concerns about the industry's environmental impact, there has been growing interest in exploring alternative methods and technologies that can help reduce its environmental footprint. These include the use of renewable energy sources and efficient extraction methods (Li et al. 2022 ). One promising solution that is gaining traction is the adoption of circular economy principles, which involve designing products and processes with sustainability in mind and minimizing waste throughout the value chain. Companies must embrace the principles of the circular economy, which entails prioritizing sustainable practices, such as renewable energy sources and reduced water usage, as well as finding innovative ways to repurpose waste materials (Wang & Xu 2024 ). To ensure long-term viability, the mining industry must adopt a proactive approach to sustainability and mitigate its negative impacts on the environment. The environmental impact of mining extends beyond local ecosystems and has far-reaching consequences for the global environment. Thus, it is essential to evaluate the environmental impacts of mining projects and identify ways to reduce their negative effects (Jhariya et al. 2016 ). Implementing sustainable mining practices that emphasize the conservation of natural resources and minimize waste and pollution is an effective approach to reducing the environmental impact of mining projects (Ritika 2023 ). Moreover, investing in renewable energy sources and energy-efficient technologies can help reduce greenhouse gas emissions and contribute to a more sustainable future. Previous research has revealed that the mining industry has a substantial environmental footprint, with extraction and processing of minerals resulting in air and water pollution, deforestation, and habitat destruction (Noi & Ciroth 2018 ; Farjana et al. 2018 ; Zhou 2023 ). Additionally, this sector has significant social and economic consequences for local communities, including the displacement and loss of traditional livelihoods. To address these negative social and economic consequences and to reduce environmental damage, responsible and sustainable mining practices are crucial (Noi & Ciroth 2018 ). It is also important to involve local communities in the decision-making process to ensure that their voices are heard and that their needs are met. Despite the increasing environmental concerns surrounding mining activities, there is a scarcity of comprehensive studies that evaluate the environmental footprint of specific mining projects, particularly in developing countries, such as Guinea. Thus, it is imperative to conduct extensive research and analysis to identify and address the environmental challenges associated with mining in Guinea and other developing countries (Hasanuddin et al. 2023 ). To achieve this objective, policymakers and industry stakeholders must collaborate to develop sustainable mining practices that safeguard the environment, while promoting socioeconomic development in Guinea and other countries facing similar challenges (Zhou 2023 ). By fostering partnerships among government bodies, mining corporations, and local communities, a more equitable and environmentally conscious mining sector that benefits all parties involved can be created. This research aims to address this gap in knowledge by conducting a case study on the environmental effects of bauxite and iron mining in Boke and Kerouane, Guinea. By examining previous research, this study aimed to provide valuable insights and contribute to the body of knowledge on this topic. The study seeks to answer the question: "What is the environmental impact of bauxite and iron mining projects in Boke and Kerouane, Guinea, and what steps can be taken to mitigate their negative effects?" This study (1) evaluates the current environmental footprint of mining projects in Boke and Kerouane, Guinea, and (2) explores measures to mitigate their negative effects. In addition, this study (3) investigates the social and economic implications of these mining projects. This study proposes sustainable practices to reduce the negative consequences of mining projects in Boke, Kerouane, and Guinea. The remainder of this paper is arranged as follows: “Introduction” presents the background of the study; “Literature review” presents the literature review and regulatory framework and environmental policies; “Case study selection and methodologies” describes the relevant significance of the study area and methods adopted and data sources; “Empirical results and discussion” report the results of empirical analysis; “Conclusions and policy recommendations” consist of conclusions and policy implications. 2. Literature review The environmental consequences of the mining industry are a complex issue that has garnered increasing attention in recent years (Dibattista et al. 2023 ; Sanoh 2023 ). The literature indicates a consensus on the importance of assessing and managing environmental risks associated with mining activities. Agnieszka et al. ( 2020 ) emphasizes the need for comprehensive risk management in the mining sector, stressing the human, strategic, and operational aspects of risk, and calls for systematic literature reviews that address these simultaneously. This study's systematic approach, following PRISMA guidelines, provides a robust framework for evaluating the current state of research in this domain (Tlili et al. 2022 ). Conversely, while Agnieszka et al. ( 2020 ) focused on the broader scope of risk management, other studies concentrated on specific methodologies for assessing environmental impacts. For instance, Cabello et al. ( 2021 ) discussed the Ecological Footprint method applied to festivals, which could be extrapolated to mining, suggesting that such methodologies can inform strategies for mitigating environmental impacts. Hongyuan et al. (2024) also employs the Ecological Footprint approach, specifically within the construction industry, which shares similarities with mining in terms of material use and environmental effects. Li et al. ( 2024 ) proposed an ecological threat assessment framework for mining, integrating various data sources to evaluate the ecological impacts of mines, which underscores the complexity and regional specificity of the environmental footprint of mining. Valko and Kudenko ( 2024 ) and Paul et al. ( 2024 ) critically evaluate the reliability of models estimating the energy and environmental footprint of digital currencies, which, although not directly related to traditional mining, provide insights into the challenges of assessing the environmental impact of geographically distributed networks. The challenges associated with assessing the environmental impact of the mining industry are similar to those faced when evaluating the environmental footprint of other industries, as evidenced by research conducted in the fruit sector (Lu et al. 2024 ; Manakas et al. 2024 ; Waqas et al. 2024 ). Although not directly related to the mining industry, the findings of these studies provide useful insights into the difficulties of standardizing and harmonizing environmental accounting methods across different industries. The lack of consensus on definitions and calculations is a challenge that extends to the mining sector (Matuštík et al. 2024 ). Numerous studies have examined the environmental impacts, regulatory frameworks, and socioeconomic consequences of bauxite mining in Guinea and Brazil. These studies have documented substantial environmental and socioeconomic consequences of mining activities in the region (Dibattista et al. 2023 ; Respati & Putro 2023 ; Sanoh 2023 ). The reforms aimed at reducing risks and maximizing benefits in mining in Guinea have been evaluated, highlighting the inadequacies of the 1995 mining code and the improvements in the 2011 code, which emphasize transparency and environmental protection (Sidiki 2019 ). Socioeconomic conflicts in the Boke region have been attributed to issues such as youth employment and public service management, and innovative public-private partnerships have been suggested as a means of mitigating these conflicts (Camara et al. 2021 ). Finally, the local perception of bauxite mining's socio-environmental issues in the Boke has been investigated, revealing low awareness among locals and the prevalence of corruption and social inequalities (Dibattista et al. 2023 ). In Malaysia, the environmental and health impacts of bauxite mining have been a concern. Sylvie et al. (2024) reviews the potential environmental and health impacts on miners and surrounding communities, including air, water, and soil pollution. Periaiah et al. ( 2021 ) discuss the severe environmental impacts of uncontrolled bauxite mining in Kuantan, Malaysia, leading to a temporary ban and the need for a decision-support framework for Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA). Nazri et al. (2024) focused on water quality assessment in the mining areas of Malaysia, emphasizing the importance of spatiotemporal environmental impact assessments. Mining activities have been found to have a significant impact on quality of life and indigenous land rights. Rosli et al. ( 2021 ) found that mining activities led to a decrease in health-related quality of life among road users in mining areas. Another study by Annandale et al. ( 2021 ) highlighted the environmental impacts of bauxite mining on Indigenous land in Australia. This emphasizes the importance of indigenous people’s participation in mine-closure planning. Additionally, the mining industry's role in environmental peacebuilding and Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) was examined. Dibattista et al. ( 2023 ) questioned the contribution of mining companies' CSR activities to peacebuilding in Guinea, while Amir et al. (2019) described the implementation of EIA policies by mining companies in Gorontalo, Indonesia, noting the government's dominant role and the need for greater community participation. The literature emphasizes the significance of evaluating the environmental impact of the mining industry through various methodologies and frameworks. While comprehensive risk management is widely recognized (Agnieszka et al. 2020 ), the use of specific assessment methods, such as the Ecological Footprint (Cabello et al. 2021 ; Hongyuan et al. 2024) and the development of tailored assessment frameworks, are crucial for understanding and mitigating the environmental effects of mining activities. Addressing the challenges of standardization and methodological consistency (Matuštík et al. 2024 ) is necessary to advance this field. Overall, the literature advocates for a more rigorous and standardized approach to environmental footprint assessments in the mining industry that considers the complexity and regional specificity of its environmental impacts. 2.1 Regulatory framework and environmental policies Mining companies face a complex interplay of regulatory compliance, corporate environmental responsibility, and various stakeholder pressures, including international initiatives, industry associations, and local communities. Regulatory frameworks and environmental policies are crucial for evaluating and mitigating the environmental impact of the mining industry. Research indicates that the mining sector contributes to economic growth but can also result in severe environmental degradation without proper regulation. In countries such as Nigeria and Sierra Leone, existing legal frameworks have been deemed inadequate for controlling illicit mining operations and their environmental impact (Amoah & Eweje 2023 ; Lazarenko et al. 2021 ). Environmental regulations are essential for preserving the environment, with factors such as democracy, economic growth, and dependence on the mining sector influencing their effectiveness. Studies have shown that environmental regulations can reduce ecological footprints, especially in N-11 countries where democracy plays a key role in policy effectiveness. South Asian countries have also seen a reduction in ecological footprint due to environmental regulations, although the results vary across regions and cities (Amoah & Eweje 2023 ). Challenges in implementing these regulations include conflicts among government agencies and limited resource allocations. In weaker institutional contexts, such as Ghana, environmental sustainability in mining is often driven by ethical considerations and a social license to operate rather than robust regulatory frameworks. Guinea's reliance on voluntary industry-led initiatives and corporate ethics in environmental practices may have similar drivers. Barriers to environmental sustainability in mining are often rooted in governance frameworks with conflicting interests and values, which may also apply in Guinea. The lack of clear explanations of the contributions of mining to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in sustainability reports could also impact Guinea's mining sector. The regulatory environment for mining activities in Guinea is based on the 2011 Mining Code and other environmental regulations. The Mining Code outlines the legal requirements for exploration and mining activities as well as environmental protection measures. Key environmental policies in Guinea mandate environmental impact assessments (EIAs) and management plans for mining companies. Companies must conduct EIAs, develop and implement environmental management plans, and acquire government permits before commencing mining activities to comply with the environmental regulations. These policies have led mining companies in Guinea to consider and mitigate potential environmental impacts, with regular government inspections to ensure compliance. Consequently, mining companies in Guinea have adopted responsible and sustainable mining practices that prioritize environmental protection and community well-being. 3. Case study selection and methodologies Mining activities have a significant environmental impact, as shown in expert articles (Di Noi & Ciroth 2018 ; Zhou 2023 ). These articles highlight the importance of understanding the environmental consequences, such as water pollution and ecosystem degradation, and the need for effective management and policy initiatives. The Russian, Malaysian, Indian, and Brazilian mining industry cases demonstrate a shift in environmental policy responsibility toward private industries and the adoption of standardized environmental management systems (Amoah & Eweje 2023 ). This finding suggests a similar interplay in the case study of Guinea. Learning from past experiences and capturing lessons learned to support the notion that the Guinea case study offers valuable lessons for improving environmental management practices in the mining industry. This study's unique focus on Guinea's specific context, with high poverty and environmental degradation, but rich mineral resources, distinguishes it. This study can contribute to environmental management, including identifying best practices and lessons learned from the Boke and Kerouane projects that can be applied to other mining projects in Guinea and beyond, informing policymakers, regulators, and stakeholders about the potential risks and benefits of mining projects, and how to mitigate negative impacts while maximizing positive outcomes. This study investigated the ecological effects of the mining sector in Boke and Kerouane using a mixed-methods approach that combined both quantitative and qualitative data collection techniques. The study was conducted in the bauxite mining areas of Boke, including Compagnie des Bauxites de Guinee (CBG), Société Minière de Boke (SMB), Halco Mining, Alumina Compagnie de Guinee (ACG), Compagnie des Bauxites de Dian-Dian (COBAD), Aggregate Mineral Resource (AMR) Mining, and Kerouane iron mining project operated by a joint venture between the Government of Guinea, Simandou Winning Consortium, and Rio Tinto Simfer. The research relied on a variety of resources, such as primary data collected from field observations and secondary data sourced from government reports, academic publications, and industry materials. The primary data collection took place from October 2022 to January 2023 using equipment and tools to assess the impacts of mining operations on water pollution (surface, groundwater, and precipitation), soil, noise, air quality, vegetation, fauna, and flora (Fig. 1 ). The study used a reference matrix to differentiate between activities with negligible impacts that require no further mitigation measures, and those with moderate and significant impacts that require mitigation measures to reduce the changes in the affected areas (receptors) to a level that can be ignored. Online Resource Tables 1 and 2 summarize the methods used to evaluate the magnitude, extent, duration, and reversibility of physicochemical changes. The secondary data was collected from research engines and technical reports from the government and mining, particularly from companies in the bauxite mining areas (Moodley 2023 ; Loua et al. 2019; Haidara et al. 2017 ; Winnipeg & Ao 2016 ; unpublished reports such as ‘rapport préliminaire du potentiel de pollutions et de nuisances des activités minières sur les milieux récepteurs de la région de Boké’ and iron zone from ‘rapport de monitoring environnemental pour le renouvellement du CCE de Winning consortium Simandou Rail). 3.1 Analysis Once the sampling areas were defined, water, soil, noise, air quality, and vegetation were monitored and measured at each site. To ensure that accurate and comprehensive data were collected, all data were recorded in Microsoft Excel for statistical analysis and table and graph creation. This will lead to a better understanding of the environmental conditions in each area and will help make informed decisions on how to proceed. 