The influence of domestic fire on blood pressure and heart rate: A replication study

The influence of domestic fire on blood pressure and heart rate: A replication study | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article The influence of domestic fire on blood pressure and heart rate: A replication study Lindsey Clark, Lauren Landgraf, Christopher Lynn This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-5218831/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract In previous research, fire’s sensory components were disaggregated into separate experimental conditions using a Yule log video to test the hypothesis that domestic fire can induce a relaxation response. The study recorded blood pressure and skin conductance before and after participants watched the 15-minute fire video with and without sound and found a relaxation effect for the audiovisual condition. The current study replicates this with an electric fireplace by measuring pre- and posttest blood pressure (and calculated mean arterial pressure [MAP]) and heart rate (HR) using a randomized crossover design with 101 adults aged 18–60. We duplicated the three original experimental conditions and added an additional condition of fire sounds only. We predicted that the multisensory condition would produce the most relaxation and among those highest in absorption and prosociality. We found a relaxation response for all conditions and more consistent relaxation (systolic, MAP, and HR) and an absorption effect for the multisensory effect; however, the absorption effect was the opposite of our prediction (pre-trial MAP = 92.19 ± 10.95; post-trial = 90.61 ± 10.05, P = .02, df = 97). Our data partially replicate the original study, but the roles of absorption and prosociality need further exploration. Biological sciences/Evolution/Anthropology/Biological anthropology Biological sciences/Neuroscience/Cognitive neuroscience/Attention fire relaxation response blood pressure cardiac output absorption prosociality Figures Figure 1 INTRODUCTION Habitual use of fire is widely accepted as a critical turning point in human evolutionary history, as it allowed our ancestors to cook food, provided the means to keep warm, and illuminated the dark (Attwell et al., 2015; Gowlett, 2016). While these benefits are undeniable, an unexplored aspect of human-fire interaction is its influence on cognition. We may be drawn to the warmth it produces, watching the flickering flames, or listening to the sounds of the crackling wood—whichever it is, the multisensory components of fire captivate humans in a unique way. In one previous study, a simulated fire on a DVD influenced a relaxation response even during the daytime in a laboratory setting (Lynn, 2014). In the current study, we tested the influence of an electric fireplace specifically designed for meditative effects. Biophilia Consistent data show that stimuli derived from nature plays a crucial function in regulating our physiological, neural, and mental states and may produce long-lasting effects on our biological makeup (Alvarsson et al., 2010). Humans appear to have an inherent affinity for natural settings and receive positive emotional benefits from aspects of nature (Barbiero & Berto, 2021). The theoretical construct of “biophilia” requires an interdisciplinary approach as it represents a trait present in both evolutionary phylogenetic and ontogenetic psychological contexts (Barbiero, 2021). Stress reduction theory (SRT) suggests that immersion in nature alleviates the negative effects of stress by promoting pleasant feelings such as interest and calmness (Ulrich et al., 1991). Ulrich (1984) finds recovery in post-operative patients is quicker when patient hospital windows overlook nature than when they face a brick wall. Subsequent research reveals that physiological recovery after experiencing a stressor is faster in participants who are shown nature videos versus those shown city scenes (Ulrich et al., 1991). Another study reports physiological recovery is stronger when participants listen to recorded nature sounds compared to sounds from a city environment (Alvarsson et al., 2010). Attention restoration theory (ART) offers another framework to explain the positive health benefits from exposure to natural environments (R. Kaplan & Kaplan, 1989; S. Kaplan, 1995). ART focuses on how aspects of these settings alleviate cognitive demands, thereby promoting recovery of attentional capacity (Berto, 2014; R. Kaplan & Kaplan, 1989). In this sense, nature elicits directed attention to restore depleted cognitive resources, in turn allowing the body to rest. The relaxation state or calming effect evoked is due to its connection with voluntary attention, also termed “fascination.” Experiencing a hearth or campfire engages “soft fascination” as opposed to “hard fascination,” which is a type of attentional response that requires substantial mental effort (S. Kaplan & Berman, 2010). In other words, watching flickering firelight draws attention without the demands of active concentration and leaves room for reflective thoughts and conversation, a condition also termed “absorption” (Basu et al., 2019). States of absorption can involve engaging with external stimuli like films, TV, books, and music or with internal thoughts and imaginative content like daydreaming and fantasy (S. Kaplan & Berman, 2010). Both external and internal forms of absorption are often pleasurable and may be deliberately pursued, but they typically occur spontaneously (Leppanen & Kim, 2022). Ritual Healing Theory Dominy and Melin (2020) explain that firelight’s periodic pulsation serves as an attention-capturing stimulus. Perception is a continuous process of decoding sensory input into meaningful information, so a light shifting or flickering across a surface can result in illusions that manipulate an object’s appearance (McClenon, 1997). The flickering of firelight is conducive to triggering visual and perceptual psychological reactions, which provide some support to the ritualistic healing theory proposed by McClenon (1997). Winkelman (2002) and Rossano (2007) suggest the positive psychophysiological outcomes of healing rituals may have served a beneficial function in our ancestral past. The adaptive significance of nighttime fire interaction is underscored by McClenon (1997), who suggests selection would have favored those who became more relaxed and prosocial while watching campfires. Similarly, in a personal communication after her study of fire use among hunter-gatherers, Wiessner (2014) suspects that evening fires are more effective at influencing relaxation because diurnal hormone levels also induce relaxation. With the “ritual healing hypothesis,” McClenon (1997) assumes Homo erectus individuals with greater ability to focus attention would have benefitted more from the campfire experience than those who did not. The idea that nighttime fire interactions are for relaxing and socializing is supported by Wiessner's (2014) findings that the manner of interactions differed according to the time of day and linked firelight to storytelling and social cohesion. During the daytime, the topics of conversation often involve gossip or solving group problems, while evening discussions diffuse the tensions of the day and consist of telling stories, sharing myths, or teaching others (Wiessner, 2014). Conclusions drawn from this study suggest that firelight mediates the connection between empathy, bonding, and the transmission of cultural norms. Wiessner suggests the mechanism that may explain this interaction is psychological, in that flickering firelight puts storytellers and listeners “on the same wavelength” (Wiessner 2014, p. 14033). Stress and Relaxation Response The stress response system plays a critical role in our ability to adapt to unfavorable or unpredictable psychosocial and physical situations (Sterling, 2012). Stress influences functions of the cardiovascular system by activating the sympathoadrenal medullary axis, releasing catecholamines that elevate heart rate (HR) and blood pressure (BP) (Brewis et al., 2021). Common biomarkers clinicians and researchers use to index ongoing mental states involving emotional arousal or relaxation include HR, skin conductance, and BP, which increase in intensity as a stressor increases in severity (Sahlin et al., 2016). Arterial BP reflects cardiac output and is a widely used biomarker of stress outcomes because of its sensitivity to contextual variations in experiences of stress (Park & Thayer, 2014). There is an established link between indicators of cardiac vagal tone and both affective and cognitive-executive functions (Thayer et al., 2012). Both perceiving and anticipating stress prompts a cascade of responsive processes across multiple physiological systems for the body to regain stability (Basu et al., 2019). Protecting oneself from the internal and external effects of stress entails changing activity in the autonomic nervous system, which includes cardiovascular, metabolic, and immune functions (Esch & Stefano, 2010). This process, called “allostasis,” is a system that enables the body to quickly respond to environmental, physical, and psychosocial stressors and may establish positive adaptations if the stressor is handled properly (Goldstein & McEwen, 2002). The process of rapidly altering biological systems to overcome everyday challenges may come at a cost to health if stress is regulated insufficiently or in excess (Esch & Stefano, 2010). Prolonged or chronic stress is often associated with higher risk for affective disorders like depression and anxiety. Therefore, it is important to find ways to decrease stress to support overall health (Sapolsky, 1996). Strategies for mitigating the negative effects of stress involve finding ways to balance sympathovagal output, which is governed by the interplay between sympathetic and parasympathetic influences (Thayer et al., 2012). Yoga and meditation are both strategies to alleviate stress and foster relaxation because they promote cardiac parasympathetic functions that decrease the impact of stress on the body. Relaxation therapy has also been linked to gains in attentional capacity (S. Kaplan, 1995). Benson et al. (1975) define relaxation response (RR) as an integrated complex of physiological mechanisms that adjust when engaging in a repetitive mental or physical activity while passively ignoring distracting thoughts. Our goal in the current study is to determine whether experiencing an electric indoor fireplace produces a similar RR as seen in Lynn (2014), which used a Yule log video. We hypothesized the strongest RR would occur in a multisensory audiovisual condition compared to audio or visual elements of fire alone because of its immersive quality. Further, we predicted that this effect will likely be significant for individuals scoring higher in absorption and prosociality, as the electric fireplace’s sensory features will evoke a stronger orienting response and influence on cardiac vagal tone. METHODS Participants We recruited 101 adults (41 female, 55 male, and 5 non-binary), ages 18–58 (mean ± SD = 24.61 ± 9.79) through advertisements at local businesses and flyers near the University of Alabama in Tuscaloosa, Alabama. Participants received a $ 20 gift card for completing both parts of the study (online questionnaire and in-person lab component) and were entered into a drawing to receive one of three Napoleon grills. They had to be at least 18 years old and not have any fire-related phobias to participate in the study. All methods were carried out in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations. Study Design This study uses a repeated measures within-subjects randomized crossover design. Informed consent was obtained from all subjects before beginning the study. Participants initially completed an online questionnaire that included the Tellegen Absorption Scale, the Fire Fascination scale, the Trait Anxiety Inventory, and a prosociality scale derived from the Myer-Briggs Personality Inventory (MBPI) and the Altruistic Personality Scale. After that, participants scheduled a time to complete the experimental portion of the study in a lab on campus. Upon entering the lab, participants completed the State Anxiety Inventory. Participants were queried about substance use or medications that may affect the cardiovascular measures. Participants completed four conditions while wearing noise-cancelling headphones in a darkened office. The headphones minimized external distractions and aided participant focus, and the darkened room simulated nighttime fireplace or campfire environments with dim or absent external lights. Participants sat approximately 4 feet from the electric fireplace