Investigation of the nematicidal mechanisms of cover crop-derived extracts on pest (Meloidogyne incognita) and beneficial (Panagrellus redivivus) nematode species under laboratory conditions

Investigation of the nematicidal mechanisms of cover crop-derived extracts on pest (Meloidogyne incognita) and beneficial (Panagrellus redivivus) nematode species under laboratory conditions | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Investigation of the nematicidal mechanisms of cover crop-derived extracts on pest (Meloidogyne incognita) and beneficial (Panagrellus redivivus) nematode species under laboratory conditions Dóra Sára Selmeczi, Márta Ladányi, Ferenc Tóth, Renáta Petrikovszki This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8296706/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Root-knot nematodes ( Meloidogyne spp.) cause significant damage to many crops and their control remains a challenging task even today. Nowadays, the use of cover crops is one of the key elements of regenerative agriculture due to its numerous benefits. For example, cover crops can reduce the damage and population of Meloidogyne , however, less attention has been paid to their effects and mode of actions on non-target beneficial nematodes. In this experiment, we examined the effects of fresh and dry root extracts derived from four cover crops (rye, radish, red clover, and hairy vetch) on the plant-parasitic nematode M. incognita and the bacteriophagous nematode P. redivivus in area choice, and mortality tests. Dry extract of hairy vetch from 1%, dry extract of radish from 0.5%, and 5% extract of rye and red clover showed mortality rates of over 90% in the case of M. incognita . All root extracts had repellent effect on M. incognita . In the case of P. redivivus , only a 5% root extract of the plants had a lethal effect, but it was never as strong as that observed for M. incognita . A 5% radish root extract was the only one to show significant toxicity. Both dry and fresh extracts of each plant had an attractive effect on P. redivivus . These results may be useful for further studies with cover crops focusing on M. incognita infection and infection suppression and they also draw attention to the need for research into methods that consider the effects on beneficial nematodes. area choice test mortality Vicia villosa Trifolium pratense Secale cereale Raphanus sativus Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Key Messages Nematicidal effects of cover crops were examined on target pest and non-target beneficial nematodes Root extracts of cover crops were more lethal to M. incognita than P. redivivus Both fresh and dry root extracts of all four cover crops had a repellent effect on M. incognita Radish extract appeared to be ideal among tested cover crops: repel/kill pest and spare beneficial Introduction Agroecology is the science and practice of applying ecological principles to the planning and management of sustainable economies (Wezel et al. 2009 ). One main exercise of agroecology is regenerative agriculture (Altieri et al. 2017 ). The concept of regenerative agriculture has been spreading widely since the 1980s and, fortunately, becoming increasingly well known today (Giller et al. 2021 ). One of the fundamental elements of regenerative soil cultivation is soil covering, which protects the soil from degradation and erosion and has several other positive effects: it maintains soil moisture, reduces soil temperature fluctuations, can increase crop yields, (Chakraborty et al. 2008 ), stimulates soil life and also has an impact on soil biological communities (Subrahmaniyan et al. 2006 ; Kader et al. 2017 ). Different types of soil cover greatly influence soil properties (temperature and humidity), especially in the topsoil (up to a depth of 15 cm), which affects the abundance of earthworms, one of the most important indicators of soil biology (Vršič et al. 2021 ). The surface of the soil can be covered in many ways: with organic matter, inorganic matter, or living vegetation. Mulching with living plants is becoming an increasingly popular and widespread practice nowadays. Cover crops can be used in several ways: they can be used after the growing season, sown under crops during the growing season, or even as soil cover in perennial crops. They can be worked into the soil as green manure but can be left on the soil surface used as living mulch as well. In addition to shading the soil surface, these plants provide shelter and habitat for many beneficial predators (Bowers et al. 2020 ) and can be an excellent food source for pollinators (Mallinger et al. 2019 ). By intertwining their roots in the soil, cover crops protect it from degradation and provide an excellent environment and food source for soil organisms (Maitra et al. 2018 ). The microbiological activity of soil covered with cover crops is higher and a much more diverse community of living organisms can be found in such areas (Finney et al. 2017 ). Cover crops in no-till systems fix nitrogen, reduce soil erosion, and reduce the effects of drought by preserving soil moisture. They promote the formation of deep macropores, which facilitates infiltration and improves the water retention capacity of the soil (Altieri et al. 2017 ). The most used cover crops are usually the legumes and the cruciferous plants, but monocotyledonous plants are also often found in mixtures. The most suitable cover crop mixtures commonly contain rye, peas, and fodder radish, because these plants typically produce large amounts of biomass, are easy to terminate, and do not contain allelopathic substances that are harmful to crops (Altieri et al. 2017 ). Legumes planted under cereals increase soil cover, suppress weeds, and increase soil nutrient content. They also increase soil biodiversity, including the activity of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, which help plants absorb phosphorus and water (Machado 2009 ). The winter application and termination of cover crops such as rye and hairy vetch inhibit weed germination for weeks. During the decomposition of cover crops, allelopathic substances may also be released (Moyer 2010 ; Altieri et al. 2011 ). Cover crops are often used in vineyards between rows. Studies have shown that the root systems of cover crops and vines are connected through arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, and that active nitrogen transfer occurs between the plants (Cheng and Baumgartner 2004 ). However, the direct relationship between these living mulch plants or cover crops and soil organisms, including nematodes, is less well known. Plants communicate with soil organisms and other plants through their root exudates (Bais et al. 2004 ; Dundek et al. 2011 ). Studying how soil organisms react to root exudates, may help us to gain a better understanding of plant-soil interactions. Nematodes are the third largest group of animals in terms of species number; therefore, they definitely have crucial function in the ecosystem (Andrássy and Farkas 1988 ). They are highly diverse and dense, react quickly to disturbances, are easy to get from soil samples, and are easy to identify under a microscope. They play a key role in food webs and can be easily associated with feeding groups: we distinguish between bacterivore, omnivore, fungivore, herbivore, and predatory nematodes (Yeates et al. 1993 ). They are in direct contact with compounds dissolved in soil water, making them excellent indicators of soil conditions (Bongers 1999 ). They are essential components of the soil ecosystem and soil self-regulating systems (Hunt et al. 1987 ). Plant-parasitic nematodes cause 12–14% of global crop losses annually (Singh et al. 2015 ). Root-knot nematodes belonging to the genus Meloidogyne are among the most significant plant-parasitic nematodes (Sasser and Carter 1985 ). During infestation by Meloidogyne incognita , the plant wilts due to galls on the roots (Crüger et al. 2011 ). According to some literature the galls are by-product of feeding larvae, induced by the substances they secrete. As a result of sucking, the root system remains smaller and strong lateral roots begin to form, on which swellings typically develop (Dropkin 1972 ). While other literatures reports that the production of galls is essential for the feeding of larvae that have lost their mobility during their development, as well as for the egg production of females (Olmo et al. 2020 ). These galls inhibit the formation or even the death of hair roots, which can disrupt the water balance and nutrient uptake of plants, thereby also affecting yield (Brussaard 1997 ; Dropkin 1972 ). Control methods against Meloidogyne species are very limited due to the high resistance of these pests (Radwan et al. 2012 ). In many cases, attempts were made to use some kind of plant-based solution. Some plant species (e.g., cruciferous plants) can repel nematodes (Elango et al. 2020 ). The use of green parts of alfalfa has been particularly effective in controlling M. incognita (El-Nagdi and Youssef 2013 ), and incorporating certain parts of several other plants into the soil has reduced the damage caused by Meloidogyne species during cultivation. Examples include shredded neem tree ( Azadirachta indica ) leaves (Bhattacharya and Goswami 1987 ), groundnut ( Arachis hypogaea ) oil cake, leaves of crown flower ( Calotropis gigantea ) and root extract of lemon balm ( Melissa officinalis ) (Chaudhary et al. 2013 ). Adegbite and Adesiyan ( 2006 ) tested Siam weed ( Chromolaena odorata ) and neem ( Azadirachta indica ) in their experiment, and undiluted root extract of castor bean ( Ricinus communis ) also caused 95% larval mortality. The root exudates were tested against M. incognita at undiluted concentrations and 100% mortality was observed. The use of cover crops is becoming increasingly common today due to their many proven benefits. Root exudates can be relevant for cover crops because these are produced by the plants throughout their life while they are present in the field, so they have a continuous effect on soil organisms. It may be interesting to consider how root extracts of commonly used cover crops or living mulch affect nematodes. It would be an excellent opportunity to find a plant species or a plant family that not only has the general beneficial properties of cover crops but can also be a solution for nematode control in nematode infested areas. Not all nematodes are pests; there are also species that are highly beneficial (Andrássy and Farkas 1988 ), whose presence is essential for healthy soil. The importance of free-living nematodes in bacterial and fungal decomposition pathways has been reported. The bacterivore nematodes are contribute to soil nitrogen mineralization (Ferris et al. 1998 ). In addition, these nematodes can spread microorganisms found in their bodies and guts in the soil, and stimulate the activity, and the growth of microorganism-community through slight grazing (Fu et al. 2005 ). As secondary and tertiary consumers omnivorous nematodes utilize numerous food sources, and their grazing activity has a significant impact on soil nutrient and energy flow (Neher 2010). In addition, it is also an important aspect that predatory nematodes can reduce the number of plant-damaging nematodes in almost all types of soil and also increase plant resistance (Khan and Kim 2007 ). Considering the above mentioned reasons, avoiding drastic control methods that are harmful to soil life and enhancing the use of methods that support preserve soil health is a crucial task. This is the main reason why we also wanted to test the selected extracts on beneficial nematode species in our experiment. Panagrellus redivivus is a bacterivorous free-living nematode, typically found in saprobic environments (Andrássy 2005 ). It is gonochoristic, which means both sexes are required for reproduction. The larvae undergo four developmental stages (Hechler 1970 ; Sternberg and Horvitz 1981 ). It is easy to grow and maintain under laboratory conditions (Sochová et al. 2006 ) making the species an ideal test organization. In this study, we examined the repellent, attractive, and toxic effects of four commonly used cover crops, rye, red clover, hairy vetch and Daikon radish root extracts on a free-living, beneficial, bacterivore nematode, Panagrellus redivivus , and the plant-parasitic nematode Meloidogyne incognita . We intended to find out a) what differences there were between extracts made from dry and fresh roots in the case of the four plants, b) what differences could be found in the effects of each plant species on the two nematode species, c) is there any difference in effect depending on the species of nematode in the case of the four plants. Materials and Methods Nematode cultures Panagrellus redivivus nematodes were obtained from the Department of Zoology and Ecology of the Hungarian University of Agriculture and Life Sciences in Gödöllő, Hungary. The culture was grown on fermented kefir and oatmeal and kept in a thermostat at 20°C until the laboratory experiments. Infested cucumber roots ( Cucumis sativus Monolit F1) were collected for the incubation of Meloidogyne incognita juveniles in July and October 2024 (Csány, Heves County Hungary). Egg masses were removed from the roots and placed in tap water at 24 ± 1°C until hatching. After around 7 days, hatched second-stage juveniles were checked under a microscope (SZM-500T Zoom Stereomicroscope) and actively moving individuals were selected for the further laboratory tests. Preparation of root extracts To prepare the root extracts, plants were grown from commercially available ‘Álmos’ (TillageMix) cover crop seeds ( Trifolium pratense, Vicia villosa, Secale cereale , and Raphanus sativus ) in 25 cm diameter pots filled with general potting soil (Biorg potting soil: organic matter content: 40%, pH: 7.3 ± 0.5%, N: 0.3%, P 2 O 5 : 0.1%, K 2 O: 0.1%). Plants were irrigated with tap water and kept in natural light. The bottom of the pots was perforated to allow excess water to escape. After approximately 50 days, when the roots were sufficiently developed, the plants were removed from the soil, the roots were gently shaken, cut off at the root collar cleaned of soil particles and carefully washed with water. Roots for fresh use were immediately crushed with coffee grinder (BOSCH TSM6A013B) for 15 seconds, roots for dry use were powdered with the coffee grinder after drying at 21°C for 2 days. A quantity of 2.5 g of the crushed materials was mixed in 50 ml of high-purity (Milli-Q) water, covered with aluminium foil and left to soak at room temperature for 24 hours. After 24 hours, the 5% w/v solutions were filtered through cotton wool. Further solutions of 0.1, 0.5 and 1% w/v were prepared by the addition of Milli-Q water from both fresh and dry extracts (Petrikovszki et al. 2023 ). Mortality tests with fresh and dry root extracts Mortality analyses were performed in flat-bottomed 96-well microplates (Kartell S.p.A., Italy), according to the methodology used by Petrikovszki et al. ( 2019 ). Using an automatic pipette, 5–5 P. redivivus male and female adults were placed into each well of the microplate with 20 µL of water. Only live individuals were used in the experiment to avoid biasing the results; dead individuals were excluded. The 0% control was 200 µL Milli-Q water applied in eight replicates. Each extract was tested in four concentrations: 0.1%, 0.5%, 1% and 5%. Each concentration was applied in eight replicates. This experimental setup was also done with M. incognita juveniles. After 24 hours, the living and dead individuals were counted using a microscope (SZM-500T Zoom Stereomicroscope) to calculate the percentage of mortality. If mortality did not exceed 20% in the 0% control treatment, experiment was declared valid (Kiss et al. 2018 ). The experiment was performed twice in July 2024 and October 2024, using different newly produced extracts. Preparation of agar medium For area choice test, water agar medium was prepared (10 g agar-agar with 500 ml distilled water) and autoclaved. The liquid and hot agar was poured into 9 cm (for P. redivivus ) and 6 cm (for M. incognita ) diameter Petri-dishes. Due to the movement of nematodes, it was important that the medium was completely solid. To prevent that condensation water on the surface of the agar affect the movements of nematodes, the medium was dried by leaving a small gap at the top of the Petri-dish for eight hours (Petrikovszki et al. 2023 ). Area choice test with fresh and dry root