Making student mistakes didactically useful in bedside teaching: Relevance of learning content, teacher and patient presence

Making student mistakes didactically useful in bedside teaching: Relevance of learning content, teacher and patient presence | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Making student mistakes didactically useful in bedside teaching: Relevance of learning content, teacher and patient presence Hannah P. K. Rubisch, Anna-Lena Blaschke, Pascal O. Berberat, and 1 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8311338/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Revision Version 1 posted 11 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background Student mistakes are common in bedside teaching (BST) and can serve as important learning opportunities. However, little is known about how frequently mistakes occur in authentic clinical settings, what types of learning content they involve, and how teacher and patient presence shape teachers’ handling of these errors. This study investigated (RQ1) the relevance of learning content during student mistakes, (RQ2) associations between mistake types and teachers’ reactions, and (RQ3) whether teacher and patient presence influence clinical teachers’ responses to mistakes. Methods We conducted an observational study based on video recordings of 36 BST sessions across internal medicine, neurology, and orthopaedics (78.4 hours). Using a hierarchical coding scheme, we identified mistakes, classified their learning content and mistake types, and coded teacher reactions as well as teacher and patient presence. Interrater reliability ranged from substantial to excellent. Descriptive statistics were used to determine the frequency of mistakes per hour and their distribution across the learning content. Associations between mistake types and teacher reactions were analysed via Pearson correlations (RQ2). Mann–Whitney U tests (RQ3) were used when examining whether teachers’ error-related behaviours differed depending on the presence or absence of the patient. Results Across all BST sessions, the students made an average of 4.9 mistakes per hour. Mistakes occurred most often during theoretical knowledge and clinical reasoning, predominantly as reproduction errors, whereas an incorrect application of skills was most frequent during clinical examination and case presentations. Teacher presence was positively associated with the number of observed mistakes, particularly reproduction mistakes. During the physical examination, the students were supervised for only 72% of the active practice time. Teachers’ reactions—including elaboration, directness of feedback, and time provided for correction—did not differ significantly depending on patient presence. Conclusions Student mistakes are common in BST and hold considerable didactic value; however, this value is not fully realised when supervision is inconsistent or when feedback remains limited. Enhancing clinical teachers’ capacity to detect errors, providing structured and supportive feedback, and adapting their approach to the presence of patients may strengthen their ability to learn from mistakes. Interventions that cultivate psychological safety and promote effective error-management practices could further improve the pedagogical quality of BST. Bedside teaching Medical education Student mistakes Teacher reactions Teaching methods Teacher presence Patient presence Video study Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Background Bedside teaching (BST) is a traditional, interactive clinical teaching format and an essential component of medical training. It is advanced that instruction at the bedside is “rich with visual, auditory and tactile experience” [ 1 ]. In its classic form, BST mainly includes teaching in the presence of a patient, [ 2 ] providing students with the opportunity to practice essential clinical skills such as communication, medical history taking, clinical reasoning, physical examination and diagnosing of real patients, (ideally) under the supervision of clinical teachers [ 3 ]. However, more modern forms of BST also include off-patient activities, such as lecturer-guided discussions of patient cases. Rousseau et al. noted that physicians and students “value teaching and learning of physical examination skills, with multiple hands-on opportunities for direct role modelling, coaching, observation and deliberate practice” [ 4 ]. Therefore, BST can be considered didactically valuable, in addition to other aspects, because it offers very good opportunities to apply clinical skills (especially with respect to examination and communication) and clinically relevant knowledge (in clinical reasoning) to specific patient cases. The key assumption behind the present study, however, focuses on an often-overlooked aspect of BST: As this didactic format allows the application of skills and knowledge in multiple relevant ways, it also provides very good opportunities for students to learn from mistakes. We argue, however, that the degree to which students can learn from mistakes in BST depends upon how clinical teachers handle such mistakes. Despite substantial research on didactical aspects of BST [ 5 – 21 ], whether and how student mistakes are handled in didactically fruitful ways by clinical teachers in BST has rarely been investigated. To fill this gap, we aim to describe clinical teachers’ practices of handling student mistakes at the bedside in the current study. For this purpose, we video-recorded bedside teaching sessions in clinical medical education in the subject areas of internal medicine, orthopaedics and neurology and, on this basis, conducted fine-grained analyses of the recorded interactions. In a first paper based on these data [ 22 ], we addressed the following questions: which types of student mistakes could be observed in BST, how did clinical teachers react to these mistakes, and whether did they use different strategies to address different types of mistakes? These points are important, as present-day medical education on BST faces significant challenges, e.g., regarding the quantity of BST being in decline [ 1 , 4 , 5 , 23 – 28 ]. This trend underlines the relevance of focusing aspects of the didactic quality of BST [ 26 ], such as the way student mistakes are fruitfully used for didactic purposes by clinical teachers. The social structures of BST are becoming increasingly heterogeneous. This leads to a clinical teacher not always being present in the patient room, with the entire group of students. Instead, the course group is frequently split into several smaller groups that interact with different patients or with themselves. As a consequence, some students—perhaps