in a cushioned desk chair with armrests, rollers, and a straight back. They were instructed to turn off their cell phones and other devices and to avoid engaging in other activities while watching the screen, though slight movements or adjustments were allowed. An experimenter stayed just outside the room to monitor the session. HR and BP were recorded before the experimental trials began, serving as a baseline measurement. The sensory features of fire were disaggregated into 4 trials, each lasting 15 minutes, with HR and BP being recorded before and after each trial. This produced 9 HR and BP measurements in total. All experimental protocols were approved by the University of Alabama’s institutional review board. Materials Absorption was measured with the Tellegen Absorption Scale, a 34-item standardized survey and participants responded on a 5-point Likert array (Tellegen & Atkinson, 1974). Individuals with higher scores on this scale are more prone to immerse themselves in experiences of absolute attentional engagement. This measure yielded a Cronbach’s alpha of .92. Prosociality was measured using 43 items from the MBPI (Myers & McCaulley, 1988) and the Altruistic Personality Scale (Rushton et al., 1981). This measure yielded a Cronbach’s alpha of .84. We also used several items to query number of friends, social support, and frequency of socializing during the week. We conducted factor analysis of these and found they constitute one factor. We added these items together to create a single variable called “Sociality.” We used the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) (Spielberger & Gonzalez-Reigosa, 1983) to measure baseline and circumstantial anxiety. STAI is a 40-item self-report scale that assesses separate dimensions of “state” and “trait” anxiety. Participants responded on a 5-point Likert scale and scores were determined by the sum of all survey item responses. Cronbach’s alphas for state and trait anxiety were .91 and .92, respectively. We controlled for previous exposure to campfires, family hearth fires, and audiovisual screens (televisions, computer, smartphones) using the Fire Fascination scale (Murray, Fessler, & Lupfer, 2015) and additional items to measure exposure to possible analogs of staring at fires. We conducted factor analysis on all the items related to fire and screen exposure and found they constitute two factors. The fire fascination scale and questions relating to family fireplace constitute one factor that we termed “Fire habituation” (Cronbach’s alpha = .71). Television, computer, and other screen exposure constituted another additive factor we termed “Screen habituation.” Each trial lasted 15 minutes and utilized a 55-inch indoor electric fireplace with visual simulated flames, decorative branches, and glass rocks underneath (Napoleon Fireplaces, Barrie, Ontario, Canada). For the control condition, we used a picture of the same electric fireplace turned upside-down (see Fig. 1 ). During the control trial, participants viewed the image on a 19” computer monitor while sitting in the same cushioned chair as the other trials. We hypothesized that the flickering light and sudden sounds of fire would stimulate orienting response, and the upside-down static fire image would preserve the structural features of the experimental fire (e.g., color, brightness, shapes) while disengaging other sensory aspects that might be effective. The audio only condition consisted of a 24/7 live YouTube stream of an indoor fireplace. This was selected for its naturalistic presence, representing the sounds of a real cracking wood log. The volume on the noise-cancelling headphones was set to 40% and the lights were turned off. In the visual only condition, participants viewed the indoor electric fireplace while sitting approximately 4 feet away and wore noise-cancelling headphones. The audiovisual condition combined protocols from the sound- and visual-only trials. HR and BP were measured in millimeters of mercury (mmHG) at baseline and before and after each 15-minute condition using an Omron HEM-711 digital sphygmomanometer (Omron Healthcare, Inc., Bannockburn, IL), which has reliability equivalent to mercury sphygmomanometers (Rotch et al., 2001). Mean arterial pressure (MAP) was calculated using the formula: MAP = DP [0.33 + (HR x 0.0012)] x [PP], where DP is diastolic pressure, SP is systolic pressure, HR is heart rate, and PP is pulse pressure, calculated as the difference between SP and DP values (Razminia et al., 2004). Analysis Descriptive statistics were calculated for all study variables. Variables were checked for normalcy, skewedness, and homoscedasity and non-normal values transformed using Z-scores. Data points for systolic BP and diastolic BP for each condition were removed if they were two standard deviations above or below the mean. Two outlying datapoints were removed from the control trial, three systolic from the sound only trial, one from the visual only trial, and three from the audiovisual trial (n = 98). We compared mean BP changes from pre- to posttest using paired samples t -tests for each condition. We tested the hypothesis that audiovisual fire would be the most relaxing and for people relatively higher in absorption and prosociality using multiple analysis of covariance (MANCOVA). Absorption and prosociality were included in all models and other covariates using bivariate correlations with baseline BP. Analysis was conducted using SPSS Version 27 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY), and statistics were considered significant if p ≤ .05. RESULTS Participants were largely college-aged and young adults (mean ± SD = 24.61 ± 9.79) despite efforts to recruit across age cohorts, with 54.5% having some college education and 19.5% with a graduate degree. According to a self-report measure on a 10-point scale (1 = least money/education, worst job, and fewest friends), these subjects were predominantly middle-class (5.86 ± 1.49) and ethnically representative of the community, with 71.3% self-reporting as White, 6.9% as Black, 9.9% as Hispanic, and 11.9% answering as “other.” Tables 1 and 2 outline sample demographics. Most participants grew up with fireplaces in the home, though it is unclear how often the fireplaces were used. Table 1 Categorical demographics. n % Gender Woman 41 40.6 Man 55 54.5 Non-binary 5 5 Ethnicity White 72 71.3 African American 7 6.9 Asian 10 9.9 Other 12 11.9 Civil status Single 67 66.3 Married/committed relationship 31 30.7 Separated/divorced 3 3.0 Education High school 12 11.9 Some college 55 54.5 Bachelor’s degree 14 13.9 Graduate degree 20 19.8 Children No 83 82.2 Yes 18 17.8 Hours physically active Less than 1 22 21.8 1–2 hours 36 35.6 3–4 hours 23 22.8 5 + hours 20 19.8 Fireplace in home No 33 32.7 Yes 68 67.3 Leisure hours: TV None 29 28.7 1–2 hours 48 47.5 3–5 hours 21 20.8 6–9 hours 3 3.0 Leisure hours: Computer None 34 33.7 1–2 hours 46 45.5 3–5 hours 16 15.8 6–9 hours 3 3.0 10 + hours 2 2.0 Leisure hours: Phone 1–2 hours 44 43.6 3–5 hours 44 43.6 6–9 hours 8 7.9 10 + hours 5 5.0 The BP values were not normally distributed, so z-scores were produced for pre- and posttest, and datapoints were removed if the z-score was greater than 2. Average systolic BP upon entering the lab was 132.35 ± 14.23 mmHG, mean diastolic pressure was 76.20 ± 11.30, and mean HR was 82.66 ± 14.44 beats per minute (bpm). Mean systolic BP across all four measures was 123.30 ± 11.46, 71.77 ± 9.99 (n = 101) for diastolic, and 77.79 ± 12.65 bpm for HR. Table 2 Continuous variable demographics. Mean SD Min Max Age 24.61 9.79 18 58 SES 5.86 1.490 2 9 TV time 1.95 9.14 0 10 Computer time 2.71 .769 0 10 Phone time 1.5 .503 0 10 State anxiety 43.28 9.1259 29 68 Trait anxiety 54.70 10.5523 32 84 Absorption 73.62 16.5426 47 117 Prosociality 143.70 17.6440 87 184 Fire fascination 54.92 8.3567 34 70 Twenty-nine percent of participants received the sound-only condition first. As indicated in Table 3, average pre-sound trial values were 123.30 ± 13.01 mmHG for systolic BP, 71.77 ± 11.47 for diastolic BP, and 77.79 ± 12.65 bpm for HR. After the sound-only condition, BP values were 120.53 ± 11.99 for systolic, 71.86 ± 12.45 for diastolic BP, and 76.83 ± 12.64 bpm for HR. Table 3. Pre- and posttest test means ± SD and t -test comparison of systolic and diastolic BP, mean arterial BP, and HR for each experimental condition. Pretest Posttest P df Audiovisual Systolic 121.82 ± 13.10 120.20 ± 11.34 .08 98 Diastolic 70.69 ± 10.72 69.44 ± 10.56 .11 97 HR MAP 77.41 ± 12.33 92.19 ± 10.95 75.54 ± 12.04 90.61 ± 10.05 .02 .02 99 97 Sound-only Systolic 123.30 ± 13.01 120.53 ± 11.99 .001 97 Diastolic 71.77 ± 11.47 71.86 ± 12.25 .93 100 HR 77.79 ± 12.65 76.28 ± 12.64 .03 100 MAP 93.76 ± 11.71 92.79 ± 11.97 .28 100 Visual-only Systolic 123.42 ± 11.82 121.13 ± 13.14 .01 97 Diastolic 71.82 ± 12.93 71.76 ± 11.02 .95 99 HR 78.36 ± 13.15 76.30 ± 12.07 .004 99 MAP 93.81 ± 11.80 92.61 ± 11.19 .13 99 Control Systolic 122.10 ± 13.60 122.34 ± 12.74 .79 98 Diastolic 71.55 ± 11.24 70.89 ± 12.00 .47 100 HR 76.83 ± 12.64 75.42 ± 11.95 .03 97 MAP 92.74 ± 11.84 92.41 ± 11.32 .67 98 The average values for the pre-control trial were 122.10 ± 13.60 mmHG for systolic BP, 71.55 ± 11.24 for diastolic BP, and 76.83 ± 12.64 bpm for HR. After experiencing the control condition BP values were 122.34 ± 13.60 for systolic, 70.89 ± 12.00 for diastolic BP, and 75.42 ± 11.99 bpm for HR. For the visual-only condition, the average values for the pre-trial were 123.42 ± 11.82 mmHG for systolic BP, 71.82 ± 12.93 for diastolic BP, and 78.36 ± 13.15 bpm for HR. After experiencing the visual-only condition BP values were 121.13 ± 13.14 for systolic, 71.76 ± 11.02 for diastolic BP, and 76.30 ± 12.07 bpm for HR. Average pre-trial values for the combined audiovisual condition were 121.82 ± 13.10 mmHG for systolic BP, 70.69 ± 10.72 for diastolic BP, and 77.41 ± 12.33 bpm for HR. After experiencing the combined audiovisual trial BP values were 120.20 ± 11.34 for systolic, 69.44 ± 10.56 for diastolic BP, and 75.54 ± 12.04 bpm for HR. One-way repeated measures ANOVAs were used to test for differences among groups and to show the influence of each experimental condition on BP. The influence of hypnotizability, absorption, and prosociality on pre-posttest BP differences was tested using two-way ANOVA models while controlling for sex, age, anxiety, screen and fire habituation, and trial sequence. Table 4 depicts MANCOVA models for all trials. Models included the pretest measure, absorption, and prosociality to test the main hypotheses. Age and gender were included because age and sex are known to covary with BP. All other covariates were chosen using bivariate correlations with baseline BP. All models were significant, and nearly every model accounted for over 50% of variation in posttest BP. Absorption was a significant predictor in the audiovisual condition for diastolic BP, but the direction of the relationship is the opposite of what was predicted, such that as absorption goes up, so does BP. The only other variable that was a significant predictor in multiple models was age, indicating that BP goes up with increasing age. Variables associated with reduced BP included physical activity and number of friends. Table 4 Multiple analyses of covariance (MANCOVA) on posttest Z-scores for each condition1 Audiovisual Sound-only Visual-only Control Sys Dias HR MAP Sys Dias HR MAP Sys Dias HR MAP Sys Dias HR MAP Pretest .702 *** .628 *** .812 *** .677 *** .805 *** .577 *** .818 *** .649 *** .700 *** .766 *** .873 *** .740 *** .787 *** .553 *** .832 .671 *** Age .238 ** .210 ** − .086 .199 ** .147 * .105 − .061 .145 .161 .088 − .044 .113 − .089 .087 − .073 .003 Gender .001 − .030 − .013 − .021 − .031 − .084 − .078 − .046 .062 − .045 .040 .032 .023 − .060 − .034 − .070 Prosociality − .005 − .016 − .018 − .012 .054 * .217 .013 .230 * .059 .039 − .049 .071 .022 .088 .136 * .071 State anxiety .001 − .045 .167 * − .129 − .070 .009 .022 − .021 .060 − .050 .060 .032 − .121 − .194 − .122 − .227 * Trait anxiety − .077 − .025 − .097 .054 .045 .193 .059 .159 − .098 − .087 .014 − .089 .004 .192 .127 .109 Absorption .082 .229 ** − .019 .145 * − .015 − .001 .037 .002 .088 .022 − .077 .052 − .078 .086 .038 .004 Social satisfaction .115 − .053 − .082 − .016 − .163 * − .183 .101 − .172 .082 .054 .040 .115 .152 .050 .150 * .067 Friends .029 − .077 − .132 − .062 − .254 ** − .296 * .047 − .312 ** .013 − .053 .115 − .006 * .057 − .039 − .016 − .036 Screen habituation .054 .152 * − .101 .132 − .056 − .135 .052 − .106 .093 .168 * .034 .142 .036 .150 .016 .124 Fire habituation .046 .091 − .002 .095 .109 .096 − .016 .123 − .029 − .088 .034 − .038 − .058 .086 − .030 .003 Physical activity − .044 − .068 − .097 − .078 .021 .040 − .066 .010 − .142 − .227 ** − .040 − .226 ** − .066 − .016 − .073 − .028 Substances − .017 .100 .148 * .103 − .043 − .021 − .040 − .051 .040 .009 .102 .014 .101 .033 .056 .100 Trial sequence − .005 .000 .128 .001 .052 .129 .018 .111 .029 .082 .100 .063 .035 .009 .007 .024 F 2 9.000 11.421 13.35 12.97 16.089 4.762 12.821 7.738 10.395 12.391 15.270 12.972 9.923 5.164 20.491 50.114 P < .001 < .001 < .001 < .001 < .001 < .001 < .001 < .001 < .001 < .001 < .001 < .001 < .001 < .001 < .001 < .001 r 2 .660 .711 .742 .746 .776 .506 .734 .625 .691 .727 .767 .739 .681 .527 .815 .900 1 Standardized β reported. 