Programmed DNA elimination of germline development genes in songbirds

Summary Genomes can vary within individual organisms. Programmed DNA elimination leads to dramatic changes in genome organisation during the germline–soma differentiation of ciliates 1 , lampreys 2 , nematodes 3,4 , and various other eukaryotes 5 . A particularly remarkable example of tissue-specific genome differentiation is the germline-restricted chromosome (GRC) in the zebra finch which is consistently absent from somatic cells 6 . Although the zebra finch is an important animal model system 7 , molecular evidence from its large GRC (>150 megabases) is limited to a short intergenic region 8 and a single mRNA 9 . Here, we combined cytogenetic, genomic, transcriptomic, and proteomic evidence to resolve the evolutionary origin and functional significance of the GRC. First, by generating tissue-specific de-novo linked-read genome assemblies and re-sequencing two additional germline and soma samples, we found that the GRC contains at least 115 genes which are paralogous to single-copy genes on 18 autosomes and the Z chromosome. We detected an amplification of ≥38 GRC-linked genes into high copy numbers (up to 308 copies) but, surprisingly, no enrichment of transposable elements on the GRC. Second, transcriptome and proteome data provided evidence for functional expression of GRC genes at the RNA and protein levels in testes and ovaries. Interestingly, the GRC is enriched for genes with highly expressed orthologs in chicken gonads and gene ontologies involved in female gonad development. Third, we detected evolutionary strata of GRC-linked genes. Developmental genes such as bicc1 and trim71 have resided on the GRC for tens of millions of years, whereas dozens have become GRC-linked very recently. The GRC is thus likely widespread in songbirds (half of all bird species) and its rapid evolution may have contributed to their diversification. Together, our results demonstrate a highly dynamic evolutionary history of the songbird GRC leading to dramatic germline–soma genome differences as a novel mechanism to minimise genetic conflict between germline and soma.