Modeling and Analysis of Ground Subsidence Due to Underground Mining Using 3-d Numerical Techniques

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An underground copper ore mine in India was taken as a case study to explore the subsidence caused by ore extraction during blast-hole stoping method of mining operations. In this study, different subsidence prediction modeling techniques (empirical, influence function, and theoretical/numerical/ analytical) have been outlined for assessing mining induced subsidence. A three-dimensional (3-D) numerical model was developed by the Finite element method (FEM) code strand7, was adopted, encompassing geologic complications such as joints and faults, connections between different lithologies, and the stoping sequence selected from the mine plans to investigate the mechanism of surface subsidence induced by underground mining. Further, the precision of predicting mine subsidence using 3-D numerical models remains a source of concern due to the extensive inputs required, primarily geological and geotechnical parameters. These parameters are required to improve the accuracy of mine subsidence prediction. Therefore, in-order to predict accurately using 3-D numerical Modeling technique, there is a need of Constraining of rock mass properties & in-situ stress using backward modeling. 3-D numerical models were developed for virgin state, current mining state, next 5 years mining state and next 10 years of mining state and their corresponding strain and displacement were reported in different directions Earth and environmental sciences/Natural hazards Physical sciences/Engineering/Civil engineering Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 Figure 12 Figure 13 Figure 14 Figure 15 Figure 16 Figure 17 Figure 18 Figure 19 Figure 20 Figure 21 Figure 22 Figure 23 Figure 24 Figure 25 1. Introduction Subsidence is defined as a decrease in ground surface elevation caused by the subsurface extraction of ore or another reserve (Alam et al., 2022 ) .Land surface deformation is a situation caused by both natural and anthropogenic geophysical phenomena. Ground subsidence, or the sinking or settling of the Earth's surface, can be caused by a number of mechanisms. These processes can occur naturally or as a result of human activities (Hartman et al., 1992). Some of the natural processes that can cause ground subsidence include sediment compaction, permafrost melting, and tectonic plate shifting. Meanwhile, human activities such as oil and gas extraction, geothermal fluid withdrawal, and underground mining for coal and minerals can also lead to ground subsidence. Wetting and dewatering soils can also result in liquefaction and settling (Soliman, 1997). According to Singh, "Subsidence is a common consequence of underground mining and it can vary in magnitude and extent. Subsidence can occur immediately after mining activities, or it may continue over a prolonged period of time (Singh M.M. et. al. 1992) Subsidence can harm the environment and risk the stability of surface and underground structures and infrastructure. Subsidence can be small and localised or extensive, affecting a wide geographic region (Clayton et al., 2018 ; Zhao & Zhu, 2020 ). However, it is essential to remember that subsidence is an inherent and unavoidable risk connected with underground mining. When underground mining is done over a certain area, the rock mass above the mining zone begins to sink into the excavations formed during the mining process. As a result, the earth surface sinks, creating trenches, hollows, abrupt steps, open fractures, and large subsidence bowls or troughs (Kratzsch, 2012). In addition, in order to compute the net present value (NPV) in forest areas, the mining-induced subsidence in forest areas needs to be modelled using 3-D numerical Modeling in accordance with the regulatory criteria of the Ministry of Environment and Forests and Climate Change (MoEFCC).Furthermore, mine subsidence can be measured in two ways: 1) using various subsidence prediction models in prevalent geomining and geotechnical circumstances, and 2) using various mine subsidence monitoring techniques. However, the current study focusses on assessment using prediction models. Among the mine subsidence prediction models, 3-D numerical Modeling has an advantage over other models (Woo et al., 2012 ; Huang et al., 2017 ; Sjöberg, 2020 ). Moreover, the accuracy of predicting mine subsidence with 3-D numerical models continues to be challenging due to the various inputs needed, mainly geological and geotechnical aspects (Shapka-Fels & Elmo, 2022 ). These parameters are required to improve the accuracy of mine subsidence prediction. Therefore, in-order to predict accurately using 3-D numerical Modeling technique, there is a need of Constraining of rock mass properties & in-situ stress using backward modeling and Calibration of forward model using monitoring data. 2. Mine Subsidence Prediction Methods Mine subsidence can be predicted using three main techniques: empirical, analytical, and numerical (Bahuguna et al., 1991 a). Traditionally, empirical methods have been employed in the field of rock engineering to characterise the tentative response trends associated with the studied phenomenon. These methods are based on a synthesis of past observations, typically in similar settings. They can significantly affect ground deformation profiles, but they don't account for the effects of geological heterogeneity and stress-strain interactions (Woo et al., 2012 ). Empirical approaches are straightforward and efficient, and they provide reasonably good findings. However, their application is confined to certain regions with similar geological and mining settings, therefore they are site-specific.This is the main disadvantage of these methods (Bahuguna et al., 1991 b). The influence function methods are among the most convenient approaches employed for estimating the shape and magnitude of subsidence (Fathi Salmi et al., 2017 ). They are based on the superposition principle and consider the displacements induced by a subsidence at a given point as the sum of the displacements induced by the subsidence of elementary mining units. The subsidence of a surface location can be calculated by combining the impacts of all the infinitesimal components of the excavation (Aston et al., 1987 ).The methods mentioned may not fully account for the effects of stress-strain interactions and geological heterogeneity, which can have a significant impact on ground deformation. Numerical approaches provide a powerful, comprehensive, and adaptable framework for the study of engineering systems, allowing for the consideration of complicated geometries, variables, and processes that empirical and Influence- function techniques can't (Zhang et al., 2021 ). Numerical methods, in contrast, are predicated on the geological, physical, and mechanical properties of the rock mass and rely on theories of continuum and/or non-continuum mechanics to predict subsidence in a mechanistic manner (Huang et al., 2017 ). In recent times, researchers have been utilizing sophisticated two-dimensional and three-dimensional numerical simulation methods to enhance their analysis and understanding of the subject matter. (Queensminedesignwiki, 2011 ; Woo et al., 2012 ).It is critical to have an appropriate and accurate representation of the rock mass in the numerical model in order to effectively simulate the engineering & physical behaviour of a rock mass during mining activities. According to (Hoek et al., 2002 ; Hudson & Harrison, 2000 ) rock masses can be classified into two major categories: Continuous, Homogeneous, Isotropic, & Linear Elastic (CHILE), and largely Discontinuous, In-homogeneous, Anisotropic, & Non-Elastic (DIANE). However, it is worth noting that the majority of rock masses fall under the DIANE classification. 3. Numerical Method for subsidence prediction The advancement of information technology (IT) and computer equipment, including supercomputers, cloud computing, and various numerical approaches, has enabled the analysis and evaluation of complex problems in rock mechanics and engineering. Before applying numerical Modeling to solve rock mechanics problems, researchers and engineers must distinguish between different methodologies and codes (Wagner H, 2019 ; Li, L. 2022 ). Conventional numerical Modeling tools for evaluating rock engineering issues consider the rock mass as either a continuum or a discontinuum. The finite element methods (FEM) and finite difference methods (FDM) are based on the assumption that the rock mass behaves like a continuous medium (Latha, 2006 ). Discrete element methods (DEM), on the other hand, assume that the rock mass is a discontinuum with a finite number of interacting singularities (Jing, 2003 ). The boundary element method (BEM) focuses on the excavating surface rather than Modeling the complex geology present as a result of the presence of various lithologies above the coal seam. As a result, the ability of the boundary element method (BEM) to predict subsidence is not as powerful as that of the finite difference method (FDM) and the finite element method (FEM) (Mirsalari, S. et al. 2017). The non-linear and non-homogeneous characteristics of the rock masses can be handled by both the finite element method (FEM) and the finite difference method (FDM). As a result, they have become critical tools for predicting mining-induced subsidence. In contrast to the implicit solution procedure of the finite element method (FEM), the finite difference method (FDM) employs an explicit solution procedure. Because matrices are not formed as in the implicit procedure of the finite element method (FEM), large displacements and complex constitutive models for rock units can be handled without any additional computing effort using the explicit Method in the finite difference method (FDM) (Nikishkov, 2004 ). The finite difference method (FDM) has been proved to be a suitable method for subsidence Modeling, owing to its ability to use the Lagrangian formulation, which allows materials to yield and flow while the grid deforms in a large-strain mode (Huang et al., 2017 ; Lemos, 2012). Combining FEM and DEM techniques is a more advanced approach to subsidence Modeling (Hamdi, P et. al.2018). A continuum domain is combined with discrete fractures in this approach, and subsequent fracturing can occur in response to changing stresses and strains. This technique, however, necessitates more computational effort. (Mirsalari et al., 2017 ; Stead et al., 2006 ) describe in