Victimization and Polyvictimization among Juvenile Offenders: A Systematic Review

Victimization and Polyvictimization among Juvenile Offenders: A Systematic Review | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Victimization and Polyvictimization among Juvenile Offenders: A Systematic Review Ximena Salazar Alvarez, Noemí Pereda Beltrán This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-9003572/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Introduction: This systematic review aims to identify and synthesize the global empirical evidence on victimization and polyvictimization among juvenile offenders aged 10–19 years. Method: The review protocol was developed following PRISMA guidelines. Quantitative studies published between 2000 and 2024 in English or Spanish were included if they assessed victimization or polyvictimization using standardized or validated instruments and Official records, case files, and ad hoc items or non-standardized self-reports. Bibliographic searches were conducted in PubMed, PsycInfo, Scopus, Web of Science, and ProQuest between August and December 2024. Results: A total of 55 studies were included, with a predominance of cross-sectional designs ( n = 39) over longitudinal studies ( n = 16), and the majority conducted in the United States ( n = 39). Risk of bias was generally low, particularly for participant recruitment and statistical analyses. Findings indicate that victimization and polyvictimization experiences are highly prevalent in this population. Sexual victimization, physical abuse, neglect, and exposure to violence were among the most frequently reported forms, with polyvictimization affecting a substantial proportion of adolescents. Conclusions: The evidence highlights a critical and widespread prevalence of adverse experiences among juvenile offenders, with rates of exposure to violence often exceeding 90%. Exposure to violence and polyvictimization were particularly common. These findings underscore the urgent need for trauma-informed approaches within the juvenile justice system that address cumulative adversities, reduce recidivism risk, and promote mental health outcomes. prevalence victimization polyvictimization juvenile offenders exposure to violence Figures Figure 1 1. Introduction Interpersonal victimization—understood as the harm suffered by an individual as a result of violent actions by others that violate social norms—has been widely studied in child and adolescent populations (Finkelhor, 2008). Traditionally, research has focused on specific victimization experiences, such as maltreatment, sexual abuse, or exposure to domestic violence. However, more recent studies have emphasized the need to adopt a broader and more integrated perspective that acknowledges the accumulation of violent experiences throughout childhood and adolescence. This approach recognizes that victimization rarely occurs in isolation but tends to accumulate, giving rise to the phenomenon known as polyvictimization (Finkelhor et al., 2005; 2007). The polyvictimization perspective represents a significant advancement over traditional approaches, as it acknowledges that different forms of violence may coexist and interact, thereby amplifying their impact. Empirical evidence demonstrates that polyvictimization not only entails a higher frequency of adverse experiences but also a deeper and more complex effect on mental health, psychosocial adjustment, and development (Lee et al., 2023). Cumulative exposure to multiple forms of violence significantly increases the risk of developing symptoms of anxiety, depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, and antisocial behavior (Haahr-Pedersen et al., 2020). This finding has prompted a conceptual shift in the study of victimization, moving from a fragmented analysis toward a comprehensive approach to understanding violence. Accordingly, an average of 3.3 violent experiences has been reported in general population samples of children and adolescents in Canada (Cyr et al., 2013), 3.8 in Spain (Pereda et al., 2014), 5.2 in the United Kingdom (Radford et al., 2013), and up to 7 in Chile (Pinto-Cortez et al., 2022). In similar samples, the prevalence of polyvictimization—defined as exposure to multiple forms of victimization above the mean for the respective age group—has been estimated at approximately 10% among adolescents in Norway (Mossige & Huang, 2017), 21% in Colombia (Caballero-Domínguez et al., 2022), and close to 30% in Spain (Montiel et al., 2025) and in England and Wales (Tura et al., 2023), among other countries. These data highlight that polyvictimization affects a significant proportion of adolescents, despite the methodological challenges associated with its definition and measurement (Segura et al., 2018). Nevertheless, the situation is particularly concerning in samples considered to be at risk, where studies on polyvictimization remain even more limited. In this regard, lifetime polyvictimization rates have been reported to reach approximately half of the samples among youth receiving child and adolescent mental health services (Adams et al., 2016; Davis et al., 2019; Ford et al., 2011; Pereda et al., 2015) or belonging to gender minority groups (Pereda et al., 2025; Sterzing et al., 2019). These figures are even higher among children and adolescents living in out-of-home care within the child protection system (Collin-Vézina et al., 2011; Cyr et al., 2012; Fernández-Artamendi et al., 2020; Segura et al., 2015). Taken together, these findings reveal the existence of groups of children and adolescents who are particularly vulnerable and at high risk of experiencing multiple forms of victimization, making the study of polyvictimization essential for comprehensively understanding and addressing violence in childhood and adolescence (Finkelhor et al., 2011; Sabri et al., 2013). In response to this need, the present review focuses on adolescents in conflict with the law as a particularly vulnerable group. It consolidates empirical findings published between 2000 and 2024, providing an integrative synthesis of prevalence patterns and critically examining how polyvictimization has been conceptualized and operationalized in this population. Given the fragmented and methodologically heterogeneous nature of the existing evidence, this study advances a more coherent understanding of cumulative trauma exposure within juvenile justice contexts and outlines key directions for future trauma-informed research and practice. 2. Theoretical Framework The concept of the intergenerational cycle of violence refers to the observed tendency for experiences of maltreatment during childhood—particularly physical abuse and neglect—to significantly increase the likelihood that an individual will become a perpetrator in adulthood. This proposition, extensively supported by longitudinal studies, suggests that early exposure to abusive environments alters emotional, cognitive, and social developmental processes, establishing risk trajectories that may be replicated across the lifespan. The most influential study on this topic is that of Widom (1989), who introduced the term “cycle of violence” through a prospective longitudinal design that followed children who had experienced abuse and neglect into adulthood. Her findings demonstrated that individuals who had suffered physical abuse were significantly more likely to be arrested for violent offenses, followed by those who had experienced neglect. Widom (1989) concluded that childhood maltreatment constitutes a significant risk factor for later violent behavior, although it does not inevitably determine future criminal conduct. Subsequent research confirmed these associations, showing that individuals exposed to physical abuse or neglect are more likely to be arrested for juvenile delinquency, adult criminality, and violent offenses, and to be arrested at earlier ages (Widom & Maxfield, 1996). Other longitudinal studies have continued to explore this phenomenon. For example, Ehrensaft et al. (2003) identified conduct disorder in adolescence as a robust predictor of later violence, substantially increasing the likelihood of intimate partner violence. Moreover, childhood maltreatment—particularly physical or sexual abuse—along with exposure to interparental violence, also contributed to this outcome, even after controlling for variables such as socioeconomic status, parental mental health, and family dynamics. Consistent with these findings, Smith et al. (2005) examined the impact of adolescent maltreatment on antisocial behavior using data from the Rochester Youth Development Study (RYDS). Their results indicated that experiencing maltreatment during adolescence significantly increased the likelihood of engaging in antisocial behaviors, including arrests, general delinquency, violent crime, and illicit drug use. Neurobiological evidence further supports the understanding of the intergenerational cycle of violence, showing that repeated exposure to threatening and chaotic environments disrupts the organization of stress-response systems. This neurodevelopmental vulnerability suggests that the developing brain is particularly sensitive to adverse experiences, potentially leading to dysfunctional stress reactivity characterized by impulsivity, anxiety, emotional dysregulation, and profound effects on behavior and social adaptation (Perry, 2009). Additionally, research has shown that in individuals with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), amygdala hyperreactivity and reduced hippocampal volume contribute to difficulties in integrating emotional experiences and memories, thereby perpetuating maladaptive responses and increasing the likelihood of reactive and violent behaviors (Young & Widom, 2013). Current literature indicates that early and repeated exposure to trauma not only increases the risk of cognitive, socioemotional, and behavioral problems but also shapes how young people respond to norms, authority, and institutional interventions (Zelechoski et al., 2024). Overall, the literature suggests that the cycle of violence is neither automatic nor inevitable; rather, it represents a statistically significant pattern resulting from the interaction of emotional, relational, neurobiological, and structural factors. Violence experienced during childhood affects human development through both psychological mechanisms and structural processes that shape relationships and skills over time. This underscores the importance of examining how early victimization experiences are associated with later behaviors—an issue central to the present study. 3. Objective The present systematic review aims to consolidate and critically examine the global empirical evidence on victimization and polyvictimization among juvenile offenders. Beyond summarizing prevalence rates and the most frequently examined forms of victimization, this review seeks to evaluate how polyvictimization has been conceptualized, defined, and operationalized in this population. By identifying methodological heterogeneity, demographic and geographic patterns, and gaps in the adoption of an integrative polyvictimization framework, the study aims to advance a more coherent understanding of cumulative trauma exposure among justice-involved adolescents. Specifically, the review addresses the following questions: (1) What is the reported prevalence of victimization and polyvictimization among juvenile offenders? and (2) ¿Which forms of victimization have been most frequently assessed in the literature? 4. Method 4.1 Protocol The protocol for this systematic review was developed in accordance with the PRISMA guidelines Page et al. (2021), ensuring transparency and rigor in the selection, extraction, and synthesis of the evidence. The adoption of these recommendations helps minimize bias and enhance the methodological quality of the study, ensuring that the findings provide a solid foundation for future research and practical applications in the field of victimization and polyvictimization among juvenile offenders. 4.2 Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria Quantitative studies assessing victimization and/or polyvictimization through standardized instruments were included in order to analyze prevalence rates among juvenile offenders. Participants’ ages were limited to the 10–19 range, considering adolescence as a developmental stage characterized by heightened vulnerability to adverse experiences. The time frame 2000–2024 was established for conceptual and methodological reasons: since 2000, research on child and adolescent victimization has undergone a turning point, particularly with the development of the polyvictimization framework, while the upper limit ensures the inclusion of up-to-date evidence. The search focused on publications in English and Spanish, as English dominates the international scientific literature and Spanish allows for the integration of findings from Ibero-American contexts. Studies involving non-offending participants, samples outside the specified age range, as well as qualitative research, opinion papers, editorials, books, and book chapters were excluded, prioritizing original empirical evidence suitable for comparative analysis. 4.3 Search Strategy The literature search was conducted in the databases PubMed, PsycInfo, Scopus, Web of Science, and ProQuest, using a combination of terms related to polyvictimization, victimization, and juvenile offender populations. The search terms included: "polyvictimization" OR “poly-victimization” OR “poly-victimisation” AND "victimization" OR “abuse” OR “maltreatment” OR “trauma” OR “adversity” AND "juvenile offenders" OR “juvenile perpetrator” OR "youth offenders" OR "delinquent youth" OR "adolescent offenders” OR “juvenile aggressor” OR “young perpetrator” AND "prevalence". 4.4 Management and Screening To document the search process, a spreadsheet was created to record the database consulted, the date of the search, the search terms used, and the number of results obtained. A first screening was then conducted based on the review of titles and abstracts, including studies that met the established inclusion criteria. In a second screening stage, full texts were examined to extract relevant information, including: title, objectives, country, year of publication, methodological design, measurement instruments, sample size and mean age, as well as the assessment of the prevalence of victimization and/or polyvictimization. 