2 df = 14 for all F values. * p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001 DISCUSSION We retested the widespread belief that staring into fires is relaxing using an electric fireplace instead of the DVD fire used in the original study (Lynn, 2014). In this replication study, we expected cardiovascular activity to decrease the most with the audiovisual experience of the electric fireplace. However, based on t -test comparisons and MANCOVAs, all experimental conditions influence significant reductions in BP and HR. The control condition exhibited significant decrease only for HR. The condition that was most influenced by absorption was the multisensory condition, though the direction of the association was contrary to our prediction. Prosociality was a significant predictor in the sound-only and control conditions but had contradictory associations in the control condition. The multisensory fire trial in the current and original study best resembles the naturalistic environment in which humans have habitually used domestic fires, and this naturalness may itself be relaxing, consistent with the biophilia hypothesis. Studies of exposure to nature indicate that just viewing natural elements can lead to beneficial health outcomes (Ulrich, 1984). A review study found that exposure to natural elements (e.g., plants) decreases health complaints and improves health outcomes (Grinde & Patil, 2009). A mixed methods study examined the functions of nature for the general public, and among the top three values of nature was for health (Born, Lenders, Groot, & Huijsman, 2001). For the majority of human existence, these natural elements, including fire, were part of the landscape necessary for survival (Heerwagen, 2009). Based on the Lynn 2014 study, (Coulthard, 2020) has speculated that fire should have the same biophilic benefits as plants and other natural elements. The biophilia hypothesis complements ritual healing theory in that the use of natural elements like flickering and crackling fire induce relaxation and trance (Konner, 1985; Lynn, 2022). Although ritual healing theory makes many claims that cannot be tested (e.g., that it leads to the evolution of religion (McClenon, 1997, 2001, 2006), McClenon (2006) posits that childhood trauma may lead to dissociation as a psychological coping mechanism. The ability to dissociate and experience anomalous experiences, such as altered states of consciousness, may contribute to belief in the power of specialists (e.g., “shamans”) to heal (McClenon, 1997, 2001, 2006). While others have speculated that severe childhood trauma is among the causes of dissociative disorders (Allison, 1995), normal dissociation has not been connected to trauma. Indeed, dissociation is considered a normal aspect of psyche (Allison, 1996; Bernstein & Putnam, 1986; Lynn, 2005; Ross & Joshi, 1992). Thus, while we did not query participants about childhood trauma, we attempted to measure the influence of dissociation using the Tellegen Absorption Scale (Tellegen & Atkinson, 1974), as absorption is a factor in dissociation (Soffer-Dudek et al., 2015). McClenon (1997) speculates that Homo erectus individuals who were more susceptible to absorptive relaxation around an evening fire would have been more gregarious social partners and more reproductively successful as a result, passing on the trait (though the genetics of dissociation are likely polygenic). We found that absorption is a significant influence on diastolic BP during the audiovisual condition, though the direction of the association indicates that as absorption increases, so does posttest BP. A possible explanation for this inverse result is that differences in hypnotic susceptibility and absorbed attention are influenced by genetic variations in dopaminergic systems (Ott et al., 2005). Specifically, individuals heterozygous for the Val-allele of the catechol-O-methyltransferase gene (COMT158 Val/Met) score higher on the absorption scale (Ott et al., 2005) and are less emotionally reactive than Met-carriers, which is likely due to higher dopamine metabolism in the prefrontal cortex (Tunbridge et al., 2006). Similarly, we tested for an effect of prosociality on the ability to relax in front of a fire and found that it plays little role. Thus, while our work supports McClenon’s contention that fires induce a relaxation response, especially in its multisensory form, dissociation and absorption do not appear necessary to achieve this effect, though these psychological traits may enhance or make relaxation easier for some people. Limitations This study supports earlier research, which found a relaxation response for multisensory fire watching, but it is limited in several ways. Despite efforts to recruit adult participants across age sets, the sample was predominantly college-age. Dissociation is inversely related to age such that younger people are known to dissociate at a relatively higher rate than older people (Putnam, 1997; Ray, 1996). Future research should focus on older adults, who are also the demographic more likely to buy electric fireplaces, as studies indicate that a secondary advantage of relaxation for older adults has benefits for cognitive aging (Mejia et al., 2023). Another limitation is the lack of control for variation in the time of day. Previous studies find daytime and nighttime fires have different purposes (Wiessner, 2014), and evening fires may produce a stronger relaxation effect because peoples’ natural hormonal rhythms allow them to relax more easily in the evening. Future studies should include data collection at different times of day, controlling for the time in the analysis. Finally, though we term the audiovisual fire a multisensory experience, the electric fireplace does not produce the smell of a fire, and we did not use the heat functions in this study, so some of the multisensory elements that may make fires relaxing have not yet been fully explored. CONCLUSION The current replication study found similar though not identical results in exploring fireside relaxation. Participants were presented with an electric fireplace under four conditions including audiovisual immersion, visual fire only, fire sounds only, and an upside down, static photo of a fire as a control condition. All models were significant predictors of reductions in BP, especially the multisensory condition containing audio and visual elements. We conclude, like the original study, that multisensory fires induce a relaxation response under a variety of conditions, but the most effective relaxation response is produced when multiple senses are stimulated, creating an immersive environment. This means that domestic fires and their analogs—such as electric fireplaces or holiday Yule logs on TV—have myriad potential health benefits related to stress reduction, an endemic problem in the modern world. Declarations Conflicts of Interest The authors have no conflicts of interest to report. Research Transparency and Reproducibility Data are available from the corresponding author upon request. Author Contribution CL obtained funding and designed research model. LC supervised data collection. CL and LC conducted analysis. LC and LL composed the first draft. All authors edited and reviewed manuscript before submission. Acknowledgement Thank you to Napoleon Fireplaces for generously funding this project and to the students in the Human Behavioral Ecology Research Group at the University of Alabama who collected the data. Data Availability Data can be provided at the discretion of the corresponding author upon email request. References Allison, R. B. (1995). MPD and DID are two different post-traumatic disorders. Allison, R. B. (1996, 2008/12). Dual personality, multiple personality, dissociative identity disorder–What's in a name? Retrieved from http://www.dissociation.com/index/definition/ Alvarsson, J. J., Wiens, S., & Nilsson, M. E. (2010). Stress Recovery during Exposure to Nature Sound and Environmental Noise. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health , 7 (3), 1036–1046. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph7031036 Attwell, L., Kovarovic, K., & Kendal, J. (2015). 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Openness to absorbing and self-altering experiences ('absorption’), a trait related to hypnotic susceptibility. Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 83 (3), 268–277. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0036681 Thayer, J. F., Åhs, F., Fredrikson, M., Sollers, J. J., & Wager, T. D. (2012). A meta-analysis of heart rate variability and neuroimaging studies: Implications for heart rate variability as a marker of stress and health. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews , 36 (2), 747–756. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2011.11.009 Tunbridge, E. M., Harrison, P. J., & Weinberger, D. R. (2006). Catechol-o-Methyltransferase, Cognition, and Psychosis: Val158Met and Beyond. Biological Psychiatry , 60 (2), 141–151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.10.024 Ulrich, R. S. (1984). View Through a Window May Influence Recovery from Surgery. Science , 224 (4647), 420–421. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.6143402 Ulrich, R. S., Simons, R. F., Losito, B. D., Fiorito, E., Miles, M. A., & Zelson, M. (1991). Stress recovery during exposure to natural and urban environments. Journal of Environmental Psychology , 11 (3), 201–230. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-4944(05)80184-7 Wiessner, P. W. (2014). Embers of society: Firelight talk among the Ju/’hoansi Bushmen. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America , 111 (39), 14027–14035. Winkelman, M. (2002). Shamanism and Cognitive Evolution. Cambridge Archaeological Journal , 12 (1), 71–101. https://doi.org/10.1017 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-5218831","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":383447228,"identity":"85b7644b-ee55-4333-bcf6-bae0a13e174a","order_by":0,"name":"Lindsey Clark","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Alabama","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Lindsey","middleName":"","lastName":"Clark","suffix":""},{"id":383447229,"identity":"217a5cb6-cc91-4534-9ad4-3378950b8d07","order_by":1,"name":"Lauren Landgraf","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Alabama","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Lauren","middleName":"","lastName":"Landgraf","suffix":""},{"id":383447230,"identity":"97a129b5-a937-4bc4-9070-9a04cd626710","order_by":2,"name":"Christopher Lynn","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAoUlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYFCC5AYgYQNmShCpJRGkJY10LYdJ0MLfntgmXbjjfGJ/A/PB2zzEaJE487BNeuaZ24kzDrAlWxOlxUACaAtv2+3EhgM8ZtKkaDmXOP8A/zeStBxI3HCAh404LUC/NFvztiUbbzzMZmw5hxgt/O3JB2/zttnJzjve/PDGG2K0AAELJDqYiVQOVvuBBMWjYBSMglEwEgEAy8IwXU8yPW4AAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"University of Alabama","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Christopher","middleName":"","lastName":"Lynn","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-10-07 14:23:06","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5218831/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5218831/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":71628951,"identity":"66f0b21f-2667-4307-b386-b2eb773e1370","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-12-17 09:17:01","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":250391,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(a)\u003c/strong\u003e electric fire and \u003cstrong\u003e(b)\u003c/strong\u003e control condition used in current study.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5218831/v1/058895882a7842997c531421.png"},{"id":95290667,"identity":"77045ca6-dd3e-4923-a05d-8d4b113c8bab","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-06 10:53:41","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1185364,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5218831/v1/284a0d68-ca5c-436a-baa6-1b3ee4d4153d.