even the entire group—are not supervised by a lecturer when interacting with patients [ 4 ]. We hypothesize that such situations are disadvantageous with respect to learning from errors because without the lecturer being present, errors might occur unnoticed and, consequently, are not used didactically. This would be disadvantageous, as many researchers argue that student mistakes can be didactically very useful, as they allow clinical teachers to gain insight into gaps or misconceptions in students’ knowledge [ 29 , 30 ]. Analysing student mistakes is hence a promising perspective for medical education research, as it helps to better understand how learning from errors in BST can be fostered. This, in turn, may contribute to decreasing the frequency of errors in students’ later everyday clinical work [ 31 ]. On the basis of information about what students do not (yet) know or where their clinical understanding is limited, clinical teachers can initiate learning activities specifically tailored to improve students’ knowledge in very targeted, situation-adequate ways [ 29 , 32 – 35 ]. Moreover, learning from mistakes can foster the development of negative knowledge , i.e., knowledge about what incorrect assumptions are or about how something does not work. It has been argued that such knowledge is very valuable in professional contexts, as it provides a cognitive resource for avoiding mistakes on the basis of previous, error-related learning processes [ 36 ]. BST offers very promising opportunities in this respect, as it is highly interactive and occurs mostly in small-group settings, in which clinical cases are discussed in detail [ 37 ]. To shed further light on what are good ways for clinical teachers to make didactic use of student mistakes, the current study focuses on the relationship between the contextual conditions in BST and the occurrence of student mistakes in BST. This is a hitherto neglected but important focus, as knowledge of the contextual conditions in BST, which make the occurrence of student mistakes more likely, is relevant for clinical teachers. This is because it can assist clinical teachers in planning BST sessions accordingly and in staying particularly vigilant during phases in which they can expect to observe and make didactic use of student mistakes. More specifically, our research questions (RQs) concern which types of learning content student mistakes can be observed and how the presence of clinical teachers and patients influence the occurrence of student mistakes. Learning from mistakes and learning content covered in BST With respect to learning content, the main learning objectives of BST discussed in the pertinent medical education literature are history taking, physical examination, case presentation, clinical reasoning and theoretical knowledge [ 14 , 15 , 38 ]. As discussed above, the bedside is also ideal for teaching further learning objectives, such as professional behaviour, humanism and respectful physician‒patient interactions [ 7 , 23 ]. We hypothesize that these learning objectives differ in terms of the opportunities for learning from errors they afford, on the one hand, because, in the context of some learning objectives, more errors occur than in others; on the other hand, different types of mistakes might occur more or less frequently in the context of different learning objectives. To address these questions, we examine the interrelation between the learning content covered in BST, on the one hand, and the frequency and type of student mistakes that occur, on the other hand. Learning from mistakes and teacher presence in clinical examinations Furthermore, we investigate the relationship between the presence or absence of a clinical teacher and the handling of student mistakes, whereby we focus on the learning content of a clinical examination . The focus on teacher presence is relevant because the way teachers react to and handle mistakes strongly influences the degree to which mistakes can be learned from [ 39 ]. When learning from clinical examinations in the context of BST, medical students acquire skills through practical training. They often start by examining fellow students until they gain a deeper understanding of specific examination techniques and their anatomical/physiological background. They subsequently practice with patients who were previously assessed by doctors within supervised clinical training. Our focus on clinical examination as learning content is because, in the context of our previous study [ 22 ], we observed a large variance in teacher presence vs. absence as well as frequent student mistakes. Furthermore, the practical nature of clinical examination and its multistep character provide a good basis for observing errors in the presence vs. absence of medical teachers because supervising physicians often rotate between student groups. Learning from mistakes and patient presence Eventually, we investigate how patient presence influences the occurrence of student mistakes in BST. As discussed above, mistakes may give direction to the learning process—even more than tasks that were completed successfully. In contrast to their learning potential, studies have shown that, in many cases, mistakes are not made use of in didactically meaningful ways [ 34 ]. When focusing on medical education settings, a “stigma of being wrong” is often observed, as McDermott puts it. This stigma needs to be “removed first” to “create a supportive learning environment […] that encourages our trainees to think critically, express their thoughts, and receive timely feedback, all while including their patients” [ 40 ]. In this respect, the presence of a patient as a relevant third party is accentuated as a specificity of medical education in general and of BST in particular. Students may feel embarrassed in front of a patient, particularly when they make a mistake. Furthermore, such situations may also affect the doctor–patient relationship: Williams et al. described concerns expressed by medical teachers during focus group discussions related to the notion that mistakes occurring during bedside teaching could cause patients to lose confidence in the students as clinicians and in the teachers as team leaders. [ 23 ] “It is likely that doctors are aware of this situation and adjust their response in front of the patient. Further research on […] how the teacher’s reaction changes in the presence and absence of the patient is needed" [ 22 ]. In summary, we examine differences in the occurrence of student mistakes (as an important prerequisite for learning from these mistakes) depending on the social form (plenary vs. small group, teacher present vs. absent, patient present