3.1.1 Water sampling and measurements Various indicators have been developed to evaluate environmental management effectiveness including water sampling and measurement. These techniques are designed to assess the water footprint or quality of a product or process by comparing the potential impact of different facilities and supply chains. However, they may not provide an accurate measure of the absolute impact of an individual processing facility (Northey et al. 2016 ). To monitor the water quality, 400 samples (313 surface water and 87 groundwater samples) were collected from different areas. Sampling was conducted using disposable gloves and 1-liter plastic bottles that were rinsed three times with water to be sampled. Sampling was performed by immersing the sample bottle in water using a rope for surface water or by manually pumping groundwater. The measured data were automatically downloaded and recorded in field sheets for in situ analysis of physicochemical parameters. Field sampling and measurements were conducted carefully to minimize sample disturbance. Currently, guidelines for water quality in Guinea are required. Therefore, the Moroccan index of natural water quality was used as a standard for determining analytical values (Online Resource Table 3 ). The impact assessment was based on the sensitivity of the receptors and the potential magnitude of changes, particularly regarding water resources (Table 1 ), which is consistent with prevailing water assessment protocols (Chadli & Boufala 2021 ). Table 1 Magnitude and scale of change (IFC 2012 ) Magnitude of change General description of the change Specific to surface waters Specific to groundwater Negligible There was no significant change compared to natural variability. Low Water quantity and quality will recover quickly through natural processes, and the duration of the impact is short (a few months) Can affect a limited area/portion of the watercourse It can cause a temporary impact on localized groundwater. Moderate Water quality, quantity, and stream condition are likely to recover through natural processes, and the impact is expected to be in the medium term (one year) It can affect multiple portions/areas of a watercourse. This can lead to a loss of integrity of part of the aquifer and restrictions on use by the recipients. High Potential for permanent impact on water quality and quantity. An entire watercourse can be affected. It can cause the integrity of part of the aquifer to be lost and prevent its use by recipients. 3.1.2 Soil Sampling and Measurements Soil sampling and measurements provide tangible data on soil contamination and degradation, which is crucial for understanding the effects of mining on soil quality in areas such as Boke, Kerouane, and Guinea. Sustainable mining practices require this information to minimize environmental damage. In this study, soil samples were collected from 21 locations using a probe that penetrated each layer to a depth ranging from 0 to 0.35 meters, depending on the geological structure of the area. After collection, the samples were thoroughly mixed on a plastic sheet before the measurement. This method differs from the wet method, in which the sample is mixed in a closed microwave oven (Multiwave 3000, Anton Paar) to determine the heavy metal concentration (Ciarkowska & Gambus 2020 ). The soil quality was analyzed using portable automatic X-ray fluorescence (XRF) soil analyzer (Olympus) to measure the composition of various elements, such as Ag, As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb, Sb, and Zn (Yap et al. 2017). This device was checked daily for calibration before performing in situ analysis. An XRF soil analyzer was held over the mixed sample to perform an in-situ analysis of the heavy metals, as shown in Fig. 2 . 3.1.3 Noise measurements Monitoring and investigating noise levels in mining areas is crucial because of the potential for noise-induced hearing loss and other nonauditory health effects, as emphasized by Gutti et al. ( 2012 ). Several parameters, including the sound power level of noise generators, geological mining conditions, and meteorological parameters related to mining operations have been considered in various studies (Abdollahisharif et al. 2016 ; Lilic et al. 2018 ). Guinea's legal framework addresses noise issues and follows international practices (online resources Fig. 1 ). The study area noise was assessed using an NL52 Class 1 sound-level meter (Rion Co. Ltd.). This equipment was used to measure instantaneous and continuous noise levels over time, including the date and time. A microphone was mounted on a tripod at a height between 1.20 m and 1.50 m above the floor to capture these measurements. The sound-level meter and microphone were calibrated externally (Fig. 3 ). For each measurement, various parameters such as LAeq, LAeqmax, LAeqmin, and LAF50 were recorded (the sound level reached during the measurement). The measurements were subject to changes based on the location and daily schedule. They began at a specific location at 8:00 AM and continued until 11:30 PM. In addition, latitude/longitude and photographs of the measurement locations in four directions (north, south, east, and west) were recorded. Other factors, such as the source of recorded noise and weather conditions, were also documented. 3.1.4 Air pollution measurements This study examined the levels of pollutants, including particulate matter, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, and volatile organic compounds, at various locations, such as mining operations, transportation routes, and surrounding communities. The DustMate air quality monitoring system collected continuous gas and dust particle measurements over 24 hours from a fixed station, which helped monitor air quality in the project areas. This study evaluated the impact of emissions on air quality by analyzing the magnitude, sensitivity (Table 2 ), and online resources (Table 4 ). This highlights the importance of considering environmental factors (Farjana et al. 2019 ). Most of the particles generated during mineral processing are 10–75 m in diameter and relatively heavy, causing them to fall quickly from the atmosphere to the ground within 500 m of the release site (Lilic et al. 2018 ). Larger particles (> 30 m) fall within 60–90 m of their source, whereas smaller ones (10–30 m) can be found 250–500 m from their source. As a result, the study area for potential impacts associated with dust and particulate matter was approximately 1 km from potential emission sources. The sensitive receptors in the project areas are primarily people living in the residential areas. Table 2 Determination of the air quality sensitivity Sensitivity Methodology Low The location has a moderate capacity to absorb change without significantly altering its present character or is of high importance—for example, farmland and roads. Medium The location has a low capacity to absorb change without fundamentally altering its present character or is of national significance—for example, workplaces and particulate matter regarding species composition and habitat quality. Also, vegetation is sensitive to variations in air quality and deposits. High The location is susceptible to variations in air quality or is of international importance. For example, residential dwellings and specific habitats are of global significance and sensitive to variations in air quality and particulate deposition. 3.1.5 Effects of mining activities on local vegetation and wildlife community The loss and fragmentation of habitats can have severe consequences for wildlife populations, resulting in a decline in both species number and diversity. Mining operations can directly harm wildlife through various means such as vehicle collisions, noise pollution, and hunting pressure. Therefore, it is essential to conduct thorough monitoring of vegetation and wildlife communities before, during, and after mining. This will enable the tracking of changes in plant life and observation of the presence and abundance of wildlife in the area. Implementing mitigation measures such as reforestation, habitat restoration, and strict pollution control can help minimize the impact of mining on local flora and fauna (Neris et al. 2019 ). By examining the environmental consequences of mining in Boke and Kerouane, stakeholders can make informed decisions regarding sustainable resource management and protect local ecosystems and wildlife. Gathering comprehensive data on animal and plant populations in mining regions is as crucial as utilizing rigorous scientific methods and collaborating with local communities to provide practical insights and recommendations (Biswas 2018 ). In the project areas, wet- and dry-season biodiversity surveys were conducted to identify the biodiversity receptors present or likely to be affected by the project's effects. Understanding the effects of mining activities on the flora and fauna in Guinea is essential for sustainable development and practical conservation measures, as emphasized by Kolie et al. ( 2019 ) and Biswas ( 2018 ). 4. Results and discussion 4.1 Impacts of the studied mining projects on Guinean water resources The data presented in Tables 3 and 4 and Fig. 4 show the water samples collected from the Boke bauxite mining area and the Kerouane iron ore area, respectively. The findings indicate several concerns regarding water pH, electrical conductivity, and turbidity. In the Boke region, the average water pH of the samples was found to range from 5.79 to 6.23, with a maximum range of 7.51 and 8.66. While electrical conductivity was not a critical issue, some companies, such as CBG, had a maximum value of 3,534 µS/cm, which exceeded the average value of 750 µS/cm. The average turbidity of the water samples varied between − 111.4 and 31.2 Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTU). In the Kerouane iron-mining region, the average annual water intake was found to be 2 m 3 , with a duration of six months, from April to October. The water pH was recorded between 4.5 and 7.73, and the turbidity fluctuated between 1.5 NTU and 63.05 NTU. These fluctuations were attributed to the cumulative values of all the sampling areas in the zone. Table 3 Physicochemical analysis of surface water from Alliance Minière Responsible (AMR) mining Surface water pH Electric conductivity (µS/cm) Turbidity (NTU) AMR Number of samples 10 10 1 Max 7.56 274 2.6 Min 3.92 4 2.6 Average 6.234 82 2.6 Norm 6.5–8.5 < 750 ≤ 5 CBG Number of samples 16 16 8 Maximum 8.13 3534 681 Minimum 3.06 7 -360 Average 5.79 539 -111.4 Norm 6.5–8.5 < 750 ≤ 5 COBAD Number of samples 5 5 Maximum 7.51 95 Minimum 4.53 5 Average 6.34 31.2 Norm 6.5–8.5 < 750 GAC Number of samples 5 5 Maximum 7.51 95 Minimum 4.53 5 Average 6.34 31.2 Norm 6.5–8.5 < 750 Table 4 Physicochemical analysis of underground water AMR (underground water) pH Electric conductivity (µS/cm) Turbidity (NTU) Number 6 6 6 Maximum 8.66 183 28.3 Minimum 6.13 14 0.1 Average 7.09 60 14.6 Norm 6.5–8.5 < 750 ≤ 5 NTU: Nephelometric Turbidity unit 4.2 Impacts of the mining project on Guinean soil quality The chemical composition of the soil in the mining project areas for heavy metals is shown in Tables 5 and 6 . The Boke-bauxite mining region's soil composition revealed the presence of Cr, Cu, Ni, and Zn. Similar findings were reported in the Kerouane iron project areas, where substantial quantities of Cu, Ni, and Zn were detected. Table 5 Chemical composition of Boke bauxite mining soils (mg/kg) Boke bauxite mining As CD Cr Zn Pb Mo Hg Cu Ni Number 5 0 31 60 27 0 0 46 29 Minimum 5.2 81 11 7 16 28 Maximum 39 335 1506 23.9 810 361 Average 19 206 129 16 272 132 Norm 60 2 150 250 100 188 2.3 65 130 Table 6 Chemical composition of Kerouane iron project soil (mg/kg) Sites As Cd Cr Zn Pb Mo Hg Cu Ni Section 2 CRCC17 DK19 371 935 397 Section DK 42 + 500 421 11.01 DK 83 + 500 283 Sekoussoria 219 399 Dk146 + 500 127 66 17 48 69 96 44 13.9 25 37 DK 154 + 300 252 13 DK 160 298 606 DK 177 142 18 9 DK 206 + 800 166 20 12 33 101 DK218 + 600 764 432 361 649 DK 229 + 500 338 286 552 290 DK 304 820 15 45 DK344 21 164 85 19 112 90 Railway 1 86 252 242 Railway 18 10 40 Section 10 − 1 13 13 16 43 175 423 200 4.3 Effects of Guinean mining operations on environmental noise Figure 5a shows that the mining operations by Alufer, CBG, and COBAD exceeded the prescribed noise restrictions, contingent upon the extent of mining operations and the distance between the noise source and the receiver. During the preproduction phase, the transportation of mining equipment and trucks to the site is facilitated by the public road network, and they remain stationed. The impact of noise on the surrounding area during mine installation and decommissioning is limited and temporary (online resources Fig. 1 ). As a result, further examination was not required for this assessment. The transmission of sound was also influenced by air and ground absorption, which was estimated using the ISO 9613 noise model (Lilic et al. 2018 ). Assuming constant noise levels from the project throughout the year, the predicted acoustic impact at sensitive receivers would be less than the modeled impact during operation (Fig. 5b). Noise levels at various locations were monitored using an environmentally sensitive receiver (ESR). The background of the initial state levels indicates that the noise at ESR3 (sample station) is 7 dB above the initial state levels during the day and 3 dB above the initial state levels at night, indicating an exceedance of the guideline levels. 4.4 Aerial particulate matter (PM) analyses Figure 6 presents the air quality measurements for the study areas, focusing on PM2.5, PM10, and PM1. The data indicate that a substantial amount of PM exceeded the established standard at most sampling locations, with high levels of PM10 detected in mining operations in the Boke bauxite mining and Kerouane iron zones. Although PM2.5 levels were lower in some areas, continuous monitoring of dust levels was necessary. It is expected that the results for the dry season will increase because of unpaved roads in the regions. However, transporting the Kerouane iron consortium ore by train instead of by vehicle minimizes the particulate and dust emissions. The findings of this study are consistent with those of Dumitru et al. ( 2017 ), who reported high PM10 and PM2.5 levels due to anthropogenic, natural, and crustal origins. Similar results were observed in a study by Tripathi et al. (2024), in which the main reason was the dry nature of the minerals. Sabanov et al. ( 2024 ) also found that PM emissions levels can fluctuate significantly during mineral loading and unloading. 4.5 Effects on vegetation and wildlife communities Figure 7 shows the environmental consequences of the Kerouane Iron Project, which involves the removal of plant life within the physical right-of-way and other project infrastructure, such as access roads, living quarters, and processing facilities. This resulted in the direct loss of 2,929 ha of natural habitat and 466 ha of modified habitats, including a 50–100-meter disturbance buffer around surface mines and infrastructure to accommodate minor design changes, additional unplanned clearing on terrain, and edge effects. The growth of mining activities can have detrimental effects on the vegetation and wildlife communities in numerous villages. Prior research conducted in the Boke bauxite mining region (Sidiki 2019 ; Camara et al. 2021 ) found that the extraction of bauxite was the primary cause of landscape devastation, leading to the loss of 5,099 ha of trees and 3,218 ha of forest. This has disrupted weather patterns, leading to a 20% reduction in rainfall over the past 30 years (Dibattista et al. 2023 ; Sidiki 2019 ). Forest stripping of hillsides, displacement of plants and animals, and extinction of some species can pose significant environmental risks. These risks can escalate if tree loss is not adequately managed. As shown in Fig. 8 , the Kerouane Iron Project's production schedule forecasts the removal of approximately 1.291 billion tons of ore over an estimated 22-year mine lifespan. Annually, the extraction of approximately 56 million tons of waste rock, primarily phyllite and itabirite, is anticipated. Moreover, the project entails the removal of lateritic soil from the ridge at high elevations, covering a combined area of approximately 235 ha of forest and 45 ha of freshwater. Figure 9 shows the current status of fauna and flora in the mining project regions. The construction of mines can result in harm to local flora and fauna due to the removal of vegetation, leading to the loss of shelter and food sources. This project has had a substantial impact on birds, fish, plants, and mammals. The iron project regions in Kerouane are home to several non-native plant species, including Laos grass (Chromolaena odorata), Praxelis grass (Praxelis clematidea), Bidens asperata, and Ageratum conyzoides. These plants commonly thrive in disturbed areas and can quickly colonize fallow land. It is worth noting that Praxelis grass is considered an invasive species in Guinea. 