4.5 Methodological Quality Assessment The risk of bias of the included studies was assessed using the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI, 2020) checklist for studies reporting prevalence data, following the recommendations of Munn et al. (2015). This tool enables a systematic evaluation of methodological quality, considering aspects such as sampling procedures, measurement of variables, and the validity of the reported data. 5. Results The initial search identified 938 studies; after removing duplicates, 816 unique records were retained. The first screening reduced the sample to 83 articles and, following the exclusion of 28 studies that did not meet the inclusion criteria, a total of 55 studies were ultimately included. The study selection process is illustrated in Fig. 1 . Of the 55 empirical studies included that reported prevalence rates of victimization and polyvictimization, 39 were cross-sectional designs and 16 were longitudinal studies. The vast majority were conducted in the United States (70.9%), followed by Canada (7.3%), Spain (5.5%), Australia (3.6%), and other countries such as Russia, Brazil, Chile, China, Malaysia, New Zealand, and Singapore (1.8%). Sample sizes showed considerable variability, ranging from 47 to 29,204 participants. Regarding sample composition, 43.6% (n = 24) included participants of both sexes, another 43.6% (n = 24) focused exclusively on males, and 12.7% (n = 7) included only females. Participants’ ages ranged from 10 to 19 years, with a mean age of 15.76 years (SD = 0.78). Some studies did not report the mean age (Jeanis et al., 2019; Reid et al., 2017) or provided only age ranges (Ahlin & Hummer, 2019; Asscher et al., 2015; Van der Put & De Ruiter, 2016). In terms of measurement instruments, 72.7% of the studies used standardized questionnaires and inventories, 16.4% relied on official records or file reviews, and 10.9% used ad hoc items or non-standardized self-reports. The most frequently used instruments were the Exposure to Violence Inventory (ETV, 12.7%), followed by the Washington State Juvenile Court Assessment (WSJCA/WSJCPA, 7.3%), the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ, 7.3%), and the Juvenile Victimization Questionnaire (JVQ/JVQ-R2, 5.5%). Most studies reported ethnic-racial categories. Studies conducted in the United States showed high representation of African American and Latino youth in some samples: Phan and Kingree (2002) reported 85% African American participants; Kimonis et al. (2011), 68%; and Stimmel et al. (2013), 51.6% African American, with 27.2% Latino. Other studies reported less represented groups, such as Native American youth and participants from Middle Eastern/North African backgrounds (Mii et al., 2024), or American Indian youth in Arizona (Katz et al., 2011). Of the four studies conducted in Canada, only two reported information on ethnic characteristics. Rojas and Gretton (2007) indicated that 28.4% of participants were Indigenous youth and 71.6% were non-Indigenous. Viljoen et al. (2005) reported a distribution of 43.3% Caucasian, 40.4% Indigenous, 7.1% Asian, and 9.2% other visible minorities. The remaining two studies did not include ethnic differentiation in their sample descriptions (Carpentier & Proulx, 2011; Dennison & Leclerc, 2011). Of the three studies conducted in Spain, Benedicto et al. (2016) reported that most participants were Spanish nationals (44.1%), followed by youth of Latin American (29.8%), Moroccan (15.5%), and Romanian (7.2%) origin. Silva et al. (2014) reported a majority of participants of foreign origin (63.5%), mainly from Latin American countries (36.2%), the Maghreb (16%), and other countries (11.3%). Although Pereda et al. (2017) collected information on participants’ country of birth, they did not report specific analyses related to ethnicity. Of the two studies conducted in Australia, only one reported ethnic background, with 13.2% Indigenous participants (Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander) and 86.8% non-Indigenous (Thomsen et al., 2023). In countries where only one study was identified, Lie et al. (2021) reported that participants were divided into Chinese descendants (32.9%) and non-Chinese (67.1%). Lim et al. (2012) reported a sample composed of 50% Māori and Pākehā youth. Wahab et al. (2021) reported a sample predominantly of Malay ethnicity (87.8%), followed by Indian (9.6%) and Chinese (1.3%) participants. The remaining studies did not report ethnicity-related data (Alvarez Vivar et al., 2023; Huculak et al., 2011; Ruchkin et al., 2002). In terms of types of victimization, sexual victimization was the most frequently studied (67.3%), followed by physical abuse (54.6%), neglect (43.6%), exposure to or witnessing community or domestic violence (40.0%), and emotional abuse (34.6%). Reported prevalence rates showed wide variability across studies, ranging from 8% for sexual abuse among males (Asscher et al., 2015) to 98.1% for exposure to violence among males too (Burton et al., 2011). Overall, studies consistently report extremely high rates of lifetime victimization among juvenile offenders. General victimization—defined as experiencing at least one traumatic event or prior form of victimization—reached between 94% and 96% in several samples (Ruchkin et al., 2002; Jencks & Burton, 2013), underscoring the near universality of adversity within this population. When examining specific forms of victimization, witnessing violence and physical abuse emerged as the most prevalent. Some studies reported exposure to violence rates exceeding 90% (Burton et al., 2011; Huculak et al., 2011; López et al., 2019), with witnessing violence reaching 98.1% in one sample. Physical abuse similarly showed extremely high prevalence, with Katz et al. (2011) reporting that 97.8% of participants had experienced it at some point in their lives. In comparison, sexual victimization—although alarmingly high in specific subgroups such as adolescents who committed sexual offenses (Yeater et al., 2015)—tended to be reported at relatively lower percentages in broader juvenile justice samples (Li et al., 2021; Morais et al., 2018). Polyvictimization as an explicit construct was addressed by only 10.9% of the studies. Reported rates varied widely, ranging from 5.3% among detained adolescents identified through latent class analysis (Ford et al., 2013) to 98% in a sample of girls in the juvenile justice system (DeHart & Moran, 2015). This heterogeneity reflects differences in definitional criteria. Across the analyzed studies, varied approaches were used to classify polyvictimization. Some studies employed numerical cut-off points based on counts of victimization types, while others applied more complex statistical analyses. DeHart and Moran (2015) operationalized polyvictimization as having experienced four or more subtypes of victimization across the lifespan (out of 20 subtypes assessed), noting that the four-subtype threshold is commonly used in the literature. Pereda et al. (2015) applied a percentile-based criterion. Using the sample-percentile criterion, they identified the top 10% of the sample with the highest number of victimizations, corresponding to 15–16 or more lifetime types. Under the community-percentile criterion, they used a cut-off based on the 90th percentile of a normative community sample, classifying as polyvictims those reporting nine or more lifetime types of victimization and six or more in the past year. Other studies adopted latent class approaches based on patterns of exposure. Mii et al. (2024) identified four distinct classes, including a specific “Polyvictimization” class defined by exposure to all ten types of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) assessed (emotional, physical, and sexual abuse, neglect, and family dysfunction, among others). Similarly, Ford et al. (2013) conducted an exploratory latent class analysis of 19 types of traumatic adversity and identified a “Polyvictim” class characterized by a mean of 11.4 types of adversity (out of 19 possible) and a high probability of reporting nearly all forms of victimization assessed. Another approach involved cumulative scoring. Marini et al. (2014) assessed cumulative victimization by summing the number of maltreatment types experienced according to the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ), which evaluates five dimensions: sexual, physical, and emotional abuse, and physical and emotional neglect. Overall, the findings indicate that victimization and polyvictimization experiences are highly prevalent in this population. Sexual victimization, physical abuse, neglect, and exposure to violence were among the most frequently reported forms, with polyvictimization affecting a substantial proportion of adolescents. Significant variations were observed according to gender and type of offense, particularly regarding sexual victimization and neglect. Table 1 presents the main characteristics of the reviewed studies. Table 1 Summary of the Articles Reviewed 1 Authors and year Country N Type of victimization Assessment instrument Alvarez Vivar et al. (2023) Chile 115 Adverse childhood experiences (abuse, neglect, domestic violence) EEA 2 Ahlin & Hummer. (2019) USA 1.618 Forced sexual assault, Prior sexual victimization history NIS-3 3 Asscher et al. (2015) USA 13.613 Physical abuse, sexual abuse, neglect, any form of maltreatment WSJCA 4 Baker et al. (2001) USA 47 Physical abuse history of the youth, sexual abuse history of the youth, witnessing domestic violence, sexualized environment, parental victimization YCM 5 Benedicto et al. (2016) Spain 63 Sexual victimization, domestic violence, family abandonment, physical abuse, school bullying Retrospective study based on the review of records 6 Burton et al. (2011) USA 451 Sexual victimization, physical victimization, neglect, witnessing violence UDCS 7 Carpentier & Proulx. (2011) Canada 351 Sexual victimization, physical victimization, psychological victimization, parental neglect, paternal abandonment Coding scheme 8 Chen. (2016) USA 1.354 Violent victimization (beaten up, mugged, or seriously threatened by another person, chased and thought they might be seriously hurt, attacked with a weapon, shot, raped or sexually assaulted) ETV 9 Collibee et al. (2021) USA 199 Physical abuse and threatening behavior, social networking abuse CADRI/ Social Networking Abuse Scale 10 DeHart & Moran. (2015) USA 100 Polyvictimization, caregiver violence, dating violence, sexual violence, witnessed violence JVQ 11 Dembo et al. (2022) USA 4.336 lifetime sexual assault victimization Single-item self-report question 12 Dennison & Leclerc. (2011) Canada 111 Sexual abuse victimization, physical violence, psychological violence, inadequate parenting CTQ/ Archival clinical file review 13 Feingold et al. (2022) USA 1.354 Direct experience of violence/witness to violence ETV/PAI 14 Ford et al. (2013) USA 1.959 Physical assault, physical abuse, family violence, community violence, sexual abuse, emotional abuse and neglect TESI (Traumatic Experiences Screening Instrument) 15 Gaylord-Harden et al. (2020) USA 1.170 Exposure to community violence ETV 16 Hinton et al. (2021) USA 1.094 Direct victimization, indirect victimization, total victimization - baseline ETV 17 Howard et al. (2012) USA 88 Exposure to community violence CREV-R 18 Huculak et al. (2011) Brazil 325 witnessed violence and experienced violence, physical abuse and sexual abuse SAHA 19 Hussey et al. (2008) USA 114 Physical victimization, emotional victimization General Victimization Scale /GAIN-I 20 Jeanis et al. (2018) USA 29.204 Physical abuse, emotional abuse, sexual abuse & neglect PACT 21 Jencks & Burton. (2013) USA 87 Witnessing domestic violence, witnessing community violence/severe violence sexual victimization Set of dichotomous questions 22 Jory et al. (2002) USA 381 Sexual victimization, general childhood victimization/trauma SAEQ /CTQ/ SERSAS 23 Katz et al. (2011) USA 909 Victimization by common crimes (threats with a weapon, assault) Self-report (National Institute of Justice - NIJ) 24 Kimonis et al. (2011) USA 373 Witnessing of violence, violent victimization ETV, Life Events scale 25 Lansing et al. (2017) USA 118 Traumatic Events: physical and sexual abuse, domestic violence, dating violence, gang violence, being a victim of a crime, gun attacks, kidnapping, and witnessing violence SCI-TALS/ LEC 26 Letourneau et al. (2018) USA 251 Peer victimization, sexual victimization Social Experience Questionnaire—Self Report/ National Survey of Adolescents 27 Li et al. (2021) Singapore 790 Child Abuse (emotional abuse, physical and sexual abuse, emotional neglect, physical neglect) ACE-IQ/RYDM/YSR 28 Lim et al. (2012) New Zealand 150 Victimization history (physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, neglect) Coding from official client files 29 López et al. (2019) USA 184 Exposure to violence: violence experienced and witnessed Exposure to Violence Inventory 30 Marini, et al. (2014) USA 406 Sexual abuse, physical abuse, emotional abuse. Physical neglect, emotional neglect and polyvictimization CTQ 31 McKillop et al. (2017) Australia 535 Forced sexual activity, nonsexual assault Official administrative records. GYFS, DJAG, QPS. 32 McReynolds & Wasserman. (2011) USA 220 Forced sexual activity, nonsexual assault V-DISC/ VISA 33 Mii et al. (2024) USA 265 Adverse childhood experiences 10-item ACE Questionnaire 34 Morais et al. (2018) USA 498 Childhood sexual abuse Semi-structured interview/ File information/Department of Human Resources (DHR) reports. 