vs. absent). We propose the following RQs in the present study: RQ 1: How is the learning content covered in bedside teaching related to the frequency and types of student mistakes? RQ 2: How does the presence or absence of medical teachers during a clinical examination impact the frequency and types of mistakes that occur? RQ 3: How do clinical teachers’ reactions to student mistakes change depending upon the presence and absence of the patient during BST sessions? Methods Bedside Teaching sessions We videotaped 39 BST sessions in clinical medical education at TUM rechts der Isar University Hospital. Each course was scheduled for 180 minutes and attended by approximately 6 students, mostly in their second clinical year (fourth year of medical studies overall). In the local medical curriculum, a total of 360 such sessions are offered each semester over a time span of twelve weeks. Thus, each student attended twelve BST sessions of which eight were internal medicine, two were neurology, and two were orthopaedics. Sample, recruitment and ethical considerations In a prestudy, we filmed three BST sessions. These data were needed to examine and optimize the process of data collection, particularly the coding scheme developed for the subsequent main study. In the main study, a total of 36 BST sessions were videotaped, 12 in internal medicine, neurology, and orthopaedics. All analyses reported in this paper rely on data from these sessions. The selection of BSTs to be filmed took place at least two weeks prior to the respective session. The teaching clinician was contacted one week before the recording to discuss open questions. The clinical teacher identified suitable patients on the ward and asked for their consent to participate in both the BST session and the study. We obtained written approval for participation in the study from all patients, students and clinical teachers. The students in these sessions received an e-mail in advance and were given the opportunity to change to another course if they did not wish to take part in the study. Seven students switched sessions. The 36 videotaped BST sessions had a cumulative length of 78.4 hours. They were taught by 24 different teachers. This means that we filmed twelve teachers once and twelve teachers twice. A total of 259 students and 84 patients took part in the filmed sessions. Out of the latter, 47 were audible (but not visible) in our video data, and the others were visited by subgroups of students not accompanied by a cameraperson from our research team. At the beginning of each session, before starting the recording, a member of our team was present to again inform the participants about our study, respond to arising questions and collect written consent from all participants. We obtained full consent prior to any filming. The ethics committee of the TUM rechts der Isar University Hospital reviewed and approved the present study (Ethics vote code: 360/18S). Video recording of bedside teaching sessions As illustrated in Figure 1, we used a video camera with a tripod and directional microphone to record the BST sessions. We did not pause or stop the recording until the clinical teacher had finished the session to ensure comparability of the videos. The camera followed the group when the teaching location was changed (e.g., from a meeting room to a patient room). In general, we filmed from an overview perspective so that the teacher, the students and, where appropriate, other (e.g., medical) objects were recorded. In the patient room, we ensured that the faces of the patients were not visible in the videos to retain their anonymity. To do so, the cameraperson always stood next to the head of the patient’s bed, and the camera was directed towards the students and the lecturer. In this way, the patients were not visible but were audible in the video recordings. At the beginning of each session, the cameraperson silently chose one particular student in the group whom the camera followed, e.g., in cases when the group was divided into smaller groups. This means that if different patients were examined simultaneously, the camera did not switch between subgroups but remained with the predesigned students’ subgroup. Additionally, the cameraperson did not interrupt the course of the session as much as possible. Analysing the video material: categorial system and coding To analyse the video data, we created an exhaustive-disjunctive 1 hierarchical categorial system on the basis of the rating schemes developed by Seidel et al. 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We first used the video data from the preliminary study to train the raters: both raters coded video material from the preliminary study and then visualized and compared the results and discussed deviations. Through an iterative process, initially defined categories were revised multiple times to further refine our categorical system. Only after a satisfactory level of agreement was reached did we move on to the main study. Interrater reliability was determined on the basis of 37418 one-second intervals generated after coding four videos (total duration: approximately ten hours). Two members of our research team (AB and HR) used Microsoft Excel and Mangold Interact to code the video data regarding student mistakes , learning content and social structure [43]. In the first round, all student mistakes were marked along with other codes. 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Mistakes on both verbal and nonverbal levels (e.g., during the clinical examination) were included. In a subsequent step, we differentiated several types of mistakes on the basis of the classification advanced by Anderson and Krathwohl [45] on the basis of Bloom’s taxonomy ( ADDIN 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} [46] , cf. Table 1). In a further coding round, we operationalized teacher reactions by drawing upon three categories adopted from Wuttke [47, 48] and Crespo ADDIN 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[49] , i.e., feedback , elaboration and time for correction (cf. 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Table 1 Categories of student mistakes (cf. 