extensive detail about these techniques and how they are used. Figure 1 depicts several methods to Modeling rock engineering problems: (a) a continuous approach, (b) a discrete approach, and (c) a hybrid approach (Jing, 2003 ). Both continuum and discontinuum methods provide a useful framework for analysing a wide range of complex engineering problems (Vyazmensky et al., 2010 ). Rock masses are difficult material to accurately represent via numerical Modeling due to their complex geology and long history of formation (Nuric et al., 2012 ). In-depth study has been carried out on development of different numerical methods. Further, it has been characterised based on developer, approach adopted, code, rock mass representation, failure realization and Method as shown in the Table 1 . Table 1 Characteristics of main numerical models Numerical Method Numerical code Developer/Trademark Modeling approach Rock mass representation Rock mass failure realization Reference FEM ANSYS Ansys Inc. Continuum Continuum medium Flexural deformation, plastic yield Elashiry, Gomma and Imbaby, 2009 ABAQUS Hibbit, Karlson Sorensen Inc Sepehri, Apel and Hall, 2017 STRAND7 STRAND7 STRAND7 manual EXAMINE2D RockScience EXAMINE user manual PLAXIS Plaxis BV Brinkgreve, Engin and Swolfs, 2012 DIANA DIANA Evans Jr and Butler, 1983 Phase2 Phase2 Phase2 Model Program Reference Manual FDM FLAC2D/3D FLAC2D/3D Itasca software Documentation/Hardening and Softening, no date; Woo et al., 2012 BEM NFOLD Golder Associates Elastic Deformation Rajmeny and Joshi, 2010 Map3-D Mine Modeling pty ltd. Abouzar Vakili et al.2010 DEM UDEC Itasca cg Discontinuum Assembly of deformable or rigid blocks Block deformation/movement Coulthard, 1988 /Cao et al., 2016 PFC2D/3-D Itasca cg Assembly of rigid bonded particles Particle movement, bond breakage Itasca software Documentation /Xibling Li et. Al. ( 2019 ) 3-DEC Itasca cg Assembly of deformable or rigid blocks Block deformation/movement Itasca software Documentation /Brummer et. al. 2006 Hybrid FEM/DEM Y2D/3-D Queen mary university London Hybrid continuum/discontinuum assembly of deformable and continuum medium hybrid approach Flexural deformation, plastic yield,block deformation Elmo et al., 2006; Mahabadi o.k. et. al. 2010 ELFEN Rockfield Software ltd Pine et al., 2006 ; Elmo et al., 2010 4. Geographical Location of Application Area The present field under study belongs to one of the copper-rich belts of India, namely Khetri Copper Belt (KCB). KCB mainly consists of two large underground copper mines namely Mine-A and Mine-B. The Mining lease areas of Mine-A and Mine-B are situated at the northern tip of the KCB. The area falls in the Survey of India Toposheet No. 44 / P16. The geographical location of the study area is latitude N 28 0 00'46" to N 28 0 05'50" and longitude E 75 0 45'32" to E 75 0 49'53". Our study area is Mine B as shown in Fig. 2 . 5. Data and Resources 5.1 Field Data collection for subsidence modeling of Mine B using numerical model Current and future Level plans and sections of Mine B. Approved Mining Plan Copy, Method of Working/Method of Mining of Mine B. Geological Report, Geology of the area, and geotechnical data (Lithology, Young’s modulus of elasticity, Poisson’s ratio, rock mass tensile and compressive strength, angle of internal friction, etc. of the ore body and host required to prepare the model of Mine B. All rock mechanics investigation reports of Mine B. The in-situ stress values are based on earlier measurements conducted by National Institute of Rock Mechanics at Mine B. 5.2 Topography The mineralized hill ridge is about 2.5 kilometres north of Bhopalgarh Fort and about two kilometres northwest of Khetri Town. The peak-quartzite extends for about 640 m in the N180E direction, closely aligning with the hill's axis running in the N160E direction. The massive quartzite outcrop has a sharp, knife-edge exposure and is located 670 metres above sea level. The western and eastern slopes have strike directions of North and N340E, and inclinations of 360 & 320 respectively. In general, the western slope is more rougher, steeper, and more challenging to traverse as compared to eastern slope. The majority of the area is covered by bushes, specifically kickers, with some other forest trees thrown in for good measure. The eastern valley gradually rises from its lowest point of 422m above mean sea level to bottom of the hill, while the ascent beyond the base is relatively steeper. The western part of the foot-hill, which has a base elevation of 460m above sea level, is linked to several sand dunes-covered hillocks. The entire 2 km stretch to the west, starting at the foot-hill to the seasonal river Kharkhara, is covered in sand dunes. Water flows into both the east & west slopes of main hill region, but the water is absorbed on the west due to the extensive coverage of sandy soil and sand dunes. The eastern side is prone to flooding due to water inflow during shorter rainy days. The stream in the eastern valley generally flows in the southeast direction. The topographic plan of Mine B is shown in Fig. 3 . 5.3 Surface Geology The primary rock formations in the Mine B regions include argillaceous sediments and metamorphosed arenaceous containing intercalated calcareous bands. These rocks also have younger basic rocks and acidic intrusions such as pegmatite, granite, and quartz veins. The following are the major rock units discovered within and adjacent to the Mine-B area (from the east side of footwall to the west side of hanging wall). Garnet chlorite quartzite/schist, amphibole quartzite, amphibole magnetite rocks, and amphibole-rich rock are the host rocks of the primary ore lenses in Mine B. The footwall limit is represented by feldspathic quartzite, while the hanging wall limit is marked by phyllite in the copper mineralization as shown in Fig. 4 . 5.4 General information of ore bodies and mine working details Mainly, the ore bodies in Mine B have been classified into two lodes, namely Hanging Wall (H/W) and Foot Wall (F/W) lodes. The width of the ore body (F/W + H/W) varies from 80 m to 140 m. F/W lode persists up to 184 mRL of the mine. Below 184 mRL, only one lode, i.e., H/W, continues with a lode width of about 60 m. It is also observed that the ore body at lower levels is expanding on both the flanks. Due to this, the strike length of the ore body has increased by about 200 m at lower levels. The general strike of the formation is N30 0 E-S30 0 W with a steep dip of about 70 0 to 85 0 due NW. The Mine B has a 700m strike length with eight levels spaced at a vertical interval of 60 metres. 424, 364, 306, 246, 184, 124, 64, and 0 metres above MSL are the levels. The top four levels (424, 364, 306, and 246 mRL) have been depleted, and the top three levels have been isolated from the rest of the mine. Mining operations are currently taking place at two levels (184 and 124 mRL), while mine development is taking place at four levels namely 184, 124, 64, and 0 mRL. Stope development is also planned in the strike extension at 306 and 246 mRL to increase stope availability. 6. Research methodology 6.1 Flow diagram of research methodology adopted for the subsidence Modeling in the present case is shown in the 6.2 Modeling flow chart for the present case using suitable 3-D numerical Modeling tool is shown as Fig. 6. 6.2.1 Steps involved in subsidence Modeling for the present case using suitable FEM based software The modeling steps first involved the bringing and visualising the CAD files of different levels and Surface contour as shown in Fig. 7. After removing and correcting the lines and nodes of CAD files, these files were used for generating elements/Plates by connecting different nodes/Lines as shown in Fig. 8. Further these elements were used for conversion of element into a geometry as shown in Fig. 9. After this, these geometries were used for automeshing of specified size and then automeshed surface was created as shown in Fig. 10. After that the final steps was to convert automeshed surface to solid model as shown in Fig. 11(a) and 11(b). Bringing in CAD files that contain various level plans and surface contours as shown in Fig. 7 Generating elements (plates) by linking distinct nodes as shown in Fig. 8. Transforming the plate into a geometric representation as shown in Fig. 9. Automatically generating a mesh for the created geometry as shown in Fig. 10. Converting the automatically meshed surface into a solid model as shown in Fig. 11(a) and 11(b). 7. Results and discussion 7.1 Results of obtained strain in XX (E-W) and YY (N-S) direction Table 2- Minimum and maximum strain in XX and YY direction of virgin, current, next 5 years and next 10 years of mining state of Mine-B Mining state Virgin state Current state Next 5 years Next 10 Years XX strain(mm/m) Minimum 0.100 0.100 0.100 0.100 Maximum 1.000 9.000 10.000 10.000 YY strain(mm/m) Minimum 0.100 0.100 0.100 0.100 Maximum 1.000 19.000 19.500 19.900 Minimum and maximum strain in XX and YY direction of virgin, current, next 5 years and next 10 years of mining state of Mine-B in Table 2 . Figure 12 and Fig. 13 shows the increment of strain at different stages of mining in XX and YY direction .Obtained surface strain in XX and YY direction for virgin state, current mining, next 5 years mining and next 10 years mining is shown in the Fig. 14 to 21 , respectively. Further, Figs. 14 and 15 show that the surface strain in XX and YY directions is negligible for virgin state. Further, Fig. 16 – 17 , 18 – 19 , and 20 – 21 shows that the surface strain (in XX and YY directions) variations are almost similar for current mining, next 5 years mining, and next 10 years mining situations. Strain variations are almost similar in all three mining situations, mainly because of change in mining position in next 5 years and next 10 years is insignificant with respect to the current mining position. From the Fig. 16 and Fig. 17 (in current mining state), Minimum surface strain of 0.01 mm/m, 0.01 mm/m and maximum surface strain of 9 mm/m, 19 mm/m in XX and YY directions, respectively, are observed. Similarly, from the Fig. 18 and Fig. 19 (in next five years mining state), Minimum surface strain of 0.01 mm/m, 0.01 mm/m and maximum surface strain of 10 mm/m, 19.5 mm/m in XX and YY directions, respectively are observed. Further, from the Fig. 20 and Fig. 21 (next 10 years mining state), Minimum surface strain of 0.01 mm/m, 0.01 mm/m and maximum surface strain of 10 mm/m, 19.90 mm/m in XX and YY directions, respectively, are observed.. In-addition, from Fig. 14 to 15 , it is also observed that developed surface strain (in XX and YY directions) is a part of pre-existing subsidence troughs confined within a common break line. However, in footwall side, surface strain in XX-direction in all three mining situations is developing outside the lower trough (South side) only up to some extent. However, its value is ranging from 9.0 mm/m to 10 mm/m only. Observed maximum surface strain in YY-direction in all three mining situations, which varies from 19.0 mm/m to 19.90 mm/m, is also a part of pre-existing lower subsidence trough (south side) and confined within a small area. Further, in general, outside the pre-existing subsidence troughs (which are confined within a common break line), no surface strain is observed in any of the directions (XX and YY direction) in all three mining situations. 