35 Pereda et al. (2015) Spain 101 Conventional crime, caregiver victimization, victimization by peers and siblings, sexual victimization, witnessing and indirect victimization, electronic victimization, polyvictimization JVQ 36 Phan & Kingree. (2002) USA 272 Sexual abuse CTQ 37 Piquero et al. (2017) USA 1.354 Bullying victimization, exposure to violence ETV 38 Reid et al. (2017) USA 1.826 Adverse experiences and child maltreatment (emotional and physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional and physical neglect, domestic violence) C-PACT/ ACEs/ Reports from the Florida Abuse Hotline 39 Robertson et al. (2008) USA 761 Physical abuse, sexual abuse self-report items 40 Rojas & Gretton. (2007) Canada 359 History of child abuse (sexual abuse, physical abuse, emotional abuse, neglect) Retrospective coding from file records 41 Ruchkin et al. (2002) Rusia 370 Direct and indirect victimization (being beaten, being assaulted, being threatened) Survey of Exposure to Community Violence 42 Silva et al. (2014) Spain 104 Physical abuse, emotional abuse 10 items used by the LONGSCAN investigators 43 Stimmel et al. (2014) USA 66 Witnessing community violence, physical abuse/assault, sexual victimization, domestic violence UCLA PTSD Index for DSM–IV 44 Thomsen et al. (2023) Australia 218 Child abuse (physical, sexual, emotional, neglect) Victimization in the family environment, social victimization and peer victimization Official records. 45 Tillyer et al. (2018) USA 888 Direct violent victimization ETV 46 Van Der Put & De Ruiter, 2016) USA 13.613 Physical abuse, sexual abuse, neglect WSJCA/ Self-reported information 47 Van Der Put et al. (2014) USA 628 Physical abuse, sexual abuse, and neglect WSJCA 48 Van Der Put. (2013) USA 73 History of maltreatment (sexual abuse by a family member, sexual abuse outside the family, physical abuse by a family member, physical abuse outside the family, neglect) WSJCPA 49 Veneziano et al. (2000) USA 74 Sexual abuse; anal intercourse, fellatio, fondling Adolescent Sexual Offender Packet 50 Viljoen et al. (2005) Canada 243 Verbal and physical bullying in custody/ previous/external victimization Victimization and Bullying While in Custody Scale 51 Wahab et al. (2021) Malasia 230 Conventional/Commercial crime, peer and sibling victimization, witnessing and indirect victimization, neglect and maltreatment, sexual victimization, poly-victimization JVQ-R2 52 Wareham et al. (2022) USA 452 Childhood sexual assault - CSA Single-item self-report question 53 Yeater et al. (2015) USA 245 Sexual coercion 7 -item measure developed by Abbey and McAuslan/ Sexual Experiences Survey 54 Yoder et al. (2018) USA 505 Sexual victimization, physical abuse, emotional abuse Confidential self-report survey 55 Zhang et al. (2016) China 358 Child sexual abuse CTQ Finally, the studies demonstrated a low risk of bias, particularly in recruitment procedures (96.4%), the description of participants and context (91.1%), and statistical analysis (89.3%). However, higher proportions of unclear assessments were observed in the domains of non-response management (32.1%) and measurement reliability (16.1%), reflecting the typical methodological limitations of research conducted in forensic and juvenile justice settings. Table 2 presents these results. Table 2 Risk of bias assessment of the included studies (JBI, 2020) Assessed Domain Low Risk n (%) Unclear Risk n (%) High Risk n (%) Sample representativeness 44 (78,6) 1 (1,8) 10 (17,9) Appropriate recruitment 54 (96,4) – 1 (1,8) Sample size 41 (73,2) 7 (12,5) 7 (12,5) Description of participants and setting 51 (91,1) 4 (7,1) – Measurement validity 43 (76,8) 7 (12,5) 5 (8,9) Measurement reliability 39 (69,6) 9 (16,1) 7 (12,5) Statistical analysis 50 (89,3) 4 (7,1) 1 (1,8) Response rate 40 (71,4) 9 (16,1) – Management of non-response 32 (57,1) 18 (32,1) 2 (3,6) 6. Discussion This systematic review advances Knowledge on justice-involved youth, First, by consolidating 24 years of empirical research, it provides a comprehensive synthesis of prevalence patterns of victimization and polivictimization among juvenile offenders. Second, beyond documenting high exposure rates, the review critically examines how polyvictimization has been conceptualized, defined, and operationalized across studies, revealing substantial methodological heterogeneity and a limited adoption of an integrative framework. Third, the study identifies important demographic and geographic imbalances in knowledge production, highlighting structural blind spots that constrain the generalizability of existing evidence. The results confirms that victimization and polyvictimization are highly prevalent phenomena among juvenile offenders, demonstrating that exposure to multiple forms of violence and adversity is a cross-cutting characteristic of this population. The predominance of cross-sectional studies (70.9%) limits the ability to establish causal trajectories; however, the inclusion of 16 longitudinal studies provides relevant evidence regarding the persistence and accumulation of adverse experiences over the course of development. This finding is consistent with developmental and life-course models (Thornberry & Krohn, 2003) and the intergenerational cycle of violence framework (Widom, 1989), which posit that early exposure to violence increases the likelihood of delinquent trajectories—persistent in some cases—through cumulative and transactional mechanisms. A notable aspect is the marked geographic concentration of evidence in the United States (70.9%). While this allows for a robust body of research within that context, it also limits the generalizability of the findings. The limited representation of studies in Latin America—including only one study from Chile and one from Brazil—and in other regions of the world highlights a significant gap in the literature, particularly considering that juvenile justice systems, patterns of community violence, and structural conditions differ substantially across countries. Regarding the underrepresentation of certain groups in the samples, particularly ethnic minorities and female adolescents, an important limitation emerges in the reviewed literature. Although some studies included ethnic-racial differentiation—reporting high percentages of African American and, to a lesser extent, Latino youth—this information was not systematically considered or analyzed across all investigations. Consequently, it remains difficult to draw solid conclusions about the magnitude and specific characteristics of polyvictimization among ethnic minority groups. Similarly, consideration of gender differences revealed significant variation. Female adolescents are underrepresented in samples of juvenile offenders, as reflected by the fact that only seven of the 55 included studies focused exclusively on girls. This distribution reflects a historical bias toward the study of male juvenile delinquency (Hoyt & Scherer, 1998), limiting understanding of gender-specific victimization trajectories. The literature suggests that girls in conflict with the law tend to present higher rates of interpersonal violence and cumulative adverse experiences, as well as distinct clinical profiles (Arbach et al., 2021; Kerig, 2018). Methodologically, the wide variation in sample sizes (47 to 29,204 participants) indicates substantial heterogeneity across studies, reflecting the coexistence of large-scale investigations and smaller-scope research, which may affect the stability of prevalence estimates. Although most studies employed standardized instruments, the diversity of measurement tools complicates direct comparisons of findings. Notably, the limited use of the Juvenile Victimization Questionnaire (JVQ) (Finkelhor et al., 2005)—an instrument specifically designed to assess polyvictimization from a broad and ecological perspective—stands out. Sexual victimization was identified as the most frequently studied form, followed by physical abuse and neglect. This emphasis likely reflects both the clinical and legal severity of sexual abuse and its well-documented association with internalizing and externalizing problems among youth (Álvarez Vivar et al., 2023; Morais et al., 2018; van der Put et al., 2014). Furthermore, a significant association between sexual violence and delinquent behavior among girls has been documented (Siegel & Williams, 2003), underscoring the importance of adopting a gender-sensitive research perspective and examining how victimization experiences may differentially affect adolescents according to gender. However, polyvictimization as an explicit construct was analyzed in only one out of every ten studies, suggesting that a fragmented approach to victimization still predominates. Given evidence indicating that simultaneous exposure to multiple forms of violence tends to accumulate across the lifespan rather than occur in isolation (Finkelhor et al., 2007), there is a clear need to advance toward comprehensive models capable of capturing the complexity of the phenomenon. The wide variability in reported polyvictimization prevalence reflects substantial differences in operational definitions. These discrepancies largely stem from the absence of uniform criteria: some studies conceptualize polyvictimization as the accumulation of multiple adversities without a specific cut-off point, whereas others establish thresholds of four, nine, or more types of victimization. This lack of methodological consensus limits international comparability and complicates precise estimation of the true magnitude of the phenomenon (Segura et al., 2016). From a methodological quality perspective, most studies demonstrated a low risk of bias in key domains such as recruitment and statistical analysis. Nevertheless, weaknesses were identified in the management of non-response and measurement reliability, which is understandable in juvenile justice contexts, where voluntariness, institutional distrust, and participant turnover may affect data consistency. These limitations should be considered when interpreting prevalence rates, particularly in studies based on administrative records or non-standardized items. 7. Study Limitations The present review presents certain limitations that should be considered when interpreting the findings. The assessment of victimization and polyvictimization across the included studies relied on a wide range of measurement strategies, including ad hoc questions, case file reviews, and standardized instruments. This diversity in assessment approaches limits the comparability of prevalence estimates and reduces the precision with which findings can be synthesized. More importantly, the absence of a unified operational criterion for defining polyvictimization constitutes a central challenge for the interpretation of the evidence. Studies employed different thresholds and classification strategies to identify polyvictimized youth, making it difficult to establish consistent prevalence ranges or to meaningfully compare patterns across samples. This lack of conceptual and operational consensus constrains the cumulative interpretation of the reported estimates. Additionally, the limited use of standardized and multidimensional instruments, such as the Juvenile Victimization Questionnaire (JVQ), restricts the extent to which victimization experiences are assessed comprehensively and systematically across studies, further complicating cross-study comparisons. Finally, the marked geographic concentration of evidence in the United States and the underrepresentation of female adolescents and ethnic minorities limit the generalizability and subgroup-specific interpretation of the findings. Taken together, these considerations highlight the need for greater methodological and conceptual coherence, as well as more cross-cultural and inclusive research, to strengthen the interpretability and comparability of prevalence estimates in this field. 8. Conclusion Overall, the findings reinforce the need to understand juvenile offending within a developmental victimology framework, in which the accumulation of adverse experiences plays a central role in shaping delinquent trajectories. The evidence suggests that adolescents in the juvenile justice system not only exhibit transgressive behaviors but also present complex histories of repeated exposure to violence. Therefore, it is essential that interventions incorporate systematic assessments of victimization and polyvictimization, as well as trauma-informed and resilience-oriented approaches. Future research should prioritize longitudinal designs, standardized criteria for defining polyvictimization, and greater representation of non-Anglophone contexts in order to advance toward a more global, comparable, and clinically meaningful understanding of the phenomenon. Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate : Not applicable. This study is a systematic review of previously published studies and does not involve human participants or primary data collection. Consent for publication : Not applicable. Availability of data and material : All data analyzed during this study are included in this published article and its supplementary information files. Funding : This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. Conflict of Interest : The authors declare that she has no conflict of interest. Authors' contributions: XS conceived the study, conducted the literature search, performed the data extraction and analysis, and drafted the manuscript. NP supervised the study design, contributed to the interpretation of the data, and critically revised the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. References References marked with an asterisk (*) indicate studies included in the systematic review. Adams, Z. 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Journal of Interpersonal Violence , 15 (4), 363-374. https://doi.org/10.1177/088626000015004002 *Viljoen, J. L., O’Neill, M. L., & Sidhu, A. (2005). Bullying behaviors in female and male adolescent offenders: prevalence, types, and association with psychosocial adjustment. Aggressive Behavior , 31 (6), 521-536. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.20036 Vivar, L. B. Á., Muñoz, M. S., Cárcamo, Y. B., & Arenas, R. P. (2023). Adolescentes con prácticas abusivas sexuales: Rol de las experiencias adversas y desadaptación social en el riesgo de reincidencia. Psicoperspectivas Individuo y Sociedad , 22 (3). https://doi.org/10.5027/psicoperspectivas-vol22-issue3-fulltext-2969 *Wahab, S., Baharom, M. A., Rahman, F. N. A., Wahab, K. A., Zulkifly, M. A., Azmi, A. D., & Ahmad, N. (2021). The relationship of lifetime substance-use disorder with family functioning, childhood victimisation, and depression, among juvenile offenders in Malaysia. Addictive Behaviors Reports , 14 , 100359. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.abrep.2021.100359 *Wareham, J., Dembo, R., Schmeidler, J., Wolff, J., & Simon, N. (2022). Sexual trauma informed understanding of longitudinal depression among repeat juvenile offenders. The Journal of Behavioral Health Services & Research , 49 (4), 456-469. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11414-022-09804-5 Widom, C. S. (1989). The cycle of violence. Science , 244 (4901), 160-166. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.2704995 Widom, C. S., & Maxfield, M. G. (1996). A prospective examination of risk for violence among abused and neglected children. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences , 794 (1), 224-237. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1996.tb32523.x Wojciechowski, T. (2021). Polyvictimization and depression as predictors of HIV risk behaviors among juvenile offenders. Journal of Public Health , 29 (5), 1013-1020. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10389-020-01221-2 *Yeater, E. A., Montanaro, E. A., & Bryan, A. D. (2015). Predictors of sexual coercion and alcohol use among female juvenile offenders. Journal of Youth and Adolescence , 44 (1), 114-126. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-014-0166-z *Yoder, J., Dillard, R., & Leibowitz, G. S. (2018). Family experiences and sexual victimization histories: A comparative analysis between youth sexual and nonsexual offenders. International Journal Of Offender Therapy And Comparative Criminology , 62 (10), 2917-2936. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624x17738063 Young, J. C., & Widom, C. S. (2014). Long-term effects of child abuse and neglect on emotion processing in adulthood. Child Abuse & Neglect , 38 (8), 1369-1381. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2014.03.008 *Zhang, H., Zhao, R., Zhao, J. S., & Ren, L. (2016). The impact of child sexual abuse and psychological distress on delinquency among incarcerated juveniles in China. Crime Law and Social Change , 66 (5), 447-464. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10611-016-9637-3 Zelechoski, A. D., Bohner, J., & Perry, B. D. (2024). Beyond recidivism: Reconceptualizing success through relational health for trauma-exposed youth experiencing juvenile justice involvement. Frontiers in Psychology , 15 , 1263451. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1263451 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-9003572","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":631231303,"identity":"b325fd83-fe93-4714-8775-5e008813b53f","order_by":0,"name":"Ximena Salazar Alvarez","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAABC0lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYHACxgNAQkaemfkAwwOoEDNIuAGPHpAWHsP2tgSGBJK0MJw5Y0CcFoPzhx8c+PHHjodxRs7HD4lt2/L4+Q+wSRcw2MhuOIBdi+SMNIODPTzJPOwSuZslEttuF0vOSGCTnsGQZoxLC78Eg8EBHglmoC25G0BaEjfcYGCT5mE4nIhLCxv/8Q8H/xjU8zDcyHn8A6Rl//kDIC3/cWrhZ8gxOMyTcBjkfTaILQwJIC0HcGqRnJFTcFjmwHFQIJtZJJy7nTjjRmKz9QyDZOOZOLQYnD++8eGbP9VywKh8fOND2e3E/v7DB28XVNjJ9uHQgg2AYsSAeOWjYBSMglEwCjABADVVYz471frpAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"University of Barcelona","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ximena","middleName":"Salazar","lastName":"Alvarez","suffix":""},{"id":631231304,"identity":"447c03b4-c541-41d5-8a88-bf1ea7defc31","order_by":1,"name":"Noemí Pereda Beltrán","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Barcelona","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Noemí","middleName":"Pereda","lastName":"Beltrán","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-03-01 19:38:26","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9003572/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9003572/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":108939837,"identity":"318c5497-3b2a-4429-81f8-8102f95f3fd6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-11 05:10:14","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":121291,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePRISMA Flow Diagram \u003c/em\u003e(Page et al., 2021)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9003572/v1/1fad472bdff1afd96ea96eb4.jpg"},{"id":108940342,"identity":"e044b4fd-c01c-4999-9dff-a64b80d0e01c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-11 05:11:59","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":731654,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9003572/v1/c09c3d1d-5452-4974-83f6-34845c6cfbe6.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Victimization and Polyvictimization among Juvenile Offenders: A Systematic Review","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eInterpersonal victimization\u0026mdash;understood as the harm suffered by an individual as a result of violent actions by others that violate social norms\u0026mdash;has been widely studied in child and adolescent populations (Finkelhor, 2008). Traditionally, research has focused on specific victimization experiences, such as maltreatment, sexual abuse, or exposure to domestic violence. However, more recent studies have emphasized the need to adopt a broader and more integrated perspective that acknowledges the accumulation of violent experiences throughout childhood and adolescence. This approach recognizes that victimization rarely occurs in isolation but tends to accumulate, giving rise to the phenomenon known as polyvictimization (Finkelhor et al., 2005; 2007).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe polyvictimization perspective represents a significant advancement over traditional approaches, as it acknowledges that different forms of violence may coexist and interact, thereby amplifying their impact. Empirical evidence demonstrates that polyvictimization not only entails a higher frequency of adverse experiences but also a deeper and more complex effect on mental health, psychosocial adjustment, and development (Lee et al., 2023). Cumulative exposure to multiple forms of violence significantly increases the risk of developing symptoms of anxiety, depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, and antisocial behavior (Haahr-Pedersen et al., 2020). This finding has prompted a conceptual shift in the study of victimization, moving from a fragmented analysis toward a comprehensive approach to understanding violence.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccordingly, an average of 3.3 violent experiences has been reported in general population samples of children and adolescents in Canada (Cyr et al., 2013), 3.8 in Spain (Pereda et al., 2014), 5.2 in the United Kingdom (Radford et al., 2013), and up to 7 in Chile (Pinto-Cortez et al., 2022). In similar samples, the prevalence of polyvictimization\u0026mdash;defined as exposure to multiple forms of victimization above the mean for the respective age group\u0026mdash;has been estimated at approximately 10% among adolescents in Norway (Mossige \u0026amp; Huang, 2017), 21% in Colombia (Caballero-Dom\u0026iacute;nguez et al., 2022), and close to 30% in Spain (Montiel et al., 2025) and in England and Wales (Tura et al., 2023), among other countries. These data highlight that polyvictimization affects a significant proportion of adolescents, despite the methodological challenges associated with its definition and measurement (Segura et al., 2018).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNevertheless, the situation is particularly concerning in samples considered to be at risk, where studies on polyvictimization remain even more limited. In this regard, lifetime polyvictimization rates have been reported to reach approximately half of the samples among youth receiving child and adolescent mental health services (Adams et al., 2016; Davis et al., 2019; Ford et al., 2011; Pereda et al., 2015) or belonging to gender minority groups (Pereda et al., 2025; Sterzing et al., 2019). These figures are even higher among children and adolescents living in out-of-home care within the child protection system (Collin-V\u0026eacute;zina et al., 2011; Cyr et al., 2012; Fern\u0026aacute;ndez-Artamendi et al., 2020; Segura et al., 2015).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTaken together, these findings reveal the existence of groups of children and adolescents who are particularly vulnerable and at high risk of experiencing multiple forms of victimization, making the study of polyvictimization essential for comprehensively understanding and addressing violence in childhood and adolescence (Finkelhor et al., 2011; Sabri et al., 2013).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn response to this need, the present review focuses on adolescents in conflict with the law as a particularly vulnerable group. It consolidates empirical findings published between 2000 and 2024, providing an integrative synthesis of prevalence patterns and critically examining how polyvictimization has been conceptualized and operationalized in this population. Given the fragmented and methodologically heterogeneous nature of the existing evidence, this study advances a more coherent understanding of cumulative trauma exposure within juvenile justice contexts and outlines key directions for future trauma-informed research and practice.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Theoretical Framework","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe concept of the intergenerational cycle of violence refers to the observed tendency for experiences of maltreatment during childhood\u0026mdash;particularly physical abuse and neglect\u0026mdash;to significantly increase the likelihood that an individual will become a perpetrator in adulthood. This proposition, extensively supported by longitudinal studies, suggests that early exposure to abusive environments alters emotional, cognitive, and social developmental processes, establishing risk trajectories that may be replicated across the lifespan.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe most influential study on this topic is that of Widom (1989), who introduced the term \u0026ldquo;cycle of violence\u0026rdquo; through a prospective longitudinal design that followed children who had experienced abuse and neglect into adulthood. Her findings demonstrated that individuals who had suffered physical abuse were significantly more likely to be arrested for violent offenses, followed by those who had experienced neglect. Widom (1989) concluded that childhood maltreatment constitutes a significant risk factor for later violent behavior, although it does not inevitably determine future criminal conduct. Subsequent research confirmed these associations, showing that individuals exposed to physical abuse or neglect are more likely to be arrested for juvenile delinquency, adult criminality, and violent offenses, and to be arrested at earlier ages (Widom \u0026amp; Maxfield, 1996).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOther longitudinal studies have continued to explore this phenomenon. For example, Ehrensaft et al. (2003) identified conduct disorder in adolescence as a robust predictor of later violence, substantially increasing the likelihood of intimate partner violence. Moreover, childhood maltreatment\u0026mdash;particularly physical or sexual abuse\u0026mdash;along with exposure to interparental violence, also contributed to this outcome, even after controlling for variables such as socioeconomic status, parental mental health, and family dynamics.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eConsistent with these findings, Smith et al. (2005) examined the impact of adolescent maltreatment on antisocial behavior using data from the Rochester Youth Development Study (RYDS). Their results indicated that experiencing maltreatment during adolescence significantly increased the likelihood of engaging in antisocial behaviors, including arrests, general delinquency, violent crime, and illicit drug use.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNeurobiological evidence further supports the understanding of the intergenerational cycle of violence, showing that repeated exposure to threatening and chaotic environments disrupts the organization of stress-response systems. This neurodevelopmental vulnerability suggests that the developing brain is particularly sensitive to adverse experiences, potentially leading to dysfunctional stress reactivity characterized by impulsivity, anxiety, emotional dysregulation, and profound effects on behavior and social adaptation (Perry, 2009). Additionally, research has shown that in individuals with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), amygdala hyperreactivity and reduced hippocampal volume contribute to difficulties in integrating emotional experiences and memories, thereby perpetuating maladaptive responses and increasing the likelihood of reactive and violent behaviors (Young \u0026amp; Widom, 2013).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCurrent literature indicates that early and repeated exposure to trauma not only increases the risk of cognitive, socioemotional, and behavioral problems but also shapes how young people respond to norms, authority, and institutional interventions (Zelechoski et al., 2024).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverall, the literature suggests that the cycle of violence is neither automatic nor inevitable; rather, it represents a statistically significant pattern resulting from the interaction of emotional, relational, neurobiological, and structural factors. Violence experienced during childhood affects human development through both psychological mechanisms and structural processes that shape relationships and skills over time. This underscores the importance of examining how early victimization experiences are associated with later behaviors\u0026mdash;an issue central to the present study.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3. Objective","content":"\u003cp\u003e The present systematic review aims to consolidate and critically examine the global empirical evidence on victimization and polyvictimization among juvenile offenders. Beyond summarizing prevalence rates and the most frequently examined forms of victimization, this review seeks to evaluate how polyvictimization has been conceptualized, defined, and operationalized in this population. By identifying methodological heterogeneity, demographic and geographic patterns, and gaps in the adoption of an integrative polyvictimization framework, the study aims to advance a more coherent understanding of cumulative trauma exposure among justice-involved adolescents. Specifically, the review addresses the following questions: (1) What is the reported prevalence of victimization and polyvictimization among juvenile offenders? and (2) \u0026iquest;Which forms of victimization have been most frequently assessed in the literature?