extracts The same 5% concentration of extracts was used for the area choice tests as for the mortality tests. The setup was based on the method of Petrikovszki et al. 2023 which is a modified and combined method of Zhai et al. ( 2018 ) and Hewlett et al. ( 1997 ). Two differently sized Petri-dishes were used: a 6 cm dish for M. incognita and a 9 cm dish for P. redivivus , due to their different movement speeds. The agar that was prepared in the Petri-dishes was divided into sectors. Two 5 mm diameter holes were cut in the prepared agar in the 6 cm Petri-dishes (Fig. 1 .), while two 1 cm diameter holes with were cut in the 9 cm Petri dishes. (Fig. 2 .). In each Petri-dish, one hole was filled with Milli-Q water for the control. The other hole on the opposite side was filled with 5% root extract. For the smaller holes 50 µL of water or root extract, while for the larger holes 200 µL of water or extract. Approximately 20–30 M. incognita juveniles or P. redivivus were pipetted into the centre of Petri-dishes with 20 µL water. Each extract-water combination was adjusted in ten replicates for both M. incognita and P. redivivus. In addition, a negative control for both nematode species was set up with ten replications with Milli-Q water placed on both sides. The Petri-dishes were incubated in a randomized arrangement in a thermostat at 20 ± 1°C for eight hours. After this time, the nematodes were counted by sector and by hole under stereomicroscope. The sectors were plotted on a piece of foil. By placing the foil under the Petri-dish, the number of nematodes in each sector could be counted. The number of individuals in the three sectors on the extract side was counted and added up. The same was done for the individuals in the three sectors on the water control side. Individuals remaining in sector 0 were not considered. The ratio of individuals counted on each side and the total number of individuals was given as a percentage. The experiment was performed twice in July and October 2024, using different newly produced extracts each time. Statistical methods Mortality tests Mortality values were first transformed by arcsin(sqrt(x)) function to stabilise normality. A four-way random block ANOVA model was constructed with the factors 'nematodes' ( P. redivivus, M. incognita ), 'extract' (red clover, rye, daikon radish and hairy vetch), 'concentration' (control + 0.1%, 0.5%, 1% and 5%) and a factor for the extract of 'dry' or 'fresh' root and with a block for the replications in July and October 2024. The sample size was 1280 (= 2 (nematodes) *4 (extracts) *5 (concentrates) *2 (fresh/dry) *8 (replicates) *2 (time points). The normality of the residuals was accepted by the absolute values of the skewness and kurtosis of their distribution as they were below 0.2 and 2.3 respectively. The homogeneity of variances was violated: in particular, the variances of the samples under concentration 5% and control (0%) were significantly different with a ratio of 420.10, while the highest variance ratio was below 3.4 for all other treatment combinations. Therefore, pairwise comparisons were made for the levels of each factor within the level combinations of the remaining three factors using the Games-Howell’s correction. Area choice tests Area choices were tested by a three-way random block ANOVA model that was constructed with dependent variables ‘ratios’ and factors 'nematodes' ( P. redivivus, M. incognita ), 'extract' (red clover, rye, daikon radish, hairy vetch and water), and a factor for the extract of 'dry' or 'fresh' root and with a block for the replications in July 2024 and October 2024. The sample size was 400 (= 2 (nematodes) *5 (extracts) *2 (fresh/dry) *10 (replicates) *2 (time points). We eliminated five pairs of serious outliers. The normality of the residuals was accepted by the absolute values of the skewness and kurtosis of their distribution as they were below 0.1 and 0.8 respectively. The homogeneity of variances was violated: in particular, the variances of the control samples (water) and the ones treated with red clover were significantly different with a ratio of 15.92, while the highest variance ratio was 3.5 or lower for all other treatment combinations. Therefore, pairwise comparisons were made for the levels of each factor within the level combinations of the remaining three factors using again the Games-Howell’s correction. We also compared the ratios assigned to control a treated sides by using paired Student’s t tests. The normality of the differences was also accepted by the absolute values of the skewness and kurtosis of their distribution as they were below 0.1 and 1.0 respectively. Summarized evaluation of actions Two-dimensional scatterplots were made in order to evaluate the summarized results of mortality and area choice tests (Supplemental material Fig S1 ; Fig S2). Results Results of the mortality tests The four-way random block ANOVA model revealed that the effects of all the four factors were highly significant (nematodes: F(1,1211) = 784.52; extracts: F(3,1211) = 206.35; concentrates: F(4,1211) = 982.24; fresh/dry: F(1,1211) = 505.71, all with p < 0.001) together with their 2-, 3- and 4-way interactions (p < 0.002). The results of the pairwise comparisons are shown in Table 1 . Table 1 Means and standard deviations of mortality rates (%) of P. redivivus and M. incognita under treatments with fresh or dry extracts of hairy vetch, daikon radish, rye and red clover at four concentrations (0.1%, 0.5%, 1% and 5%) plus control (0%). Different letters represent significantly different groups (Games-Howell's, p < 0.05). Pairwise comparisons were made for extracts (upper-case letters), concentrations (lower-case letters), nematodes (stars indicate significant differences) and for fresh and dry extracts (significantly higher values in the dry extract treatment are in bold). Meloidogyne incognita Panagrellus redivivus Extract Fresh/Dry concentration % Mean ± StDev Mean ± StDev Hairy vetch Fresh 0.0 0.00 ± 0.00 Aa 0.00 ± 0.00 Aa 0.1 13.19 ± 12.57 Bb * 3.13 ± 6.72 Aa 0.5 23.02 ± 14.35 Bb * 3.85 ± 8.43 Aa 1.0 65.83 ± 24.99 Bc * 4.79 ± 8.60 ABa 5.0 96.25 ± 10.88 Cd * 56.67 ± 31.07 Bb Dry 0.0 0.00 ± 0.00 Aa 0.00 ± 0.00 Aa 0.1 36.88 ± 18.15 Bb * 6.04 ± 9.29 Aab 0.5 64.79 ± 19.96 Bc * 14.17 ± 13.53 Bb 1.0 96.67 ± 7.20 Bd * 22.29 ± 21.00 Bb 5.0 100.00 ± 0.00 Ad * 71.67 ± 24.04 Ac Daikor radish Fresh 0.0 0.00 ± 0.00 Aa * 0.00 ± 0.00 Aa 0.1 2.29 ± 6.29 Aa 2.78 ± 6.09 Aab 0.5 7.60 ± 16.28 Aa 5.42 ± 8.33 Aab 1.0 83.54 ± 18.76 Bb * 10.10 ± 10.55 Bb 5.0 98.75 ± 5.00 Cc * 60.63 ± 21.09 Bc Dry 0.0 0.00 ± 0.00 Aa 0.00 ± 0.00 Aa 0.1 68.01 ± 24.68 Cb * 6.04 ± 11.81 Aab 0.5 98.75 ± 5.00 Cc * 14.18 ± 14.56 Bbc 1.0 98.96 ± 4.17 Bc * 24.61 ± 18.81 Bc 5.0 100.00 ± 0.00 Ac 98.75 ± 5.00 Bd Rye Fresh 0.0 0.00 ± 0.00 Aa 0.00 ± 0.00 Aa 0.1 0.00 ± 0.00 Aa 0.89 ± 3.57 Aa 0.5 2.29 ± 6.29 Aa 1.93 ± 5.30 Aa 1.0 7.29 ± 9.75 Aa 2.08 ± 5.69 ABa 5.0 23.54 ± 13.90 Ab * 4.11 ± 7.49 Aa Dry 0.0 0.00 ± 0.00 Aa 0.00 ± 0.00 Aa 0.1 2.50 ± 6.83 Aa 0.00 ± 0.00 Aa 0.5 25.54 ± 21.08 Ab * 2.29 ± 6.29 Aa 1.0 35.21 ± 12.82 Ab * 5.83 ± 13.08 Aa 5.0 98.96 ± 4.17 Ac * 50.95 ± 24.93 Ab Red clover Fresh 0.0 0.00 ± 0.00 Aa 0.00 ± 0.00 Aa 0.1 0.00 ± 0.00 Aa 1.25 ± 5.00 Aa 0.5 1.25 ± 5.00 Aa 1.04 ± 4.17 Aa 1.0 6.04 ± 11.81 Aa 1.25 ± 5.00 Aa 5.0 63.96 ± 34.35 Bb 66.09 ± 31.38 Bb Dry 0.0 1.25 ± 5.00 Aa 0.00 ± 0.00 Aa 0.1 10.54 ± 13.27 Aa * 0.00 ± 0.00 Aa 0.5 13.75 ± 15.86 Ab 5.10 ± 9.26 ABa 1.0 90.21 ± 12.50 Bc * 12.50 ± 19.15 ABa 5.0 100.00 ± 0.00 Ad * 71.15 ± 22.78 Abc On average, higher mortality was observed for dry root extracts than for fresh root extracts in tests with M. incognita . For hairy vetch and Daikon radish 0.1%; 0.5% and 1%, rye 0.5%; 1% and 5% and all concentrations of red clover, the toxicity of dry root extracts was significantly higher. In the case of fresh extracts, 5% extract of hairy vetch, 1% and 5% extracts of radish showed a relatively high mortality rate of over 80%. Lower concentrations of these crops, as well as fresh root extracts of rye and red clover, showed much lower mortality at all concentration levels. For the dry root extracts, hairy vetch at concentrations of 1% and 5%, and radish at concentrations of 0.5%, 1% and 5%, showed higher than 80% of mortality. For dry root extracts, high lethal effect was also observed at concentrations of rye 5% and red clover 1% and 5%. When the same concentrations of different fresh root extracts were compared in Meloidogyne tests, hairy vetch showed significantly higher mortality percentages for fresh extracts at 0.1% and 0.5% concentrations than the other root extracts. At 1% and 5% concentration, hairy vetch and radish showed significantly higher mortality compared to the other two root extracts. In the case of dry extracts, significantly higher toxicity was observed for hairy vetch and radish at 0.1% and 0.5% concentrations, respectively. At 1% concentration, red clover also showed similarly high mortality, while at 5% concentration no significant difference was observed between the root extracts, with the mortality rate of each plant extract being around 100%. In several cases, the extracts were found to be more toxic to M. incognita than to P. redivivus . Significantly higher mortality rates were observed for M. incognita at several concentrations among fresh and dry extracts of hairy vetch, fresh and dry extracts of radish, and dry extracts of rye and red clover. In P. redivivus tests, the 5% fresh extracts of hairy vetch, radish and red clover, showed higher mortality rates, but these did not reach the levels observed with M. incognita. The highest mortality rate for P. redivivus for fresh root extracts was observed with the 5% red clover extract, but this only reached 66%. Lower concentrations of hairy vetch, radish and red clover extracts, as well as rye extracts, were found to be non-toxic to P. redivivus (values not exceeding 10.1%). Basically, also for P. redivivus , dry root extracts were found to be significantly more toxic than fresh extracts in several cases. The highest mortality rate for dry root extracts was observed for the 5% radish extract, with a mortality rate of 98.75%. Also for dry root extracts, the 5% concentration of the extracts showed a significantly higher mortality rate compared to other concentrations. Comparing the fresh root extracts within each concentration, it was observed that the 5% concentration of rye showed a significantly lower mortality rate than the other plant extracts. For the dry root extracts, the mortality rate of 5% radish extract was found to be significantly higher than that of the 5% extracts of the other plants when comparing the total within concentrations. Results of the area choice tests The Student’s paired t-tests for the ratios that were assigned to the sides ‘control’ and ‘treatment’ were all significant (t(19) > 2.9, p < 0.05) except for control (water, t(19) 0.34). For M. incognita , control ratios were significantly higher and, in contrary to this, in case of P. redivivus , the ratios of treated sides were significantly higher. According to the three-way random block ANOVA model, the effects of all the four factors revealed to be highly significant in both cases of control and treated ratios (nematodes: F(1, 379) > 1331.86; extracts: F(4, 379) = 10.92; fresh/dry: F(1, 379) = 13.54, all with p < 0.001) together with the nematodes*extract interaction (p 0.05). The results of the pairwise comparisons are shown in Table 2 . Table 2 Means and standard deviations of the ratios that were assigned to control and treated sides that were measured for P. redivivus and M. incognita under treatments with fresh or dry extracts of hairy vetch, daikon radish, rye and red clover and control (water). Different letters represent significantly different groups (Games-Howell's, p < 0.05). Pairwise comparisons were made for extracts (lower-case letters) and for fresh and dry extracts (where relevant, upper-case letters). Significantly higher values in the comparisons of the nematodes are in bold. control treated Nematode Extract Fresh/Dry mean ± stdev mean ± stdev M. incognita Hairy vetch Fresh 0.74 ± 0.09 b 0.23 ± 0.08 a Red clover 0.64 ± 0.13 b 0.30 ± 0.11 a Daikor radish 0.73 ± 0.09 Ab 0.22 ± 0.09 Ba Rye 0.53 ± 0.08 a 0.44 ± 0.08 b Water 0.49 ± 0.04 a 0.47 ± 0.04 b Hairy vetch Dry 0.75 ± 0.06 b 0.19 ± 0.08 b Red clover 0.69 ± 0.08 b 0.24 ± 0.08 b Daikor radish 0.86 ± 0.09 Bc 0.11 ± 0.08 Aa Rye 0.53 ± 0.06 a 0.39 ± 0.06 c Water 0.48 ± 0.07 a 0.45 ± 0.08 c P. redivivus Hairy vetch Fresh 0.22 ± 0.07 a 0.70 ± 0.08 b Red clover 0.15 ± 0.06 Aa 0.77 ± 0.08 Bb Daikor radish 0.17 ± 0.12 a 0.75 ± 0.14 b Rye 0.20 ± 0.11 Aa 0.72 ± 0.14 Bb Water 0.47 ± 0.09 b 0.46 ± 0.09 a Hairy vetch Dry 0.24 ± 0.10 a 0.72 ± 0.10 bc Red clover 0.26 ± 0.12 Ba 0.71 ± 0.13 Abc Daikor radish 0.20 ± 0.11 a 0.76 ± 0.14 c Rye 0.28 ± 0.10 Ba 0.65 ± 0.10 Ab Water 0.44 ± 0.12 b 0.48 ± 0.11 a For the fresh root extracts, the M. incognita nematodes in all of the samples (hairy vetch, red clover, radish and rye root extracts) chose the control side that was supplemented with Milli-Q water over the holes that were supplemented with 5% extracts in significantly higher proportions. There was no significant difference for the water-water control, with individuals choosing both sides in roughly equal proportions. Therefore, the experiment can be considered valid, as no external factors influenced the juveniles' choice of area. When comparing of the different extracts, those from the radish, red clover and hairy vetch root extracts showed a significantly higher repellence rates than the rye root extract. Significantly more individuals chose the vetch control than the rye control. Similar results were obtained for the dry extracts. M. incognita nematodes preferred the control treatment for vetch, red clover and radish, as well as for rye. When the dry extracts were compared, the radish root extract showed significantly the highest repellency by far, followed by the hairy vetch and red clover extracts, which differed significantly from the rye extract and the water control. Rye extract did not differ from the control. When the effects of dry and fresh root extracts were compared, only the dry radish root extract showed significantly higher repellency than the fresh radish extract. When comparing other dry-fresh extracts, no differences were observed within plants. In the tests with P. redivivus and fresh extracts, nematodes chose 5% vetch, red clover, radish and rye extracts in significantly higher proportions than the control. For the water-water treatments, the distribution of individuals was about the same in the two sides. When comparing the fresh extracts, no significant differences were obtained between the extracts, all attracted nematodes to nearly the same extent, however, all significantly differently from the control. As for the dry extracts, P. redivivus individuals selected the dry root extracts of vetch, red clover, radish and rye at significantly higher rates than the water control placed opposite them. Compared to dry extracts, radish extract attracted a significantly higher proportion of P. redivivus nematodes than rye extract or the water control. Rye extract attracted the fewest nematodes of all the extracts. When dry and fresh extracts were compared, it was observed that dry extracts of red clover and rye attracted significantly higher proportions of nematodes than fresh extracts. There was no difference for the other plants. Summarized evaluation of actions Based on the two-dimensional scatterplot evaluation, Daikon radish root extracts appeared to be a suitable cover crop among tested, as they achieved high mortality and repellent effects for M. incognita , while P. redivivus had lower mortality and was more attracted to the extract (Fig. S1 , and Fig. S2. Supplementary material). Discussion Plant parasitic nematodes can cause significant damage to many crops due to their polyphagous behaviour. The control of Meloidogyne species is very difficult and often only drastic environmentally destructive methods are effective. Therefore, research is justified to find control methods against these pests that are effective but not harmful to the environment and other organisms. Many plants are known to produce or contain various nematicidal compounds that are toxic to nematodes. In many cases, medicinal and aromatic plants have been investigated for nematicidal control, as these plants may already be known to have bactericidal or fungicidal activity. Therefore, their nematicidal