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[45] Brief description Reproduction Mistakes (Remembering) Misconceptions regarding basic biomedical subject matter Comprehension Mistakes (Understanding) Wrongful connections or conclusions from basic biomedical subject matter Wrong Application of Skills (Applying) Incorrect application of skills Wrong Application of Knowledge (Applying) Incorrect application of knowledge Analytic Mistakes (Analysing) Mistakes in the areas of analysis and/or evaluation of medical problems or creation of diagnostic and/or therapeutic strategies Other Mistakes Mistakes that do not belong into any of the above groups Mistakes related to misunderstandings/misinterpretations Teacher instruction being vague/incomplete or correct student reaction to misjudged teacher initiative due to misunderstanding/misinterpretation ADDIN CitaviPlaceholder{{"$id":"1","$type":"SwissAcademic.Citavi.Citations.WordPlaceholder, 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Kappa = 0.84 for both categories, student mistakes and types of student mistakes . For feedback , a satisfactory value of Cohen’s Kappa = 0.64 was reached. For the level of elaboration and time for correction , the values were Cohen’s Kappa = 0.91 (very good) and 0.66 (satisfactory), respectively. Table 2 Categories of teacher reactions to student mistakes (cf. [22]) Teacher reactions to student mistakes – Procedure of correction Feedback Explicit rejection Teacher/another student directly rejects or immediately corrects statement/action (e.g., false examination technique) Further inquiry Wrong statements/actions are not immediately corrected. Instead, student group is asked for judgement Level of elaboration Low Teacher does not further discuss wrongful assumptions or reasons behind mistake High Teacher initiates discussion and/or elaborates about mistake (for qualitative analysis of feedback cf. [49] and [47], [48]) Time for correction of mistake No Teacher does not leave student sufficient time to self-correct mistake Yes Student is given time to self-correct the mistake. Student’s process of verbal reflection may be supported by nonverbal (e.g., nodding) or verbal signals (“ yes, correct ”) We drew upon pertinent literature [8, 50, 51] to code learning content (cf. Figure 2) characteristically covered in bedside teaching sessions. We achieved very good [42] interrater reliability for learning content (0.83), presence of the teacher (0.99) and presence of the patient (>0.99). Statistical analyses We used IBM SPSS for Windows (version 26.0) to perform both descriptive and inferential statistical calculations. The significance threshold was set to p < 0.05. In the following section, our data are presented in terms of absolute and relative frequencies. The respective data were determined to be continuous but not normally distributed. Correlations were measured by Pearson’s correlation coefficient (RQ 2). To answer RQ 3, we focus on different categories of clinical teachers’ reactions to student mistakes: feedback, level of elaboration and time for correction of a mistake. The respective data had binary characteristics, and Mann‒Whitney U tests were applied to test for differences in central tendency in the teachers’ reactions to mistakes depending upon the presence and absence of the patient (RQ 3). Results RQ1: How is the learning content covered in bedside teaching related to the frequency and types of student mistakes? The 36 BST sessions we filmed had a mean duration of 128.9 min ( SD = 30.5 min); the shortest session lasted 79.9 min, and the longest session lasted 181.9 min, with an IQR of 57.0 min from 103.6 to 160.6 min, cf. overall duration in [41, Figure 3]. This figure depicts the heterogeneity of the filmed BST sessions regarding overall duration and learning content, apparent from the strongly scattered data. Learning content and student mistakes. We were able to assign a specific type of learning content from our categorial system to 81.4% of the overall BST time recorded. (18.6% of the time, the learning content was coded as “other”; cf. Figure 2). Overall, we observed relatively high frequencies of student mistakes (of all types) in the context of the types of learning content: clinical examination (7.9 mistakes per hour on average), case presentation (6.4 mistakes per hour on average), theoretical knowledge (6.3 mistakes per hour on average), and clinical reasoning (5.1 mistakes per hour on average; cf. Table 3). Lower frequencies of student mistakes were observed in the context of clinical examination (3.6 application mistakes [skills] per hour), clinical reasoning (2.3 reproduction mistakes per hour) and case presentation (2.1 application mistakes [skills] per hour). Overall, we counted 4.8 student mistakes per hour of BST. The type of learning content in which we observed the highest frequency of student mistakes was theoretical knowledge (4.4 reproduction mistakes per hour), which, at the same time, was the type of learning content on which the smallest share of time was spent (cf. [41, Figure 3]; MN = 7 min, IQR = 1–14 min). Table 3 Frequency and type of student mistakes per hour during different types of learning content covered in BST Type of mistake per hour Overall per hour Wrong Application of Skills Wrong Application of Knowledge Analytic Mistakes Reproduction Mistakes Other Mistakes Mistakes related to Misinterpretation Comprehension Mistakes Learning Content CE 3.570 1.092 0.252 1.890 0.210 0.042 0.798 7.854 CP 2.074 1.082 0.000 1.803 0.090 0.090 1.262 6.402 CR 0.000 0.774 0.915 2.322 0.070 0.070 0.985 5.137 HT 0.366 0.000 0.122 0.122 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.610 TK 0.000 0.569 0.000 4.364 0.000 0.190 1.139 6.262 OT 0.068 0.068 0.068 0.068 0.068 0.068 0.068 0.068 Overall 1.448 0.672 0.259 1.577 0.090 0.052 0.711 4.809 Note. CE=Clinical Examination, CP=Case Presentation, CR=Clinical Reasoning, HT=History Taking, TK=Theoretical Knowledge, OT=Other RQ2: influence of the presence of the clinical teacher on student mistakes during the clinical examination Table 4 displays the descriptions of different types of student mistakes and the percentage of time the medical teacher was present during the clinical examination. Table 4 Student mistakes and presence of the clinical teacher during the clinical examination in BST Duration Clinical Examination [s] Presence of Teacher (percentage of time) Mistakes during Clinical Examination Reproduction Mistakes Comprehension Mistakes Wrong Application of Skills Wrong Application of Knowledge Analytic Mistakes Mean 1596.944 72% 3.48 0.91 0.39 1.59 0.48 0.11 Median 1324.500 100% 1.50 0 0 0 0 0 Standard Deviation 1304.3421 42% 5.2080 1.6170 0.9600 2.7090 1.2990 0.3720 Minimum 201 0% 0 0 0 0 0 0 Maximum 7069 100% 23 6 4 14 8 2 Percentile 25 780.75 38% 0 0 0 0 0 0 75 2134.75 100% 4.25 1.25 0 3 0 0 Note. Sample: N = 54 clinical examinations Table 5 Student mistakes and presence of the clinical teacher by different types of learning content in BST Type of learning content Presence of Teacher (percentage of time) Reproduction Mistakes Comprehension Mistakes Wrong Application of Skills Wrong Application of Knowledge Analytic Mistakes Overall CE 72% 0.910 0.390 1.590 0.480 0.110 3.480 