\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4. Method","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.1 Protocol\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e The protocol for this systematic review was developed in accordance with the PRISMA guidelines Page et al. (2021), ensuring transparency and rigor in the selection, extraction, and synthesis of the evidence. The adoption of these recommendations helps minimize bias and enhance the methodological quality of the study, ensuring that the findings provide a solid foundation for future research and practical applications in the field of victimization and polyvictimization among juvenile offenders.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2 Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eQuantitative studies assessing victimization and/or polyvictimization through standardized instruments were included in order to analyze prevalence rates among juvenile offenders. Participants\u0026rsquo; ages were limited to the 10\u0026ndash;19 range, considering adolescence as a developmental stage characterized by heightened vulnerability to adverse experiences. The time frame 2000\u0026ndash;2024 was established for conceptual and methodological reasons: since 2000, research on child and adolescent victimization has undergone a turning point, particularly with the development of the polyvictimization framework, while the upper limit ensures the inclusion of up-to-date evidence. The search focused on publications in English and Spanish, as English dominates the international scientific literature and Spanish allows for the integration of findings from Ibero-American contexts. Studies involving non-offending participants, samples outside the specified age range, as well as qualitative research, opinion papers, editorials, books, and book chapters were excluded, prioritizing original empirical evidence suitable for comparative analysis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.3 Search Strategy\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe literature search was conducted in the databases PubMed, PsycInfo, Scopus, Web of Science, and ProQuest, using a combination of terms related to polyvictimization, victimization, and juvenile offender populations. The search terms included: \"polyvictimization\" OR \u0026ldquo;poly-victimization\u0026rdquo; OR \u0026ldquo;poly-victimisation\u0026rdquo; AND \"victimization\" OR \u0026ldquo;abuse\u0026rdquo; OR \u0026ldquo;maltreatment\u0026rdquo; OR \u0026ldquo;trauma\u0026rdquo; OR \u0026ldquo;adversity\u0026rdquo; AND \"juvenile offenders\" OR \u0026ldquo;juvenile perpetrator\u0026rdquo; OR \"youth offenders\" OR \"delinquent youth\" OR \"adolescent offenders\u0026rdquo; OR \u0026ldquo;juvenile aggressor\u0026rdquo; OR \u0026ldquo;young perpetrator\u0026rdquo; AND \"prevalence\".\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.4 Management and Screening\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo document the search process, a spreadsheet was created to record the database consulted, the date of the search, the search terms used, and the number of results obtained.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e A first screening was then conducted based on the review of titles and abstracts, including studies that met the established inclusion criteria. In a second screening stage, full texts were examined to extract relevant information, including: title, objectives, country, year of publication, methodological design, measurement instruments, sample size and mean age, as well as the assessment of the prevalence of victimization and/or polyvictimization.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.5 Methodological Quality Assessment\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe risk of bias of the included studies was assessed using the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI, 2020) checklist for studies reporting prevalence data, following the recommendations of Munn et al. (2015). This tool enables a systematic evaluation of methodological quality, considering aspects such as sampling procedures, measurement of variables, and the validity of the reported data.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"5. Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe initial search identified 938 studies; after removing duplicates, 816 unique records were retained. The first screening reduced the sample to 83 articles and, following the exclusion of 28 studies that did not meet the inclusion criteria, a total of 55 studies were ultimately included. The study selection process is illustrated in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOf the 55 empirical studies included that reported prevalence rates of victimization and polyvictimization, 39 were cross-sectional designs and 16 were longitudinal studies. The vast majority were conducted in the United States (70.9%), followed by Canada (7.3%), Spain (5.5%), Australia (3.6%), and other countries such as Russia, Brazil, Chile, China, Malaysia, New Zealand, and Singapore (1.8%). Sample sizes showed considerable variability, ranging from 47 to 29,204 participants.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegarding sample composition, 43.6% (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;24) included participants of both sexes, another 43.6% (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;24) focused exclusively on males, and 12.7% (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;7) included only females. Participants\u0026rsquo; ages ranged from 10 to 19 years, with a mean age of 15.76 years (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.78). Some studies did not report the mean age (Jeanis et al., 2019; Reid et al., 2017) or provided only age ranges (Ahlin \u0026amp; Hummer, 2019; Asscher et al., 2015; Van der Put \u0026amp; De Ruiter, 2016).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn terms of measurement instruments, 72.7% of the studies used standardized questionnaires and inventories, 16.4% relied on official records or file reviews, and 10.9% used ad hoc items or non-standardized self-reports. The most frequently used instruments were the Exposure to Violence Inventory (ETV, 12.7%), followed by the Washington State Juvenile Court Assessment (WSJCA/WSJCPA, 7.3%), the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ, 7.3%), and the Juvenile Victimization Questionnaire (JVQ/JVQ-R2, 5.5%).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMost studies reported ethnic-racial categories. Studies conducted in the United States showed high representation of African American and Latino youth in some samples: Phan and Kingree (2002) reported 85% African American participants; Kimonis et al. (2011), 68%; and Stimmel et al. (2013), 51.6% African American, with 27.2% Latino. Other studies reported less represented groups, such as Native American youth and participants from Middle Eastern/North African backgrounds (Mii et al., 2024), or American Indian youth in Arizona (Katz et al., 2011).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOf the four studies conducted in Canada, only two reported information on ethnic characteristics. Rojas and Gretton (2007) indicated that 28.4% of participants were Indigenous youth and 71.6% were non-Indigenous. Viljoen et al. (2005) reported a distribution of 43.3% Caucasian, 40.4% Indigenous, 7.1% Asian, and 9.2% other visible minorities. The remaining two studies did not include ethnic differentiation in their sample descriptions (Carpentier \u0026amp; Proulx, 2011; Dennison \u0026amp; Leclerc, 2011).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOf the three studies conducted in Spain, Benedicto et al. (2016) reported that most participants were Spanish nationals (44.1%), followed by youth of Latin American (29.8%), Moroccan (15.5%), and Romanian (7.2%) origin. Silva et al. (2014) reported a majority of participants of foreign origin (63.5%), mainly from Latin American countries (36.2%), the Maghreb (16%), and other countries (11.3%). Although Pereda et al. (2017) collected information on participants\u0026rsquo; country of birth, they did not report specific analyses related to ethnicity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOf the two studies conducted in Australia, only one reported ethnic background, with 13.2% Indigenous participants (Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander) and 86.8% non-Indigenous (Thomsen et al., 2023).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn countries where only one study was identified, Lie et al. (2021) reported that participants were divided into Chinese descendants (32.9%) and non-Chinese (67.1%). Lim et al. (2012) reported a sample composed of 50% Māori and Pākehā youth. Wahab et al. (2021) reported a sample predominantly of Malay ethnicity (87.8%), followed by Indian (9.6%) and Chinese (1.3%) participants. The remaining studies did not report ethnicity-related data (Alvarez Vivar et al., 2023; Huculak et al., 2011; Ruchkin et al., 2002).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn terms of types of victimization, sexual victimization was the most frequently studied (67.3%), followed by physical abuse (54.6%), neglect (43.6%), exposure to or witnessing community or domestic violence (40.0%), and emotional abuse (34.6%). Reported prevalence rates showed wide variability across studies, ranging from 8% for sexual abuse among males (Asscher et al., 2015) to 98.1% for exposure to violence among males too (Burton et al., 2011).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverall, studies consistently report extremely high rates of lifetime victimization among juvenile offenders. General victimization\u0026mdash;defined as experiencing at least one traumatic event or prior form of victimization\u0026mdash;reached between 94% and 96% in several samples (Ruchkin et al., 2002; Jencks \u0026amp; Burton, 2013), underscoring the near universality of adversity within this population.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhen examining specific forms of victimization, witnessing violence and physical abuse emerged as the most prevalent. Some studies reported exposure to violence rates exceeding 90% (Burton et al., 2011; Huculak et al., 2011; L\u0026oacute;pez et al., 2019), with witnessing violence reaching 98.1% in one sample. Physical abuse similarly showed extremely high prevalence, with Katz et al. (2011) reporting that 97.8% of participants had experienced it at some point in their lives.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn comparison, sexual victimization\u0026mdash;although alarmingly high in specific subgroups such as adolescents who committed sexual offenses (Yeater et al., 2015)\u0026mdash;tended to be reported at relatively lower percentages in broader juvenile justice samples (Li et al., 2021; Morais et al., 2018).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePolyvictimization as an explicit construct was addressed by only 10.9% of the studies. Reported rates varied widely, ranging from 5.3% among detained adolescents identified through latent class analysis (Ford et al., 2013) to 98% in a sample of girls in the juvenile justice system (DeHart \u0026amp; Moran, 2015). This heterogeneity reflects differences in definitional criteria. Across the analyzed studies, varied approaches were used to classify polyvictimization. Some studies employed numerical cut-off points based on counts of victimization types, while others applied more complex statistical analyses. DeHart and Moran (2015) operationalized polyvictimization as having experienced four or more subtypes of victimization across the lifespan (out of 20 subtypes assessed), noting that the four-subtype threshold is commonly used in the literature. Pereda et al. (2015) applied a percentile-based criterion. Using the sample-percentile criterion, they identified the top 10% of the sample with the highest number of victimizations, corresponding to 15\u0026ndash;16 or more lifetime types. Under the community-percentile criterion, they used a cut-off based on the 90th percentile of a normative community sample, classifying as polyvictims those reporting nine or more lifetime types of victimization and six or more in the past year.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOther studies adopted latent class approaches based on patterns of exposure. Mii et al. (2024) identified four distinct classes, including a specific \u0026ldquo;Polyvictimization\u0026rdquo; class defined by exposure to all ten types of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) assessed (emotional, physical, and sexual abuse, neglect, and family dysfunction, among others). Similarly, Ford et al. (2013) conducted an exploratory latent class analysis of 19 types of traumatic adversity and identified a \u0026ldquo;Polyvictim\u0026rdquo; class characterized by a mean of 11.4 types of adversity (out of 19 possible) and a high probability of reporting nearly all forms of victimization assessed.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnother approach involved cumulative scoring. Marini et al. (2014) assessed cumulative victimization by summing the number of maltreatment types experienced according to the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ), which evaluates five dimensions: sexual, physical, and emotional abuse, and physical and emotional neglect.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverall, the findings indicate that victimization and polyvictimization experiences are highly prevalent in this population. Sexual victimization, physical abuse, neglect, and exposure to violence were among the most frequently reported forms, with polyvictimization affecting a substantial proportion of adolescents. Significant variations were observed according to gender and type of offense, particularly regarding sexual victimization and neglect. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e presents the main characteristics of the reviewed studies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSummary of the Articles Reviewed\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"13\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c13\" colnum=\"13\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" morerows=\"1\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAuthors and year\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCountry\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eN\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eType of victimization\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c13\" namest=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAssessment instrument\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlvarez Vivar et\u0026nbsp;al. (2023)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChile\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e115\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdverse childhood experiences (abuse, neglect, domestic violence)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEEA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAhlin \u0026amp; Hummer. (2019)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUSA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.618\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eForced sexual assault, Prior sexual victimization history\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNIS-3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAsscher et al. (2015)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUSA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.613\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhysical abuse, sexual abuse, neglect, any form of maltreatment\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWSJCA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBaker et al. (2001)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUSA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhysical abuse history of the youth, sexual abuse history of the youth, witnessing domestic violence, sexualized environment, parental victimization\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYCM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBenedicto et al. (2016)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpain\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e63\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSexual victimization, domestic violence, family abandonment, physical abuse, school bullying\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRetrospective study based on the review of records\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBurton et al. (2011)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUSA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e451\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSexual victimization, physical victimization, neglect, witnessing violence\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUDCS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCarpentier \u0026amp; Proulx. (2011)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCanada\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e351\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSexual victimization, physical victimization, psychological victimization, parental neglect, paternal abandonment\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoding scheme\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChen. (2016)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUSA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.354\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eViolent victimization (beaten up, mugged, or seriously threatened by another person, chased and thought they might be seriously hurt, attacked with a weapon, shot, raped or sexually assaulted)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eETV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCollibee et al. (2021)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUSA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e199\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhysical abuse and threatening behavior, social networking abuse\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCADRI/ Social Networking Abuse Scale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDeHart \u0026amp; Moran. (2015)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUSA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePolyvictimization, caregiver violence, dating violence, sexual violence, witnessed violence\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJVQ\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDembo et al. (2022)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUSA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.336\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003elifetime sexual assault victimization\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSingle-item self-report question\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDennison \u0026amp; Leclerc. (2011)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCanada\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e111\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSexual abuse victimization, physical violence, psychological violence, inadequate parenting\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCTQ/ Archival clinical file review\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFeingold et\u0026nbsp;al. (2022)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUSA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.354\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDirect experience of violence/witness to violence\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eETV/PAI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFord et\u0026nbsp;al. (2013)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUSA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.959\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhysical assault, physical abuse, family violence, community violence, sexual abuse, emotional abuse and neglect\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTESI (Traumatic Experiences Screening Instrument)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGaylord-Harden et al. (2020)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUSA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.170\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExposure to community violence\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eETV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHinton et al. (2021)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUSA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.094\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDirect victimization, indirect victimization, total victimization - baseline\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eETV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHoward et al. (2012)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUSA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e88\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExposure to community violence\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCREV-R\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHuculak et al. (2011)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBrazil\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e325\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ewitnessed violence and experienced violence, physical abuse and sexual abuse\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSAHA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHussey et al. (2008)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUSA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e114\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhysical victimization, emotional victimization\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGeneral Victimization Scale /GAIN-I\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJeanis et al. (2018)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUSA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29.204\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhysical abuse, emotional abuse, sexual abuse \u0026amp; neglect\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePACT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJencks \u0026amp; Burton. (2013)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUSA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWitnessing domestic violence, witnessing community violence/severe violence sexual victimization\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSet of dichotomous questions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJory et al. (2002)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUSA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e381\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSexual victimization, general childhood victimization/trauma\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSAEQ /CTQ/ SERSAS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKatz et al. (2011)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUSA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e909\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVictimization by common crimes (threats with a weapon, assault)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSelf-report (National Institute of Justice - NIJ)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKimonis et al. (2011)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUSA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e373\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWitnessing of violence, violent victimization\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eETV, Life Events scale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLansing et al. (2017)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUSA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e118\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTraumatic Events: physical and sexual abuse, domestic violence, dating violence, gang violence, being a victim of a crime, gun attacks, kidnapping, and witnessing violence\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSCI-TALS/ LEC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLetourneau et al. (2018)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUSA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e251\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePeer victimization, sexual victimization\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSocial Experience Questionnaire\u0026mdash;Self Report/ National Survey of Adolescents\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLi et al. (2021)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSingapore\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e790\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChild Abuse (emotional abuse, physical and sexual abuse, emotional neglect, physical neglect)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eACE-IQ/RYDM/YSR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLim et al. (2012)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNew Zealand\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e150\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVictimization history (physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, neglect)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoding from official client files\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL\u0026oacute;pez et al. (2019)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUSA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e184\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExposure to violence: violence experienced and witnessed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExposure to Violence Inventory\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMarini, et al. (2014)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUSA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e406\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSexual abuse, physical abuse, emotional abuse.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhysical neglect, emotional neglect and polyvictimization\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCTQ\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMcKillop et\u0026nbsp;al. (2017)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAustralia\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e535\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eForced sexual activity, nonsexual assault\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOfficial administrative records. GYFS, DJAG, QPS.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMcReynolds \u0026amp; Wasserman. (2011)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUSA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e220\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eForced sexual activity, nonsexual assault\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eV-DISC/ \u003cem\u003eVISA\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMii et al. (2024)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUSA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e265\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdverse childhood experiences\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10-item ACE Questionnaire\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMorais et al. (2018)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUSA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e498\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChildhood sexual abuse\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSemi-structured interview/ File information/Department of Human Resources (DHR) reports.