7.2 Results of obtained displacement in Z-direction In order to analyses the displacement in z-direction, three sections at suitable location were made (as shown in the Fig. 22 ). Maximum downward displacement of around 10 cm observed in and around of lower trough (Fig. 23 ) in all three mining situations. It is further observed from Fig. 23 that in footwall side there is a slight uplift in all three mining situations wrt the virgin state. Further, Maximum downward displacement of around 10 cm is observed in hang wall side of upper trough (Fig. 24 ) in all three mining situations. It is further observed from Fig. 24 that in footwall side there is a slight uplift in all three mining situations wrt the virgin state. 1Furthermore, Maximum downward displacement of around 40 cm observed in outside of lower trough along the section (Fig. 25 ). It is further observed from Fig. 25 that in outside the upper trough along the section there is a slight downward displacement in all three mining situations wrt the virgin state. It is also observed from Fig. 25 that in between two troughs along the section, there is a maximum downward displacement of around 25 cm in all three mining situations wrt the virgin state. 8. Conclusions and future scope This paper shows the results of a detailed 3-dimensional analysis of mining-induced subsidence at a mine. Geological data were used to develop a computational model that comprised the orebody and the surrounding rock, which were primarily constituted of feldspar quartzite, amphibole quartzite, phyllite, and sericite quartzite. Numerical results clearly demonstrate the capability of the FEM approach in reproducing the Strain and displacement in the ground surface in X and Y direction and displacement in Z direction. Observed surface strain in XX and YY directions is negligible for virgin state and variations are almost similar for current mining, next 5 years mining, and next 10 years mining situations. Strain variations are almost similar in all three mining situations, mainly because of change in mining position in next 5 years and next 10 years is insignificant with respect to the current mining position. It is also observed that developed surface strain (in XX and YY directions) is a part of pre-existing subsidence troughs confined within a common break line. It is further observed from the Fig. 6.20 that in and around upper trough along the section 3 – 3 there is a slight downward displacement in all three mining situations wrt the virgin state Further, in general, outside the pre-existing subsidence troughs (which are confined within a common break line), no displacement is observed in Z-direction in all three mining situations. Predicted subsidence requires calibration using monitoring data to enhance its accuracy. Therefore, management has to develop a monitoring method to produce data for calibrating the predicted subsidence. Nonetheless, slope instability difficulties may occur due to the formation and collapse of troughs. Consequently, management must implement suitable steps to resolve this issue. Further, In the mining industry, the current way of preventing blast holes had an effect on the stability and safety of the rock structure and surface. In addition, the growing area of subsidence resulted in increased pressure on land acquisition, slope stability, soil conservation, and mine reclamation. The mine faced risks to its economic viability and safe operation, along with potential permanent environmental damage in the vicinity. It is recommended that surface subsidence management and ground control of the mine-out region be implemented in order to accomplish an all-win situation for the environment and the economy. Declarations Funding: No funding Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Ethics Approval: This research is an original work of the authors and has not been previously published elsewhere. Consent to Participate: All authors have consented to participate in this research. Authors’ contributions: Mr. Avinash Singh currently doing research on this topic as a research scholar under the guidance of Dr. Mohammad Soyeb Alam Acknowledgement: I would like to express my gratitude to supervisor Prof Md. Soyeb Alam, Prof Dheeraj Kumar and retired Prof U.K. Singh, Department of Mining Engineering for providing his continuous assistance and informative feedback on my research. Data Availability Statement: Data used have been provided by the corresponding author on request. References Alam, M. S., Kumar, D., & Chatterjee, R. S. (2022). Improving the capability of integrated DInSAR and PSI approach for better detection, monitoring, and analysis of land surface deformation in underground mining environment. Geocarto International , 37 (12), 3607-3641.https://doi.org/10.1080/10106049.2020.1864028 Aston, T. R. C., Tammemagi, H. Y., & Poon, A. W. (1987). A review and evaluation of empirical and analytical subsidence prediction techniques. 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(2011) ‘Numerical Modeling’, Harmonising Rock Engineering and the Environment, (Figure 1), pp. 221–222. https://doi.org/10.1201/b11646-9. Reddish, D. J., & Whittaker, B. N. (2012). Subsidence: occurrence, prediction and control . Elsevier. Wagner, H. (2019). Deep mining: a rock engineering challenge. Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering , 52 , 1417-1446. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00603-019-01799-4 Woo, K. S., Eberhardt, E., Rabus, B., Stead, D., & Vyazmensky, A. (2012). Integration of field characterisation, mine production and InSAR monitoring data to constrain and calibrate 3-D numerical modelling of block caving-induced subsidence. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences , 53 , 166-178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrmms.2012.05.008 Xu, N., Zhang, J., Tian, H., Mei, G., & Ge, Q. (2016). Discrete element modeling of strata and surface movement induced by mining under open-pit final slope. 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Analysis of the surface subsidence induced by mining near-surface thick lead-zinc deposit based on numerical simulation. Processes , 9 (4), 717. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9040717. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 11 Apr, 2025 Reviews received at journal 10 Apr, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 09 Apr, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 17 Mar, 2025 Reviews received at journal 15 Mar, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 14 Mar, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 10 Mar, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 10 Mar, 2025 Editor invited by journal 04 Mar, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 04 Mar, 2025 First submitted to journal 19 Feb, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6061891","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":424049480,"identity":"575fc332-8147-4cac-88aa-d7ccc84ec74e","order_by":0,"name":"Avinash Singh","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Indian Institute of Technology (ISM)","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Avinash","middleName":"","lastName":"Singh","suffix":""},{"id":424049481,"identity":"e94d9fe2-679a-4987-b36f-b3e1771d25cc","order_by":1,"name":"Mohammad Soyeb Alam","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAyElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYHACxgMMDDY8bAyMDRA+MxF6gFrSeNjYSNRymIGBjVhX6fYffnDgZ855GT755uZPNxjs5BnYeQ/g1WJ2I83gYO+22yCHtUnnMCQbNjDzJRDQwmBwgBeqhTmHgTmBgZnHAL+W88c/HPy77RxIS/PnHIZ6IrQcyDE4zLvtADjEgA47TISWGzkFh2W3JQO1JAL9YnDcsI0Ih218+Habnb188/HHn3MqquX5+c/g14IGDEiIn1EwCkbBKBgFuAEAfTo9SHnlC20AAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"Indian Institute of Technology (ISM)","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Mohammad","middleName":"Soyeb","lastName":"Alam","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-02-19 08:08:19","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6061891/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6061891/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":78244046,"identity":"9692d4eb-4829-4e17-a279-7b77f46e0c09","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-11 09:16:32","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":366225,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSeveral approaches to Modeling rock engineering problems: (a) a continuous approach, (b) a discrete approach, and (c) a hybrid approach. (Jing, 2003)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6061891/v1/ef8c0b0b44466e4eb6c29adf.png"},{"id":78246063,"identity":"0a8e2f79-b127-4bc1-9a8e-ef761aabd6cf","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-11 09:24:31","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":528951,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGeographical location of application area shown on google earth imagery. (source: Google earth)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6061891/v1/5fb467e7eb9f0ed1120d7c71.png"},{"id":78244110,"identity":"4375c138-4f9d-42c9-84ca-d2e9dddf42d0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-11 09:16:35","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":385349,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTopographic plan of Mine B (source: Generated map from GIS based software)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6061891/v1/efbac494667461df6078dee5.png"},{"id":78244025,"identity":"d185e75b-4ef6-4797-9bf6-a3e70c526740","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-11 09:16:31","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1247254,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSurface geological