activity could be hypothesised as well. Very high mortality rates have been obtained for Meloidogyne larvae with petroleum ether and chloroform and aqueous extracts of Asteriscus imbricatus (Senhaji et al 2018 ). Aqueous extracts of clove bud ( Syzygium aromaticum ), tobacco leaf ( Nicotiana tabacum ) and betelvine ( Piper betle ) leaf also showed significant mortality rates of over 83% (Djiwanti et al 2009 ). However, in many cases these studies are on extracts from the above-ground part of the plant, rather than on substances produced by the roots. Thus, when using these plants as cover crops or growing them in the affected area, we should either work them into the soil or use pre-extracted extracts to achieve a nematicidal effect. The difference between the dry and fresh root extracts In the current mortality tests with M. incognita and P. redivivus , dry root extracts appeared more toxic than fresh root extracts. The dry extracts are likely to contain more concentrated amounts of the substances to which nematodes respond. In the case of M. incognita , all dry extracts were found to be highly toxic at 5% concentrations, while radish and hairy vetch extracts were toxic from as low as 0.5% concentration. Also, radish and hairy wetch fresh extracts caused high mortality. These two plants also showed very high levels of repellence in both fresh extracts and dry extracts in M. incognita . Some levels of repellence were observed in all extracts, but it was most pronounced in radish and hairy vetch extracts. For P. redivivus , only the dry extracts at 5% concentration showed a strong lethal effect and typical attraction was observed for all extracts, with almost equal levels. The effect of Vicia villosa root extracts There have been very few studies on the effects of cover crops on free-living nematodes (Timper et al 2021 , Ito et al. 2015 ). Several experiments have investigated the allelopathic effect of Vicia villosa extracts on weeds (Hill et al 2006 , Sun et al 2021 ), but the effects of their extracts and active ingredients on nematodes has not really been studied. There are some studies on the nematode resistance or nematode susceptibility of hairy vetch. In their experiment on Vicia villosa spp. dasycarpa sel., Abd El Moniem and Bellar (1993) proved it to be resistant to Meloidogyne artiellia . However, several studies have reported that Vicia villosa is an excellent host plant for M. arenaria , (Tedford and Fortnum 1988 ; Mosjidis 1993), M. javanica (Kimenju et al. 2008 )d incognita . (Timper et al. 2006 ). Mosjidis (1993) found complete resistance in Vicia sativa. In the experiments of Marquez et al. ( 2022 ), the hairy vetch proved to be highly susceptible after inoculation with M. incognita, M. arenaria and M. javanica . Therefore, it is very interesting that our experimental results showed that the root extract of the hairy vetch is repellent and lethal to M. incognita above a certain concentration. This result is maybe because the concentrations we used were higher than those found in soil in the natural environment. Many times, water-soluble root extracts need to be concentrated in order to analyze their content, as they are present in very low concentrations (Dundek et al. 2011 ). The amount of organic compounds secreted in the root exudates of plants grown in solution rarely exceeds 0.4%, but even this small concentration has a strong effect on soil microorganisms. In the case of stimulating and inhibiting compounds, the amounts are so small that they are often barely detectable by chemical and chromatographic methods. The quantity and composition of plant root extracts are influenced by numerous factors, such as the species and age of the plant, light exposure, the temperature and nutrient supply. Since the concentration of biologically active substances in the rhizosphere cannot be calculated, the concentrations used in in vitro experiments are usually determined arbitrarily (Rovira 1969). In addition, the release of plant substances into the soil is also influenced by the community of microorganisms found in the soil (Harmsen and Jager 1963) so it is almost impossible to use a substance that is completely similar to natural root exudates under in vitro conditions; we can only attempt to achieve the closest possible similarity. Alternatively, the composition of our extract may differ from that of the natural root exudates because we injured the plants during extraction which may have caused them to produce alarm substances (Savatin et al. 2014 ) affecting nematode behaviour. However, one study investigated a substance produced by roots, the L-canavanine, which has a significant effect on the composition and diversity of the soil microbial community and thus on metabolic pathways related to carbon metabolism. After L-canavanine application, bacteria and actinobacteria increased in the soil. In contrast, proteobacteria and acidobacteria populations decreased with higher L-canavanine concentrations. Production of this substance was increased in pot-grown plants (Mardani-Korrani et al 2021 .) This may be related to our finding that the bacteria-consuming P. redivivus were strongly attracted to the root extract of the hairy vetch. Also, in our results, the root extract of hairy vetch, except for the most concentrated dry 5% extract, did not prove harmful to the non-parasitic P. redivivus . Thus, it may be worth further investigating Vicia villosa extract for control of M. incognita and testing its effect on other non-target organisms. The effect of Raphanus sativus root extracts In the case of radish, we observed behaviour consistent with that reported in the literature. Several experiments have reported the nematicidal and nematode repellent effects of cruciferous plants on Meloidogyne species, confirming our results on toxicity and repellence. It has been observed that cruciferous plants are less susceptible to be damaged by root-knot nematodes, and the species of cruciferous plants also influences the effect on nematodes. For example, Brassica rapa is much more susceptible to M. incognita than Raphanus sativus (Liébanas and Castillo 2004 ). Numerous studies have investigated the repellent effect of plants belonging to the cruciferous family on Meloidogyne nematodes, but most studies examine leaf extracts, or the effect of the green manure. In an experiment by McLeod and Steel ( 1999 ), fifteen types of Brassica plant used as green manure and mixed into the soil were found to be repellent on Meloidogyne javanaica J 2 larvae. The application of ethanolic extracts from the leaves of cabbage, cauliflower, radish and Chinese cabbage was found to significantly reduce damage caused by M. hapla on celery (Anita 2012 ). Cruciferous plants are often used as biofumigants, because their decomposition when rotated into the soil produces many volatile substances that can have nematicidal effects (Roubtsova et al. 2007 ). Shredded cabbage and cauliflower leaves mixed into the soil reduced the population of M. incognita and the damage it caused to the okra (Patil et al. 2020 ). The decomposition of Brassica plants typically produces glucosinolates (Kirkegaard et al. 2000 ). These isothiocyanates are believed to be the main components responsible for the pest, pathogen and herbicidal effects observed after the introduction of brassica into the soil (Kirkegaard and Sarwar 1999 ). The efficiency of biofumigation is strongly influenced by the isocthiocyanate content of the plant species, the type of plant tissue, and the extent of tissue damage (Morra and Kirkegaard 2002 ). However, glucosinolates are found in both the shoots and roots of cruciferous plants (Kirkegaard and Sarwar 1999 ), so it is possible that these substances are released through root necrosis and have nematicidal effects which could confirm the results of our experiment. The isothiocyanate content of the roots is more commonly investigated for its antibacterial and antifungal effects, while its nematicidal effects are not usually examined. When tested with acetone and hexane root extracts of Raphanus sativus , strong antibacterial activity was detected, which was found to be stronger than in leaf and stem extracts (Beevi et al. 2009 ). Therefore, it can be assumed that the isothiocyanate or a very similar compound in the extract we tested caused the strong nematicidal and nematode-repellent effects. In addition, the high degree of tissue abrasion during the extraction process contributed to the strong effects we observed. However, it was also observed in several experiments that non-parasitic nematodes are less sensitive to these compounds (Halbrendt and Jing 1996 ), which is also in agreement with our results for P. redivivus . These substances do not have the same effect on nematode species of different feeding groups. The number of non-parasitic nematodes decreased briefly when broccoli pieces were mixed into the soil but increased notably over time due to their short generation time and the availability of food. However, the adding broccoli plants increased the number of saprophytic nematodes overall while reducing the number of M. incognita (Roubtsova et al. 2007 ). These differences in sensitivity may be due to the different sizes of the nematodes. In the case of M. incognita , we tested mobile and infective J 2 larvae to make the test relevant, whereas in the case of P. redivivus we tested the sensitivity of adults. In any case, these results of root extracts from cruciferous plants can certainly provide interesting conclusions for no till-systems, where the green parts of the cover crops are not rotated into the soil. The effect of Secale cereale and Trifolium pratense root extracts Rye and red clover were toxic to M. incognita only at higher concentrations in dry extracts: in the case of rye only at the highest concentration, in the case of red clover at concentrations of 1% and 5%. These two plants were less effective at repelling pests, and rye was almost completely ineffective. Numerous studies have shown that growing rye as a cover crop and then working it into the soil reduces the incidence of M. incognita infection in the subsequent crop (Mc Bride et al. 1999, McBride et al 2000 ). The chemical components of rye can suppress the damage caused by M. incognita , due to the presence of methoxy-substituted benzoxazinoids. These compounds are found in higher concentrations in the roots than in the shoots, however, this varies depending on the type of rye (Zasada et al. 2007 ). Therefore, it may be worthwhile continuing to experiment with extracts from several different types of rye. According to Minton ( 1992 ), the presence of rye does not necessarily influence the density of the M. incognita population, but less infestation was observed after the rye cover crop than after the land was left fallow i.e. when the rye was not worked into the soil, but merely mown down. Rye cover crops can increase the number of fungivore nematodes compared to radish or weed control. Gruver et al. ( 2010 ) reported that radish cover crops tend to stimulate bacterial decomposition pathways, while rye stimulated the fungal food web to a greater extent. This result is only slightly noticeable when we consider that radish attracted slightly more bacteria-consuming P. redivivus than rye. It may also be valuable to try the following experiments using fungivore nematodes as non-target organisms. In any case, our results for rye were not as conclusive as those described in literature, as rye was the least toxic and least repellent in our experiment. However, it did not harm P. redivivus. Red clover is also a typical host plant for M. incognita (Chapman and Turner 1975 ; Dobosz and Krawcyk 2021). Therefore, it is an interesting finding that red clover proved to be toxic at concentrations above 1% even in dry form, but it is not surprising that it proved to be less repellent. This can be explained by the fact that, in dry extracts, concentrations above 1% may contain quantities of plant material that nematodes do not encounter in nature. In the case of P. redivivus , red clover also showed a stronger effect, when it was in dry extract form, but the extracts were not highly toxic, and attraction towards the red clover extract was observed. This can be explained by the same reasons as in the case of rye: perhaps the plant produces attractive substances, or the bacteria that serve as food have multiplied in the extract. In summary, nematodes reacted more strongly to dry root extracts than to fresh root extracts. Dry extract of hairy vetch from 1%, dry extract of radish from 0.5%, and 5% extract of rye and red clover showed mortality rates of over 90% in the case of M. incognita . Both fresh and dry root extracts had a repellent effect on M. incognita in all four plants. Radish and hairy vetch had the strongest repellent effect. In the case of P. redivivus , only a 5% root extract of the plants had a lethal effect, but it was never as strong as that observed for M. incognita . A 5% radish root extract was the only one to show significant toxicity. Both dry and fresh extracts of each plant had an attractive effect on P. redivivus in approximately equal degrees. The graphical analysis demonstrated (Supplementary material Fig S1 , Fig S2) that the ideal plant extract for nematode control depends on the specific objectives of the application. For applications prioritizing maximal pest control and repellency, the dry extract of Daikon radish emerges as the most effective and strategically sound choice. These results may be useful for further studies with cover crops focusing on M. incognita infection and infection suppression and they also draw attention to the need for research into methods that consider the effects on beneficial nematodes. We hope that this research will motivate further investigation into root extracts from cover crops. Declarations Acknowledgments The project is co-funded by the Government of Hungary and the European Union. Supported by the EKÖP-24 New National Excellence Program of the Ministry for Culture and Innovation from the source of the National Research, Development and Innovation Fund. Author Contributions DSS and RP conceived and designed the laboratory tests. DSS conducted the experiment and wrote the manuscript. ML was responsible for statistical analysis. RP, ML and FT corrected the manuscript. All authors read and approved the manuscript. Supplementary informations: The online version contains supplementary material available at: Funding This work was supported by Government of Hungary and the European Union and the EKÖP-24 New National Excellence Program of the Ministry for Culture and Innovation from the source of the National Research, Development and Innovation Fund. Data avability The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests. 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Soil Biol Biochem 34(11):1683–1690. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0038-0717(02)00153-0 Mosjidis JA, Rodriguez-Kabana R, Owsley CM (1993) Reaction of three cool-season annual legume species to Meloidogyne arenaria and Heterodera glycines. Nematropica 23(1):35–39. Moyer J (2010) Organic No-Till Farming; Rodale Press: Emmaus, PA, USA Olmo R, Cabrera J, Díaz-Manzano FE, Ruiz‐Ferrer V, Barcala M, Ishida T, García A, Fe Andrés M, Ruiz-Lara S, Verdugo I, Pernas M, Fukaki H, del Pozo JC, Moreno-Risueno MÁ, Kyndt T, Gheysen G, Fenoll C, Sawa S, Escobar C (2020) Root‐knot nematodes induce gall formation by recruiting developmental pathways of post‐embryonic organogenesis and regeneration to promote transient pluripotency. New Phytol 227(1):200–215. https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.16521 Patil JA, Kumar A, Yadav S, Verma KK (2020) Nematicidal effect of cruciferous bio-fumigants against the root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita infesting okra. J Nematol 52(1):e2020-80. https://doi.org/10.21307/jofnem-2020-080 Petrikovszki R, Tóth F, Nagy PI (2023) Aqueous extracts of organic mulch materials have nematicide and repellent effect on Meloidogyne incognita infective juveniles: a laboratory study. J Nematol 55(1):20230037. https://doi.org/10.2478/jofnem-2023-0037 Petrikovszki R, Tóthné Bogdányi F, Tóth F, Nagy P (2019) Effect of aqueous extracts of mulching materials on entomopathogenic and slug parasitic nematodes: a laboratory experiment. Acta Phytopathol Entomol Hung 54(2):279–287. https://doi.org/10.1556/038.54.2019.024 Radwan, MA, Farrag SAA, Abueiamayem MM, Ahmed NS (2012) Biological control of the root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita on tomato using bioproducts of microbial origin. Appl Soil Ecol 56(1):58–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsoil.2012.02.008 Roubtsova T, López-Péŕez JA, Edwards S, Ploeg A (2007) Effect of broccoli (Brassica oleracea) tissue, incorporated at different depths in a soil column, on Meloidogyne incognita. J Nematol 39(2):111–117. Sasser JN, Carter CC (1985) Overview of the International Meloidogyne Project 1975–1984. In: Sasser, J. N., Carter, C.C. Raleigh. (ed.) An Advanced Treatise on Meloidogyne Volume 2. North Carolina State University Graphics, 223 pp 19–24 Savatin DV, Gramegna G, Modesti V, Cervone F (2014) Wounding in the plant tissue: the defense of a dangerous passage. Front Plant Sci 5: 470. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2014.00470 Senhaji B, Mziouid A, Chebli B, Mayad EH, Ferji Z (2018) Nematicidal Activity of Four Medicinal Plants Extracts against Meloidogyne Spp. Der Pharma Chemica, 10(2):36–41. Singh S, Singh B, Singh AP (2015) Nematodes: A threat to sustainability of agriculture. Procedia Environ Sci 29:215–216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proenv.2015.07.270 Sochová I, Hofman J, Holoubek I (2006) Using nematodes in soil ecotoxicology. Environ Int 32(3):374–383. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2005.08.031 Subrahmaniyan K, Kalaiselvan P, Balasubramanian TN, Zhou W (2006) Crop productivity and soil properties as affected by polyethylene film mulch and land configurations in groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.). Arch Agron Soil Sci 52(1):79–103. https://doi.org/10.1080/03650340500421786 Sternberg PW, Horvitz HR (1981) Gonadal cell lineages of the nematode Panagrellus redivivus and implications for evolution by the modification of cell lineage. Dev Biol 88(1):147–166. https://doi.org/10.1016/0012-1606(81)90226-8 Sun W, Yang G, Cong L, Sun J, Ma L (2021) Allelopathic potency and an active substance from hairy vetch. Legume Research 44(1):46–50. 10.18805/LR-548 Tedford EC, Fortnum BA (1988) Weed hosts of Meloidogyne arenaria and M. incognita common in tobacco fields in South Carolina. J Nematol 20(4S):102–105. Timper P, Davis RF, Tillman PG (2006) Reproduction of Meloidogyne incognita on winter cover crops used in cotton production. J Nematol 38(1):83–89. Timper P, Strickland TC, Jagdale GB (2021) Biological suppression of the root-knot nematode Meloidogyne incognita following winter cover crops in conservation tillage cotton. Biol Control 155:104525. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocontrol.2020.104525 Vršič S, Breznik M, Pulko B, Rodrigo-Comino J (2021) Earthworm abundance changes depending on soil management practices in slovenian vineyards. Agronomy 11(6):1241. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11061241 Wezel A, Bellon S, Doré T, Francis C, Vallod D, David C (2009) Agroecology as a science, a movement, and a practice. Agron Sustain Dev 29:503–515. https://doi.org/10.1051/agro/2009004 Yeates GW, Bongers T, De Goede KGM, Freckman DW, Georgieva SS (1993) Feeding habits in soil nematode families and genera – an outline for soil ecologists. J Nematol 25(3):315–331. Zasada IA, Rice CP, Meyer SL (2007) Improving the use of rye (Secale cereale) for nematode management: potential to select cultivars based on Meloidogyne incognita host status and benzoxazinoid content. Nematology 9(1):53–60. https://doi.org/10.1163/156854107779969745 Zhai Y, Shao Z, Cai M, Zheng L, Li G, Huang D, Cheng W, Thomashow LS, Weller DM, Yu Z, Zhang J (2018) Multiple modes of nematode control by volatiles of Pseudomonas putida 1A00316 from Antarctic soil against Meloidogyne incognita. Front Microbiol 9:253. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2018.00253 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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of Agriculture and Life Sciences","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Márta","middleName":"","lastName":"Ladányi","suffix":""},{"id":558057419,"identity":"2e883766-df7f-43ba-bb50-3bd48abccc1d","order_by":2,"name":"Ferenc Tóth","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Hungarian Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (ÖMKI)","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ferenc","middleName":"","lastName":"Tóth","suffix":""},{"id":558057420,"identity":"fd329b2b-db4d-4466-9de8-6080fc454de1","order_by":3,"name":"Renáta 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19:57:42","extension":"html","order_by":9,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":215714,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8296706/v1/7ad018f271e3deab9450d2fd.html"},{"id":98349032,"identity":"2362b146-c54f-405e-9ede-e070771b7750","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-16 19:57:41","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":44088,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSchematic representation of a 6 cm diameter (inner diameter 5.5 cm) Petri-dish divided into sectors for M. incognita area choice tests. The two 0.5 cm diameter holes at the two sides are for the extract and Milli-Q water. The central gray zone indicates sector 0. In the center, nematodes dropped on agar can be seen\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8296706/v1/56560ae9a6080bf35f1273b3.png"},{"id":98439903,"identity":"cec793d7-e6dd-4632-a062-9314945f8cf7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-17 17:03:03","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":55979,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSchematic representation of a 9 cm diameter (inner diameter 8.5 cm) Petri-dish divided into sectors for P. redivivus area choice tests. The two 1 cm diameter holes at the sides are for the extract and Milli-Q water. The central gray zone indicates sector 0. In the center, nematodes dropped on agar can be seen\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8296706/v1/05db5536e34c5ed5bf26927d.png"},{"id":101190373,"identity":"39c0691f-8d7a-478c-bf1a-4a8fa34f156f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-27 06:58:08","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1362379,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8296706/v1/876545b8-2d93-4d7b-92c8-a46323595043.pdf"},{"id":98438238,"identity":"5325ac50-5c64-4573-8e89-bdea9511a0aa","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-17 16:58:51","extension":"docx","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":145706,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"SummarizedevaluationofactionsSupplementaryInformation.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8296706/v1/76392bb79197e115d560f3aa.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Investigation of the nematicidal mechanisms of cover crop-derived extracts on pest (Meloidogyne incognita) and beneficial (Panagrellus redivivus) nematode species under laboratory conditions","fulltext":[{"header":"Key Messages","content":"\u003cul\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eNematicidal effects of cover crops were examined on target pest and non-target beneficial nematodes\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eRoot extracts of cover crops were more lethal to \u003cem\u003eM. incognita\u003c/em\u003e than \u003cem\u003eP. redivivus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBoth fresh and dry root extracts of all four cover crops had a repellent effect on \u003cem\u003eM. incognita\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRadish extract appeared to be ideal among tested cover crops: repel/kill pest and spare beneficial\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eAgroecology is the science and practice of applying ecological principles to the planning and management of sustainable economies (Wezel et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). One main exercise of agroecology is regenerative agriculture (Altieri et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). The concept of regenerative agriculture has been spreading widely since the 1980s and, fortunately, becoming increasingly well known today (Giller et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). One of the fundamental elements of regenerative soil cultivation is soil covering, which protects the soil from degradation and erosion and has several other positive effects: it maintains soil moisture, reduces soil temperature fluctuations, can increase crop yields, (Chakraborty et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e), stimulates soil life and also has an impact on soil biological communities (Subrahmaniyan et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Kader et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Different types of soil cover greatly influence soil properties (temperature and humidity), especially in the topsoil (up to a depth of 15 cm), which affects the abundance of earthworms, one of the most important indicators of soil biology (Vršič et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The surface of the soil can be covered in many ways: with organic matter, inorganic matter, or living vegetation. Mulching with living plants is becoming an increasingly popular and widespread practice nowadays. Cover crops can be used in several ways: they can be used after the growing season, sown under crops during the growing season, or even as soil cover in perennial crops. They can be worked into the soil as green manure but can be left on the soil surface used as living mulch as well. In addition to shading the soil surface, these plants provide shelter and habitat for many beneficial predators (Bowers et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) and can be an excellent food source for pollinators (Mallinger et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). By intertwining their roots in the soil, cover crops protect it from degradation and provide an excellent environment and food source for soil organisms (Maitra et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). The microbiological activity of soil covered with cover crops is higher and a much more diverse community of living organisms can be found in such areas (Finney et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Cover crops in no-till systems fix nitrogen, reduce soil erosion, and reduce the effects of drought by preserving soil moisture. They promote the formation of deep macropores, which facilitates infiltration and improves the water retention capacity of the soil (Altieri et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe most used cover crops are usually the legumes and the cruciferous plants, but monocotyledonous plants are also often found in mixtures. The most suitable cover crop mixtures commonly contain rye, peas, and fodder radish, because these plants typically produce large amounts of biomass, are easy to terminate, and do not contain allelopathic substances that are harmful to crops (Altieri et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Legumes planted under cereals increase soil cover, suppress weeds, and increase soil nutrient content. They also increase soil biodiversity, including the activity of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, which help plants absorb phosphorus and water (Machado \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). The winter application and termination of cover crops such as rye and hairy vetch inhibit weed germination for weeks. During the decomposition of cover crops, allelopathic substances may also be released (Moyer \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Altieri et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Cover crops are often used in vineyards between rows. Studies have shown that the root systems of cover crops and vines are connected through arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, and that active nitrogen transfer occurs between the plants (Cheng and Baumgartner \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). However, the direct relationship between these living mulch plants or cover crops and soil organisms, including nematodes, is less well known. Plants communicate with soil organisms and other plants through their root exudates (Bais et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; Dundek et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Studying how soil organisms react to root exudates, may help us to gain a better understanding of plant-soil interactions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eNematodes are the third largest group of animals in terms of species number; therefore, they definitely have crucial function in the ecosystem (Andr\u0026aacute;ssy and Farkas \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1988\u003c/span\u003e). They are highly diverse and dense, react quickly to disturbances, are easy to get from soil samples, and are easy to identify under a microscope. They play a key role in food webs and can be easily associated with feeding groups: we distinguish between bacterivore, omnivore, fungivore, herbivore, and predatory nematodes (Yeates et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR75\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e). They are in direct contact with compounds dissolved in soil water, making them excellent indicators of soil conditions (Bongers \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e). They are essential components of the soil ecosystem and soil self-regulating systems (Hunt et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1987\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePlant-parasitic nematodes cause 12\u0026ndash;14% of global crop losses annually (Singh et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Root-knot nematodes belonging to the genus \u003cem\u003eMeloidogyne\u003c/em\u003e are among the most significant plant-parasitic nematodes (Sasser and Carter \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1985\u003c/span\u003e). During infestation by \u003cem\u003eMeloidogyne incognita\u003c/em\u003e, the plant wilts due to galls on the roots (Cr\u0026uuml;ger et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). According to some literature the galls are by-product of feeding larvae, induced by the substances they secrete. As a result of sucking, the root system remains smaller and strong lateral roots begin to form, on which swellings typically develop (Dropkin \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1972\u003c/span\u003e). While other literatures reports that the production of galls is essential for the feeding of larvae that have lost their mobility during their development, as well as for the egg production of females (Olmo et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). These galls inhibit the formation or even the death of hair roots, which can disrupt the water balance and nutrient uptake of plants, thereby also affecting yield (Brussaard \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e; Dropkin \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1972\u003c/span\u003e). Control methods against \u003cem\u003eMeloidogyne\u003c/em\u003e species are very limited due to the high resistance of these pests (Radwan et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). In many cases, attempts were made to use some kind of plant-based solution. Some plant species (e.g., cruciferous plants) can repel nematodes (Elango et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The use of green parts of alfalfa has been particularly effective in controlling \u003cem\u003eM. incognita\u003c/em\u003e (El-Nagdi and Youssef \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e), and incorporating certain parts of several other plants into the soil has reduced the damage caused by \u003cem\u003eMeloidogyne\u003c/em\u003e species during cultivation. Examples include shredded neem tree (\u003cem\u003eAzadirachta indica\u003c/em\u003e) leaves (Bhattacharya and Goswami \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1987\u003c/span\u003e), groundnut (\u003cem\u003eArachis hypogaea\u003c/em\u003e) oil cake, leaves of crown flower (\u003cem\u003eCalotropis gigantea\u003c/em\u003e) and root extract of lemon balm (\u003cem\u003eMelissa officinalis\u003c/em\u003e) (Chaudhary et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Adegbite and Adesiyan (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e) tested Siam weed (\u003cem\u003eChromolaena odorata\u003c/em\u003e) and neem (\u003cem\u003eAzadirachta indica\u003c/em\u003e) in their experiment, and undiluted root extract of castor bean (\u003cem\u003eRicinus communis\u003c/em\u003e) also caused 95% larval mortality. The root exudates were tested against \u003cem\u003eM. incognita\u003c/em\u003e at undiluted concentrations and 100% mortality was observed. The use of cover crops is becoming increasingly common today due to their many proven benefits. Root exudates can be relevant for cover crops because these are produced by the plants throughout their life while they are present in the field, so they have a continuous effect on soil organisms. It may be interesting to consider how root extracts of commonly used cover crops or living mulch affect nematodes. It would be an excellent opportunity to find a plant species or a plant family that not only has the general beneficial properties of cover crops but can also be a solution for nematode control in nematode infested areas.