CP 100% 0 0 0 0 0 1.500 CR 42% 1.617 0.960 2.709 1.299 0.372 5.208 HT 0% 0 0 0 0 0 0 TK 100% 6 4 14 8 2 23 OT 38% 0 0 0 0 0 0 Sum 100% 1.250 0 3 0 0 4.250 Note. CE=Clinical Examination, CP=Case Presentation, CR=Clinical Reasoning, HT=History Taking, TK=Theoretical Knowledge, OT=Other. Sample: N = 54 clinical examinations Owing to the large differences in the length of the clinical examination (from 3 – 118 minutes), we do not outline the absolute time but rather the percentage of time the medical teacher was present during the clinical examination. On average, the time dedicated to teaching, learning and practising the clinical examination was 27 minutes ( SD = 22 minutes). In the BST sessions we filmed, the medical teacher was present during the clinical examination 72.00% of the time (min = 0.00%, max = 100.00% of the time, IQR = 39.25% – 100.00%). On average, 3.50 ( SD = 5.20) student mistakes occurred during the clinical examination. Correlations We found positive correlations for all the variables examined. Below, the effects, which have an uncorrected p-value <0.05, are discussed. All correlations are shown in Table 6. Table 6 Examining Pearson’s correlations between teacher presence and student mistakes during the clinical examination Pearson’s correlation coefficients Presence of Teacher (percentage of time) Correlation p Overall mistakes during clinical Examination 0.369 0.006 Reproduction Mistakes 0.365 0.007 Comprehension Mistakes 0.266 0.052 Wrong Application of Skills 0.262 0.056 Wrong Application of Knowledge 0.224 0.104 Analytic Mistakes 0.201 0.144 We found a medium-sized significant correlation between the frequency of student mistakes during the clinical examination and the presence of the clinical teacher (0.369). Furthermore, there was a significant correlation between the occurrence of reproduction mistakes and the presence of the teacher (0.365). Both correlations are significant after correction for multiple testing. We did not find a significant correlation between the presence of the teacher and the occurrence of any other mistakes (0.266, 0.262, 0.224 and 0.201). RQ3: influence of the presence of the patient on clinical teachers’ reactions to student mistakes Finally, we investigated whether the reactions of the clinical teachers to student mistakes changed depending upon the presence or absence of the patient (cf. Tables 7 and 8). We coded the presence of the patient by selecting the patient room for location , cf. our categorial system: [41, Figure 2]. Table 7 Frequencies of different types of clinical teachers’ reactions to student mistakes (feedback; level of elaboration and time for correction) in relation to the presence vs. absence of a patient in BST Feedback Explicit rejection Further inquiry Mean Rank Rank Sum Patient absent 166 (64.80%) 90 (35.20%) 181.39 46436.00 Patient present 65 (56.00%) 51 (44.00%) 197.78 22942.00 Level of elaboration Low High Mean Rank Rank Sum Patient absent 114 (44.50%) 142 (55.50%) 187.17 47916.00 Patient present 53 (45.70%) 63 (54.30%) 185.02 21462.00 Time for correction No Yes Mean Rank Rank Sum Patient absent 118 (46.10%) 138 (53.90%) 184.77 47300.00 Patient present 50 (43.10%) 66 (56.90%) 190.33 22078.00 Table 8 Patient Presence and Teacher Reactions: Inferential Statistical Comparisons Feedback Level of Elaboration Time for correction Mann‒Whitney-U Test 13540 14676 14404 Wilcoxon W 46436 21462 47300 Z -1.620 -0.208 -0.536 Asymptotic Significance (2-tailed) 0.105 0.835 0.592 We found no significant differences regarding teachers’ reactions to student mistakes, depending upon the presence or absence of a patient. Although the clinical teachers in our study reacted less frequently with explicit rejection to student mistakes when a patient was present (56.00% compared with 64.80% when no patient was present), the Mann‒Whitney U test did not reach statistical significance. Additionally, the teachers did not significantly modify their levels of elaboration or provide more time for correction after a mistake, depending upon the presence of a patient. Discussion In this study, we identified correlations between learning content, social structure (specifically, the presence of the clinical teacher), and the occurrence of student mistakes in BST sessions. Furthermore, we analysed clinical teachers’ reactions to these mistakes, particularly considering the presence or absence of a patient. In our analysis, we focused on the characteristic educational objectives of BST as reported in the pertinent literature, namely, history taking, clinical examination, case presentation, clinical reasoning and theoretical knowledge [ 14 , 15 , 38 ], and investigated the frequency and types of student mistakes occurring within these contexts. Overall, during the BST sessions observed, almost five student mistakes occurred per hour on average, which underlines that clinical teachers should not only correct but also actively address these mistakes and make didactic use of them. The sheer frequency of student mistakes suggests that instruction in the context of BST will be more effective if teachers handle student errors in didactically productive ways to address gaps in student knowledge and skills [ 52 ]. When we looked closer into how many mistakes occurred in different types of learning content covered in BST, we found significant differences. While the teaching of theoretical knowledge played a minor role in terms of time allocation within the BST sessions we filmed, many mistakes occurred in this context, particularly reproduction mistakes. These are mistakes that occur when remembering or retrieving content that has been previously learned [ 44 ], such as basic medical knowledge. This pattern might suggest challenges with retaining foundational knowledge or accessing it under the cognitive load inherent in clinical scenarios. Furthermore, we also observe many reproduction mistakes in the context of the learning content clinical reasoning. These recurring errors could also indicate deeper, underlying misconceptions – flawed or incomplete understandings that resist simple correction. Identifying these errors requires more than surface-level correction; diagnostic approaches such as targeted questioning or analysing error patterns are needed. However, during clinical examination and case presentations, we primarily observed the wrong application of skills-type mistakes. These errors relate more directly to procedural execution or integrating skills in practice. This distinction the need for targeted, observation-based feedback focused on procedural aspects, which inherently relies on direct supervision. Furthermore, we focused the learning content physical examination, as it is