plan of Mine B (source: Generated map from GIS based software)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6061891/v1/b5ede86d8d67c106ef6d06a8.png"},{"id":78244033,"identity":"d5d1104d-e3a1-4454-97c1-ed989b1e4e48","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-11 09:16:31","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":86335,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFlow diagram of research methodology adopted for the subsidence Modeling\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6061891/v1/7c484aa2df36eeea16d21cf6.png"},{"id":78244111,"identity":"7047c161-2745-494a-bc32-ab5d45f3804d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-11 09:16:36","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":62249,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSubsidence Modeling flow chart for the present case using suitable 3-D numerical Modeling tool\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6061891/v1/dfbf2347d836dae922589fdd.png"},{"id":78246778,"identity":"de2f9926-4f58-4fc5-a4f2-0be49c84d85c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-11 09:32:33","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1326437,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eImporting of different level plans and surface contour (CAD files) (source: Output generated from FEM based software: STRAND7)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6061891/v1/547a682b9a95fc6ff9f335e5.png"},{"id":78244047,"identity":"f7b4a03d-b4db-4ea8-9d41-cc03bf886818","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-11 09:16:32","extension":"png","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":755924,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCreation of elements (plates) by connecting different nodes (source: Output generated from FEM based software: STRAND7)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6061891/v1/96d11dc6961a33076279b7fb.png"},{"id":78246770,"identity":"950ce741-db66-42df-9432-281c10a5a1f4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-11 09:32:31","extension":"png","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1529517,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eConversion of plate into Geometry (source: Output generated from FEM based software: STRAND7)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"9.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6061891/v1/98151b6e115724a4e94915e6.png"},{"id":78244026,"identity":"10e42bb3-e528-4cf5-8b74-3748a9fe9914","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-11 09:16:31","extension":"png","order_by":10,"title":"Figure 10","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":308793,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMesh Generation from the created Geometry (source: Output generated from FEM based software: STRAND7)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage13.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6061891/v1/9aec384461a54038c0fe406a.png"},{"id":78244103,"identity":"caf685ec-7095-4c34-9724-bd4c4dd222e7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-11 09:16:35","extension":"png","order_by":11,"title":"Figure 11","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":2590804,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e(a): Conversion of auto-meshed surface to solid model (source: Output generated from FEM based software: STRAND7)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(b): Solid model of orebody with different levels of mining (source: Output generated from FEM based software: STRAND7)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"11a.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6061891/v1/57313a92810fd8b581f654dc.png"},{"id":78244077,"identity":"aba113e1-1394-47c8-8dce-1fb5476030f9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-11 09:16:33","extension":"png","order_by":12,"title":"Figure 12","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":171308,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMinimum and maximum strain in XX direction of different stages of mining\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"12.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6061891/v1/77ca7159f5f3adb9cfd15db3.png"},{"id":78244089,"identity":"14112a71-5e58-4f37-8201-827384f3c1fe","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-11 09:16:34","extension":"png","order_by":13,"title":"Figure 13","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":171344,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMinimum and maximum strain in YY direction of different stages of mining\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"13.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6061891/v1/df44d0b4b5f6a80546103af2.png"},{"id":78246074,"identity":"675e7e83-93c5-487a-a8ab-9357ab49b5ec","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-11 09:24:32","extension":"png","order_by":14,"title":"Figure 14","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":539046,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePlan showing surface strain of virgin state in XX direction along with mine lease boundary and production cum service shaft location\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage16.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6061891/v1/b120972edf2baf100dca8a6b.png"},{"id":78246773,"identity":"48956d1a-43cc-45c6-b692-5127b188a670","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-11 09:32:31","extension":"png","order_by":15,"title":"Figure 15","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":316301,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePlan showing surface strain of virgin state in YY direction along with mine lease boundary and production cum service shaft location.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage17.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6061891/v1/223b26c0728e4e1b85d8f517.png"},{"id":78246081,"identity":"41125817-f1bb-4cd5-b304-c0a9d290c4b9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-11 09:24:32","extension":"png","order_by":16,"title":"Figure 16","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":340299,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePlan showing surface strain of current mining in XX direction along with mine lease boundary and production cum service shaft location.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage18.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6061891/v1/fea4fab0bc7664bd2186c39b.png"},{"id":78246068,"identity":"264872d1-4092-4fa3-af6b-a4467d371a58","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-11 09:24:31","extension":"png","order_by":17,"title":"Figure 17","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":340182,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePlan showing surface strain of current mining in YY direction along with mine lease boundary and production cum service shaft location.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage19.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6061891/v1/cfaff889d0dbe50b9d3a9359.png"},{"id":78244039,"identity":"88e2dc1e-5e3f-4fd7-8514-f6f38b44365c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-11 09:16:31","extension":"png","order_by":18,"title":"Figure 18","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":336463,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePlan showing surface strain of next 5 years in XX direction along with mine lease boundary and production cum service shaft location.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage20.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6061891/v1/fc2b02fdacad216a07bd7194.png"},{"id":78246774,"identity":"58bdea06-ad0a-4497-9c3a-918c2560c5dc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-11 09:32:31","extension":"png","order_by":19,"title":"Figure 19","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":339080,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePlan showing surface strain of next 5 years in YY direction along with mine lease boundary and production cum service shaft location\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage23.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6061891/v1/973f4874710ff7b25e4b9bb5.png"},{"id":78246091,"identity":"4124eb5b-a418-416b-b108-4efa782fe2d0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-11 09:24:34","extension":"png","order_by":20,"title":"Figure 20","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1675232,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePlan showing surface strain of next 10 years in XX direction along with mine lease boundary and production cum service shaft location.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"20.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6061891/v1/87a9aa7945dd7b8355343c7d.png"},{"id":78244042,"identity":"e2d2afd2-ce82-4c86-a5a2-fe7d67e94836","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-11 09:16:32","extension":"png","order_by":21,"title":"Figure 21","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1652548,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePlan showing surface strain of next 10 years in YY direction along with mine lease boundary and production cum service shaft location.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"21.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6061891/v1/67e82178c2279298eec06a8d.png"},{"id":78244085,"identity":"75313164-e49e-4995-aae4-695e40dcc6d8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-11 09:16:34","extension":"png","order_by":22,"title":"Figure 22","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":84665,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSurface displacement (z-direction) plan showing locations of different sections\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage24.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6061891/v1/26f21fb9a82417dfa27a720a.png"},{"id":78244081,"identity":"0859874e-eeec-46c2-8505-a53f3e612254","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-11 09:16:34","extension":"png","order_by":23,"title":"Figure 23","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":108525,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003edisplacement in z-direction (virgin, current, next five years, next ten years of mining) along section 1-1\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage25.