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eNot all nematodes are pests; there are also species that are highly beneficial (Andr\u0026aacute;ssy and Farkas \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1988\u003c/span\u003e), whose presence is essential for healthy soil. The importance of free-living nematodes in bacterial and fungal decomposition pathways has been reported. The bacterivore nematodes are contribute to soil nitrogen mineralization (Ferris et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e). In addition, these nematodes can spread microorganisms found in their bodies and guts in the soil, and stimulate the activity, and the growth of microorganism-community through slight grazing (Fu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). As secondary and tertiary consumers omnivorous nematodes utilize numerous food sources, and their grazing activity has a significant impact on soil nutrient and energy flow (Neher 2010). In addition, it is also an important aspect that predatory nematodes can reduce the number of plant-damaging nematodes in almost all types of soil and also increase plant resistance (Khan and Kim \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). Considering the above mentioned reasons, avoiding drastic control methods that are harmful to soil life and enhancing the use of methods that support preserve soil health is a crucial task. This is the main reason why we also wanted to test the selected extracts on beneficial nematode species in our experiment. \u003cem\u003ePanagrellus redivivus\u003c/em\u003e is a bacterivorous free-living nematode, typically found in saprobic environments (Andr\u0026aacute;ssy \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). It is gonochoristic, which means both sexes are required for reproduction. The larvae undergo four developmental stages (Hechler \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1970\u003c/span\u003e; Sternberg and Horvitz \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1981\u003c/span\u003e). It is easy to grow and maintain under laboratory conditions (Sochov\u0026aacute; et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e) making the species an ideal test organization.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn this study, we examined the repellent, attractive, and toxic effects of four commonly used cover crops, rye, red clover, hairy vetch and Daikon radish root extracts on a free-living, beneficial, bacterivore nematode, \u003cem\u003ePanagrellus redivivus\u003c/em\u003e, and the plant-parasitic nematode \u003cem\u003eMeloidogyne incognita\u003c/em\u003e. We intended to find out a) what differences there were between extracts made from dry and fresh roots in the case of the four plants, b) what differences could be found in the effects of each plant species on the two nematode species, c) is there any difference in effect depending on the species of nematode in the case of the four plants.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eNematode cultures\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePanagrellus redivivus\u003c/em\u003e nematodes were obtained from the Department of Zoology and Ecology of the Hungarian University of Agriculture and Life Sciences in G\u0026ouml;d\u0026ouml;llő, Hungary. The culture was grown on fermented kefir and oatmeal and kept in a thermostat at 20\u0026deg;C until the laboratory experiments.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eInfested cucumber roots (\u003cem\u003eCucumis sativus\u003c/em\u003e Monolit F1) were collected for the incubation of \u003cem\u003eMeloidogyne incognita\u003c/em\u003e juveniles in July and October 2024 (Cs\u0026aacute;ny, Heves County Hungary). Egg masses were removed from the roots and placed in tap water at 24\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1\u0026deg;C until hatching. After around 7 days, hatched second-stage juveniles were checked under a microscope (SZM-500T Zoom Stereomicroscope) and actively moving individuals were selected for the further laboratory tests.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003ePreparation of root extracts\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo prepare the root extracts, plants were grown from commercially available \u0026lsquo;\u0026Aacute;lmos\u0026rsquo; (TillageMix) cover crop seeds (\u003cem\u003eTrifolium pratense, Vicia villosa, Secale cereale\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eRaphanus sativus\u003c/em\u003e) in 25 cm diameter pots filled with general potting soil (Biorg potting soil: organic matter content: 40%, pH: 7.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.5%, N: 0.3%, P\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e5\u003c/sub\u003e: 0.1%, K\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO: 0.1%). Plants were irrigated with tap water and kept in natural light. The bottom of the pots was perforated to allow excess water to escape. After approximately 50 days, when the roots were sufficiently developed, the plants were removed from the soil, the roots were gently shaken, cut off at the root collar cleaned of soil particles and carefully washed with water. Roots for fresh use were immediately crushed with coffee grinder (BOSCH TSM6A013B) for 15 seconds, roots for dry use were powdered with the coffee grinder after drying at 21\u0026deg;C for 2 days.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA quantity of 2.5 g of the crushed materials was mixed in 50 ml of high-purity (Milli-Q) water, covered with aluminium foil and left to soak at room temperature for 24 hours. After 24 hours, the 5% w/v solutions were filtered through cotton wool. Further solutions of 0.1, 0.5 and 1% w/v were prepared by the addition of Milli-Q water from both fresh and dry extracts (Petrikovszki et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eMortality tests with fresh and dry root extracts\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMortality analyses were performed in flat-bottomed 96-well microplates (Kartell S.p.A., Italy), according to the methodology used by Petrikovszki et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Using an automatic pipette, 5\u0026ndash;5 \u003cem\u003eP. redivivus\u003c/em\u003e male and female adults were placed into each well of the microplate with 20 \u0026micro;L of water. Only live individuals were used in the experiment to avoid biasing the results; dead individuals were excluded. The 0% control was 200 \u0026micro;L Milli-Q water applied in eight replicates. Each extract was tested in four concentrations: 0.1%, 0.5%, 1% and 5%. Each concentration was applied in eight replicates. This experimental setup was also done with \u003cem\u003eM. incognita\u003c/em\u003e juveniles. After 24 hours, the living and dead individuals were counted using a microscope (SZM-500T Zoom Stereomicroscope) to calculate the percentage of mortality. If mortality did not exceed 20% in the 0% control treatment, experiment was declared valid (Kiss et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). The experiment was performed twice in July 2024 and October 2024, using different newly produced extracts.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003ePreparation of agar medium\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFor area choice test, water agar medium was prepared (10 g agar-agar with 500 ml distilled water) and autoclaved. The liquid and hot agar was poured into 9 cm (for \u003cem\u003eP. redivivus\u003c/em\u003e) and 6 cm (for \u003cem\u003eM. incognita\u003c/em\u003e) diameter Petri-dishes. Due to the movement of nematodes, it was important that the medium was completely solid. To prevent that condensation water on the surface of the agar affect the movements of nematodes, the medium was dried by leaving a small gap at the top of the Petri-dish for eight hours (Petrikovszki et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eArea choice test with fresh and dry root extracts\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe same 5% concentration of extracts was used for the area choice tests as for the mortality tests. The setup was based on the method of Petrikovszki et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e which is a modified and combined method of Zhai et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) and Hewlett et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e). Two differently sized Petri-dishes were used: a 6 cm dish for \u003cem\u003eM. incognita\u003c/em\u003e and a 9 cm dish for \u003cem\u003eP. redivivus\u003c/em\u003e, due to their different movement speeds. The agar that was prepared in the Petri-dishes was divided into sectors. Two 5 mm diameter holes were cut in the prepared agar in the 6 cm Petri-dishes (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.), while two 1 cm diameter holes with were cut in the 9 cm Petri dishes. (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.). In each Petri-dish, one hole was filled with Milli-Q water for the control. The other hole on the opposite side was filled with 5% root extract. For the smaller holes 50 \u0026micro;L of water or root extract, while for the larger holes 200 \u0026micro;L of water or extract. Approximately 20\u0026ndash;30 \u003cem\u003eM. incognita\u003c/em\u003e juveniles or \u003cem\u003eP. redivivus\u003c/em\u003e were pipetted into the centre of Petri-dishes with 20 \u0026micro;L water. Each extract-water combination was adjusted in ten replicates for both \u003cem\u003eM. incognita\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eP. redivivus.\u003c/em\u003e In addition, a negative control for both nematode species was set up with ten replications with Milli-Q water placed on both sides. The Petri-dishes were incubated in a randomized arrangement in a thermostat at 20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1\u0026deg;C for eight hours. After this time, the nematodes were counted by sector and by hole under stereomicroscope. The sectors were plotted on a piece of foil. By placing the foil under the Petri-dish, the number of nematodes in each sector could be counted. The number of individuals in the three sectors on the extract side was counted and added up. The same was done for the individuals in the three sectors on the water control side. Individuals remaining in sector 0 were not considered. The ratio of individuals counted on each side and the total number of individuals was given as a percentage. The experiment was performed twice in July and October 2024, using different newly produced extracts each time.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eStatistical methods\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMortality tests\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eMortality values were first transformed by arcsin(sqrt(x)) function to stabilise normality. A four-way random block ANOVA model was constructed with the factors 'nematodes' (\u003cem\u003eP. redivivus, M. incognita\u003c/em\u003e), 'extract' (red clover, rye, daikon radish and hairy vetch), 'concentration' (control\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;0.1%, 0.5%, 1% and 5%) and a factor for the extract of 'dry' or 'fresh' root and with a block for the replications in July and October 2024. The sample size was 1280 (=\u0026thinsp;2 (nematodes) *4 (extracts) *5 (concentrates) *2 (fresh/dry) *8 (replicates) *2 (time points). The normality of the residuals was accepted by the absolute values of the skewness and kurtosis of their distribution as they were below 0.2 and 2.3 respectively. The homogeneity of variances was violated: in particular, the variances of the samples under concentration 5% and control (0%) were significantly different with a ratio of 420.10, while the highest variance ratio was below 3.4 for all other treatment combinations. Therefore, pairwise comparisons were made for the levels of each factor within the level combinations of the remaining three factors using the Games-Howell\u0026rsquo;s correction.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eArea choice tests\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eArea choices were tested by a three-way random block ANOVA model that was constructed with dependent variables \u0026lsquo;ratios\u0026rsquo; and factors 'nematodes' (\u003cem\u003eP. redivivus, M. incognita\u003c/em\u003e), 'extract' (red clover, rye, daikon radish, hairy vetch and water), and a factor for the extract of 'dry' or 'fresh' root and with a block for the replications in July 2024 and October 2024. The sample size was 400 (=\u0026thinsp;2 (nematodes) *5 (extracts) *2 (fresh/dry) *10 (replicates) *2 (time points). We eliminated five pairs of serious outliers. The normality of the residuals was accepted by the absolute values of the skewness and kurtosis of their distribution as they were below 0.1 and 0.8 respectively. The homogeneity of variances was violated: in particular, the variances of the control samples (water) and the ones treated with red clover were significantly different with a ratio of 15.92, while the highest variance ratio was 3.5 or lower for all other treatment combinations. Therefore, pairwise comparisons were made for the levels of each factor within the level combinations of the remaining three factors using again the Games-Howell\u0026rsquo;s correction. We also compared the ratios assigned to control a treated sides by using paired Student\u0026rsquo;s t tests. The normality of the differences was also accepted by the absolute values of the skewness and kurtosis of their distribution as they were below 0.1 and 1.0 respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eSummarized evaluation of actions\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eTwo-dimensional scatterplots were made in order to evaluate the summarized results of mortality and area choice tests (Supplemental material Fig \u003cspan refid=\"MOESM1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS1\u003c/span\u003e; Fig S2).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults of the mortality tests\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe four-way random block ANOVA model revealed that the effects of all the four factors were highly significant (nematodes: F(1,1211)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;784.52; extracts: F(3,1211)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;206.35; concentrates: F(4,1211)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;982.24; fresh/dry: F(1,1211)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;505.71, all with p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001) together with their 2-, 3- and 4-way interactions (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.002). The results of the pairwise comparisons are shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMeans and standard deviations of mortality rates (%) of \u003cem\u003eP. redivivus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eM. incognita\u003c/em\u003e under treatments with fresh or dry extracts of hairy vetch, daikon radish, rye and red clover at four concentrations (0.1%, 0.5%, 1% and 5%) plus control (0%). Different letters represent significantly different groups (Games-Howell's, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). Pairwise comparisons were made for extracts (upper-case letters), concentrations (lower-case letters), nematodes (stars indicate significant differences) and for fresh and dry extracts (significantly higher values in the dry extract treatment are in bold).