4.6 Discussion and Emerging Lessons The mining industry's environmental footprint is a critical concern as it encompasses the direct and indirect impacts of mineral resource extraction on ecosystems. The concept of environmental footprint, a measure of human demand on Earth's ecosystems, is a useful tool for assessing these impacts. By nature, the mining industry is resource-intensive and has significant environmental implications (Hu et al. 2024 ). Studies have highlighted the environmental damage and pollution associated with mining activities, emphasizing the need for a comprehensive assessment framework that integrates biophysical variables, technical indicators, and human activity data (Jegede 2016). Such a framework can provide a granular understanding of the environmental damage at the mine level, which is essential for promoting cleaner production and sustainable processes within the industry. Moreover, the ecological footprint method has been applied to various sectors, including the mining industry, to evaluate the environmental impacts of human activities (Cabello et al. 2021 ). Interestingly, while ecological footprint is a valuable metric, research indicates that individuals and organizations may not be fully aware of the environmental impact of their actions, as evidenced by the weak correlation between actual ecological footprints and self-assessed environmental sustainability (Salazar & Tavares 2018). This suggests a perception gap that could hinder effective environmental management in the mining sector. The environmental consequences of the mining industry, with a particular focus on bauxite and iron mining projects in Boke, Kerouane, and Guinea, are complex issues that consider ecological, economic, and social factors. Thorough comprehension of the consequences and steps to effectively manage them is necessary for a complete assessment. The mining industry is a significant contributor to Guinea's economy, with substantial resource exports (Sidiki 2019 ). However, the environmental and socioeconomic effects of mining operations have raised concerns. Guinea's 2011 mining code, which emphasizes transparency and environmental protection, demonstrates a commitment to sustainable development. However, the Boke region has experienced conflicts exacerbated by mining activities such as youth unemployment and inadequate public service management. Furthermore, it highlights the necessity of considering the entire spectrum of costs, including environmental and social responsibility costs, which can be revealed by an extended cost-benefit analysis of bauxite mining complexes, revealing the true societal impact of mining activities. However, the effectiveness of measures to address environmental concerns in the mining industry is debatable. Although sophisticated codes and regulations are in place, their practical application may be lacking, as evidenced by the environmental degradation and social unrest in mining communities. Malaysia also illustrates the potential for severe environmental consequences when regulations are not rigorously enforced, resulting in significant government intervention and costly remediation. The importance of effective governance and innovative public-private partnerships to ensure that local communities derive benefits from mining operations is evident, given the conflicts discussed. Moreover, the environmental consequences of mining such as pollution and ecosystem damage are crucial factors that should not be overlooked. For instance, uncontrolled bauxite mining in Malaysia has led to severe environmental degradation, prompting the government to impose a temporary ban on mining activities (Rahmat et al. 2022 ). This underscores the significance of comprehensive Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) and decision-support frameworks, such as the Analytic Network Process (ANP), to guide sustainable mining practices (Rahmat et al. 2022 ). The concept of sustainability in mining is multifaceted and often lacks a universally accepted definition, leading to specific approaches for assessing sustainability (Phillips 2012 ). The application of mathematical models to EIAs can help determine the sustainability of mining projects, as demonstrated by a study in Andhra Pradesh, India, which found the proposed bauxite mining project to be unsustainable in its current form (Phillips 2012 ). The evaluation of the environmental footprint of mining projects in Boke and Kerouane, Guinea, highlights the importance of comprehensive environmental regulations and their effective enforcement. Mining is crucial for the sustainable development and utilization of resources in Guinea; however, it also has negative environmental impacts, such as deforestation, biodiversity loss, and water pollution. To promote sustainable mining practices and protect the environment, extensive research and community engagement are essential to address potential risks and develop appropriate mitigation strategies. Mining operations can significantly impact surface water resources by increasing the sediment flow into nearby rivers (Carrying et al. 2021 ). Preventing adverse consequences requires implementing appropriate mitigation measures (Chadli & Boufala 2021 ). During the rainy season, significant sediment-water flow can be anticipated from sources such as storage areas, disturbed soils, open-pit mining, and mining fleet activities (Chadli & Boufala 2021 ). To maintain the sediment flow within acceptable limits, primary facilities must have dedicated water management systems and sedimentation ponds. Secondary drainage ditches and attenuation systems are necessary to prevent sediment accumulation in areas, such as roads, facilities, and residential areas. These may include drainage ditches lined with mortar and rubble. To design civil engineering projects that minimize sediment-water flow-induced scour and erosion, it is crucial to ensure that the receiving bodies of water can handle sediment-water flows smoothly (Askham & Poll 2017). Despite the implementation of extensive mitigation measures, the residual impacts of mines on streams located 3–5 km away from the site are expected to remain significant. Beyond this distance, the water quality is likely to return to normal due to sediment deposition and dilution. To address this issue, the project should explore alternatives such as compensatory mechanisms, operational management, and alternative water supply sources for those affected. Soil serves multiple functions, including agricultural use, water filtration, carbon storage, and cultural heritage protection. Mining can harm natural soils and compromise their ability to maintain ecosystem services. Sources of contamination include mine spoils, polluted water, automobile fuels, oils, and building supplies. Land suitability for agricultural purposes must be evaluated to assess soil resource vulnerability, as emphasized by Yang et al. ( 2024 ). Soil suitability for agriculture increased as its sensitivity decreased, with the extent of the change based on the baseline conditions, as noted by (Chen et al. 2020 ). Due to the removal of valuable topsoil resources and permanent alteration of land surface features in the context of mining project development, agricultural potential may be limited or nonexistent, except for extensive cattle ranching (Pascaud et al. 2017 ). However, soil remains crucial for supporting biodiversity, influencing surface water drainage, acting as a repository for organic carbon, and protecting archaeological sites, as highlighted by Gastauer et al. ( 2018 ). During the operational phase of a mine, it is crucial to consider the potential risks of soil erosion, particularly in rugged terrains subject to scouring or excessive weight (Online Resource Table 5 ), soil contamination due to dust settling on adjacent soil, and sediment drainage into the surrounding areas (Andrews 2018). Our data revealed that only ESR3 had elevated noise level estimates when evaluated using the World Bank Group Environment, Health, and Safety guidelines (Roli 2016 ), necessitating the implementation of mitigation measures, such as relocating the mining plant. Strategies could be devised to diminish the significance and proportionality of the impact of noise on ESR3, which has been categorized as central to moderate in importance and proportionate to the sensitivity of the receptor. Temporary noise and vibrations during the construction and closure phases may affect sensitive areas (Lee et al. 2018 ), and a receptor's well-being can be influenced by numerous factors. To mitigate these impacts, effective working practices should be incorporated into noise and vibration management plans until the completion of mine rehabilitation and closure activities (Melodi 2017 ). The closure plan for the project should aim to eliminate residual noise sources. The deployment of conveyors for ore transportation leads to a considerable reduction in the number of vehicles in the road network. The British Standards Institution (BSI) TG18-BSI code of practice for noise and vibration specifies that cosmetic impairments should not exceed 15 mm/s at 4 Hz and 20 mm/s at 15 Hz for residential or small commercial buildings. The use of explosives in surface mining can cause ground-borne vibrations (Lee et al. 2018 ). The nearest noise-sensitive receiver, ESR6, was positioned approximately 900 m away from our location. Given the background noise level of the receiver, it is highly unlikely that any pulse emitted from the mine exceeds it. Moreover, the receiver's intermediate sensitivity and distance from the mine indicated that the resulting vibrations were insignificant. This study examined three primary categories of air emissions: fugitive dust, combustion emissions, and odor nuisances. Fugitive dust originates from activities such as mining, transportation, and material handling, while combustion emissions are produced by internal combustion engines in vehicles and power plants. Odor nuisance is caused by gas emissions that can affect well-being but do not pose significant health risks. Wind speeds below 1 m/s did not transport substantial amounts of dust particles, although different thresholds have been proposed. Most dust particles settle within 500 m of their source, and mitigation measures are unlikely to be effective for operations that are more than 250 m away. For instance, the Kerouane Iron Project is planned to emit 6,546,158 tons of CO 2 emissions over 22 years. The consequences for ecosystems and wildlife in the vicinity have been substantial, with the degree of impact varying depending on the distance from the ridge. The effects were more pronounced in areas close to the ridge. Although measures to alleviate some of these adverse effects have been implemented, others continue to pose significant challenges. Sharma and Chaudhry ( 2018 ) emphasized the need to discourage the introduction of non-native tree species and promote the growth of indigenous species. Replacing early succession species with native forest trees is likely to be a lengthy endeavor, potentially taking many decades for vegetation in mining pits to resemble natural woodlands. Nonetheless, the advantages of native forest trees, such as enhancing soil quality and serving as a habitat for local wildlife, can help mitigate the detrimental consequences of mining operations. Mining ventures can have substantial ecological consequences, but robust regulatory frameworks are vital for their effective management. Achieving lasting success depends on the proper execution and enforcement of these frameworks. To achieve sustainable mining, it is necessary to conduct long-term environmental impact assessments and cost evaluations. A comprehensive strategy that considers legal, economic, and social aspects can help minimize the environmental footprint. For mining in Boke and Kerouane, a holistic approach that integrates environmental management, socioeconomic factors, and governance reform is essential. Guinea and other countries have demonstrated that mining can contribute to economic growth, while also presenting environmental and social challenges. To ensure equitable benefit sharing and sustainable development, innovative strategies, efficient regulatory implementation, and community engagement are indispensable. 5. Conclusion and Policies implications The importance of examining the ecological footprint of the mining industry cannot be overstated given its potential to significantly impact the environment. Several studies have provided valuable insights into the assessment and implications of the environmental footprint of the mining industry. The environmental threat assessment framework proposed in this study presents a comprehensive approach to evaluate the environmental impacts of mining activities by integrating technical, and human activity data (Furley et al. 2018 ). This framework is critical for informing sustainable practices and environmental management in extractive industries. However, there are contradictions when considering the broader implications of ecological footprint assessments. While some studies emphasize the negative environmental impacts of the mining industry, others highlight the potential for cleaner production and sustainable development through improved practices and regulations (Kılkış et al. 2022 ). Moreover, the role of environmental regulations in mitigating the ecological footprint is emphasized, with findings suggesting that stronger regulations can reduce environmental disturbances in mining economies (Zhou et al. 2024 ). The environmental consequences of mining activities in Guinea, particularly in the Boke-Bauxite and Kerouane-Iron mining areas, have been thoroughly investigated. These consequences include soil degradation, deforestation, biodiversity loss, air and water pollution, and other negative effects that have detrimental impacts on local communities and ecosystems. The findings of this study support the findings of Sidiki ( 2019 ) and Camara et al. (2018) in the domain of natural resources, including air, water, wildlife, vegetation, and noise in the boke mining sector. Despite the efforts of Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) to address these challenges, their efforts are insufficient and require formalization and collaboration with government and industry stakeholders (Diallo et al. 2022 ). Furthermore, iron mining contributes to the ecological footprint through greenhouse gas emissions and energy consumption, as evidenced by life-cycle assessments (Bao & Lin 2018 ; Farjana et al. 2018 ). The socioeconomic consequences of iron ore mining in regions such as Tonkolili and Sierra Leone reflect the complex interplay between industrial development and local livelihoods, with both positive and negative effects (Wilson 2022 ). To achieve sustainable development, it is vital to adopt a comprehensive approach to assess the environmental impact of industrial operations such as mining (Kılkış et al. 2022 ). Incorporating environmental considerations into decision-making processes is crucial for optimizing industries and reducing their ecological footprints. Although the ecological footprint, a commonly used metric of environmental impact, has primarily been utilized for public awareness and education rather than as a primary policy tool, its reliability is increasingly being acknowledged, suggesting its potential for wider application in policymaking. Moreover, the ecological footprint method has been demonstrated to provide valuable insights for evaluating alternative strategies to enhance environmental sustainability, as exemplified by festivals (Collins & Cooper 2017 ). To promote sustainable development and minimize the adverse effects of mining operations, it is essential to establish an integrated index of economic and environmental performance in the mining sector (Li et al. 2024 ). Companies must integrate sustainability into their operations and collaborate with communities and regulators to limit the impacts of their activities. Furthermore, the government of Guinea must enforce environmental regulations, oversee mining activities, and hold companies accountable for violations. By prioritizing sustainable development and the well-being of local communities, the mining industry in Guinea can contribute to the country's economic growth while preserving its natural resources. However, the inadequate management of the environmental and social impacts resulting from bauxite production expansion, as reported by civil society organizations, underscores the necessity for formal and collaborative management actions. Addressing challenges such as air emissions, water pollution, and ecosystem degradation is crucial for minimizing the negative effects on local communities and wildlife. To support sustainable development in Guinea, it is imperative to implement measures, such as water management systems, sediment flow control, and vegetation restoration. Mining operations have the potential to affect the environment in various ways, making it crucial to implement sustainable practices. This includes responsible waste management, reforestation, and continuous monitoring of water quality. Although the mining sector is important for economic growth, it is equally important to evaluate its environmental consequences. By comparing the environmental impact of mining in Guinea with that in other countries, valuable insights can be gained. Implementing rigorous regulations, innovative technologies, and sustainable practices can mitigate the adverse environmental effects of mining activities. As demonstrated in Australia and Canada, establishing stringent regulations, cutting-edge technologies, and sustainable measures can significantly reduce the environmental footprint of mining. To achieve similar outcomes, Guinea must enhance its environmental management practices, invest in cleaner technologies, and promote responsible mining practices as recommended by Kılkış et al. ( 2022 ). Collaboration among researchers is essential for developing effective strategies to mitigate climate change. Policymakers must consider incorporating climate change mitigation strategies into land-use planning to achieve multiple co-benefits contributing to sustainable development. An integrated index for economic and environmental performance can be used to monitor and improve the sustainability of mining. The mining industry can reduce its ecological impacts and contribute to sustainable development by following these recommendations. Declarations Funding This research received no external funding. CRediT authorship contribution statement Benjamin Kolie : Conceptualization, data collection, original draft writing, formal analysis, writing review, and editing. Ayman Elshkaki : Conceptualization, Reviewing, editing, and supervision. Geoffrey Sunahara : Review and editing. Data availability statement The datasets used and analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. Supplementary Information Online resources Tables and Figure Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could influence the work reported in this study. The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest. Acknowledgments We extend our gratitude to the data centers that granted us free access to the datasets utilized in our research. 