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePereda et al. (2015)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpain\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e101\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConventional crime, caregiver victimization, victimization by peers and siblings, sexual victimization, witnessing and indirect victimization, electronic victimization, polyvictimization\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJVQ\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhan \u0026amp; Kingree. (2002)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUSA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e272\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSexual abuse\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCTQ\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePiquero et al. (2017)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUSA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.354\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBullying victimization, exposure to violence\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eETV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReid et al. (2017)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUSA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.826\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdverse experiences and child maltreatment (emotional and physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional and physical neglect, domestic violence)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC-PACT/ ACEs/ Reports from the Florida Abuse Hotline\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRobertson et al. (2008)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUSA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e761\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhysical abuse, sexual abuse\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eself-report items\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRojas \u0026amp; Gretton. (2007)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCanada\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e359\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHistory of child abuse (sexual abuse, physical abuse, emotional abuse, neglect)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRetrospective coding from file records\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRuchkin et al. (2002)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRusia\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e370\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDirect and indirect victimization (being beaten, being assaulted, being threatened)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSurvey of Exposure to Community Violence\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSilva et al. (2014)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpain\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e104\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhysical abuse, emotional abuse\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10 items used by the LONGSCAN investigators\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStimmel et al. (2014)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUSA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e66\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWitnessing community violence, physical abuse/assault, sexual victimization, domestic violence\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUCLA PTSD Index for DSM\u0026ndash;IV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThomsen et al. (2023)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAustralia\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e218\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChild abuse (physical, sexual, emotional, neglect)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eVictimization in the family environment, social victimization and peer victimization\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOfficial records.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTillyer et al. (2018)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUSA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e888\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDirect violent victimization\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eETV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVan Der Put \u0026amp; De Ruiter, 2016)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUSA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.613\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhysical abuse, sexual abuse, neglect\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWSJCA/ Self-reported information\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVan Der Put et al. (2014)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUSA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e628\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhysical abuse, sexual abuse, and neglect\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWSJCA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVan Der Put. (2013)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUSA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHistory of maltreatment (sexual abuse by a family member, sexual abuse outside the family, physical abuse by a family member, physical abuse outside the family, neglect)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWSJCPA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVeneziano et al. (2000)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUSA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e74\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSexual abuse; anal intercourse, fellatio, fondling\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdolescent Sexual Offender Packet\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eViljoen et al. (2005)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCanada\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e243\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVerbal and physical bullying in custody/ previous/external victimization\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVictimization and Bullying While in Custody Scale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWahab et al. (2021)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMalasia\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e230\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConventional/Commercial crime, peer and sibling victimization, witnessing and indirect victimization, neglect and maltreatment, sexual victimization, poly-victimization\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJVQ-R2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWareham et al. (2022)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUSA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e452\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChildhood sexual assault - CSA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSingle-item self-report question\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYeater et al. (2015)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUSA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e245\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSexual coercion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e7\u003c/b\u003e-item measure developed by Abbey and McAuslan/ Sexual Experiences Survey\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYoder et al. (2018)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUSA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e505\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSexual victimization, physical abuse, emotional abuse\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConfidential self-report survey\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eZhang et al. (2016)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChina\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e358\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChild sexual abuse\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCTQ\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinally, the studies demonstrated a low risk of bias, particularly in recruitment procedures (96.4%), the description of participants and context (91.1%), and statistical analysis (89.3%). However, higher proportions of unclear assessments were observed in the domains of non-response management (32.1%) and measurement reliability (16.1%), reflecting the typical methodological limitations of research conducted in forensic and juvenile justice settings. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e presents these results.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRisk of bias assessment of the included studies\u003c/em\u003e (JBI, 2020)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAssessed Domain\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLow Risk n (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnclear Risk n (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigh Risk n (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample representativeness\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e44 (78,6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1 (1,8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10 (17,9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAppropriate recruitment\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e54 (96,4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1 (1,8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample size\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41 (73,2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7 (12,5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7 (12,5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDescription of participants and setting\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51 (91,1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4 (7,1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMeasurement validity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43 (76,8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7 (12,5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5 (8,9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMeasurement reliability\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39 (69,6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9 (16,1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7 (12,5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStatistical analysis\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50 (89,3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4 (7,1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1 (1,8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResponse rate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40 (71,4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9 (16,1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eManagement of non-response\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32 (57,1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18 (32,1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2 (3,6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"6. Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003e This systematic review advances Knowledge on justice-involved youth, First, by consolidating 24 years of empirical research, it provides a comprehensive synthesis of prevalence patterns of victimization and polivictimization among juvenile offenders. Second, beyond documenting high exposure rates, the review critically examines how polyvictimization has been conceptualized, defined, and operationalized across studies, revealing substantial methodological heterogeneity and a limited adoption of an integrative framework. Third, the study identifies important demographic and geographic imbalances in knowledge production, highlighting structural blind spots that constrain the generalizability of existing evidence.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results confirms that victimization and polyvictimization are highly prevalent phenomena among juvenile offenders, demonstrating that exposure to multiple forms of violence and adversity is a cross-cutting characteristic of this population. The predominance of cross-sectional studies (70.9%) limits the ability to establish causal trajectories; however, the inclusion of 16 longitudinal studies provides relevant evidence regarding the persistence and accumulation of adverse experiences over the course of development. This finding is consistent with developmental and life-course models (Thornberry \u0026amp; Krohn, 2003) and the intergenerational cycle of violence framework (Widom, 1989), which posit that early exposure to violence increases the likelihood of delinquent trajectories\u0026mdash;persistent in some cases\u0026mdash;through cumulative and transactional mechanisms.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA notable aspect is the marked geographic concentration of evidence in the United States (70.9%). While this allows for a robust body of research within that context, it also limits the generalizability of the findings. The limited representation of studies in Latin America\u0026mdash;including only one study from Chile and one from Brazil\u0026mdash;and in other regions of the world highlights a significant gap in the literature, particularly considering that juvenile justice systems, patterns of community violence, and structural conditions differ substantially across countries.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegarding the underrepresentation of certain groups in the samples, particularly ethnic minorities and female adolescents, an important limitation emerges in the reviewed literature. Although some studies included ethnic-racial differentiation\u0026mdash;reporting high percentages of African American and, to a lesser extent, Latino youth\u0026mdash;this information was not systematically considered or analyzed across all investigations. Consequently, it remains difficult to draw solid conclusions about the magnitude and specific characteristics of polyvictimization among ethnic minority groups.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSimilarly, consideration of gender differences revealed significant variation. Female adolescents are underrepresented in samples of juvenile offenders, as reflected by the fact that only seven of the 55 included studies focused exclusively on girls. This distribution reflects a historical bias toward the study of male juvenile delinquency (Hoyt \u0026amp; Scherer, 1998), limiting understanding of gender-specific victimization trajectories. The literature suggests that girls in conflict with the law tend to present higher rates of interpersonal violence and cumulative adverse experiences, as well as distinct clinical profiles (Arbach et al., 2021; Kerig, 2018).