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMeloidogyne incognita\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePanagrellus redivivus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExtract\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFresh/Dry\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003econcentration %\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;StDev\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;StDev\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHairy vetch\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFresh\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAa\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAa\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.19\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;12.57\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBb\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.13\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.72\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAa\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23.02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;14.35\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBb\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.85\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;8.43\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAa\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e65.83\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;24.99\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBc\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.79\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;8.60\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eABa\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e96.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;10.88\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCd\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e56.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;31.07\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBb\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDry\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAa\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAa\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e36.88\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;18.15\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBb\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;9.29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAab\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e64.79\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;19.96\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBc\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e14.17\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.53\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBb\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e96.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7.20\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBd\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e22.29\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;21.00\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBb\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAd\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e71.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;24.04\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAc\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDaikor radish\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFresh\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAa\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAa\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.29\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAa\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.78\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.09\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAab\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.60\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;16.28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAa\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.42\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;8.33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAab\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e83.54\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;18.76\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBb\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;10.55\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBb\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e98.75\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCc\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e60.63\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;21.09\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBc\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDry\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAa\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAa\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" 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colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAc\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e50.95\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;24.93\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAb\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRed clover\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFresh\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAa\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAa\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAa\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAa\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAa\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAa\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.81\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAa\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAa\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e63.96\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;34.35\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBb\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e66.09\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;31.38\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBb\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDry\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAa\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAa\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e10.54\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.27\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAa\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAa\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e13.75\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;15.86\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAb\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;9.26\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eABa\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e90.21\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;12.50\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBc\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e12.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;19.15\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eABa\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e100.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAd\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e71.15\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;22.78\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAbc\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOn average, higher mortality was observed for dry root extracts than for fresh root extracts in tests with \u003cem\u003eM. incognita\u003c/em\u003e. For hairy vetch and Daikon radish 0.1%; 0.5% and 1%, rye 0.5%; 1% and 5% and all concentrations of red clover, the toxicity of dry root extracts was significantly higher. In the case of fresh extracts, 5% extract of hairy vetch, 1% and 5% extracts of radish showed a relatively high mortality rate of over 80%. Lower concentrations of these crops, as well as fresh root extracts of rye and red clover, showed much lower mortality at all concentration levels. For the dry root extracts, hairy vetch at concentrations of 1% and 5%, and radish at concentrations of 0.5%, 1% and 5%, showed higher than 80% of mortality. For dry root extracts, high lethal effect was also observed at concentrations of rye 5% and red clover 1% and 5%.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhen the same concentrations of different fresh root extracts were compared in \u003cem\u003eMeloidogyne\u003c/em\u003e tests, hairy vetch showed significantly higher mortality percentages for fresh extracts at 0.1% and 0.5% concentrations than the other root extracts. At 1% and 5% concentration, hairy vetch and radish showed significantly higher mortality compared to the other two root extracts. In the case of dry extracts, significantly higher toxicity was observed for hairy vetch and radish at 0.1% and 0.5% concentrations, respectively. At 1% concentration, red clover also showed similarly high mortality, while at 5% concentration no significant difference was observed between the root extracts, with the mortality rate of each plant extract being around 100%.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn several cases, the extracts were found to be more toxic to \u003cem\u003eM. incognita\u003c/em\u003e than to \u003cem\u003eP. redivivus\u003c/em\u003e. Significantly higher mortality rates were observed for \u003cem\u003eM. incognita\u003c/em\u003e at several concentrations among fresh and dry extracts of hairy vetch, fresh and dry extracts of radish, and dry extracts of rye and red clover.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn \u003cem\u003eP. redivivus\u003c/em\u003e tests, the 5% fresh extracts of hairy vetch, radish and red clover, showed higher mortality rates, but these did not reach the levels observed with \u003cem\u003eM. incognita.\u003c/em\u003e The highest mortality rate for \u003cem\u003eP. redivivus\u003c/em\u003e for fresh root extracts was observed with the 5% red clover extract, but this only reached 66%. Lower concentrations of hairy vetch, radish and red clover extracts, as well as rye extracts, were found to be non-toxic to \u003cem\u003eP. redivivus\u003c/em\u003e (values not exceeding 10.1%).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBasically, also for \u003cem\u003eP. redivivus\u003c/em\u003e, dry root extracts were found to be significantly more toxic than fresh extracts in several cases. The highest mortality rate for dry root extracts was observed for the 5% radish extract, with a mortality rate of 98.75%. Also for dry root extracts, the 5% concentration of the extracts showed a significantly higher mortality rate compared to other concentrations. Comparing the fresh root extracts within each concentration, it was observed that the 5% concentration of rye showed a significantly lower mortality rate than the other plant extracts. For the dry root extracts, the mortality rate of 5% radish extract was found to be significantly higher than that of the 5% extracts of the other plants when comparing the total within concentrations.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults of the area choice tests\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Student\u0026rsquo;s paired t-tests for the ratios that were assigned to the sides \u0026lsquo;control\u0026rsquo; and \u0026lsquo;treatment\u0026rsquo; were all significant (t(19)\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;2.9, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) except for control (water, t(19)\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.97, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.34). For \u003cem\u003eM. incognita\u003c/em\u003e, control ratios were significantly higher and, in contrary to this, in case of \u003cem\u003eP. redivivus\u003c/em\u003e, the ratios of treated sides were significantly higher. According to the three-way random block ANOVA model, the effects of all the four factors revealed to be highly significant in both cases of control and treated ratios (nematodes: F(1, 379)\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;1331.86; extracts: F(4, 379)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;10.92; fresh/dry: F(1, 379)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;13.54, all with p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001) together with the nematodes*extract interaction (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), while any of the other 2-, 3-way interactions were significant (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). The results of the pairwise comparisons are shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMeans and standard deviations of the ratios that were assigned to control and treated sides that were measured for \u003cem\u003eP. redivivus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eM. incognita\u003c/em\u003e under treatments with fresh or dry extracts of hairy vetch, daikon radish, rye and red clover and control (water). Different letters represent significantly different groups (Games-Howell's, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). Pairwise comparisons were made for extracts (lower-case letters) and for fresh and dry extracts (where relevant, upper-case letters). Significantly higher values in the comparisons of the nematodes are in bold.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003econtrol\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003etreated\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNematode\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExtract\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFresh/Dry\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003emean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;stdev\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003emean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;stdev\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eM. incognita\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHairy vetch\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFresh\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.74\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.09\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eb\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.23\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ea\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRed clover\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.64\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.13\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eb\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.30\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ea\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDaikor radish\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.73\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.09\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAb\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.22\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.09\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBa\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRye\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.53\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.08\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ea\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.44\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eb\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWater\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.49\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ea\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.47\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eb\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHairy vetch\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDry\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.75\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eb\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.19\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eb\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRed clover\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.69\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.08\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eb\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.24\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eb\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDaikor radish\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.86\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.09\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBc\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.11\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAa\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRye\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.53\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ea\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.39\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ec\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWater\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.48\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.07\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ea\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.45\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ec\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP. redivivus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHairy vetch\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFresh\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.22\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.07\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ea\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.70\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.08\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eb\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRed clover\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.15\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAa\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.77\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.08\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBb\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDaikor radish\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.17\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ea\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.75\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.14\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eb\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRye\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAa\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.72\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.14\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBb\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWater\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.47\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.09\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eb\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.46\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.09\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ea\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHairy vetch\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDry\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.24\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ea\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.72\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.10\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ebc\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRed clover\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.26\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBa\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.71\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.13\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAbc\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDaikor radish\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ea\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.76\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.14\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ec\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRye\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.28\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBa\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.65\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.10\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAb\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWater\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.44\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eb\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.48\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ea\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFor the fresh root extracts, the \u003cem\u003eM. incognita\u003c/em\u003e nematodes in all of the samples (hairy vetch, red clover, radish and rye root extracts) chose the control side that was supplemented with Milli-Q water over the holes that were supplemented with 5% extracts in significantly higher proportions. There was no significant difference for the water-water control, with individuals choosing both sides in roughly equal proportions. Therefore, the experiment can be considered valid, as no external factors influenced the juveniles' choice of area. When comparing of the different extracts, those from the radish, red clover and hairy vetch root extracts showed a significantly higher repellence rates than the rye root extract. Significantly more individuals chose the vetch control than the rye control.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSimilar results were obtained for the dry extracts. \u003cem\u003eM. incognita\u003c/em\u003e nematodes preferred the control treatment for vetch, red clover and radish, as well as for rye. When the dry extracts were compared, the radish root extract showed significantly the highest repellency by far, followed by the hairy vetch and red clover extracts, which differed significantly from the rye extract and the water control. Rye extract did not differ from the control. When the effects of dry and fresh root extracts were compared, only the dry radish root extract showed significantly higher repellency than the fresh radish extract. When comparing other dry-fresh extracts, no differences were observed within plants.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the tests with \u003cem\u003eP. redivivus\u003c/em\u003e and fresh extracts, nematodes chose 5% vetch, red clover, radish and rye extracts in significantly higher proportions than the control. For the water-water treatments, the distribution of individuals was about the same in the two sides. When comparing the fresh extracts, no significant differences were obtained between the extracts, all attracted nematodes to nearly the same extent, however, all significantly differently from the control. As for the dry extracts, \u003cem\u003eP. redivivus\u003c/em\u003e individuals selected the dry root extracts of vetch, red clover, radish and rye at significantly higher rates than the water control placed opposite them. Compared to dry extracts, radish extract attracted a significantly higher proportion of \u003cem\u003eP. redivivus\u003c/em\u003e nematodes than rye extract or the water control. Rye extract attracted the fewest nematodes of all the extracts. When dry and fresh extracts were compared, it was observed that dry extracts of red clover and rye attracted significantly higher proportions of nematodes than fresh extracts. There was no difference for the other plants.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eSummarized evaluation of actions\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eBased on the two-dimensional scatterplot evaluation, Daikon radish root extracts appeared to be a suitable cover crop among tested, as they achieved high mortality and repellent effects for \u003cem\u003eM. incognita\u003c/em\u003e, while \u003cem\u003eP. redivivus\u003c/em\u003e had lower mortality and was more attracted to the extract (Fig. \u003cspan refid=\"MOESM1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS1\u003c/span\u003e, and Fig. S2. Supplementary material).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003ePlant parasitic nematodes can cause significant damage to many crops due to their polyphagous behaviour. The control of \u003cem\u003eMeloidogyne\u003c/em\u003e species is very difficult and often only drastic environmentally destructive methods are effective. Therefore, research is justified to find control methods against these pests that are effective but not harmful to the environment and other organisms. Many plants are known to produce or contain various nematicidal compounds that are toxic to nematodes. In many cases, medicinal and aromatic plants have been investigated for nematicidal control, as these plants may already be known to have bactericidal or fungicidal activity. Therefore, their nematicidal activity could be hypothesised as well. Very high mortality rates have been obtained for \u003cem\u003eMeloidogyne\u003c/em\u003e larvae with petroleum ether and chloroform and aqueous extracts of \u003cem\u003eAsteriscus imbricatus\u003c/em\u003e (Senhaji et al \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Aqueous extracts of clove bud (\u003cem\u003eSyzygium aromaticum\u003c/em\u003e), tobacco leaf (\u003cem\u003eNicotiana tabacum\u003c/em\u003e) and betelvine (\u003cem\u003ePiper betle\u003c/em\u003e) leaf also showed significant mortality rates of over 83% (Djiwanti et al \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). However, in many cases these studies are on extracts from the above-ground part of the plant, rather than on substances produced by the roots. Thus, when using these plants as cover crops or growing them in the affected area, we should either work them into the soil or use pre-extracted extracts to achieve a nematicidal effect.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eThe difference between the dry and fresh root extracts\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the current mortality tests with \u003cem\u003eM. incognita\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eP. redivivus\u003c/em\u003e, dry root extracts appeared more toxic than fresh root extracts. The dry extracts are likely to contain more concentrated amounts of the substances to which nematodes respond. In the case of \u003cem\u003eM. incognita\u003c/em\u003e, all dry extracts were found to be highly toxic at 5% concentrations, while radish and hairy vetch extracts were toxic from as low as 0.5% concentration. Also, radish and hairy wetch fresh extracts caused high mortality. These two plants also showed very high levels of repellence in both fresh extracts and dry extracts in \u003cem\u003eM. incognita\u003c/em\u003e. Some levels of repellence were observed in all extracts, but it was most pronounced in radish and hairy vetch extracts. For \u003cem\u003eP. redivivus\u003c/em\u003e, only the dry extracts at 5% concentration showed a strong lethal effect and typical attraction was observed for all extracts, with almost equal levels.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eThe effect of\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eVicia villosa\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eroot extracts\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThere have been very few studies on the effects of cover crops on free-living nematodes (Timper et al \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e, Ito et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Several experiments have investigated the allelopathic effect of \u003cem\u003eVicia villosa\u003c/em\u003e extracts on weeds (Hill et al \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e, Sun et al \u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), but the effects of their extracts and active ingredients on nematodes has not really been studied. There are some studies on the nematode resistance or nematode susceptibility of hairy vetch. In their experiment on \u003cem\u003eVicia villosa\u003c/em\u003e spp. dasycarpa sel., Abd El Moniem and Bellar (1993) proved it to be resistant to \u003cem\u003eMeloidogyne artiellia\u003c/em\u003e. However, several studies have reported that \u003cem\u003eVicia villosa\u003c/em\u003e is an excellent host plant for \u003cem\u003eM. arenaria\u003c/em\u003e, (Tedford and Fortnum \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1988\u003c/span\u003e; Mosjidis 1993), \u003cem\u003eM. javanica\u003c/em\u003e (Kimenju et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e)d \u003cem\u003eincognita\u003c/em\u003e. (Timper et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). Mosjidis (1993) found complete resistance in \u003cem\u003eVicia sativa.\u003c/em\u003e In the experiments of Marquez et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), the hairy vetch proved to be highly susceptible after inoculation with \u003cem\u003eM. incognita, M. arenaria\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eM. javanica\u003c/em\u003e. Therefore, it is very interesting that our experimental results showed that the root extract of the hairy vetch is repellent and lethal to \u003cem\u003eM. incognita\u003c/em\u003e above a certain concentration. This result is maybe because the concentrations we used were higher than those found in soil in the natural environment. Many times, water-soluble root extracts need to be concentrated in order to analyze their content, as they are present in very low concentrations (Dundek et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). The amount of organic compounds secreted in the root exudates of plants grown in solution rarely exceeds 0.4%, but even this small concentration has a strong effect on soil microorganisms. In the case of stimulating and inhibiting compounds, the amounts are so small that they are often barely detectable by chemical and chromatographic methods. The quantity and composition of plant root extracts are influenced by numerous factors, such as the species and age of the plant, light exposure, the temperature and nutrient supply. Since the concentration of biologically active substances in the rhizosphere cannot be calculated, the concentrations used in in vitro experiments are usually determined arbitrarily (Rovira 1969). In addition, the release of plant substances into the soil is also influenced by the community of microorganisms found in the soil (Harmsen and Jager 1963) so it is almost impossible to use a substance that is completely similar to natural root exudates under in vitro conditions; we can only attempt to achieve the closest possible similarity. Alternatively, the composition of our extract may differ from that of the natural root exudates because we injured the plants during extraction which may have caused them to produce alarm substances (Savatin et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) affecting nematode behaviour.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHowever, one study investigated a substance produced by roots, the L-canavanine, which has a significant effect on the composition and diversity of the soil microbial community and thus on metabolic pathways related to carbon metabolism. After L-canavanine application, bacteria and actinobacteria increased in the soil. In contrast, proteobacteria and acidobacteria populations decreased with higher L-canavanine concentrations. Production of this substance was increased in pot-grown plants (Mardani-Korrani et al \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e.) This may be related to our finding that the bacteria-consuming \u003cem\u003eP. redivivus\u003c/em\u003e were strongly attracted to the root extract of the hairy vetch. Also, in our results, the root extract of hairy vetch, except for the most concentrated dry 5% extract, did not prove harmful to the non-parasitic \u003cem\u003eP. redivivus\u003c/em\u003e. Thus, it may be worth further investigating \u003cem\u003eVicia villosa\u003c/em\u003e extract for control of \u003cem\u003eM. incognita\u003c/em\u003e and testing its effect on other non-target organisms.