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6061891/v1/5470b4ea1062fd31de695e93.png"},{"id":78244040,"identity":"674ef50b-312b-4ba3-be37-dd1abb81f474","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-11 09:16:31","extension":"png","order_by":24,"title":"Figure 24","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":101357,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003edisplacement in z-direction (virgin, current, next five years, next ten years of mining) along section 2-2\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage26.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6061891/v1/11f027cbee32598929154c6a.png"},{"id":78246071,"identity":"313e374b-c9fb-43af-9354-2cebcccd4563","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-11 09:24:31","extension":"png","order_by":25,"title":"Figure 25","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":105687,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003edisplacement in z-direction (virgin, current, next five years, next ten years of mining) along section 3-3\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage27.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6061891/v1/4be81335e9442df54021884c.png"},{"id":78249421,"identity":"10fd87fc-8abb-4388-b197-0ee9e031b4a8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-11 09:48:42","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":17914811,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6061891/v1/384e14cf-8823-40ba-afe1-2155dfd15ee9.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003eModeling and Analysis of Ground Subsidence Due to Underground Mining Using 3-d Numerical Techniques\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eSubsidence is defined as a decrease in ground surface elevation caused by the subsurface extraction of ore or another reserve (Alam et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) .Land surface deformation is a situation caused by both natural and anthropogenic geophysical phenomena. Ground subsidence, or the sinking or settling of the Earth's surface, can be caused by a number of mechanisms. These processes can occur naturally or as a result of human activities (Hartman et al., 1992). Some of the natural processes that can cause ground subsidence include sediment compaction, permafrost melting, and tectonic plate shifting. Meanwhile, human activities such as oil and gas extraction, geothermal fluid withdrawal, and underground mining for coal and minerals can also lead to ground subsidence. Wetting and dewatering soils can also result in liquefaction and settling (Soliman, 1997). According to Singh, \"Subsidence is a common consequence of underground mining and it can vary in magnitude and extent. Subsidence can occur immediately after mining activities, or it may continue over a prolonged period of time (Singh M.M. et. al. 1992) Subsidence can harm the environment and risk the stability of surface and underground structures and infrastructure. Subsidence can be small and localised or extensive, affecting a wide geographic region (Clayton et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Zhao \u0026amp; Zhu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). However, it is essential to remember that subsidence is an inherent and unavoidable risk connected with underground mining. When underground mining is done over a certain area, the rock mass above the mining zone begins to sink into the excavations formed during the mining process. As a result, the earth surface sinks, creating trenches, hollows, abrupt steps, open fractures, and large subsidence bowls or troughs (Kratzsch, 2012). In addition, in order to compute the net present value (NPV) in forest areas, the mining-induced subsidence in forest areas needs to be modelled using 3-D numerical Modeling in accordance with the regulatory criteria of the Ministry of Environment and Forests and Climate Change (MoEFCC).Furthermore, mine subsidence can be measured in two ways: 1) using various subsidence prediction models in prevalent geomining and geotechnical circumstances, and 2) using various mine subsidence monitoring techniques. However, the current study focusses on assessment using prediction models. Among the mine subsidence prediction models, 3-D numerical Modeling has an advantage over other models (Woo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Huang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Sj\u0026ouml;berg, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, the accuracy of predicting mine subsidence with 3-D numerical models continues to be challenging due to the various inputs needed, mainly geological and geotechnical aspects (Shapka-Fels \u0026amp; Elmo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). These parameters are required to improve the accuracy of mine subsidence prediction. Therefore, in-order to predict accurately using 3-D numerical Modeling technique, there is a need of Constraining of rock mass properties \u0026amp; in-situ stress using backward modeling and Calibration of forward model using monitoring data.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Mine Subsidence Prediction Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eMine subsidence can be predicted using three main techniques: empirical, analytical, and numerical (Bahuguna et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003ea). Traditionally, empirical methods have been employed in the field of rock engineering to characterise the tentative response trends associated with the studied phenomenon. These methods are based on a synthesis of past observations, typically in similar settings. They can significantly affect ground deformation profiles, but they don't account for the effects of geological heterogeneity and stress-strain interactions (Woo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Empirical approaches are straightforward and efficient, and they provide reasonably good findings. However, their application is confined to certain regions with similar geological and mining settings, therefore they are site-specific.This is the main disadvantage of these methods (Bahuguna et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003eb).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe influence function methods are among the most convenient approaches employed for estimating the shape and magnitude of subsidence (Fathi Salmi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). They are based on the superposition principle and consider the displacements induced by a subsidence at a given point as the sum of the displacements induced by the subsidence of elementary mining units. The subsidence of a surface location can be calculated by combining the impacts of all the infinitesimal components of the excavation (Aston et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1987\u003c/span\u003e).The methods mentioned may not fully account for the effects of stress-strain interactions and geological heterogeneity, which can have a significant impact on ground deformation. Numerical approaches provide a powerful, comprehensive, and adaptable framework for the study of engineering systems, allowing for the consideration of complicated geometries, variables, and processes that empirical and Influence- function techniques can't (Zhang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Numerical methods, in contrast, are predicated on the geological, physical, and mechanical properties of the rock mass and rely on theories of continuum and/or non-continuum mechanics to predict subsidence in a mechanistic manner (Huang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). In recent times, researchers have been utilizing sophisticated two-dimensional and three-dimensional numerical simulation methods to enhance their analysis and understanding of the subject matter. (Queensminedesignwiki, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Woo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e).It is critical to have an appropriate and accurate representation of the rock mass in the numerical model in order to effectively simulate the engineering \u0026amp; physical behaviour of a rock mass during mining activities. According to (Hoek et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; Hudson \u0026amp; Harrison, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e) rock masses can be classified into two major categories: Continuous, Homogeneous, Isotropic, \u0026amp; Linear Elastic (CHILE), and largely Discontinuous, In-homogeneous, Anisotropic, \u0026amp; Non-Elastic (DIANE). However, it is worth noting that the majority of rock masses fall under the DIANE classification.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3. Numerical Method for subsidence prediction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe advancement of information technology (IT) and computer equipment, including supercomputers, cloud computing, and various numerical approaches, has enabled the analysis and evaluation of complex problems in rock mechanics and engineering. Before applying numerical Modeling to solve rock mechanics problems, researchers and engineers must distinguish between different methodologies and codes (Wagner H, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Li, L. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eConventional numerical Modeling tools for evaluating rock engineering issues consider the rock mass as either a continuum or a discontinuum. The finite element methods (FEM) and finite difference methods (FDM) are based on the assumption that the rock mass behaves like a continuous medium (Latha, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). Discrete element methods (DEM), on the other hand, assume that the rock mass is a discontinuum with a finite number of interacting singularities (Jing, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). The boundary element method (BEM) focuses on the excavating surface rather than Modeling the complex geology present as a result of the presence of various lithologies above the coal seam. As a result, the ability of the boundary element method (BEM) to predict subsidence is not as powerful as that of the finite difference method (FDM) and the finite element method (FEM) (Mirsalari, S. et al. 2017). The non-linear and non-homogeneous characteristics of the rock masses can be handled by both the finite element method (FEM) and the finite difference method (FDM). As a result, they have become critical tools for predicting mining-induced subsidence. In contrast to the implicit solution procedure of the finite element method (FEM), the finite difference method (FDM) employs an explicit solution procedure. Because matrices are not formed as in the implicit procedure of the finite element method (FEM), large displacements and complex constitutive models for rock units can be handled without any additional computing effort using the explicit Method in the finite difference method (FDM) (Nikishkov, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). The finite difference method (FDM) has been proved to be a suitable method for subsidence Modeling, owing to its ability to use the Lagrangian formulation, which allows materials to yield and flow while the grid deforms in a large-strain mode (Huang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Lemos, 2012). Combining FEM and DEM techniques is a more advanced approach to subsidence Modeling (Hamdi, P et. al.2018). A continuum domain is combined with discrete fractures in this approach, and subsequent fracturing can occur in response to changing stresses and strains. This technique, however, necessitates more computational effort. (Mirsalari et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Stead et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e) describe in extensive detail about these techniques and how they are used. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e depicts several methods to Modeling rock engineering problems: (a) a continuous approach, (b) a discrete approach, and (c) a hybrid approach (Jing, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). Both continuum and discontinuum methods provide a useful framework for analysing a wide range of complex engineering problems (Vyazmensky et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). Rock masses are difficult material to accurately represent via numerical Modeling due to their complex geology and long history of formation (Nuric et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn-depth study has been carried out on development of different numerical methods. Further, it has been characterised based on developer, approach adopted, code, rock mass representation, failure realization and Method as shown in the Table\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCharacteristics of main numerical models\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumerical Method\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumerical code\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDeveloper/Trademark\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModeling approach\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRock mass representation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRock mass failure realization\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReference\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"6\" rowspan=\"7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFEM\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eANSYS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnsys Inc.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"9\" rowspan=\"10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eContinuum\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"9\" rowspan=\"10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eContinuum medium\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"7\" rowspan=\"8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFlexural deformation, plastic yield\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eElashiry, Gomma and Imbaby, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eABAQUS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHibbit, Karlson Sorensen Inc\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSepehri, Apel and Hall, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSTRAND7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSTRAND7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSTRAND7 manual\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEXAMINE2D\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRockScience\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEXAMINE user manual\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePLAXIS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePlaxis BV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBrinkgreve, Engin and Swolfs, 2012\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDIANA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDIANA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEvans Jr and Butler, 1983\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhase2\u003c/p\u003e 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\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNFOLD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGolder Associates\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eElastic Deformation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRajmeny and Joshi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMap3-D\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMine Modeling pty ltd.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAbouzar Vakili et al.2010\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDEM\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUDEC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItasca cg\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDiscontinuum\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAssembly of deformable or rigid blocks\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBlock deformation/movement\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoulthard, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1988\u003c/span\u003e/Cao et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePFC2D/3-D\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItasca cg\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAssembly of rigid bonded particles\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticle movement, bond breakage\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItasca software Documentation /Xibling Li et. Al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3-DEC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItasca cg\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAssembly of deformable or rigid blocks\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBlock deformation/movement\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItasca software Documentation /Brummer et. al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eHybrid FEM/DEM\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY2D/3-D\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eQueen mary university London\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHybrid continuum/discontinuum\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eassembly of deformable and continuum medium hybrid approach\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFlexural deformation, plastic yield,block deformation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eElmo et al., 2006; Mahabadi o.k. et. al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eELFEN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRockfield Software ltd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePine et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Elmo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4. Geographical Location of Application Area","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe present field under study belongs to one of the copper-rich belts of India, namely Khetri Copper Belt (KCB). KCB mainly consists of two large underground copper mines namely Mine-A and Mine-B. The Mining lease areas of Mine-A and Mine-B are situated at the northern tip of the KCB. The area falls in the Survey of India Toposheet No. 44 / P16. The geographical location of the study area is latitude N 28\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003e00'46\" to N 28\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003e05'50\" and longitude E 75\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003e45'32\" to E 75\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003e49'53\". Our study area is Mine B as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. Data and Resources","content":"\u003cp\u003e5.1 Field Data collection for subsidence modeling of Mine B using numerical model\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eCurrent and future Level plans and sections of Mine B.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eApproved Mining Plan Copy, Method of Working/Method of Mining of Mine B.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eGeological Report, Geology of the area, and geotechnical data (Lithology, Young\u0026rsquo;s modulus of elasticity, Poisson\u0026rsquo;s ratio, rock mass tensile and compressive strength, angle of internal friction, etc. of the ore body and host required to prepare the model of Mine B.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll rock mechanics investigation reports of Mine B.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe in-situ stress values are based on earlier measurements conducted by National Institute of Rock Mechanics at Mine B.