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"The influence of domestic fire on blood pressure and heart rate: A replication study","fulltext":[{"header":"INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003eHabitual use of fire is widely accepted as a critical turning point in human evolutionary history, as it allowed our ancestors to cook food, provided the means to keep warm, and illuminated the dark (Attwell et al., 2015; Gowlett, 2016). While these benefits are undeniable, an unexplored aspect of human-fire interaction is its influence on cognition. We may be drawn to the warmth it produces, watching the flickering flames, or listening to the sounds of the crackling wood\u0026mdash;whichever it is, the multisensory components of fire captivate humans in a unique way. In one previous study, a simulated fire on a DVD influenced a relaxation response even during the daytime in a laboratory setting (Lynn, 2014). In the current study, we tested the influence of an electric fireplace specifically designed for meditative effects.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eBiophilia\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConsistent data show that stimuli derived from nature plays a crucial function in regulating our physiological, neural, and mental states and may produce long-lasting effects on our biological makeup (Alvarsson et al., 2010). Humans appear to have an inherent affinity for natural settings and receive positive emotional benefits from aspects of nature (Barbiero \u0026amp; Berto, 2021). The theoretical construct of \u0026ldquo;biophilia\u0026rdquo; requires an interdisciplinary approach as it represents a trait present in both evolutionary phylogenetic and ontogenetic psychological contexts (Barbiero, 2021).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStress reduction theory (SRT) suggests that immersion in nature alleviates the negative effects of stress by promoting pleasant feelings such as interest and calmness (Ulrich et al., 1991). Ulrich (1984) finds recovery in post-operative patients is quicker when patient hospital windows overlook nature than when they face a brick wall. Subsequent research reveals that physiological recovery after experiencing a stressor is faster in participants who are shown nature videos versus those shown city scenes (Ulrich et al., 1991). Another study reports physiological recovery is stronger when participants listen to recorded nature sounds compared to sounds from a city environment (Alvarsson et al., 2010).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAttention restoration theory (ART) offers another framework to explain the positive health benefits from exposure to natural environments (R. Kaplan \u0026amp; Kaplan, 1989; S. Kaplan, 1995). ART focuses on how aspects of these settings alleviate cognitive demands, thereby promoting recovery of attentional capacity (Berto, 2014; R. Kaplan \u0026amp; Kaplan, 1989). In this sense, nature elicits directed attention to restore depleted cognitive resources, in turn allowing the body to rest. The relaxation state or calming effect evoked is due to its connection with voluntary attention, also termed \u0026ldquo;fascination.\u0026rdquo; Experiencing a hearth or campfire engages \u0026ldquo;soft fascination\u0026rdquo; as opposed to \u0026ldquo;hard fascination,\u0026rdquo; which is a type of attentional response that requires substantial mental effort (S. Kaplan \u0026amp; Berman, 2010). In other words, watching flickering firelight draws attention without the demands of active concentration and leaves room for reflective thoughts and conversation, a condition also termed \u0026ldquo;absorption\u0026rdquo; (Basu et al., 2019). States of absorption can involve engaging with external stimuli like films, TV, books, and music or with internal thoughts and imaginative content like daydreaming and fantasy (S. Kaplan \u0026amp; Berman, 2010). Both external and internal forms of absorption are often pleasurable and may be deliberately pursued, but they typically occur spontaneously (Leppanen \u0026amp; Kim, 2022).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eRitual Healing Theory\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDominy and Melin (2020) explain that firelight\u0026rsquo;s periodic pulsation serves as an attention-capturing stimulus. Perception is a continuous process of decoding sensory input into meaningful information, so a light shifting or flickering across a surface can result in illusions that manipulate an object\u0026rsquo;s appearance (McClenon, 1997). The flickering of firelight is conducive to triggering visual and perceptual psychological reactions, which provide some support to the ritualistic healing theory proposed by McClenon (1997). Winkelman (2002) and Rossano (2007) suggest the positive psychophysiological outcomes of healing rituals may have served a beneficial function in our ancestral past.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe adaptive significance of nighttime fire interaction is underscored by McClenon (1997), who suggests selection would have favored those who became more relaxed and prosocial while watching campfires. Similarly, in a personal communication after her study of fire use among hunter-gatherers, Wiessner (2014) suspects that evening fires are more effective at influencing relaxation because diurnal hormone levels also induce relaxation. With the \u0026ldquo;ritual healing hypothesis,\u0026rdquo; McClenon (1997) assumes \u003cem\u003eHomo erectus\u003c/em\u003e individuals with greater ability to focus attention would have benefitted more from the campfire experience than those who did not. The idea that nighttime fire interactions are for relaxing and socializing is supported by Wiessner's (2014) findings that the manner of interactions differed according to the time of day and linked firelight to storytelling and social cohesion. During the daytime, the topics of conversation often involve gossip or solving group problems, while evening discussions diffuse the tensions of the day and consist of telling stories, sharing myths, or teaching others (Wiessner, 2014). Conclusions drawn from this study suggest that firelight mediates the connection between empathy, bonding, and the transmission of cultural norms. Wiessner suggests the mechanism that may explain this interaction is psychological, in that flickering firelight puts storytellers and listeners \u0026ldquo;on the same wavelength\u0026rdquo; (Wiessner 2014, p. 14033).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eStress and Relaxation Response\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe stress response system plays a critical role in our ability to adapt to unfavorable or unpredictable psychosocial and physical situations (Sterling, 2012). Stress influences functions of the cardiovascular system by activating the sympathoadrenal medullary axis, releasing catecholamines that elevate heart rate (HR) and blood pressure (BP) (Brewis et al., 2021). Common biomarkers clinicians and researchers use to index ongoing mental states involving emotional arousal or relaxation include HR, skin conductance, and BP, which increase in intensity as a stressor increases in severity (Sahlin et al., 2016). Arterial BP reflects cardiac output and is a widely used biomarker of stress outcomes because of its sensitivity to contextual variations in experiences of stress (Park \u0026amp; Thayer, 2014). There is an established link between indicators of cardiac vagal tone and both affective and cognitive-executive functions (Thayer et al., 2012). Both perceiving and anticipating stress prompts a cascade of responsive processes across multiple physiological systems for the body to regain stability (Basu et al., 2019).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProtecting oneself from the internal and external effects of stress entails changing activity in the autonomic nervous system, which includes cardiovascular, metabolic, and immune functions (Esch \u0026amp; Stefano, 2010). This process, called \u0026ldquo;allostasis,\u0026rdquo; is a system that enables the body to quickly respond to environmental, physical, and psychosocial stressors and may establish positive adaptations if the stressor is handled properly (Goldstein \u0026amp; McEwen, 2002). The process of rapidly altering biological systems to overcome everyday challenges may come at a cost to health if stress is regulated insufficiently or in excess (Esch \u0026amp; Stefano, 2010). Prolonged or chronic stress is often associated with higher risk for affective disorders like depression and anxiety. Therefore, it is important to find ways to decrease stress to support overall health (Sapolsky, 1996).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStrategies for mitigating the negative effects of stress involve finding ways to balance sympathovagal output, which is governed by the interplay between sympathetic and parasympathetic influences (Thayer et al., 2012). Yoga and meditation are both strategies to alleviate stress and foster relaxation because they promote cardiac parasympathetic functions that decrease the impact of stress on the body. Relaxation therapy has also been linked to gains in attentional capacity (S. Kaplan, 1995). Benson et al. (1975) define relaxation response (RR) as an integrated complex of physiological mechanisms that adjust when engaging in a repetitive mental or physical activity while passively ignoring distracting thoughts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur goal in the current study is to determine whether experiencing an electric indoor fireplace produces a similar RR as seen in Lynn (2014), which used a Yule log video. We hypothesized the strongest RR would occur in a multisensory audiovisual condition compared to audio or visual elements of fire alone because of its immersive quality. Further, we predicted that this effect will likely be significant for individuals scoring higher in absorption and prosociality, as the electric fireplace\u0026rsquo;s sensory features will evoke a stronger orienting response and influence on cardiac vagal tone.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"METHODS","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eParticipants\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe recruited 101 adults (41 female, 55 male, and 5 non-binary), ages 18\u0026ndash;58 (mean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;24.61\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;9.79) through advertisements at local businesses and flyers near the University of Alabama in Tuscaloosa, Alabama. Participants received a \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e20 gift card for completing both parts of the study (online questionnaire and in-person lab component) and were entered into a drawing to receive one of three Napoleon grills. They had to be at least 18 years old and not have any fire-related phobias to participate in the study. All methods were carried out in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStudy Design\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study uses a repeated measures within-subjects randomized crossover design. Informed consent was obtained from all subjects before beginning the study. Participants initially completed an online questionnaire that included the Tellegen Absorption Scale, the Fire Fascination scale, the Trait Anxiety Inventory, and a prosociality scale derived from the Myer-Briggs Personality Inventory (MBPI) and the Altruistic Personality Scale. After that, participants scheduled a time to complete the experimental portion of the study in a lab on campus. Upon entering the lab, participants completed the State Anxiety Inventory. Participants were queried about substance use or medications that may affect the cardiovascular measures.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants completed four conditions while wearing noise-cancelling headphones in a darkened office. The headphones minimized external distractions and aided participant focus, and the darkened room simulated nighttime fireplace or campfire environments with dim or absent external lights. Participants sat approximately 4 feet from the electric fireplace in a cushioned desk chair with armrests, rollers, and a straight back. They were instructed to turn off their cell phones and other devices and to avoid engaging in other activities while watching the screen, though slight movements or adjustments were allowed. An experimenter stayed just outside the room to monitor the session.