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(2018) Sustainability in the minerals industry: Seeking a consensus on its meaning. Sustainability (Switzerland), 10, 1429. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10051429 Sharma, V., and Chaudhry, S. (2018) Vegetation composition and plant diversity in mining disturbed tropical thorn forest of Asola-Bhatti wildlife sanctuary, Northern India. Taiwania, 63, 267–280. https://doi.org/10.6165/tai.2018.63.267 Sidiki, S. (2019) Bauxite Mining in the Boké Region (Western Guinea): Method Used and Impacts on Physical Environment. European Journal of Sustainable Development Research, 3, 2542–4742. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejosdr/5735 Tlili, A., Altinay, F., Huang, R., Altinay, Z., Olivier, J., Mishra, S., Jemni, M., and Burgos, D. (2022) Are we there yet? A systematic literature review of Open Educational Resources in Africa: A combined content and bibliometric analysis. PLoS ONE, 17, 1–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0262615 Valko, D., and Kudenko, D. (2024) Reducing CO2 emissions in a peer-to-peer distributed payment network: Does geography matter in the lightning network? Computer Networks, 243, 110297. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comnet.2024.110297 Wang, X., and Xu, X. (2024) Sustainable resource management and green economic growth: A global perspective. Resources Policy, 89, 104634. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2024.104634 Waqas, M.A., Hashemi, F., Mogensen, L., and Knudsen, M.T. (2024) Environmental performance of seaweed cultivation and use in different industries: A systematic review. Sustainable Production and Consumption, 48, 123–142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spc.2024.05.001 Wilson, A.D. (2022) Ecological Mechanistic Research and Modelling. Ecological Psychology, 34, 48–70. Winnipeg, M., and Ao, M. (2016) Rapport Sur La Performance. https://www.smfg.com/app/uploads/2020/07/Performance-environnementale-2016-17-pictures-revised-FINAL.pdf, 1–75. Yang, J., Wang, J., Zhao, C., Wang, L., Wan, X., Shi, H., Lei, M., Chen, T., and Liao, X. (2024) Identifying driving factors of soil heavy metal at the mining area scale: Methods and practice. Chemosphere, 350, 140936. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.140936 Younoussa Camara, A., Keita, A., Li, H., and Moussa KEITA, S. (2018) Effect of Mining by RUSAL Company on Renewable Natural Resources in the Prefecture of Fria, Republic of Guinea. Journal of Environment Pollution and Human Health, 6, 7–19. Zhou, D., Kongkuah, M., Twum, A.K., and Adam, I. (2024) Assessing the impact of international trade on the ecological footprint in Belt and Road Initiative countries. Heliyon, 10, e26459. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e26459 Zhou, L. (2023) Towards sustainability in mineral resources. Ore Geology Reviews, 160, 105600. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2023.105600 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files OnlineResourceFigure.docx OnlineResourceTables.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 11 Nov, 2024 Read the published version in Environmental Management → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 23 Jul, 2024 Reviews received at journal 23 Jul, 2024 Reviews received at journal 23 Jul, 2024 Reviews received at journal 22 Jul, 2024 Reviewers agreed at journal 02 Jul, 2024 Reviewers agreed at journal 02 Jul, 2024 Reviewers agreed at journal 01 Jul, 2024 Reviewers agreed at journal 30 Jun, 2024 Reviewers agreed at journal 28 Jun, 2024 Reviewers agreed at journal 27 Jun, 2024 Reviewers invited by journal 27 Jun, 2024 Editor assigned by journal 24 Jun, 2024 Submission checks completed at journal 22 Jun, 2024 First submitted to journal 21 Jun, 2024 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-4618340","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":326368455,"identity":"451112dc-22c0-49b8-9e6a-a833100539f3","order_by":0,"name":"Benjamin Kolie","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA+UlEQVRIie3PMWrDMBTG8WceKMsrWZWhOYPAUGMo5CoSga4dunTwoBJQlvQGPUR6A5kHnhJygQwJhcwOlOIhtJXHDk7crVD9QZ70Q58BYrE/mCJIvIZbGiJ635dAIHfj0VzoXxAATtWGVL9hGbH3u0c0lulYvp+295nFfQ3FtpPkz057vRLmaXa15Gt3yF+8SCVUh+5hYY83jswMAxlZVhLgBhLLF8inNA5px/LUksHHebJeBGJVSkhQ1qIldP6VfFGFf6n0WKJQnLhAkB6krrpJRtNy3xRfNNnw27Fphw3mr3VddJMfhW3tNxzdDwAkTd+bsVgs9q/6BhsxWbc9g2kiAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academic of Science, 11A Datun Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing 100101, PR China","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Benjamin","middleName":"","lastName":"Kolie","suffix":""},{"id":326368456,"identity":"b18d69eb-c782-4215-af9a-aaf46a2bda8c","order_by":1,"name":"Ayman Elshkaki","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academic of Science, 11A Datun Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing 100101, PR China","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ayman","middleName":"","lastName":"Elshkaki","suffix":""},{"id":326368457,"identity":"0f409787-d109-49dd-ace8-28e3dabc0b18","order_by":2,"name":"Geoffrey Sunahara","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"McGill University Macdonald Campus, Department of Natural Resource Sciences, 21,111 Lakeshore Rd Ste-Anne-de-Bellevue Québec, Canada H9X 3V9","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Geoffrey","middleName":"","lastName":"Sunahara","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-06-21 16:25:16","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4618340/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4618340/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-024-02066-1","type":"published","date":"2024-11-11T15:57:12+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":60622244,"identity":"3e6e3cd0-d872-4b8d-90d5-26464be77bf2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-07-18 21:18:25","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":121428,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eStudy sampling areas\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4618340/v1/d1543d304f5f33824e67a59a.jpg"},{"id":60621988,"identity":"db970e54-cb5f-462f-8a4b-ca0c3fd3a5be","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-07-18 21:10:25","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":203719,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSample collection and preparation. Panels (a) soil homogenization and (b) separation of different samples from the same area\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4618340/v1/0a699059cb2151aa00d4e40e.jpg"},{"id":60621605,"identity":"65deda17-d976-4331-a49d-ca88b8b6b440","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-07-18 21:02:25","extension":"jpg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":112653,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eNoise pollution measurement. Panels (a) Positioning of the NL52 sound level class 1 meter near a residential area; (b) Positioning of the NL52 sound level class 1 meter near the traffic road; and (c) The NL52 sound level class 1 meter with a microphone that captures the noise.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4618340/v1/590ee95f11708d63b97fb2be.jpg"},{"id":60621609,"identity":"5dba27ac-1538-4d1f-86be-922697059174","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-07-18 21:02:25","extension":"jpg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":254275,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTurbidity and conductivity of surface and groundwater of the Kerouane iron project\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4618340/v1/58e4aeb432f6f3b195d84c01.jpg"},{"id":60621607,"identity":"71451459-9b3b-43e9-bf43-5d36e39c94e7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-07-18 21:02:25","extension":"jpg","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":674586,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eNoise characteristics at the Boke bauxite mining (a) and Kerouane iron consortium (b) sites\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNB: At different times, the X line assigns time slots to various measurement locations, Base vie administrative Senguelen (from 6:39 to 7:34 Pm); AQM4 Bombya (from 8:24 to 9:19 Pm and from 12:11 to 1:06 Pm next day); Village Kabadounké (9:57 to 10:52 Pm same day, and from 10:14 am to 4:10 Pm); AQM3_Ourekaba (from 4:15 to 4:35 Pm); AQM2_Tokounou (from 6:25 to 7:20 Pm); AQM1_Feredou (from 1:23 to 7:59 Pm).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4618340/v1/4f194eef097a4eb3f9c8f3a8.jpg"},{"id":60621990,"identity":"6bfc72ff-4e7d-47b1-b19b-4e1972549b39","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-07-18 21:10:25","extension":"jpg","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":343412,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eAir pollution particles curve evolution at the Boke (a) and Winning consortium (b) zones\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4618340/v1/1c09b91c43a7d0cc583215f9.jpg"},{"id":60621611,"identity":"0ed5c15b-68ac-453f-ba06-33371811e005","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-07-18 21:02:25","extension":"jpg","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":110596,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eImpacts caused by the Kerouane Iron mining project\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"7.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4618340/v1/f886db17c9b330707700d94a.jpg"},{"id":60621613,"identity":"9665d527-1931-46e5-95dd-ab191f473fef","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-07-18 21:02:25","extension":"jpg","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":189414,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eAffected land areas by the mining project\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"8.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4618340/v1/129f1e5a503fa9a4e0403f73.jpg"},{"id":60621612,"identity":"44ff6ae7-3127-42c8-a741-aeb0acdea5d5","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-07-18 21:02:25","extension":"jpg","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":161270,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDistribution of the number of species at risk, listed by taxonomic group\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"9.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4618340/v1/efa011783a92d77736049995.jpg"},{"id":69286495,"identity":"6955749a-bb9a-418c-9095-210810d9f305","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-18 19:35:58","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":3125087,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4618340/v1/e24e28df-9e1b-480d-bd2f-15d9b4ce59a4.pdf"},{"id":60621615,"identity":"397620f6-6602-4dcc-a78d-15d2ef67ca7e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-07-18 21:02:25","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":304963,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"OnlineResourceFigure.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4618340/v1/910720491dad7f07f05ff244.docx"},{"id":60621606,"identity":"dcb6a82b-858a-435a-95d2-08e74b4d0e09","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-07-18 21:02:25","extension":"docx","order_by":2,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":31077,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"OnlineResourceTables.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4618340/v1/d1965663a7781a25f4cca449.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Assessing the environmental footprint of the mining industry: A case study on the bauxite and iron mining projects of Boke and Kerouane, Guinea","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eTraditionally, the mining industry has been a significant contributor to environmental degradation, and the pressing need for sustainable practices in this sector has become increasingly apparent in recent years (Muhirwa et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). In response to growing concerns about the industry's environmental impact, there has been growing interest in exploring alternative methods and technologies that can help reduce its environmental footprint. These include the use of renewable energy sources and efficient extraction methods (Li et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). One promising solution that is gaining traction is the adoption of circular economy principles, which involve designing products and processes with sustainability in mind and minimizing waste throughout the value chain. Companies must embrace the principles of the circular economy, which entails prioritizing sustainable practices, such as renewable energy sources and reduced water usage, as well as finding innovative ways to repurpose waste materials (Wang \u0026amp; Xu \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). To ensure long-term viability, the mining industry must adopt a proactive approach to sustainability and mitigate its negative impacts on the environment.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe environmental impact of mining extends beyond local ecosystems and has far-reaching consequences for the global environment. Thus, it is essential to evaluate the environmental impacts of mining projects and identify ways to reduce their negative effects (Jhariya et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Implementing sustainable mining practices that emphasize the conservation of natural resources and minimize waste and pollution is an effective approach to reducing the environmental impact of mining projects (Ritika \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, investing in renewable energy sources and energy-efficient technologies can help reduce greenhouse gas emissions and contribute to a more sustainable future. Previous research has revealed that the mining industry has a substantial environmental footprint, with extraction and processing of minerals resulting in air and water pollution, deforestation, and habitat destruction (Noi \u0026amp; Ciroth \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Farjana et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Zhou \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, this sector has significant social and economic consequences for local communities, including the displacement and loss of traditional livelihoods. To address these negative social and economic consequences and to reduce environmental damage, responsible and sustainable mining practices are crucial (Noi \u0026amp; Ciroth \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). It is also important to involve local communities in the decision-making process to ensure that their voices are heard and that their needs are met. Despite the increasing environmental concerns surrounding mining activities, there is a scarcity of comprehensive studies that evaluate the environmental footprint of specific mining projects, particularly in developing countries, such as Guinea. Thus, it is imperative to conduct extensive research and analysis to identify and address the environmental challenges associated with mining in Guinea and other developing countries (Hasanuddin et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). To achieve this objective, policymakers and industry stakeholders must collaborate to develop sustainable mining practices that safeguard the environment, while promoting socioeconomic development in Guinea and other countries facing similar challenges (Zhou \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). By fostering partnerships among government bodies, mining corporations, and local communities, a more equitable and environmentally conscious mining sector that benefits all parties involved can be created.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis research aims to address this gap in knowledge by conducting a case study on the environmental effects of bauxite and iron mining in Boke and Kerouane, Guinea. By examining previous research, this study aimed to provide valuable insights and contribute to the body of knowledge on this topic. The study seeks to answer the question: \"What is the environmental impact of bauxite and iron mining projects in Boke and Kerouane, Guinea, and what steps can be taken to mitigate their negative effects?\" This study (1) evaluates the current environmental footprint of mining projects in Boke and Kerouane, Guinea, and (2) explores measures to mitigate their negative effects. In addition, this study (3) investigates the social and economic implications of these mining projects. This study proposes sustainable practices to reduce the negative consequences of mining projects in Boke, Kerouane, and Guinea.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe remainder of this paper is arranged as follows: \u0026ldquo;Introduction\u0026rdquo; presents the background of the study; \u0026ldquo;Literature review\u0026rdquo; presents the literature review and regulatory framework and environmental policies; \u0026ldquo;Case study selection and methodologies\u0026rdquo; describes the relevant significance of the study area and methods adopted and data sources; \u0026ldquo;Empirical results and discussion\u0026rdquo; report the results of empirical analysis; \u0026ldquo;Conclusions and policy recommendations\u0026rdquo; consist of conclusions and policy implications.