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e5.2 Topography\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe mineralized hill ridge is about 2.5 kilometres north of Bhopalgarh Fort and about two kilometres northwest of Khetri Town. The peak-quartzite extends for about 640 m in the N180E direction, closely aligning with the hill's axis running in the N160E direction. The massive quartzite outcrop has a sharp, knife-edge exposure and is located 670 metres above sea level. The western and eastern slopes have strike directions of North and N340E, and inclinations of 360 \u0026amp; 320 respectively. In general, the western slope is more rougher, steeper, and more challenging to traverse as compared to eastern slope. The majority of the area is covered by bushes, specifically kickers, with some other forest trees thrown in for good measure. The eastern valley gradually rises from its lowest point of 422m above mean sea level to bottom of the hill, while the ascent beyond the base is relatively steeper. The western part of the foot-hill, which has a base elevation of 460m above sea level, is linked to several sand dunes-covered hillocks. The entire 2 km stretch to the west, starting at the foot-hill to the seasonal river Kharkhara, is covered in sand dunes. Water flows into both the east \u0026amp; west slopes of main hill region, but the water is absorbed on the west due to the extensive coverage of sandy soil and sand dunes. The eastern side is prone to flooding due to water inflow during shorter rainy days. The stream in the eastern valley generally flows in the southeast direction. The topographic plan of Mine B is shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e5.3 Surface Geology\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe primary rock formations in the Mine B regions include argillaceous sediments and metamorphosed arenaceous containing intercalated calcareous bands. These rocks also have younger basic rocks and acidic intrusions such as pegmatite, granite, and quartz veins. The following are the major rock units discovered within and adjacent to the Mine-B area (from the east side of footwall to the west side of hanging wall). Garnet chlorite quartzite/schist, amphibole quartzite, amphibole magnetite rocks, and amphibole-rich rock are the host rocks of the primary ore lenses in Mine B. The footwall limit is represented by feldspathic quartzite, while the hanging wall limit is marked by phyllite in the copper mineralization as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e5.4 General information of ore bodies and mine working details\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMainly, the ore bodies in Mine B have been classified into two lodes, namely Hanging Wall (H/W) and Foot Wall (F/W) lodes. The width of the ore body (F/W\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;H/W) varies from 80 m to 140 m. F/W lode persists up to 184 mRL of the mine. Below 184 mRL, only one lode, i.e., H/W, continues with a lode width of about 60 m. It is also observed that the ore body at lower levels is expanding on both the flanks. Due to this, the strike length of the ore body has increased by about 200 m at lower levels. The general strike of the formation is N30\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003eE-S30\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003eW with a steep dip of about 70\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003e to 85\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003edue NW. The Mine B has a 700m strike length with eight levels spaced at a vertical interval of 60 metres. 424, 364, 306, 246, 184, 124, 64, and 0 metres above MSL are the levels. The top four levels (424, 364, 306, and 246 mRL) have been depleted, and the top three levels have been isolated from the rest of the mine. Mining operations are currently taking place at two levels (184 and 124 mRL), while mine development is taking place at four levels namely 184, 124, 64, and 0 mRL. Stope development is also planned in the strike extension at 306 and 246 mRL to increase stope availability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"6. Research methodology","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e6.1 Flow diagram of research methodology adopted for the subsidence Modeling in the present case is shown in the\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e6.2 Modeling flow chart for the present case using suitable 3-D numerical Modeling tool is shown as\u003c/strong\u003e Fig. 6.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e6.2.1 Steps involved in subsidence Modeling for the present case using suitable FEM based software\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe modeling steps first involved the bringing and visualising the CAD files of different levels and Surface contour as shown in Fig. 7. After removing and correcting the lines and nodes of CAD files, these files were used for generating elements/Plates by connecting different nodes/Lines as shown in Fig. 8. Further these elements were used for conversion of element into a geometry as shown in Fig. 9. After this, these geometries were used for automeshing of specified size and then automeshed surface was created as shown in Fig. 10. After that the final steps was to convert automeshed surface to solid model as shown in Fig. 11(a) and 11(b).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cul\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBringing in CAD files that contain various level plans and surface contours as shown in Fig. 7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ul\u003e\n \u003cul\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGenerating elements (plates) by linking distinct nodes as shown in Fig. 8.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ul\u003e\n \u003cul\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTransforming the plate into a geometric representation as shown in Fig. 9.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ul\u003e\n \u003cul\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAutomatically generating a mesh for the created geometry as shown in Fig. 10.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ul\u003e\n \u003cul\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eConverting the automatically meshed surface into a solid model as shown in Fig. 11(a) and 11(b).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"7. Results and discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e7.1 Results of obtained strain in XX (E-W) and YY (N-S) direction\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTable 2- Minimum and maximum strain in XX and YY direction of virgin, current, next 5 years and next 10 years of mining state of Mine-B\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"604\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 124px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"4\" style=\"width: 394px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Mining state\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 124px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eVirgin state\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCurrent state\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNext 5 years\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNext 10 Years\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 124px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eXX strain(mm/m)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMinimum\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.100\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.100\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.100\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.100\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMaximum\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1.000\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e9.000\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e10.000\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e10.000\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 124px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eYY strain(mm/m)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMinimum\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.100\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.100\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.100\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.100\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMaximum\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1.000\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e19.000\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e19.500\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e19.900\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003eMinimum and maximum strain in XX and YY direction of virgin, current, next 5 years and next 10 years of mining state of Mine-B in Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. Figure \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e and Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e shows the increment of strain at different stages of mining in XX and YY direction .Obtained surface strain in XX and YY direction for virgin state, current mining, next 5 years mining and next 10 years mining is shown in the Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e to \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e, respectively. Further, Figs. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e show that the surface strain in XX and YY directions is negligible for virgin state. Further, Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e, and \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e shows that the surface strain (in XX and YY directions) variations are almost similar for current mining, next 5 years mining, and next 10 years mining situations. Strain variations are almost similar in all three mining situations, mainly because of change in mining position in next 5 years and next 10 years is insignificant with respect to the current mining position. From the Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e and Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e (in current mining state), Minimum surface strain of 0.01 mm/m, 0.01 mm/m and maximum surface strain of 9 mm/m, 19 mm/m in XX and YY directions, respectively, are observed. Similarly, from the Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e and Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e (in next five years mining state), Minimum surface strain of 0.01 mm/m, 0.01 mm/m and maximum surface strain of 10 mm/m, 19.5 mm/m in XX and YY directions, respectively are observed. Further, from the Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e and Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e (next 10 years mining state), Minimum surface strain of 0.01 mm/m, 0.01 mm/m and maximum surface strain of 10 mm/m, 19.90 mm/m in XX and YY directions, respectively, are observed..\u003cp\u003eIn-addition, from Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e to \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e, it is also observed that developed surface strain (in XX and YY directions) is a part of pre-existing subsidence troughs confined within a common break line. However, in footwall side, surface strain in XX-direction in all three mining situations is developing outside the lower trough (South side) only up to some extent. However, its value is ranging from 9.0 mm/m to 10 mm/m only. Observed maximum surface strain in YY-direction in all three mining situations, which varies from 19.0 mm/m to 19.90 mm/m, is also a part of pre-existing lower subsidence trough (south side) and confined within a small area. Further, in general, outside the pre-existing subsidence troughs (which are confined within a common break line), no surface strain is observed in any of the directions (XX and YY direction) in all three mining situations.