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHR and BP were recorded before the experimental trials began, serving as a baseline measurement. The sensory features of fire were disaggregated into 4 trials, each lasting 15 minutes, with HR and BP being recorded before and after each trial. This produced 9 HR and BP measurements in total.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e All experimental protocols were approved by the University of Alabama\u0026rsquo;s institutional review board.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMaterials\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAbsorption was measured with the Tellegen Absorption Scale, a 34-item standardized survey and participants responded on a 5-point Likert array (Tellegen \u0026amp; Atkinson, 1974). Individuals with higher scores on this scale are more prone to immerse themselves in experiences of absolute attentional engagement. This measure yielded a Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha of .92.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProsociality was measured using 43 items from the MBPI (Myers \u0026amp; McCaulley, 1988) and the Altruistic Personality Scale (Rushton et al., 1981). This measure yielded a Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha of .84. We also used several items to query number of friends, social support, and frequency of socializing during the week. We conducted factor analysis of these and found they constitute one factor. We added these items together to create a single variable called \u0026ldquo;Sociality.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe used the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) (Spielberger \u0026amp; Gonzalez-Reigosa, 1983) to measure baseline and circumstantial anxiety. STAI is a 40-item self-report scale that assesses separate dimensions of \u0026ldquo;state\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;trait\u0026rdquo; anxiety. Participants responded on a 5-point Likert scale and scores were determined by the sum of all survey item responses. Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alphas for state and trait anxiety were .91 and .92, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe controlled for previous exposure to campfires, family hearth fires, and audiovisual screens (televisions, computer, smartphones) using the Fire Fascination scale (Murray, Fessler, \u0026amp; Lupfer, 2015) and additional items to measure exposure to possible analogs of staring at fires. We conducted factor analysis on all the items related to fire and screen exposure and found they constitute two factors. The fire fascination scale and questions relating to family fireplace constitute one factor that we termed \u0026ldquo;Fire habituation\u0026rdquo; (Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.71). Television, computer, and other screen exposure constituted another additive factor we termed \u0026ldquo;Screen habituation.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEach trial lasted 15 minutes and utilized a 55-inch indoor electric fireplace with visual simulated flames, decorative branches, and glass rocks underneath (Napoleon Fireplaces, Barrie, Ontario, Canada). For the control condition, we used a picture of the same electric fireplace turned upside-down (see Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). During the control trial, participants viewed the image on a 19\u0026rdquo; computer monitor while sitting in the same cushioned chair as the other trials. We hypothesized that the flickering light and sudden sounds of fire would stimulate orienting response, and the upside-down static fire image would preserve the structural features of the experimental fire (e.g., color, brightness, shapes) while disengaging other sensory aspects that might be effective.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe audio only condition consisted of a 24/7 live YouTube stream of an indoor fireplace. This was selected for its naturalistic presence, representing the sounds of a real cracking wood log. The volume on the noise-cancelling headphones was set to 40% and the lights were turned off. In the visual only condition, participants viewed the indoor electric fireplace while sitting approximately 4 feet away and wore noise-cancelling headphones. The audiovisual condition combined protocols from the sound- and visual-only trials.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHR and BP were measured in millimeters of mercury (mmHG) at baseline and before and after each 15-minute condition using an Omron HEM-711 digital sphygmomanometer (Omron Healthcare, Inc., Bannockburn, IL), which has reliability equivalent to mercury sphygmomanometers (Rotch et al., 2001). Mean arterial pressure (MAP) was calculated using the formula: MAP\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;DP [0.33 + (HR x 0.0012)] x [PP], where DP is diastolic pressure, SP is systolic pressure, HR is heart rate, and PP is pulse pressure, calculated as the difference between SP and DP values (Razminia et al., 2004).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eAnalysis\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDescriptive statistics were calculated for all study variables. Variables were checked for normalcy, skewedness, and homoscedasity and non-normal values transformed using Z-scores. Data points for systolic BP and diastolic BP for each condition were removed if they were two standard deviations above or below the mean. Two outlying datapoints were removed from the control trial, three systolic from the sound only trial, one from the visual only trial, and three from the audiovisual trial (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;98). We compared mean BP changes from pre- to posttest using paired samples \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e-tests for each condition. We tested the hypothesis that audiovisual fire would be the most relaxing and for people relatively higher in absorption and prosociality using multiple analysis of covariance (MANCOVA). Absorption and prosociality were included in all models and other covariates using bivariate correlations with baseline BP. Analysis was conducted using SPSS Version 27 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY), and statistics were considered significant if \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;.05.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"RESULTS","content":"\u003cp\u003eParticipants were largely college-aged and young adults (mean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;24.61\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;9.79) despite efforts to recruit across age cohorts, with 54.5% having some college education and 19.5% with a graduate degree. According to a self-report measure on a 10-point scale (1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;least money/education, worst job, and fewest friends), these subjects were predominantly middle-class (5.86\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.49) and ethnically representative of the community, with 71.3% self-reporting as White, 6.9% as Black, 9.9% as Hispanic, and 11.9% answering as \u0026ldquo;other.\u0026rdquo; Tables\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e outline sample demographics. Most participants grew up with fireplaces in the home, though it is unclear how often the fireplaces were used.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCategorical demographics.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003en\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGender\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWoman\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMan\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e54.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNon-binary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEthnicity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhite\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e71.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAfrican American\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAsian\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOther\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCivil status\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSingle\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e66.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMarried/committed relationship\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeparated/divorced\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEducation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigh school\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSome college\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e54.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBachelor\u0026rsquo;s degree\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGraduate degree\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChildren\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e83\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e82.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHours physically active\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLess than 1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u0026ndash;2 hours\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u0026ndash;4 hours\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;hours\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFireplace in home\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e68\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e67.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLeisure hours: TV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u0026ndash;2 hours\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e47.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u0026ndash;5 hours\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u0026ndash;9 hours\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLeisure hours: Computer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u0026ndash;2 hours\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u0026ndash;5 hours\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u0026ndash;9 hours\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;hours\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLeisure hours: Phone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u0026ndash;2 hours\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u0026ndash;5 hours\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u0026ndash;9 hours\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;hours\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe BP values were not normally distributed, so z-scores were produced for pre- and posttest, and datapoints were removed if the z-score was greater than 2. Average systolic BP upon entering the lab was 132.35\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;14.23 mmHG, mean diastolic pressure was 76.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.30, and mean HR was 82.66\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;14.44 beats per minute (bpm). Mean systolic BP across all four measures was 123.30\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.46, 71.77\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;9.99 (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;101) for diastolic, and 77.79\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;12.65 bpm for HR.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eContinuous variable demographics.