argued that the bedside is the ideal place for teaching such clinical skills [ 25 , 53 ]. In our sample, we found that clinical examination was performed in almost all (but three) sessions. However, on average, clinical teachers supervised the students only 72% of the time they were practising clinical examinations. Hence, 28% of the time, potential mistakes during the performance of the examination may have gone unnoticed—if there was no fellow student who recognised and pointed out the mistake. This lack of consistent supervision is a significant concern, as it represents missed learning opportunities and carries the risk of students reinforcing incorrect techniques through unguided practice. However, clinical teachers cannot supervise several small groups at once. Therefore, they should at least instruct students to supervise each other as well as possible, point out the mistakes of their peers and inform the teacher in cases when they are unsure. This outcome aligns with the literature indicating that a lack of direct observation is a critical issue [ 4 , 54 – 56 ]. In our categorical scheme for the event of an occurring mistake, we define the code ‘mistake’ on the basis of a correction made by the teacher or another student [ 44 ]. Thus, we might have underestimated the actual error rate during unsupervised practice. However, how effectively undergraduate medical students can detect and correct their fellow students’ mistakes, given their limited clinical experience, remains an open question. Effective peer feedback requires goals, training, and a supportive environment, which may not always be present. As discussed above, we found a significant positive correlation between the presence of the clinical teacher and the number of student mistakes observed in general and reproduction mistakes in particular. This can be explained partially by our definition of the code mistake (the occurrence of a correction); however, we argue that during the clinical examination in undergraduate BST, mistakes occur, which may go unnoticed if the student group is unsupervised but are more likely to be identified and addressed by a present teacher. On the basis of these results, critical questions arise regarding the degree to which errors made during BST seminars are corrected since students may find themselves mostly relying on the clinical expertise of their fellow students. The results of RQ2 confirm this, as only approximately two-thirds of the time dedicated to the “teaching” of the physical examination involved the presence of a teacher. These findings are congruent with the pertinent literature: Haring et al. noted that direct observation of the students’ interactions with patients, particularly their physical examination skills, appears to not be standard practice [ 54 – 56 ], whereas Rousseau et al. [ 4 , 22 ] argued that there is a “lack of direct observation of trainees in performing [physical examination] skills”. Various reasons for this lack of observation during the clinical examination have been proposed in recent years, with the “hospital environment and its chaotic nature, time constraints and conflicting responsibilities” [ 4 ] having been identified as the most important barrier [ 23 , 57 , 58 ]. These systemic pressures must be evaluated and taken into account by medical faculties when planning BST sessions. Furthermore, pertinent research has shown that teachers’ error management behaviour is likely to influence students’ attitudes towards learning from mistakes [ 39 , 59 ], as “teachers’ maladaptive ways of handling’ students’ mistakes are likely to increase students’ fear of failure and may foster maladaptive motivational patterns, such as […] experiencing generalized negative emotions” in the context of failures [ 39 ]. Effectively leveraging mistakes requires fostering an error management culture, where errors are viewed as learning opportunities rather than solely as incidents to be avoided. This culture encourages open discussion and analysis of errors for improvement. Central to this is psychological safety [ 60 ]—the shared belief that the environment is safe for interpersonal risk-taking, such as admitting errors or asking questions, without fear of negative consequences. When learners do not feel psychologically safe, they may hesitate to engage in the various behaviours needed to learn from mistakes [ 53 ]. However, when discussing student mistakes and teachers’ reactions in BST, it is important to keep in mind the presence of the patient as a third party. While mistakes hold the potential for students to feel embarrassed in front of a patient, they may also be sensitive situations for the doctor–patient relationship [ 23 ]. In that sense, the patient’s presence creates a complex triadic interaction. In another paper by our research group discussing student mistakes in BST, we hypothesized that “doctors are aware of this situation and adjust their response in front of the patient”, calling for “further research on […] how teachers’ reactions change depending upon the presence and absence of patients” [ 22 ]. In the present study, we did not observe that clinical teachers’ reactions to student mistakes changed depending upon the presence or absence of a patient. Teachers did not significantly modify their levels of elaboration, the directness of negative feedback, or the time they provided for correction of student mistakes, depending upon whether a patient was present. This could point towards a lack of awareness regarding patient presence vs. absence, creating somewhat different didactic circumstances regarding learning from mistakes in BST. Future research should focus on the degree of clinical teachers’ sensitivity in this respect because the opportunity for better learning from mistakes might be deferred if not handled with specific strategies, such as briefly acknowledging the error, using guiding questions, or explicitly ‘bookmarking’ it for later debriefing. Whether clinical teachers succeed in tapping the learning potential of mistakes depends on how they handle them, i.e., how they are reported back to the students and if and how they are further discussed. Effective feedback is crucial in this respect; it should be specific, descriptive, actionable, timely, balanced, objective, and learner-engaging. Models such as Pendleton’s rules, Ask-Tell-Ask, or ARCH can provide structure [ 61 ]. However, the effectiveness of any feedback hinges on the underlying psychological safety, as was already discussed previously. In our study, we analysed how teachers handle student mistakes in bedside teaching. The questions of how well students actually learn from these mistakes and how the way mistakes are handled by