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e7.2 Results of obtained displacement in Z-direction\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn order to analyses the displacement in z-direction, three sections at suitable location were made (as shown in the Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e). Maximum downward displacement of around 10 cm observed in and around of lower trough (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e) in all three mining situations. It is further observed from Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e that in footwall side there is a slight uplift in all three mining situations wrt the virgin state. Further, Maximum downward displacement of around 10 cm is observed in hang wall side of upper trough (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e) in all three mining situations. It is further observed from Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e that in footwall side there is a slight uplift in all three mining situations wrt the virgin state. 1Furthermore, Maximum downward displacement of around 40 cm observed in outside of lower trough along the section (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e). It is further observed from Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e that in outside the upper trough along the section there is a slight downward displacement in all three mining situations wrt the virgin state. It is also observed from Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e that in between two troughs along the section, there is a maximum downward displacement of around 25 cm in all three mining situations wrt the virgin state.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"8. Conclusions and future scope","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis paper shows the results of a detailed 3-dimensional analysis of mining-induced subsidence at a mine. Geological data were used to develop a computational model that comprised the orebody and the surrounding rock, which were primarily constituted of feldspar quartzite, amphibole quartzite, phyllite, and sericite quartzite. Numerical results clearly demonstrate the capability of the FEM approach in reproducing the Strain and displacement in the ground surface in X and Y direction and displacement in Z direction. Observed surface strain in XX and YY directions is negligible for virgin state and variations are almost similar for current mining, next 5 years mining, and next 10 years mining situations. Strain variations are almost similar in all three mining situations, mainly because of change in mining position in next 5 years and next 10 years is insignificant with respect to the current mining position. It is also observed that developed surface strain (in XX and YY directions) is a part of pre-existing subsidence troughs confined within a common break line. It is further observed from the Fig.\u0026nbsp;6.20 that in and around upper trough along the section \u003cspan refid=\"Sec3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan refid=\"Sec3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e there is a slight downward displacement in all three mining situations wrt the virgin state Further, in general, outside the pre-existing subsidence troughs (which are confined within a common break line), no displacement is observed in Z-direction in all three mining situations. Predicted subsidence requires calibration using monitoring data to enhance its accuracy. Therefore, management has to develop a monitoring method to produce data for calibrating the predicted subsidence. Nonetheless, slope instability difficulties may occur due to the formation and collapse of troughs. Consequently, management must implement suitable steps to resolve this issue. Further, In the mining industry, the current way of preventing blast holes had an effect on the stability and safety of the rock structure and surface. In addition, the growing area of subsidence resulted in increased pressure on land acquisition, slope stability, soil conservation, and mine reclamation. The mine faced risks to its economic viability and safe operation, along with potential permanent environmental damage in the vicinity. It is recommended that surface subsidence management and ground control of the mine-out region be implemented in order to accomplish an all-win situation for the environment and the economy.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding:\u003c/strong\u003e No funding\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting Interests:\u003c/strong\u003e The authors declare that they have no competing interests.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics Approval:\u003c/strong\u003e This research is an original work of the authors and has not been previously published elsewhere.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Participate:\u003c/strong\u003e All authors have consented to participate in this research.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors\u0026rsquo; contributions:\u003c/strong\u003e Mr. Avinash Singh currently doing research on this topic as a research scholar under the guidance of Dr. Mohammad Soyeb Alam\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgement:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eI would like to express my gratitude to supervisor Prof Md. Soyeb Alam, Prof Dheeraj Kumar and retired Prof U.K. Singh, Department of Mining Engineering for providing his continuous assistance and informative feedback on my research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Availability Statement:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eData used have been provided by the corresponding author on request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch1\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/h1\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAlam, M. S., Kumar, D., \u0026amp; Chatterjee, R. S. (2022). Improving the capability of integrated DInSAR and PSI approach for better detection, monitoring, and analysis of land surface deformation in underground mining environment. \u003cem\u003eGeocarto International\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e37\u003c/em\u003e(12), 3607-3641.https://doi.org/10.1080/10106049.2020.1864028\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAston, T. R. C., Tammemagi, H. Y., \u0026amp; Poon, A. W. (1987). 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Analysis of the surface subsidence induced by mining near-surface thick lead-zinc deposit based on numerical simulation. \u003cem\u003eProcesses\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e9\u003c/em\u003e(4), 717. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9040717.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6061891/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6061891/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eSurface subsidence resulting from underground mining presents a significant challenge in mining engineering, potentially damaging surface structures, environmental concern, safety of personnel and causing substantial economic losses for the mine. An underground copper ore mine in India was taken as a case study to explore the subsidence caused by ore extraction during blast-hole stoping method of mining operations. In this study, different subsidence prediction modeling techniques (empirical, influence function, and theoretical/numerical/ analytical) have been outlined for assessing mining induced subsidence. A three-dimensional (3-D) numerical model was developed by the Finite element method (FEM) code strand7, was adopted, encompassing geologic complications such as joints and faults, connections between different lithologies, and the stoping sequence selected from the mine plans to investigate the mechanism of surface subsidence induced by underground mining. Further, the precision of predicting mine subsidence using 3-D numerical models remains a source of concern due to the extensive inputs required, primarily geological and geotechnical parameters. These parameters are required to improve the accuracy of mine subsidence prediction. Therefore, in-order to predict accurately using 3-D numerical Modeling technique, there is a need of Constraining of rock mass properties \u0026amp; in-situ stress using backward modeling. 3-D numerical models were developed for virgin state, current mining state, next 5 years mining state and next 10 years of mining state and their corresponding strain and displacement were reported in different directions\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Modeling and Analysis of Ground Subsidence Due to Underground Mining Using 3-d Numerical Techniques","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-03-11 09:16:25","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6061891/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-04-11T10:12:16+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-04-10T06:15:44+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"17416770323157490492015102121303432409","date":"2025-04-09T05:51:44+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"205066617592038279909282611718526960290","date":"2025-03-17T04:53:37+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-03-15T21:52:09+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"86999065032511927751497286074194232401","date":"2025-03-14T20:07:40+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-03-10T06:09:51+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-03-10T06:07:08+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2025-03-04T15:18:20+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-03-04T06:46:23+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Scientific Reports","date":"2025-02-19T07:57:57+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"d3d45824-1d09-4207-8d08-5b3d502dc2ec","owner":[],"postedDate":"March 11th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[{"id":45296585,"name":"Earth and environmental sciences/Natural hazards"},{"id":45296586,"name":"Physical sciences/Engineering/Civil engineering"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-01T10:08:30+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-03-11 09:16:25","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6061891","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6061891","identity":"rs-6061891","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}