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMin\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMax\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.79\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSES\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.86\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.490\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTV time\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eComputer time\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.71\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.769\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhone time\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.503\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eState anxiety\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43.28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.1259\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e68\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrait anxiety\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e54.70\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.5523\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e84\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAbsorption\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e73.62\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.5426\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e117\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProsociality\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e143.70\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.6440\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e184\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFire fascination\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e54.92\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.3567\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTwenty-nine percent of participants received the sound-only condition first. As indicated in Table\u0026nbsp;3, average pre-sound trial values were 123.30\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.01 mmHG for systolic BP, 71.77\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.47 for diastolic BP, and 77.79\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;12.65 bpm for HR. After the sound-only condition, BP values were 120.53\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.99 for systolic, 71.86\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;12.45 for diastolic BP, and 76.83\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;12.64 bpm for HR.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"No\" id=\"Taba\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"5\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;3. Pre- and posttest test means\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SD and \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e-test comparison of systolic and diastolic BP, mean arterial BP, and HR for each experimental condition.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePretest\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePosttest\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003edf\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAudiovisual\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSystolic\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e121.82\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e120.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDiastolic\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70.69\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;10.72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e69.44\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;10.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e97\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHR\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMAP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e77.41\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;12.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e92.19\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;10.95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75.54\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;12.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e90.61\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;10.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e99\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e97\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSound-only\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSystolic\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e123.30\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e120.53\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.99\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e97\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDiastolic\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e71.77\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e71.86\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;12.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.93\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e77.79\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;12.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76.28\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;12.64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMAP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e93.76\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.71\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e92.79\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.97\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVisual-only\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSystolic\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e123.42\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.82\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e121.13\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e97\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDiastolic\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e71.82\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;12.93\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e71.76\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e99\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e78.36\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76.30\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;12.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.004\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e99\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMAP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e93.81\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.80\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e92.61\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e99\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eControl\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSystolic\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e122.10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e122.34\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;12.74\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.79\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDiastolic\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e71.55\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70.89\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;12.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76.83\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;12.64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75.42\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e97\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMAP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e92.74\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.84\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e92.41\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe average values for the pre-control trial were 122.10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.60 mmHG for systolic BP, 71.55\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.24 for diastolic BP, and 76.83\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;12.64 bpm for HR. After experiencing the control condition BP values were 122.34\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.60 for systolic, 70.89\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;12.00 for diastolic BP, and 75.42\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.99 bpm for HR.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor the visual-only condition, the average values for the pre-trial were 123.42\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.82 mmHG for systolic BP, 71.82\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;12.93 for diastolic BP, and 78.36\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.15 bpm for HR. After experiencing the visual-only condition BP values were 121.13\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.14 for systolic, 71.76\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.02 for diastolic BP, and 76.30\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;12.07 bpm for HR.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAverage pre-trial values for the combined audiovisual condition were 121.82\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.10 mmHG for systolic BP, 70.69\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;10.72 for diastolic BP, and 77.41\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;12.33 bpm for HR. After experiencing the combined audiovisual trial BP values were 120.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.34 for systolic, 69.44\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;10.56 for diastolic BP, and 75.54\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;12.04 bpm for HR.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOne-way repeated measures ANOVAs were used to test for differences among groups and to show the influence of each experimental condition on BP. The influence of hypnotizability, absorption, and prosociality on pre-posttest BP differences was tested using two-way ANOVA models while controlling for sex, age, anxiety, screen and fire habituation, and trial sequence.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e depicts MANCOVA models for all trials. Models included the pretest measure, absorption, and prosociality to test the main hypotheses. Age and gender were included because age and sex are known to covary with BP. All other covariates were chosen using bivariate correlations with baseline BP. All models were significant, and nearly every model accounted for over 50% of variation in posttest BP. Absorption was a significant predictor in the audiovisual condition for diastolic BP, but the direction of the relationship is the opposite of what was predicted, such that as absorption goes up, so does BP. The only other variable that was a significant predictor in multiple models was age, indicating that BP goes up with increasing age. Variables associated with reduced BP included physical activity and number of friends.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMultiple analyses of covariance (MANCOVA) on posttest Z-scores for each condition1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"17\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c13\" colnum=\"13\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c14\" colnum=\"14\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c15\" colnum=\"15\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c16\" colnum=\"16\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c17\" colnum=\"17\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAudiovisual\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSound-only\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c13\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVisual-only\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c17\" namest=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eControl\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSys\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDias\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMAP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSys\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDias\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMAP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSys\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDias\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMAP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSys\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDias\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMAP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePretest\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.702\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.628\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.812\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.677\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.805\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.577\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.818\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.649\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.700\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.766\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.873\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.740\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.787\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.553\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.832\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.671\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.238\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.210\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