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eThe effect of\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eRaphanus sativus\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eroot extracts\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the case of radish, we observed behaviour consistent with that reported in the literature. Several experiments have reported the nematicidal and nematode repellent effects of cruciferous plants on \u003cem\u003eMeloidogyne\u003c/em\u003e species, confirming our results on toxicity and repellence. It has been observed that cruciferous plants are less susceptible to be damaged by root-knot nematodes, and the species of cruciferous plants also influences the effect on nematodes. For example, \u003cem\u003eBrassica rapa\u003c/em\u003e is much more susceptible to \u003cem\u003eM. incognita\u003c/em\u003e than \u003cem\u003eRaphanus sativus\u003c/em\u003e (Li\u0026eacute;banas and Castillo \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). Numerous studies have investigated the repellent effect of plants belonging to the cruciferous family on \u003cem\u003eMeloidogyne\u003c/em\u003e nematodes, but most studies examine leaf extracts, or the effect of the green manure. In an experiment by McLeod and Steel (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e), fifteen types of \u003cem\u003eBrassica\u003c/em\u003e plant used as green manure and mixed into the soil were found to be repellent on \u003cem\u003eMeloidogyne javanaica\u003c/em\u003e J\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e larvae. The application of ethanolic extracts from the leaves of cabbage, cauliflower, radish and Chinese cabbage was found to significantly reduce damage caused by \u003cem\u003eM. hapla\u003c/em\u003e on celery (Anita \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Cruciferous plants are often used as biofumigants, because their decomposition when rotated into the soil produces many volatile substances that can have nematicidal effects (Roubtsova et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). Shredded cabbage and cauliflower leaves mixed into the soil reduced the population of \u003cem\u003eM. incognita\u003c/em\u003e and the damage it caused to the okra (Patil et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The decomposition of \u003cem\u003eBrassica\u003c/em\u003e plants typically produces glucosinolates (Kirkegaard et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e). These isothiocyanates are believed to be the main components responsible for the pest, pathogen and herbicidal effects observed after the introduction of brassica into the soil (Kirkegaard and Sarwar \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e). The efficiency of biofumigation is strongly influenced by the isocthiocyanate content of the plant species, the type of plant tissue, and the extent of tissue damage (Morra and Kirkegaard \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). However, glucosinolates are found in both the shoots and roots of cruciferous plants (Kirkegaard and Sarwar \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e), so it is possible that these substances are released through root necrosis and have nematicidal effects which could confirm the results of our experiment. The isothiocyanate content of the roots is more commonly investigated for its antibacterial and antifungal effects, while its nematicidal effects are not usually examined. When tested with acetone and hexane root extracts of \u003cem\u003eRaphanus sativus\u003c/em\u003e, strong antibacterial activity was detected, which was found to be stronger than in leaf and stem extracts (Beevi et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, it can be assumed that the isothiocyanate or a very similar compound in the extract we tested caused the strong nematicidal and nematode-repellent effects. In addition, the high degree of tissue abrasion during the extraction process contributed to the strong effects we observed.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHowever, it was also observed in several experiments that non-parasitic nematodes are less sensitive to these compounds (Halbrendt and Jing \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e), which is also in agreement with our results for \u003cem\u003eP. redivivus\u003c/em\u003e. These substances do not have the same effect on nematode species of different feeding groups. The number of non-parasitic nematodes decreased briefly when broccoli pieces were mixed into the soil but increased notably over time due to their short generation time and the availability of food. However, the adding broccoli plants increased the number of saprophytic nematodes overall while reducing the number of \u003cem\u003eM. incognita\u003c/em\u003e (Roubtsova et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). These differences in sensitivity may be due to the different sizes of the nematodes. In the case \u003cem\u003eof M. incognita\u003c/em\u003e, we tested mobile and infective J\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e larvae to make the test relevant, whereas in the case of \u003cem\u003eP. redivivus\u003c/em\u003e we tested the sensitivity of adults. In any case, these results of root extracts from cruciferous plants can certainly provide interesting conclusions for no till-systems, where the green parts of the cover crops are not rotated into the soil.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eThe effect of\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eSecale cereale\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eand\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eTrifolium pratense\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eroot extracts\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eRye and red clover were toxic \u003cem\u003eto M. incognita\u003c/em\u003e only at higher concentrations in dry extracts: in the case of rye only at the highest concentration, in the case of red clover at concentrations of 1% and 5%. These two plants were less effective at repelling pests, and rye was almost completely ineffective.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eNumerous studies have shown that growing rye as a cover crop and then working it into the soil reduces the incidence of \u003cem\u003eM. incognita\u003c/em\u003e infection in the subsequent crop (Mc Bride et al. 1999, McBride et al \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e). The chemical components of rye can suppress the damage caused by \u003cem\u003eM. incognita\u003c/em\u003e, due to the presence of methoxy-substituted benzoxazinoids. These compounds are found in higher concentrations in the roots than in the shoots, however, this varies depending on the type of rye (Zasada et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, it may be worthwhile continuing to experiment with extracts from several different types of rye. According to Minton (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e), the presence of rye does not necessarily influence the density of the \u003cem\u003eM. incognita\u003c/em\u003e population, but less infestation was observed after the rye cover crop than after the land was left fallow i.e. when the rye was not worked into the soil, but merely mown down.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eRye cover crops can increase the number of fungivore nematodes compared to radish or weed control. Gruver et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e) reported that radish cover crops tend to stimulate bacterial decomposition pathways, while rye stimulated the fungal food web to a greater extent. This result is only slightly noticeable when we consider that radish attracted slightly more bacteria-consuming \u003cem\u003eP. redivivus\u003c/em\u003e than rye. It may also be valuable to try the following experiments using fungivore nematodes as non-target organisms. In any case, our results for rye were not as conclusive as those described in literature, as rye was the least toxic and least repellent in our experiment. However, it did not harm \u003cem\u003eP. redivivus.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eRed clover is also a typical host plant for \u003cem\u003eM. incognita\u003c/em\u003e (Chapman and Turner \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1975\u003c/span\u003e; Dobosz and Krawcyk 2021). Therefore, it is an interesting finding that red clover proved to be toxic at concentrations above 1% even in dry form, but it is not surprising that it proved to be less repellent. This can be explained by the fact that, in dry extracts, concentrations above 1% may contain quantities of plant material that nematodes do not encounter in nature.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the case of \u003cem\u003eP. redivivus\u003c/em\u003e, red clover also showed a stronger effect, when it was in dry extract form, but the extracts were not highly toxic, and attraction towards the red clover extract was observed. This can be explained by the same reasons as in the case of rye: perhaps the plant produces attractive substances, or the bacteria that serve as food have multiplied in the extract.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn summary, nematodes reacted more strongly to dry root extracts than to fresh root extracts. Dry extract of hairy vetch from 1%, dry extract of radish from 0.5%, and 5% extract of rye and red clover showed mortality rates of over 90% in the case of \u003cem\u003eM. incognita\u003c/em\u003e. Both fresh and dry root extracts had a repellent effect on \u003cem\u003eM. incognita\u003c/em\u003e in all four plants. Radish and hairy vetch had the strongest repellent effect. In the case of \u003cem\u003eP. redivivus\u003c/em\u003e, only a 5% root extract of the plants had a lethal effect, but it was never as strong as that observed for \u003cem\u003eM. incognita\u003c/em\u003e. A 5% radish root extract was the only one to show significant toxicity. Both dry and fresh extracts of each plant had an attractive effect on \u003cem\u003eP. redivivus\u003c/em\u003e in approximately equal degrees. The graphical analysis demonstrated (Supplementary material Fig \u003cspan refid=\"MOESM1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS1\u003c/span\u003e, Fig S2) that the ideal plant extract for nematode control depends on the specific objectives of the application. For applications prioritizing maximal pest control and repellency, the dry extract of Daikon radish emerges as the most effective and strategically sound choice. These results may be useful for further studies with cover crops focusing on \u003cem\u003eM. incognita\u003c/em\u003e infection and infection suppression and they also draw attention to the need for research into methods that consider the effects on beneficial nematodes. We hope that this research will motivate further investigation into root extracts from cover crops.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgments\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe project is co-funded by the Government of Hungary and the European Union.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSupported by the EK\u0026Ouml;P-24 New National Excellence Program of the Ministry for Culture and Innovation from the source of the National Research, Development and Innovation Fund.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor Contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDSS and RP conceived and designed the laboratory tests. DSS conducted the experiment and wrote the manuscript. ML was responsible for statistical analysis. RP, ML and FT corrected the manuscript. All authors read and approved the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cstrong\u003eSupplementary informations:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe online version contains supplementary\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ematerial available at:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThis work was supported by Government of Hungary and the European Union and the EK\u0026Ouml;P-24 New National Excellence Program of the Ministry for Culture and Innovation from the source of the National Research, Development and Innovation Fund.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData avability\u003c/strong\u003e The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e The authors declare no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval\u003c/strong\u003e No approval of research ethics committees was required to accomplish the goals of this study because experimental work was conducted with an unregulated invertebrate species.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor Contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDSS and RP conceived and designed the laboratory tests. DSS conducted the experiment and wrote the manuscript. ML was responsible for statistical analysis. RP, ML and FT corrected the manuscript. All authors read and approved the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAbd El Moniem AM, Bellar M (1993) Response of forage vetches and forage peas to root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne artiellia) and cyst nematode (Heterodera ciceri). Nematol Medit 21(1):67\u0026ndash;70.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAdegbite AA, Adesiyan SO, (2006) Root extracts of plants to control root-knot nematode on edible soybean. 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Front Microbiol 9:253. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2018.00253\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3389/fmicb.2018.00253\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"area choice test, mortality, Vicia villosa, Trifolium pratense, Secale cereale, Raphanus sativus","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8296706/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8296706/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eRoot-knot nematodes (\u003cem\u003eMeloidogyne\u003c/em\u003e spp.) cause significant damage to many crops and their control remains a challenging task even today. Nowadays, the use of cover crops is one of the key elements of regenerative agriculture due to its numerous benefits. For example, cover crops can reduce the damage and population of \u003cem\u003eMeloidogyne\u003c/em\u003e, however, less attention has been paid to their effects and mode of actions on non-target beneficial nematodes. In this experiment, we examined the effects of fresh and dry root extracts derived from four cover crops (rye, radish, red clover, and hairy vetch) on the plant-parasitic nematode \u003cem\u003eM. incognita\u003c/em\u003e and the bacteriophagous nematode \u003cem\u003eP. redivivus\u003c/em\u003e in area choice, and mortality tests.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDry extract of hairy vetch from 1%, dry extract of radish from 0.5%, and 5% extract of rye and red clover showed mortality rates of over 90% in the case of \u003cem\u003eM. incognita\u003c/em\u003e. All root extracts had repellent effect on \u003cem\u003eM. incognita\u003c/em\u003e. In the case of \u003cem\u003eP. redivivus\u003c/em\u003e, only a 5% root extract of the plants had a lethal effect, but it was never as strong as that observed for \u003cem\u003eM. incognita\u003c/em\u003e. A 5% radish root extract was the only one to show significant toxicity. Both dry and fresh extracts of each plant had an attractive effect on \u003cem\u003eP. redivivus\u003c/em\u003e. These results may be useful for further studies with cover crops focusing on \u003cem\u003eM. incognita\u003c/em\u003e infection and infection suppression and they also draw attention to the need for research into methods that consider the effects on beneficial nematodes.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Investigation of the nematicidal mechanisms of cover crop-derived extracts on pest (Meloidogyne incognita) and beneficial (Panagrellus redivivus) nematode species under laboratory conditions","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-12-16 19:57:37","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8296706/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"74e3a7ed-6e6a-4ef9-829f-5b8e2f636033","owner":[],"postedDate":"December 16th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-01-27T06:56:53+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-12-16 19:57:37","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8296706","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8296706","identity":"rs-8296706","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}