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Literature review","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe environmental consequences of the mining industry are a complex issue that has garnered increasing attention in recent years (Dibattista et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Sanoh \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). The literature indicates a consensus on the importance of assessing and managing environmental risks associated with mining activities. Agnieszka et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) emphasizes the need for comprehensive risk management in the mining sector, stressing the human, strategic, and operational aspects of risk, and calls for systematic literature reviews that address these simultaneously. This study's systematic approach, following PRISMA guidelines, provides a robust framework for evaluating the current state of research in this domain (Tlili et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Conversely, while Agnieszka et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) focused on the broader scope of risk management, other studies concentrated on specific methodologies for assessing environmental impacts. For instance, Cabello et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) discussed the Ecological Footprint method applied to festivals, which could be extrapolated to mining, suggesting that such methodologies can inform strategies for mitigating environmental impacts. Hongyuan et al. (2024) also employs the Ecological Footprint approach, specifically within the construction industry, which shares similarities with mining in terms of material use and environmental effects. Li et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) proposed an ecological threat assessment framework for mining, integrating various data sources to evaluate the ecological impacts of mines, which underscores the complexity and regional specificity of the environmental footprint of mining. Valko and Kudenko (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) and Paul et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) critically evaluate the reliability of models estimating the energy and environmental footprint of digital currencies, which, although not directly related to traditional mining, provide insights into the challenges of assessing the environmental impact of geographically distributed networks. The challenges associated with assessing the environmental impact of the mining industry are similar to those faced when evaluating the environmental footprint of other industries, as evidenced by research conducted in the fruit sector (Lu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Manakas et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Waqas et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Although not directly related to the mining industry, the findings of these studies provide useful insights into the difficulties of standardizing and harmonizing environmental accounting methods across different industries. The lack of consensus on definitions and calculations is a challenge that extends to the mining sector (Matušt\u0026iacute;k et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumerous studies have examined the environmental impacts, regulatory frameworks, and socioeconomic consequences of bauxite mining in Guinea and Brazil. These studies have documented substantial environmental and socioeconomic consequences of mining activities in the region (Dibattista et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Respati \u0026amp; Putro \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Sanoh \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). The reforms aimed at reducing risks and maximizing benefits in mining in Guinea have been evaluated, highlighting the inadequacies of the 1995 mining code and the improvements in the 2011 code, which emphasize transparency and environmental protection (Sidiki \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Socioeconomic conflicts in the Boke region have been attributed to issues such as youth employment and public service management, and innovative public-private partnerships have been suggested as a means of mitigating these conflicts (Camara et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Finally, the local perception of bauxite mining's socio-environmental issues in the Boke has been investigated, revealing low awareness among locals and the prevalence of corruption and social inequalities (Dibattista et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). In Malaysia, the environmental and health impacts of bauxite mining have been a concern. Sylvie et al. (2024) reviews the potential environmental and health impacts on miners and surrounding communities, including air, water, and soil pollution. Periaiah et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) discuss the severe environmental impacts of uncontrolled bauxite mining in Kuantan, Malaysia, leading to a temporary ban and the need for a decision-support framework for Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA). Nazri et al. (2024) focused on water quality assessment in the mining areas of Malaysia, emphasizing the importance of spatiotemporal environmental impact assessments. Mining activities have been found to have a significant impact on quality of life and indigenous land rights. Rosli et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) found that mining activities led to a decrease in health-related quality of life among road users in mining areas. Another study by Annandale et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) highlighted the environmental impacts of bauxite mining on Indigenous land in Australia. This emphasizes the importance of indigenous people\u0026rsquo;s participation in mine-closure planning. Additionally, the mining industry's role in environmental peacebuilding and Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) was examined. Dibattista et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) questioned the contribution of mining companies' CSR activities to peacebuilding in Guinea, while Amir et al. (2019) described the implementation of EIA policies by mining companies in Gorontalo, Indonesia, noting the government's dominant role and the need for greater community participation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe literature emphasizes the significance of evaluating the environmental impact of the mining industry through various methodologies and frameworks. While comprehensive risk management is widely recognized (Agnieszka et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), the use of specific assessment methods, such as the Ecological Footprint (Cabello et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Hongyuan et al. 2024) and the development of tailored assessment frameworks, are crucial for understanding and mitigating the environmental effects of mining activities. Addressing the challenges of standardization and methodological consistency (Matušt\u0026iacute;k et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) is necessary to advance this field. Overall, the literature advocates for a more rigorous and standardized approach to environmental footprint assessments in the mining industry that considers the complexity and regional specificity of its environmental impacts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Regulatory framework and environmental policies\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMining companies face a complex interplay of regulatory compliance, corporate environmental responsibility, and various stakeholder pressures, including international initiatives, industry associations, and local communities. Regulatory frameworks and environmental policies are crucial for evaluating and mitigating the environmental impact of the mining industry. Research indicates that the mining sector contributes to economic growth but can also result in severe environmental degradation without proper regulation. In countries such as Nigeria and Sierra Leone, existing legal frameworks have been deemed inadequate for controlling illicit mining operations and their environmental impact (Amoah \u0026amp; Eweje \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Lazarenko et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Environmental regulations are essential for preserving the environment, with factors such as democracy, economic growth, and dependence on the mining sector influencing their effectiveness. Studies have shown that environmental regulations can reduce ecological footprints, especially in N-11 countries where democracy plays a key role in policy effectiveness. South Asian countries have also seen a reduction in ecological footprint due to environmental regulations, although the results vary across regions and cities (Amoah \u0026amp; Eweje \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Challenges in implementing these regulations include conflicts among government agencies and limited resource allocations. In weaker institutional contexts, such as Ghana, environmental sustainability in mining is often driven by ethical considerations and a social license to operate rather than robust regulatory frameworks. Guinea's reliance on voluntary industry-led initiatives and corporate ethics in environmental practices may have similar drivers. Barriers to environmental sustainability in mining are often rooted in governance frameworks with conflicting interests and values, which may also apply in Guinea. The lack of clear explanations of the contributions of mining to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in sustainability reports could also impact Guinea's mining sector.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe regulatory environment for mining activities in Guinea is based on the 2011 Mining Code and other environmental regulations. The Mining Code outlines the legal requirements for exploration and mining activities as well as environmental protection measures. Key environmental policies in Guinea mandate environmental impact assessments (EIAs) and management plans for mining companies. Companies must conduct EIAs, develop and implement environmental management plans, and acquire government permits before commencing mining activities to comply with the environmental regulations. These policies have led mining companies in Guinea to consider and mitigate potential environmental impacts, with regular government inspections to ensure compliance. Consequently, mining companies in Guinea have adopted responsible and sustainable mining practices that prioritize environmental protection and community well-being.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Case study selection and methodologies","content":"\u003cp\u003eMining activities have a significant environmental impact, as shown in expert articles (Di Noi \u0026amp; Ciroth \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Zhou \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). These articles highlight the importance of understanding the environmental consequences, such as water pollution and ecosystem degradation, and the need for effective management and policy initiatives. The Russian, Malaysian, Indian, and Brazilian mining industry cases demonstrate a shift in environmental policy responsibility toward private industries and the adoption of standardized environmental management systems (Amoah \u0026amp; Eweje \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). This finding suggests a similar interplay in the case study of Guinea. Learning from past experiences and capturing lessons learned to support the notion that the Guinea case study offers valuable lessons for improving environmental management practices in the mining industry. This study's unique focus on Guinea's specific context, with high poverty and environmental degradation, but rich mineral resources, distinguishes it. This study can contribute to environmental management, including identifying best practices and lessons learned from the Boke and Kerouane projects that can be applied to other mining projects in Guinea and beyond, informing policymakers, regulators, and stakeholders about the potential risks and benefits of mining projects, and how to mitigate negative impacts while maximizing positive outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study investigated the ecological effects of the mining sector in Boke and Kerouane using a mixed-methods approach that combined both quantitative and qualitative data collection techniques. The study was conducted in the bauxite mining areas of Boke, including Compagnie des Bauxites de Guinee (CBG), Soci\u0026eacute;t\u0026eacute; Mini\u0026egrave;re de Boke (SMB), Halco Mining, Alumina Compagnie de Guinee (ACG), Compagnie des Bauxites de Dian-Dian (COBAD), Aggregate Mineral Resource (AMR) Mining, and Kerouane iron mining project operated by a joint venture between the Government of Guinea, Simandou Winning Consortium, and Rio Tinto Simfer. The research relied on a variety of resources, such as primary data collected from field observations and secondary data sourced from government reports, academic publications, and industry materials.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe primary data collection took place from October 2022 to January 2023 using equipment and tools to assess the impacts of mining operations on water pollution (surface, groundwater, and precipitation), soil, noise, air quality, vegetation, fauna, and flora (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). The study used a reference matrix to differentiate between activities with negligible impacts that require no further mitigation measures, and those with moderate and significant impacts that require mitigation measures to reduce the changes in the affected areas (receptors) to a level that can be ignored. Online Resource Tables\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e summarize the methods used to evaluate the magnitude, extent, duration, and reversibility of physicochemical changes. The secondary data was collected from research engines and technical reports from the government and mining, particularly from companies in the bauxite mining areas (Moodley \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Loua et al. 2019; Haidara et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Winnipeg \u0026amp; Ao \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; unpublished reports such as \u0026lsquo;rapport pr\u0026eacute;liminaire du potentiel de pollutions et de nuisances des activit\u0026eacute;s mini\u0026egrave;res sur les milieux r\u0026eacute;cepteurs de la r\u0026eacute;gion de Bok\u0026eacute;\u0026rsquo; and iron zone from \u0026lsquo;rapport de monitoring environnemental pour le renouvellement du CCE de Winning consortium Simandou Rail).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1 Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eOnce the sampling areas were defined, water, soil, noise, air quality, and vegetation were monitored and measured at each site. To ensure that accurate and comprehensive data were collected, all data were recorded in Microsoft Excel for statistical analysis and table and graph creation. This will lead to a better understanding of the environmental conditions in each area and will help make informed decisions on how to proceed.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1.1 Water sampling and measurements\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eVarious indicators have been developed to evaluate environmental management effectiveness including water sampling and measurement. These techniques are designed to assess the water footprint or quality of a product or process by comparing the potential impact of different facilities and supply chains. However, they may not provide an accurate measure of the absolute impact of an individual processing facility (Northey et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). To monitor the water quality, 400 samples (313 surface water and 87 groundwater samples) were collected from different areas. Sampling was conducted using disposable gloves and 1-liter plastic bottles that were rinsed three times with water to be sampled. Sampling was performed by immersing the sample bottle in water using a rope for surface water or by manually pumping groundwater. The measured data were automatically downloaded and recorded in field sheets for in situ analysis of physicochemical parameters. Field sampling and measurements were conducted carefully to minimize sample disturbance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCurrently, guidelines for water quality in Guinea are required. Therefore, the Moroccan index of natural water quality was used as a standard for determining analytical values (Online Resource Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). The impact assessment was based on the sensitivity of the receptors and the potential magnitude of changes, particularly regarding water resources (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e), which is consistent with prevailing water assessment protocols (Chadli \u0026amp; Boufala \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMagnitude and scale of change (IFC \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMagnitude of change\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGeneral description of the change\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecific to surface waters\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecific to groundwater\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNegligible\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThere was no significant change compared to natural variability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLow\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWater quantity and quality will recover quickly through natural processes, and the duration of the impact is short (a few months)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCan affect a limited area/portion of the watercourse\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt can cause a temporary impact on localized groundwater.