.086\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.199\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.147\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.105\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.061\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.145\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.161\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.088\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.044\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.113\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.089\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.087\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.073\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.003\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGender\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.030\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.013\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.021\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.031\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.084\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.078\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.046\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.062\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.045\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.040\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.032\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.060\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.034\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.070\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProsociality\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.005\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.016\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.018\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.012\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.054\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.217\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.013\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.230\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.059\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.039\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.049\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.071\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.022\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.088\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.136\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.071\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eState anxiety\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.045\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.167\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.129\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.070\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.009\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.022\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.021\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.060\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.050\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.060\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.032\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.121\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.194\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.122\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.227\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrait anxiety\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.077\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.025\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.097\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.054\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.045\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.193\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.059\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.159\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.098\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.087\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.014\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.089\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.004\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.192\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.127\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.109\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAbsorption\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.082\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.229\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.145\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.015\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.037\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.002\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.088\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.022\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.077\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.052\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.078\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.086\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.038\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.004\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSocial satisfaction\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.115\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.053\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.082\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.016\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.163\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.183\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.101\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.172\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.082\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.054\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.040\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.115\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.152\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.050\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.150\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.067\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFriends\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.029\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.077\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.132\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.062\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.254\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.296\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.047\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.312\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.013\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.053\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.115\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.006\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.057\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.039\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.016\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.036\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eScreen habituation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.054\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.152\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.101\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.132\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.056\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.135\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.052\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.106\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.093\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.168\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.034\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.142\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.036\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.150\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.016\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.124\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFire habituation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.046\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.091\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.002\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.095\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.109\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.096\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.016\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.123\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.029\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.088\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.034\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.038\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.058\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.086\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.030\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.003\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhysical activity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.044\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.068\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.097\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.078\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.021\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.040\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.066\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.010\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.142\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.227\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.040\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.226\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.066\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.016\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.073\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.028\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSubstances\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.017\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.148\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.103\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.043\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.021\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.040\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.051\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.040\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.009\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.102\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.014\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.101\u003c/p\u003e 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align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eF\u003c/b\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.421\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.97\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.089\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.762\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.821\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.738\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.395\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.391\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.270\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.972\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.923\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.164\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.491\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50.114\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003er\u003c/b\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cb\u003e2\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.660\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.711\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.742\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.746\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.776\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.506\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.734\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.625\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.691\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.727\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.767\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.739\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.681\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.527\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.815\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.900\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"17\" nameend=\"c17\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003eStandardized \u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e reported.