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMethodologically, the wide variation in sample sizes (47 to 29,204 participants) indicates substantial heterogeneity across studies, reflecting the coexistence of large-scale investigations and smaller-scope research, which may affect the stability of prevalence estimates. Although most studies employed standardized instruments, the diversity of measurement tools complicates direct comparisons of findings. Notably, the limited use of the Juvenile Victimization Questionnaire (JVQ) (Finkelhor et al., 2005)\u0026mdash;an instrument specifically designed to assess polyvictimization from a broad and ecological perspective\u0026mdash;stands out.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSexual victimization was identified as the most frequently studied form, followed by physical abuse and neglect. This emphasis likely reflects both the clinical and legal severity of sexual abuse and its well-documented association with internalizing and externalizing problems among youth (\u0026Aacute;lvarez Vivar et al., 2023; Morais et al., 2018; van der Put et al., 2014). Furthermore, a significant association between sexual violence and delinquent behavior among girls has been documented (Siegel \u0026amp; Williams, 2003), underscoring the importance of adopting a gender-sensitive research perspective and examining how victimization experiences may differentially affect adolescents according to gender.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, polyvictimization as an explicit construct was analyzed in only one out of every ten studies, suggesting that a fragmented approach to victimization still predominates. Given evidence indicating that simultaneous exposure to multiple forms of violence tends to accumulate across the lifespan rather than occur in isolation (Finkelhor et al., 2007), there is a clear need to advance toward comprehensive models capable of capturing the complexity of the phenomenon.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe wide variability in reported polyvictimization prevalence reflects substantial differences in operational definitions. These discrepancies largely stem from the absence of uniform criteria: some studies conceptualize polyvictimization as the accumulation of multiple adversities without a specific cut-off point, whereas others establish thresholds of four, nine, or more types of victimization. This lack of methodological consensus limits international comparability and complicates precise estimation of the true magnitude of the phenomenon (Segura et al., 2016).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrom a methodological quality perspective, most studies demonstrated a low risk of bias in key domains such as recruitment and statistical analysis. Nevertheless, weaknesses were identified in the management of non-response and measurement reliability, which is understandable in juvenile justice contexts, where voluntariness, institutional distrust, and participant turnover may affect data consistency. These limitations should be considered when interpreting prevalence rates, particularly in studies based on administrative records or non-standardized items.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"7. Study Limitations","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe present review presents certain limitations that should be considered when interpreting the findings. The assessment of victimization and polyvictimization across the included studies relied on a wide range of measurement strategies, including ad hoc questions, case file reviews, and standardized instruments. This diversity in assessment approaches limits the comparability of prevalence estimates and reduces the precision with which findings can be synthesized.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMore importantly, the absence of a unified operational criterion for defining polyvictimization constitutes a central challenge for the interpretation of the evidence. Studies employed different thresholds and classification strategies to identify polyvictimized youth, making it difficult to establish consistent prevalence ranges or to meaningfully compare patterns across samples. This lack of conceptual and operational consensus constrains the cumulative interpretation of the reported estimates.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdditionally, the limited use of standardized and multidimensional instruments, such as the Juvenile Victimization Questionnaire (JVQ), restricts the extent to which victimization experiences are assessed comprehensively and systematically across studies, further complicating cross-study comparisons.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinally, the marked geographic concentration of evidence in the United States and the underrepresentation of female adolescents and ethnic minorities limit the generalizability and subgroup-specific interpretation of the findings.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTaken together, these considerations highlight the need for greater methodological and conceptual coherence, as well as more cross-cultural and inclusive research, to strengthen the interpretability and comparability of prevalence estimates in this field.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"8. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eOverall, the findings reinforce the need to understand juvenile offending within a developmental victimology framework, in which the accumulation of adverse experiences plays a central role in shaping delinquent trajectories. The evidence suggests that adolescents in the juvenile justice system not only exhibit transgressive behaviors but also present complex histories of repeated exposure to violence. Therefore, it is essential that interventions incorporate systematic assessments of victimization and polyvictimization, as well as trauma-informed and resilience-oriented approaches. Future research should prioritize longitudinal designs, standardized criteria for defining polyvictimization, and greater representation of non-Anglophone contexts in order to advance toward a more global, comparable, and clinically meaningful understanding of the phenomenon.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e: Not applicable. This study is a systematic review of previously published studies and does not involve human participants or primary data collection.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e: Not applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and material\u003c/strong\u003e: All data analyzed during this study are included in this published article and its supplementary information files.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e: This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict of Interest\u003c/strong\u003e: The authors declare\u0026nbsp;that she has no conflict of interest.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors\u0026apos; contributions:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eXS conceived the study, conducted the literature search, performed the data extraction and analysis, and drafted the manuscript. NP supervised the study design, contributed to the interpretation of the data, and critically revised the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eReferences marked with an asterisk (*) indicate studies included in the systematic review.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAdams, Z. W., Moreland, A., Cohen, J. R., Lee, R. C., Hanson, R. F., Danielson, C. K., Self-Brown, S., \u0026amp; Briggs, E. C. (2016). Polyvictimization: Latent profiles and mental health outcomes in a clinical sample of adolescents. \u003cem\u003ePsychology of Violence, 6\u003c/em\u003e(1), 145\u0026ndash;155. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0039713\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e*Ahlin, E. M., \u0026amp; Hummer, D. (2019). Sexual victimization of juveniles incarcerated in jails and prisons: An exploratory study of prevalence and risk factors. \u003cem\u003eVictims \u0026amp; Offenders\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e14\u003c/em\u003e(7), 793-810. https://doi.org/10.1080/15564886.2019.1658675\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e*\u0026Aacute;lvarez Vivar, L. B., Salazar Mu\u0026ntilde;oz, M., Bustamante C\u0026aacute;rcamo, Y., \u0026amp; P\u0026eacute;rez-Luco Arenas, R. (2023). Adolescentes con pr\u0026aacute;cticas abusivas sexuales: Rol de las experiencias adversas y desadaptaci\u0026oacute;n social en el riesgo de reincidencia. \u003cem\u003ePsicoperspectivas (Valparaiso)\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e22\u003c/em\u003e(3). https://doi.org/10.5027/psicoperspectivas-Vol22-Issue3-fulltext-2969\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eArbach, K., Orpianesi, C., \u0026amp; Bobbio, A. (2021). Necesidades de salud mental en adolescentes en conflicto con la ley penal: Un estudio descriptivo en una muestra de Argentina. \u003cem\u003ePsicodebate\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e21\u003c/em\u003e(1), 33-48. https://doi.org/10.18682/pd.v21i1.4004\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e*Asscher, J. J., Van Der Put, C. E., \u0026amp; Stams, G. J. J. M. (2015). Gender differences in the impact of abuse and neglect victimization on adolescent offending behavior. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Family Violence\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e30\u003c/em\u003e(2), 215-225. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-014-9668-4\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e*Baker, A. J. L., Tabacoff, R., Tornusciolo, G., \u0026amp; Eisenstadt, M. (2001). Calculating number of offenses and victims of juvenile sexual offending: The role of posttreatment disclosures. \u003cem\u003eSexual Abuse\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e13\u003c/em\u003e(2), 79-90. https://doi.org/10.1177/107906320101300202\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e*Benedicto, C., Roncero, D., \u0026amp; Gonz\u0026aacute;lez, L. (2017). Agresores sexuales juveniles: tipolog\u0026iacute;a y perfil psicosocial en funci\u0026oacute;n de la edad de sus v\u0026iacute;ctimas. \u003cem\u003eAnuario de Psicolog\u0026iacute;a Jur\u0026iacute;dica\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e27\u003c/em\u003e(1), 33-42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apj.2016.05.002\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e*Burton, D. L., Leibowitz, G. S., Eldredge, M., Ryan, G., \u0026amp; Compton, D. (2011). 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Beyond recidivism: Reconceptualizing success through relational health for trauma-exposed youth experiencing juvenile justice involvement. \u003cem\u003eFrontiers in Psychology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e15\u003c/em\u003e, 1263451. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1263451\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"prevalence, victimization, polyvictimization, juvenile offenders, exposure to violence","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9003572/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9003572/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eIntroduction: This systematic review aims to identify and synthesize the global empirical evidence on victimization and polyvictimization among juvenile offenders aged 10–19 years.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMethod: The review protocol was developed following PRISMA guidelines. Quantitative studies published between 2000 and 2024 in English or Spanish were included if they assessed victimization or polyvictimization using standardized or validated instruments and Official records, case files, and ad hoc items or non-standardized self-reports. Bibliographic searches were conducted in PubMed, PsycInfo, Scopus, Web of Science, and ProQuest between August and December 2024.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eResults: A total of 55 studies were included, with a predominance of cross-sectional designs (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e = 39) over longitudinal studies (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e = 16), and the majority conducted in the United States (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e = 39). Risk of bias was generally low, particularly for participant recruitment and statistical analyses. Findings indicate that victimization and polyvictimization experiences are highly prevalent in this population. Sexual victimization, physical abuse, neglect, and exposure to violence were among the most frequently reported forms, with polyvictimization affecting a substantial proportion of adolescents.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConclusions: The evidence highlights a critical and widespread prevalence of adverse experiences among juvenile offenders, with rates of exposure to violence often exceeding 90%. Exposure to violence and polyvictimization were particularly common. These findings underscore the urgent need for trauma-informed approaches within the juvenile justice system that address cumulative adversities, reduce recidivism risk, and promote mental health outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Victimization and Polyvictimization among Juvenile Offenders: A Systematic Review","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-05-11 05:08:28","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9003572/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"79e1c201-cefd-4d95-a46a-b2a4491ed00c","owner":[],"postedDate":"May 11th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-11T05:08:31+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-05-11 05:08:28","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-9003572","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-9003572","identity":"rs-9003572","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}