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModerate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWater quality, quantity, and stream condition are likely to recover through natural processes, and the impact is expected to be in the medium term (one year)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt can affect multiple portions/areas of a watercourse.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis can lead to a loss of integrity of part of the aquifer and restrictions on use by the recipients.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigh\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePotential for permanent impact on water quality and quantity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAn entire watercourse can be affected.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt can cause the integrity of part of the aquifer to be lost and prevent its use by recipients.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1.2 Soil Sampling and Measurements\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil sampling and measurements provide tangible data on soil contamination and degradation, which is crucial for understanding the effects of mining on soil quality in areas such as Boke, Kerouane, and Guinea. Sustainable mining practices require this information to minimize environmental damage. In this study, soil samples were collected from 21 locations using a probe that penetrated each layer to a depth ranging from 0 to 0.35 meters, depending on the geological structure of the area. After collection, the samples were thoroughly mixed on a plastic sheet before the measurement. This method differs from the wet method, in which the sample is mixed in a closed microwave oven (Multiwave 3000, Anton Paar) to determine the heavy metal concentration (Ciarkowska \u0026amp; Gambus \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The soil quality was analyzed using portable automatic X-ray fluorescence (XRF) soil analyzer (Olympus) to measure the composition of various elements, such as Ag, As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb, Sb, and Zn (Yap et al. 2017). This device was checked daily for calibration before performing in situ analysis. An XRF soil analyzer was held over the mixed sample to perform an in-situ analysis of the heavy metals, as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1.3 Noise measurements\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMonitoring and investigating noise levels in mining areas is crucial because of the potential for noise-induced hearing loss and other nonauditory health effects, as emphasized by Gutti et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Several parameters, including the sound power level of noise generators, geological mining conditions, and meteorological parameters related to mining operations have been considered in various studies (Abdollahisharif et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Lilic et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Guinea's legal framework addresses noise issues and follows international practices (online resources Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study area noise was assessed using an NL52 Class 1 sound-level meter (Rion Co. Ltd.). This equipment was used to measure instantaneous and continuous noise levels over time, including the date and time. A microphone was mounted on a tripod at a height between 1.20 m and 1.50 m above the floor to capture these measurements. The sound-level meter and microphone were calibrated externally (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). For each measurement, various parameters such as LAeq, LAeqmax, LAeqmin, and LAF50 were recorded (the sound level reached during the measurement). The measurements were subject to changes based on the location and daily schedule. They began at a specific location at 8:00 AM and continued until 11:30 PM. In addition, latitude/longitude and photographs of the measurement locations in four directions (north, south, east, and west) were recorded. Other factors, such as the source of recorded noise and weather conditions, were also documented.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1.4 Air pollution measurements\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study examined the levels of pollutants, including particulate matter, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, and volatile organic compounds, at various locations, such as mining operations, transportation routes, and surrounding communities. The DustMate air quality monitoring system collected continuous gas and dust particle measurements over 24 hours from a fixed station, which helped monitor air quality in the project areas. This study evaluated the impact of emissions on air quality by analyzing the magnitude, sensitivity (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e), and online resources (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). This highlights the importance of considering environmental factors (Farjana et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Most of the particles generated during mineral processing are 10\u0026ndash;75 m in diameter and relatively heavy, causing them to fall quickly from the atmosphere to the ground within 500 m of the release site (Lilic et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Larger particles (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;30 m) fall within 60\u0026ndash;90 m of their source, whereas smaller ones (10\u0026ndash;30 m) can be found 250\u0026ndash;500 m from their source. As a result, the study area for potential impacts associated with dust and particulate matter was approximately 1 km from potential emission sources. The sensitive receptors in the project areas are primarily people living in the residential areas.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDetermination of the air quality sensitivity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSensitivity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMethodology\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLow\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe location has a moderate capacity to absorb change without significantly altering its present character or is of high importance\u0026mdash;for example, farmland and roads.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedium\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe location has a low capacity to absorb change without fundamentally altering its present character or is of national significance\u0026mdash;for example, workplaces and particulate matter regarding species composition and habitat quality. Also, vegetation is sensitive to variations in air quality and deposits.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigh\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe location is susceptible to variations in air quality or is of international importance. For example, residential dwellings and specific habitats are of global significance and sensitive to variations in air quality and particulate deposition.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1.5 Effects of mining activities on local vegetation and wildlife community\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe loss and fragmentation of habitats can have severe consequences for wildlife populations, resulting in a decline in both species number and diversity. Mining operations can directly harm wildlife through various means such as vehicle collisions, noise pollution, and hunting pressure. Therefore, it is essential to conduct thorough monitoring of vegetation and wildlife communities before, during, and after mining. This will enable the tracking of changes in plant life and observation of the presence and abundance of wildlife in the area. Implementing mitigation measures such as reforestation, habitat restoration, and strict pollution control can help minimize the impact of mining on local flora and fauna (Neris et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). By examining the environmental consequences of mining in Boke and Kerouane, stakeholders can make informed decisions regarding sustainable resource management and protect local ecosystems and wildlife.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGathering comprehensive data on animal and plant populations in mining regions is as crucial as utilizing rigorous scientific methods and collaborating with local communities to provide practical insights and recommendations (Biswas \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). In the project areas, wet- and dry-season biodiversity surveys were conducted to identify the biodiversity receptors present or likely to be affected by the project's effects. Understanding the effects of mining activities on the flora and fauna in Guinea is essential for sustainable development and practical conservation measures, as emphasized by Kolie et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) and Biswas (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Results and discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.1 Impacts of the studied mining projects on Guinean water resources\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe data presented in Tables\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e and Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e show the water samples collected from the Boke bauxite mining area and the Kerouane iron ore area, respectively. The findings indicate several concerns regarding water pH, electrical conductivity, and turbidity. In the Boke region, the average water pH of the samples was found to range from 5.79 to 6.23, with a maximum range of 7.51 and 8.66. While electrical conductivity was not a critical issue, some companies, such as CBG, had a maximum value of 3,534 \u0026micro;S/cm, which exceeded the average value of 750 \u0026micro;S/cm. The average turbidity of the water samples varied between \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;111.4 and 31.2 Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTU). In the Kerouane iron-mining region, the average annual water intake was found to be 2 m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e, with a duration of six months, from April to October. The water pH was recorded between 4.5 and 7.73, and the turbidity fluctuated between 1.5 NTU and 63.05 NTU. These fluctuations were attributed to the cumulative values of all the sampling areas in the zone.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhysicochemical analysis of surface water from \u003cem\u003eAlliance Mini\u0026egrave;re Responsible\u003c/em\u003e (AMR) mining\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSurface water\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003epH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eElectric conductivity (\u0026micro;S/cm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTurbidity (NTU)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"4\" rowspan=\"5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAMR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumber of samples\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMax\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e274\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMin\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.92\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAverage\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.234\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e82\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNorm\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.5\u0026ndash;8.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;750\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"4\" rowspan=\"5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCBG\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumber of samples\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMaximum\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3534\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e681\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMinimum\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-360\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAverage\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.79\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e539\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-111.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNorm\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.5\u0026ndash;8.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;750\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"4\" rowspan=\"5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCOBAD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumber of samples\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMaximum\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMinimum\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAverage\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNorm\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.5\u0026ndash;8.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;750\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"4\" rowspan=\"5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGAC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumber of samples\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMaximum\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMinimum\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAverage\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNorm\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.5\u0026ndash;8.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;750\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhysicochemical analysis of underground water\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAMR (underground water)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003epH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eElectric conductivity (\u0026micro;S/cm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTurbidity (NTU)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumber\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMaximum\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.66\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e183\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMinimum\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAverage\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNorm\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.5\u0026ndash;8.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;750\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"4\"\u003eNTU: Nephelometric Turbidity unit\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e\u003cb\u003e4.2 Impacts of the mining project on Guinean soil quality\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe chemical composition of the soil in the mining project areas for heavy metals is shown in Tables\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e. The Boke-bauxite mining region's soil composition revealed the presence of Cr, Cu, Ni, and Zn. Similar findings were reported in the Kerouane iron project areas, where substantial quantities of Cu, Ni, and Zn were detected.