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003edf = 14 for all \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e values.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.05, \u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01, \u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eWe retested the widespread belief that staring into fires is relaxing using an electric fireplace instead of the DVD fire used in the original study (Lynn, 2014). In this replication study, we expected cardiovascular activity to decrease the most with the audiovisual experience of the electric fireplace. However, based on \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e-test comparisons and MANCOVAs, all experimental conditions influence significant reductions in BP and HR. The control condition exhibited significant decrease only for HR. The condition that was most influenced by absorption was the multisensory condition, though the direction of the association was contrary to our prediction. Prosociality was a significant predictor in the sound-only and control conditions but had contradictory associations in the control condition.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe multisensory fire trial in the current and original study best resembles the naturalistic environment in which humans have habitually used domestic fires, and this naturalness may itself be relaxing, consistent with the biophilia hypothesis. Studies of exposure to nature indicate that just viewing natural elements can lead to beneficial health outcomes (Ulrich, 1984). A review study found that exposure to natural elements (e.g., plants) decreases health complaints and improves health outcomes (Grinde \u0026amp; Patil, 2009). A mixed methods study examined the functions of nature for the general public, and among the top three values of nature was for health (Born, Lenders, Groot, \u0026amp; Huijsman, 2001). For the majority of human existence, these natural elements, including fire, were part of the landscape necessary for survival (Heerwagen, 2009). Based on the Lynn 2014 study, (Coulthard, 2020) has speculated that fire should have the same biophilic benefits as plants and other natural elements.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe biophilia hypothesis complements ritual healing theory in that the use of natural elements like flickering and crackling fire induce relaxation and trance (Konner, 1985; Lynn, 2022). Although ritual healing theory makes many claims that cannot be tested (e.g., that it leads to the evolution of religion (McClenon, 1997, 2001, 2006), McClenon (2006) posits that childhood trauma may lead to dissociation as a psychological coping mechanism. The ability to dissociate and experience anomalous experiences, such as altered states of consciousness, may contribute to belief in the power of specialists (e.g., \u0026ldquo;shamans\u0026rdquo;) to heal (McClenon, 1997, 2001, 2006). While others have speculated that severe childhood trauma is among the causes of dissociative disorders (Allison, 1995), normal dissociation has not been connected to trauma. Indeed, dissociation is considered a normal aspect of psyche (Allison, 1996; Bernstein \u0026amp; Putnam, 1986; Lynn, 2005; Ross \u0026amp; Joshi, 1992). Thus, while we did not query participants about childhood trauma, we attempted to measure the influence of dissociation using the Tellegen Absorption Scale (Tellegen \u0026amp; Atkinson, 1974), as absorption is a factor in dissociation (Soffer-Dudek et al., 2015).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMcClenon (1997) speculates that \u003cem\u003eHomo erectus\u003c/em\u003e individuals who were more susceptible to absorptive relaxation around an evening fire would have been more gregarious social partners and more reproductively successful as a result, passing on the trait (though the genetics of dissociation are likely polygenic). We found that absorption is a significant influence on diastolic BP during the audiovisual condition, though the direction of the association indicates that as absorption increases, so does posttest BP. A possible explanation for this inverse result is that differences in hypnotic susceptibility and absorbed attention are influenced by genetic variations in dopaminergic systems (Ott et al., 2005). Specifically, individuals heterozygous for the Val-allele of the catechol-O-methyltransferase gene (COMT158 Val/Met) score higher on the absorption scale (Ott et al., 2005) and are less emotionally reactive than Met-carriers, which is likely due to higher dopamine metabolism in the prefrontal cortex (Tunbridge et al., 2006). Similarly, we tested for an effect of prosociality on the ability to relax in front of a fire and found that it plays little role. Thus, while our work supports McClenon\u0026rsquo;s contention that fires induce a relaxation response, especially in its multisensory form, dissociation and absorption do not appear necessary to achieve this effect, though these psychological traits may enhance or make relaxation easier for some people.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eLimitations\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study supports earlier research, which found a relaxation response for multisensory fire watching, but it is limited in several ways. Despite efforts to recruit adult participants across age sets, the sample was predominantly college-age. Dissociation is inversely related to age such that younger people are known to dissociate at a relatively higher rate than older people (Putnam, 1997; Ray, 1996). Future research should focus on older adults, who are also the demographic more likely to buy electric fireplaces, as studies indicate that a secondary advantage of relaxation for older adults has benefits for cognitive aging (Mejia et al., 2023). Another limitation is the lack of control for variation in the time of day. Previous studies find daytime and nighttime fires have different purposes (Wiessner, 2014), and evening fires may produce a stronger relaxation effect because peoples\u0026rsquo; natural hormonal rhythms allow them to relax more easily in the evening. Future studies should include data collection at different times of day, controlling for the time in the analysis. Finally, though we term the audiovisual fire a multisensory experience, the electric fireplace does not produce the smell of a fire, and we did not use the heat functions in this study, so some of the multisensory elements that may make fires relaxing have not yet been fully explored.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"CONCLUSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe current replication study found similar though not identical results in exploring fireside relaxation. Participants were presented with an electric fireplace under four conditions including audiovisual immersion, visual fire only, fire sounds only, and an upside down, static photo of a fire as a control condition. All models were significant predictors of reductions in BP, especially the multisensory condition containing audio and visual elements. We conclude, like the original study, that multisensory fires induce a relaxation response under a variety of conditions, but the most effective relaxation response is produced when multiple senses are stimulated, creating an immersive environment. This means that domestic fires and their analogs\u0026mdash;such as electric fireplaces or holiday Yule logs on TV\u0026mdash;have myriad potential health benefits related to stress reduction, an endemic problem in the modern world.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003ch2\u003eConflicts of Interest\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe authors have no conflicts of interest to report.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003ch2\u003eResearch Transparency and Reproducibility\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eData are available from the corresponding author upon request.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eCL obtained funding and designed research model. LC supervised data collection. CL and LC conducted analysis. LC and LL composed the first draft. All authors edited and reviewed manuscript before submission.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThank you to Napoleon Fireplaces for generously funding this project and to the students in the Human Behavioral Ecology Research Group at the University of Alabama who collected the data.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eData can be provided at the discretion of the corresponding author upon email request.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAllison, R. B. (1995). MPD and DID are two different post-traumatic disorders.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAllison, R. B. (1996, 2008/12). Dual personality, multiple personality, dissociative identity disorder\u0026ndash;What's in a name? 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Shamanism and Cognitive Evolution. \u003cem\u003eCambridge Archaeological Journal\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e12\u003c/em\u003e(1), 71\u0026ndash;101. https://doi.org/10.1017\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"fire, relaxation response, blood pressure, cardiac output, absorption, prosociality","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5218831/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5218831/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eIn previous research, fire\u0026rsquo;s sensory components were disaggregated into separate experimental conditions using a Yule log video to test the hypothesis that domestic fire can induce a relaxation response. The study recorded blood pressure and skin conductance before and after participants watched the 15-minute fire video with and without sound and found a relaxation effect for the audiovisual condition. The current study replicates this with an electric fireplace by measuring pre- and posttest blood pressure (and calculated mean arterial pressure [MAP]) and heart rate (HR) using a randomized crossover design with 101 adults aged 18\u0026ndash;60. We duplicated the three original experimental conditions and added an additional condition of fire sounds only. We predicted that the multisensory condition would produce the most relaxation and among those highest in absorption and prosociality. We found a relaxation response for all conditions and more consistent relaxation (systolic, MAP, and HR) and an absorption effect for the multisensory effect; however, the absorption effect was the opposite of our prediction (pre-trial MAP\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;92.19\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;10.95; post-trial\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;90.61\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;10.05, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.02, df\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;97). Our data partially replicate the original study, but the roles of absorption and prosociality need further exploration.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"The influence of domestic fire on blood pressure and heart rate: A replication study","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-12-17 09:16:57","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5218831/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"8fe734a8-b967-4133-9394-cc686ab32c94","owner":[],"postedDate":"December 17th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":40845375,"name":"Biological sciences/Evolution/Anthropology/Biological anthropology"},{"id":40845376,"name":"Biological sciences/Neuroscience/Cognitive neuroscience/Attention"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-11-06T10:53:19+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-12-17 09:16:57","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-5218831","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-5218831","identity":"rs-5218831","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}