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChemical composition of Boke bauxite mining soils (mg/kg)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"10\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoke bauxite mining\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCr\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eZn\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHg\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCu\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNi\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumber\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMinimum\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMaximum\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e335\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1506\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e810\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e361\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAverage\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e206\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e129\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e272\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e132\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNorm\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e150\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e250\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e188\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e130\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 6\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChemical composition of Kerouane iron project soil (mg/kg)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"10\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSites\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCr\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eZn\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHg\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCu\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNi\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSection 2 CRCC17 DK19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e371\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e935\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e397\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSection DK 42\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;500\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e421\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDK 83\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;500\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e283\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSekoussoria\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e219\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e399\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDk146\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;500\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e127\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e66\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDK 154\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;300\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e252\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDK 160\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e298\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e606\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDK 177\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e142\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDK 206\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;800\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e166\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e101\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDK218\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;600\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e764\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e432\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e361\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e649\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDK 229\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;500\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e338\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e286\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e552\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e290\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDK 304\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e820\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDK344\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e164\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e85\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e112\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRailway 1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e86\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e252\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e242\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRailway\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSection 10\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e175\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e423\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e\u003cb\u003e4.3 Effects of Guinean mining operations on environmental noise\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure\u0026nbsp;5a shows that the mining operations by Alufer, CBG, and COBAD exceeded the prescribed noise restrictions, contingent upon the extent of mining operations and the distance between the noise source and the receiver. During the preproduction phase, the transportation of mining equipment and trucks to the site is facilitated by the public road network, and they remain stationed. The impact of noise on the surrounding area during mine installation and decommissioning is limited and temporary (online resources Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). As a result, further examination was not required for this assessment. The transmission of sound was also influenced by air and ground absorption, which was estimated using the ISO 9613 noise model (Lilic et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Assuming constant noise levels from the project throughout the year, the predicted acoustic impact at sensitive receivers would be less than the modeled impact during operation (Fig.\u0026nbsp;5b). Noise levels at various locations were monitored using an environmentally sensitive receiver (ESR). The background of the initial state levels indicates that the noise at ESR3 (sample station) is 7 dB above the initial state levels during the day and 3 dB above the initial state levels at night, indicating an exceedance of the guideline levels.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e\u003cb\u003e4.4 Aerial particulate matter (PM) analyses\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e presents the air quality measurements for the study areas, focusing on PM2.5, PM10, and PM1. The data indicate that a substantial amount of PM exceeded the established standard at most sampling locations, with high levels of PM10 detected in mining operations in the Boke bauxite mining and Kerouane iron zones. Although PM2.5 levels were lower in some areas, continuous monitoring of dust levels was necessary. It is expected that the results for the dry season will increase because of unpaved roads in the regions. However, transporting the Kerouane iron consortium ore by train instead of by vehicle minimizes the particulate and dust emissions. The findings of this study are consistent with those of Dumitru et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), who reported high PM10 and PM2.5 levels due to anthropogenic, natural, and crustal origins. Similar results were observed in a study by Tripathi et al. (2024), in which the main reason was the dry nature of the minerals. Sabanov et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) also found that PM emissions levels can fluctuate significantly during mineral loading and unloading.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e\u003cb\u003e4.5 Effects on vegetation and wildlife communities\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e shows the environmental consequences of the Kerouane Iron Project, which involves the removal of plant life within the physical right-of-way and other project infrastructure, such as access roads, living quarters, and processing facilities. This resulted in the direct loss of 2,929 ha of natural habitat and 466 ha of modified habitats, including a 50\u0026ndash;100-meter disturbance buffer around surface mines and infrastructure to accommodate minor design changes, additional unplanned clearing on terrain, and edge effects. The growth of mining activities can have detrimental effects on the vegetation and wildlife communities in numerous villages. Prior research conducted in the Boke bauxite mining region (Sidiki \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Camara et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) found that the extraction of bauxite was the primary cause of landscape devastation, leading to the loss of 5,099 ha of trees and 3,218 ha of forest. This has disrupted weather patterns, leading to a 20% reduction in rainfall over the past 30 years (Dibattista et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Sidiki \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Forest stripping of hillsides, displacement of plants and animals, and extinction of some species can pose significant environmental risks. These risks can escalate if tree loss is not adequately managed.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, the Kerouane Iron Project's production schedule forecasts the removal of approximately 1.291\u0026nbsp;billion tons of ore over an estimated 22-year mine lifespan. Annually, the extraction of approximately 56\u0026nbsp;million tons of waste rock, primarily phyllite and itabirite, is anticipated. Moreover, the project entails the removal of lateritic soil from the ridge at high elevations, covering a combined area of approximately 235 ha of forest and 45 ha of freshwater.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e shows the current status of fauna and flora in the mining project regions. The construction of mines can result in harm to local flora and fauna due to the removal of vegetation, leading to the loss of shelter and food sources. This project has had a substantial impact on birds, fish, plants, and mammals. The iron project regions in Kerouane are home to several non-native plant species, including Laos grass (Chromolaena odorata), Praxelis grass (Praxelis clematidea), Bidens asperata, and Ageratum conyzoides. These plants commonly thrive in disturbed areas and can quickly colonize fallow land. It is worth noting that Praxelis grass is considered an invasive species in Guinea.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.6 Discussion and Emerging Lessons\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe mining industry's environmental footprint is a critical concern as it encompasses the direct and indirect impacts of mineral resource extraction on ecosystems. The concept of environmental footprint, a measure of human demand on Earth's ecosystems, is a useful tool for assessing these impacts. By nature, the mining industry is resource-intensive and has significant environmental implications (Hu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Studies have highlighted the environmental damage and pollution associated with mining activities, emphasizing the need for a comprehensive assessment framework that integrates biophysical variables, technical indicators, and human activity data (Jegede 2016). Such a framework can provide a granular understanding of the environmental damage at the mine level, which is essential for promoting cleaner production and sustainable processes within the industry. Moreover, the ecological footprint method has been applied to various sectors, including the mining industry, to evaluate the environmental impacts of human activities (Cabello et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Interestingly, while ecological footprint is a valuable metric, research indicates that individuals and organizations may not be fully aware of the environmental impact of their actions, as evidenced by the weak correlation between actual ecological footprints and self-assessed environmental sustainability (Salazar \u0026amp; Tavares 2018). This suggests a perception gap that could hinder effective environmental management in the mining sector.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe environmental consequences of the mining industry, with a particular focus on bauxite and iron mining projects in Boke, Kerouane, and Guinea, are complex issues that consider ecological, economic, and social factors. Thorough comprehension of the consequences and steps to effectively manage them is necessary for a complete assessment. The mining industry is a significant contributor to Guinea's economy, with substantial resource exports (Sidiki \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). However, the environmental and socioeconomic effects of mining operations have raised concerns.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGuinea's 2011 mining code, which emphasizes transparency and environmental protection, demonstrates a commitment to sustainable development. However, the Boke region has experienced conflicts exacerbated by mining activities such as youth unemployment and inadequate public service management. Furthermore, it highlights the necessity of considering the entire spectrum of costs, including environmental and social responsibility costs, which can be revealed by an extended cost-benefit analysis of bauxite mining complexes, revealing the true societal impact of mining activities. However, the effectiveness of measures to address environmental concerns in the mining industry is debatable. Although sophisticated codes and regulations are in place, their practical application may be lacking, as evidenced by the environmental degradation and social unrest in mining communities. Malaysia also illustrates the potential for severe environmental consequences when regulations are not rigorously enforced, resulting in significant government intervention and costly remediation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe importance of effective governance and innovative public-private partnerships to ensure that local communities derive benefits from mining operations is evident, given the conflicts discussed. Moreover, the environmental consequences of mining such as pollution and ecosystem damage are crucial factors that should not be overlooked. For instance, uncontrolled bauxite mining in Malaysia has led to severe environmental degradation, prompting the government to impose a temporary ban on mining activities (Rahmat et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). This underscores the significance of comprehensive Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) and decision-support frameworks, such as the Analytic Network Process (ANP), to guide sustainable mining practices (Rahmat et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). The concept of sustainability in mining is multifaceted and often lacks a universally accepted definition, leading to specific approaches for assessing sustainability (Phillips \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). The application of mathematical models to EIAs can help determine the sustainability of mining projects, as demonstrated by a study in Andhra Pradesh, India, which found the proposed bauxite mining project to be unsustainable in its current form (Phillips \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe evaluation of the environmental footprint of mining projects in Boke and Kerouane, Guinea, highlights the importance of comprehensive environmental regulations and their effective enforcement. Mining is crucial for the sustainable development and utilization of resources in Guinea; however, it also has negative environmental impacts, such as deforestation, biodiversity loss, and water pollution. To promote sustainable mining practices and protect the environment, extensive research and community engagement are essential to address potential risks and develop appropriate mitigation strategies. Mining operations can significantly impact surface water resources by increasing the sediment flow into nearby rivers (Carrying et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Preventing adverse consequences requires implementing appropriate mitigation measures (Chadli \u0026amp; Boufala \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). During the rainy season, significant sediment-water flow can be anticipated from sources such as storage areas, disturbed soils, open-pit mining, and mining fleet activities (Chadli \u0026amp; Boufala \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). To maintain the sediment flow within acceptable limits, primary facilities must have dedicated water management systems and sedimentation ponds. Secondary drainage ditches and attenuation systems are necessary to prevent sediment accumulation in areas, such as roads, facilities, and residential areas. These may include drainage ditches lined with mortar and rubble. To design civil engineering projects that minimize sediment-water flow-induced scour and erosion, it is crucial to ensure that the receiving bodies of water can handle sediment-water flows smoothly (Askham \u0026amp; Poll 2017). Despite the implementation of extensive mitigation measures, the residual impacts of mines on streams located 3\u0026ndash;5 km away from the site are expected to remain significant. Beyond this distance, the water quality is likely to return to normal due to sediment deposition and dilution. To address this issue, the project should explore alternatives such as compensatory mechanisms, operational management, and alternative water supply sources for those affected. Soil serves multiple functions, including agricultural use, water filtration, carbon storage, and cultural heritage protection.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMining can harm natural soils and compromise their ability to maintain ecosystem services. Sources of contamination include mine spoils, polluted water, automobile fuels, oils, and building supplies. Land suitability for agricultural purposes must be evaluated to assess soil resource vulnerability, as emphasized by Yang et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Soil suitability for agriculture increased as its sensitivity decreased, with the extent of the change based on the baseline conditions, as noted by (Chen et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Due to the removal of valuable topsoil resources and permanent alteration of land surface features in the context of mining project development, agricultural potential may be limited or nonexistent, except for extensive cattle ranching (Pascaud et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). However, soil remains crucial for supporting biodiversity, influencing surface water drainage, acting as a repository for organic carbon, and protecting archaeological sites, as highlighted by Gastauer et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). During the operational phase of a mine, it is crucial to consider the potential risks of soil erosion, particularly in rugged terrains subject to scouring or excessive weight (Online Resource Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e), soil contamination due to dust settling on adjacent soil, and sediment drainage into the surrounding areas (Andrews 2018). Our data revealed that only ESR3 had elevated noise level estimates when evaluated using the World Bank Group Environment, Health, and Safety guidelines (Roli \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), necessitating the implementation of mitigation measures, such as relocating the mining plant. Strategies could be devised to diminish the significance and proportionality of the impact of noise on ESR3, which has been categorized as central to moderate in importance and proportionate to the sensitivity of the receptor. Temporary noise and vibrations during the construction and closure phases may affect sensitive areas (Lee et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e), and a receptor's well-being can be influenced by numerous factors. To mitigate these impacts, effective working practices should be incorporated into noise and vibration management plans until the completion of mine rehabilitation and closure activities (Melodi \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). The closure plan for the project should aim to eliminate residual noise sources. The deployment of conveyors for ore transportation leads to a considerable reduction in the number of vehicles in the road network. The British Standards Institution (BSI) TG18-BSI code of practice for noise and vibration specifies that cosmetic impairments should not exceed 15 mm/s at 4 Hz and 20 mm/s at 15 Hz for residential or small commercial buildings. The use of explosives in surface mining can cause ground-borne vibrations (Lee et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). The nearest noise-sensitive receiver, ESR6, was positioned approximately 900 m away from our location. Given the background noise level of the receiver, it is highly unlikely that any pulse emitted from the mine exceeds it. Moreover, the receiver's intermediate sensitivity and distance from the mine indicated that the resulting vibrations were insignificant.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study examined three primary categories of air emissions: fugitive dust, combustion emissions, and odor nuisances. Fugitive dust originates from activities such as mining, transportation, and material handling, while combustion emissions are produced by internal combustion engines in vehicles and power plants. Odor nuisance is caused by gas emissions that can affect well-being but do not pose significant health risks. Wind speeds below 1 m/s did not transport substantial amounts of dust particles, although different thresholds have been proposed. Most dust particles settle within 500 m of their source, and mitigation measures are unlikely to be effective for operations that are more than 250 m away. For instance, the Kerouane Iron Project is planned to emit 6,546,158 tons of CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e emissions over 22 years.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe consequences for ecosystems and wildlife in the vicinity have been substantial, with the degree of impact varying depending on the distance from the ridge. The effects were more pronounced in areas close to the ridge. Although measures to alleviate some of these adverse effects have been implemented, others continue to pose significant challenges. Sharma and Chaudhry (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) emphasized the need to discourage the introduction of non-native tree species and promote the growth of indigenous species. Replacing early succession species with native forest trees is likely to be a lengthy endeavor, potentially taking many decades for vegetation in mining pits to resemble natural woodlands. Nonetheless, the advantages of native forest trees, such as enhancing soil quality and serving as a habitat for local wildlife, can help mitigate the detrimental consequences of mining operations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMining ventures can have substantial ecological consequences, but robust regulatory frameworks are vital for their effective management. Achieving lasting success depends on the proper execution and enforcement of these frameworks. To achieve sustainable mining, it is necessary to conduct long-term environmental impact assessments and cost evaluations. A comprehensive strategy that considers legal, economic, and social aspects can help minimize the environmental footprint. For mining in Boke and Kerouane, a holistic approach that integrates environmental management, socioeconomic factors, and governance reform is essential. Guinea and other countries have demonstrated that mining can contribute to economic growth, while also presenting environmental and social challenges. To ensure equitable benefit sharing and sustainable development, innovative strategies, efficient regulatory implementation, and community engagement are indispensable.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"5. Conclusion and Policies implications","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe importance of examining the ecological footprint of the mining industry cannot be overstated given its potential to significantly impact the environment. Several studies have provided valuable insights into the assessment and implications of the environmental footprint of the mining industry. The environmental threat assessment framework proposed in this study presents a comprehensive approach to evaluate the environmental impacts of mining activities by integrating technical, and human activity data (Furley et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). This framework is critical for informing sustainable practices and environmental management in extractive industries. However, there are contradictions when considering the broader implications of ecological footprint assessments. While some studies emphasize the negative environmental impacts of the mining industry, others highlight the potential for cleaner production and sustainable development through improved practices and regulations (Kılkış et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, the role of environmental regulations in mitigating the ecological footprint is emphasized, with findings suggesting that stronger regulations can reduce environmental disturbances in mining economies (Zhou et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe environmental consequences of mining activities in Guinea, particularly in the Boke-Bauxite and Kerouane-Iron mining areas, have been thoroughly investigated. These consequences include soil degradation, deforestation, biodiversity loss, air and water pollution, and other negative effects that have detrimental impacts on local communities and ecosystems. The findings of this study support the findings of Sidiki (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) and Camara et al. (2018) in the domain of natural resources, including air, water, wildlife, vegetation, and noise in the boke mining sector. Despite the efforts of Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) to address these challenges, their efforts are insufficient and require formalization and collaboration with government and industry stakeholders (Diallo et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, iron mining contributes to the ecological footprint through greenhouse gas emissions and energy consumption, as evidenced by life-cycle assessments (Bao \u0026amp; Lin \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Farjana et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). The socioeconomic consequences of iron ore mining in regions such as Tonkolili and Sierra Leone reflect the complex interplay between industrial development and local livelihoods, with both positive and negative effects (Wilson \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo achieve sustainable development, it is vital to adopt a comprehensive approach to assess the environmental impact of industrial operations such as mining (Kılkış et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Incorporating environmental considerations into decision-making processes is crucial for optimizing industries and reducing their ecological footprints. Although the ecological footprint, a commonly used metric of environmental impact, has primarily been utilized for public awareness and education rather than as a primary policy tool, its reliability is increasingly being acknowledged, suggesting its potential for wider application in policymaking. Moreover, the ecological footprint method has been demonstrated to provide valuable insights for evaluating alternative strategies to enhance environmental sustainability, as exemplified by festivals (Collins \u0026amp; Cooper \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo promote sustainable development and minimize the adverse effects of mining operations, it is essential to establish an integrated index of economic and environmental performance in the mining sector (Li et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Companies must integrate sustainability into their operations and collaborate with communities and regulators to limit the impacts of their activities. Furthermore, the government of Guinea must enforce environmental regulations, oversee mining activities, and hold companies accountable for violations. By prioritizing sustainable development and the well-being of local communities, the mining industry in Guinea can contribute to the country's economic growth while preserving its natural resources. However, the inadequate management of the environmental and social impacts resulting from bauxite production expansion, as reported by civil society organizations, underscores the necessity for formal and collaborative management actions. Addressing challenges such as air emissions, water pollution, and ecosystem degradation is crucial for minimizing the negative effects on local communities and wildlife. To support sustainable development in Guinea, it is imperative to implement measures, such as water management systems, sediment flow control, and vegetation restoration. Mining operations have the potential to affect the environment in various ways, making it crucial to implement sustainable practices. This includes responsible waste management, reforestation, and continuous monitoring of water quality. Although the mining sector is important for economic growth, it is equally important to evaluate its environmental consequences. By comparing the environmental impact of mining in Guinea with that in other countries, valuable insights can be gained. Implementing rigorous regulations, innovative technologies, and sustainable practices can mitigate the adverse environmental effects of mining activities. As demonstrated in Australia and Canada, establishing stringent regulations, cutting-edge technologies, and sustainable measures can significantly reduce the environmental footprint of mining. To achieve similar outcomes, Guinea must enhance its environmental management practices, invest in cleaner technologies, and promote responsible mining practices as recommended by Kılkış et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCollaboration among researchers is essential for developing effective strategies to mitigate climate change. Policymakers must consider incorporating climate change mitigation strategies into land-use planning to achieve multiple co-benefits contributing to sustainable development. An integrated index for economic and environmental performance can be used to monitor and improve the sustainability of mining. The mining industry can reduce its ecological impacts and contribute to sustainable development by following these recommendations.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research received no external funding.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCRediT authorship contribution statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBenjamin Kolie\u003c/strong\u003e: Conceptualization, data collection, original draft writing, formal analysis, writing review, and editing. \u003cstrong\u003eAyman Elshkaki\u003c/strong\u003e: Conceptualization, Reviewing, editing, and supervision. \u003cstrong\u003eGeoffrey Sunahara\u003c/strong\u003e: Review and editing.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets used and analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSupplementary Information\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOnline resources Tables and Figure\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDeclaration of competing interest\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could influence\u0026nbsp;the work reported in this\u0026nbsp;study. The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgments\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe extend our gratitude to the data centers that granted us free access to the datasets utilized in our research. Furthermore, we thank the mining and government representatives who graciously provided the necessary reports for data collection.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eA.Haidara, K.Shundo, Y.S. Kim, A. Bella-Corbin, E. Auer, M.B. (2017) Project: Boke Mine Rail \u0026amp; Port Project Country: Republic of Guinea Environmental and Social Impact Assessment Summary. https://www.afdb.org.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAbdollahisharif, J., Bakhtavar, E., and Nourizadeh, H. (2016) Monitoring and assessment of pollutants resulting from bench-blasting operations. 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Ore Geology Reviews, 160, 105600. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2023.105600\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"environmental-management","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"emvm","sideBox":"Learn more about [Environmental Management](http://link.springer.com/journal/267)","snPcode":"267","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/267/3","title":"Environmental Management","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Environmental concern, Mining projects, Natural resources, Monitoring, Sustainability","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4618340/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4618340/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThe extractive industry has a profound impact on the environment, emphasizing the need for environmentally friendly practices. This study employs a mixed-methods approach to evaluate the environmental impact of bauxite and iron mining projects in Boke and Kerouane, Guinea. Primary data were collected from October 2022 to January 2023, with a focus on water pollution, soil, noise, air quality, vegetation, fauna, and flora. A reference matrix was used to assess the impact of mining activities, categorizing them as negligible, moderate, or significant. This study analyzed 400 soil samples from 21 sites to evaluate water quality, measured noise levels using an NL52 Class 1 sound level meter, and monitored air quality using the DustMate system. Biodiversity surveys were conducted to identify potential impacts on the receptors. The results showed that the pH of the water averaged between 5.79 and 8.66, and some companies exceeded the average value of electrical conductivity. The soil composition showed the presence of Cr, Cu, Ni, and Zn in both the mining regions. Noise and particulate matter pollution exceeded the guideline values at some sites. This project will result in the direct loss of natural and modified habitats, including erosion of lateritic soil in ridge areas. Non-native plant species have been identified in the Kerouane Iron Project. This study underscores the need for policymakers to integrate climate change mitigation strategies into land use planning and use an integrated index of economic and environmental performance to improve sustainability in the mining industry.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Assessing the environmental footprint of the mining industry: A case study on the bauxite and iron mining projects of Boke and Kerouane, Guinea","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-07-18 21:02:20","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4618340/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2024-07-23T15:08:57+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2024-07-23T12:54:39+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2024-07-23T09:20:14+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2024-07-22T15:03:32+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"292038413426155415090139761649100554615","date":"2024-07-02T15:02:44+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"75805594298468211724799192948035349325","date":"2024-07-02T05:48:25+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"35552057726372675660261901842665223288","date":"2024-07-01T06:51:55+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"93313339159099375037916989903350303677","date":"2024-07-01T00:18:48+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"277822193805024695281438507728695264125","date":"2024-06-28T15:17:12+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"142915635405487143310535740698255471617","date":"2024-06-27T15:28:26+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2024-06-27T14:51:12+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2024-06-24T21:29:24+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2024-06-22T13:41:42+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Environmental Management","date":"2024-06-21T15:52:00+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"environmental-management","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"emvm","sideBox":"Learn more about [Environmental Management](http://link.springer.com/journal/267)","snPcode":"267","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/267/3","title":"Environmental Management","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"950c1578-12bc-4d2b-b73c-bbf76b953e05","owner":[],"postedDate":"July 18th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-11-18T19:35:53+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-4618340","link":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-024-02066-1","journal":{"identity":"environmental-management","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Environmental Management"},"publishedOn":"2024-11-11 15:57:12","publishedOnDateReadable":"November 11th, 2024"},"versionCreatedAt":"2024-07-18 21:02:20","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1007/s00267-024-02066-1","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-024-02066-1","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-4618340","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-4618340","identity":"rs-4618340","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}