clinical teachers influences students’ learning outcomes remain open to be addressed in further research [ 48 ]. Furthermore, the finding that seminars filmed were sometimes shorter than the scheduled 180 minutes suggests potential unused time. This time could be strategically employed for active learning, specifically targeting common errors or misconceptions identified during the session. Strategies such as brief diagnostic probes, think-pair-sharing activities, or focused retrieval practices could transform these minutes into valuable, targeted learning opportunities, enhancing the efficiency of BST [ 62 ]. In sum, student mistakes are frequent in BST and represent significant learning opportunities. Capitalising on these mistakes requires teachers to move beyond straightforward correction of mistakes towards fostering a psychologically safe environment where errors can be openly discussed and analysed. Addressing the challenge of inconsistent supervision, particularly during skill-based activities such as clinical examination, is crucial in our view. Teachers also need to be supported in developing good strategies to provide effective, elaborate feedback and navigate the complexities of the patient’s presence. Recognizing patterns in student errors, diagnosing underlying misconceptions, and potentially utilizing available time for targeted active learning are key areas for improving the pedagogical effectiveness of BST. Future research should continue to explore student perspectives on errors and feedback, evaluate interventions aimed at improving error management and feedback practices, and investigate the long-term impact of psychologically safe learning environments. Abbreviations BST Bedside Teaching IQR Interquartile range MN Mean RQ Research Question SD Standard deviation Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate Approval for this study was obtained from the ethics committee of the Klinikum Rechts der Isar, application code 360/18S. Informed consent to participate in written form was obtained from all study participants. We carried out all methods in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations. Consent for publication Not applicable. Availability of data and materials All data (except the original video recordings) and materials are available upon direct request to the corresponding author: [email protected] . Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Funding Open Access funding enabled and organised by Projekt DEAL. The authors did not receive support from any organisation for the submitted work. All authors certify that they have no affiliations with or involvement in any organisation or entity with any financial or non-financial interest in the subject matter or materials discussed in this manuscript. Authors’ contributions POB and MG conceptualized the study and the research questions. HPKR, ALB and MG collected the data. ALB and HPKR performed the statistical analyses. HPKR drafted the manuscript. POB, MG and ALB critically commented on the manuscript. All authors have read and approved the final version and agreed to be accountable for all aspects of the work. Author details All authors are affiliated with the TUM Medical Education Center, TUM School of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, Ismaninger Straße 22, 81675 Munich, Germany. Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank the clinical teachers, students and patients who were part of this study for their willingness to be filmed in the context of this study. 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Umgang mit Fehlern und Ungewißheit im Unterricht : Entwicklung eines Beobachtungsinstruments und erste empirische Befunde. In: Gläser-Zikuda M, Seifried J, editors. Lehrerexpertise: Analyse und Bedeutung unterrichtlichen Handelns. Münster: Waxmann; 2008. p. 91–111. Crespo S. Praising and correcting: prospective teachers investigate their teacherly talk. Teaching and Teacher Education. 2002;18:739–58. doi:10.1016/S0742-051X(02)00031-8. Jünger J, Schäfer S, Roth C, Schellberg D, Friedman Ben-David M, Nikendei C. Effects of basic clinical skills training on objective structured clinical examination performance. Med Educ. 2005;39:1015–20. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2929.2005.02266.x. Baker RC, Spence RA, Boohan M, Dorman A, Stevenson M, Kirk SJ, McGlade K. A novel approach to improve undergraduate surgical teaching. Ulster Med J. 2015;84:30–6. Said Said Elshama. How to Use and Apply Assessment Tools in Medical Education? 2020. doi:10.5281/ZENODO.3978444. Scager K, Boonstra J, Peeters T, Vulperhorst J, Wiegant F. Collaborative Learning in Higher Education: Evoking Positive Interdependence. CBE Life Sci Educ 2016. doi:10.1187/cbe.16-07-0219. Haring CM, Cools BM, van der Meer JW, Postma CT. Student performance of the general physical examination in internal medicine: an observational study. BMC Med Educ. 2014;14:73. doi:10.1186/1472-6920-14-73. Burdick WP, Schoffstall J. Observation of emergency medicine residents at the bedside: how often does it happen? Acad Emerg Med. 1995;2:909–13. doi:10.1111/j.1553-2712.1995.tb03108.x. Pulito AR, Donnelly MB, Plymale M, Mentzer RM. What do faculty observe of medical students' clinical performance? Teach Learn Med. 2006;18:99–104. doi:10.1207/s15328015tlm1802_2. Gonzalo JD, Heist BS, Duffy BL, Dyrbye L, Fagan MJ, Ferenchick G, et al. Identifying and overcoming the barriers to bedside rounds: a multicenter qualitative study. Acad Med. 2014;89:326–34. doi:10.1097/ACM.0000000000000100. Ramani S, Orlander JD, Strunin L, Barber TW. Whither bedside teaching? A focus-group study of clinical teachers. Acad Med. 2003;78:384–90. doi:10.1097/00001888-200304000-00014. Steuer G, Rosentritt-Brunn G, Dresel M. Dealing with errors in mathematics classrooms: Structure and relevance of perceived error climate. Contemporary Educational Psychology. 2013;38:196–210. doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2013.03.002. Edmondson AC, Higgins M, Singer S, Weiner J. Understanding Psychological Safety in Health Care and Education Organizations: A Comparative Perspective. Research in Human Development. 2016;13:65–83. doi:10.1080/15427609.2016.1141280. van de Ridder JMM. Pendleton’s Rules: A Mini Review of a Feedback Method. AJBSR. 2023;19:19–21. doi:10.34297/AJBSR.2023.19.002542. Duran MJ, Aciego JJ, Gonzalez-Prieto I, Carrillo-Rios J, Gonzalez-Prieto A, Claros-Colome A. A Gamified Active-Learning Proposal for Higher-Education Heterogeneous STEM Courses. Education Sciences. 2025;15:10. doi:10.3390/educsci15010010. Footnotes Exhaustive-disjunctive categorial system: includes all possibilities (that have not been ruled out). Example for the video code social structure : plenary setting , small group setting or other . Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Revision Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 19 Jan, 2026 Reviews received at journal 18 Jan, 2026 Reviews received at journal 09 Jan, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 07 Jan, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 06 Jan, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 20 Dec, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 17 Dec, 2025 Editor invited by journal 15 Dec, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 12 Dec, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 12 Dec, 2025 First submitted to journal 08 Dec, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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17:15:39","extension":"html","order_by":8,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":184119,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8311338/v1/39c85796220f4b22aea052e2.html"},{"id":99307357,"identity":"b54e798a-7d2a-40d1-a014-fc6417e6acbb","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-31 16:06:04","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":100534,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCamera setup in the patient room\u003cem\u003e \u003cbr\u003e\nNote.\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e \u003c/strong\u003eExemplary camera setup in the patient room P = Patient, R = Researcher, S = Students (components of this graphic are provided unrestricted and copyright-free by Microsoft Corp. [41])\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8311338/v1/2414da3d187279f10bcb3309.png"},{"id":98820204,"identity":"297d0a81-8c2f-4358-b170-54627ad5d2f9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-22 17:15:39","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":62686,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCategorical Scheme for the Event of an Occurring Student Mistake (cf. [41])\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8311338/v1/6f8871860667a42c52c0b687.png"},{"id":99322231,"identity":"76bfd809-5795-4e8c-8a2f-37881580dffa","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-31 16:43:13","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1201590,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8311338/v1/8eda1ed1-a8f8-4ebd-be88-5c0e219c2bc9.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Making student mistakes didactically useful in bedside teaching: Relevance of learning content, teacher and patient presence","fulltext":[{"header":"Background","content":"\u003cp\u003eBedside teaching (BST) is a traditional, interactive clinical teaching format and an essential component of medical training. It is advanced that instruction at the bedside is \u0026ldquo;rich with visual, auditory and tactile experience\u0026rdquo; [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. In its classic form, BST mainly includes teaching in the presence of a patient, [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e] providing students with the opportunity to practice essential clinical skills such as communication, medical history taking, clinical reasoning, physical examination and diagnosing of real patients, (ideally) under the supervision of clinical teachers [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, more modern forms of BST also include off-patient activities, such as lecturer-guided discussions of patient cases. Rousseau et al. noted that physicians and students \u0026ldquo;value teaching and learning of physical examination skills, with multiple hands-on opportunities for direct role modelling, coaching, observation and deliberate practice\u0026rdquo; [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. Therefore, BST can be considered didactically valuable, in addition to other aspects, because it offers very good opportunities to apply clinical \u003cem\u003eskills\u003c/em\u003e (especially with respect to examination and communication) and clinically relevant \u003cem\u003eknowledge\u003c/em\u003e (in clinical reasoning) to specific patient cases. The key assumption behind the present study, however, focuses on an often-overlooked aspect of BST: As this didactic format allows the application of skills and knowledge in multiple relevant ways, it also provides very good opportunities for students to learn from mistakes. We argue, however, that the degree to which students can learn from mistakes in BST depends upon how clinical teachers handle such mistakes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite substantial research on didactical aspects of BST [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR6 CR7 CR8 CR9 CR10 CR11 CR12 CR13 CR14 CR15 CR16 CR17 CR18 CR19 CR20\" citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e], whether and how student mistakes are handled in didactically fruitful ways by clinical teachers in BST has rarely been investigated. To fill this gap, we aim to describe clinical teachers\u0026rsquo; practices of handling student mistakes at the bedside in the current study. For this purpose, we video-recorded bedside teaching sessions in clinical medical education in the subject areas of internal medicine, orthopaedics and neurology and, on this basis, conducted fine-grained analyses of the recorded interactions. In a first paper based on these data [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e], we addressed the following questions: which types of student mistakes could be observed in BST, how did clinical teachers react to these mistakes, and whether did they use different strategies to address different types of mistakes? These points are important, as present-day medical education on BST faces significant challenges, e.g., regarding the quantity of BST being in decline [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR24 CR25 CR26 CR27\" citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e]. This trend underlines the relevance of focusing aspects of the didactic quality of BST [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e], such as the way student mistakes are fruitfully used for didactic purposes by clinical teachers.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe social structures of BST are becoming increasingly heterogeneous. This leads to a clinical teacher not always being present in the patient room, with the entire group of students. Instead, the course group is frequently split into several smaller groups that interact with different patients or with themselves. As a consequence, some students\u0026mdash;perhaps even the entire group\u0026mdash;are not supervised by a lecturer when interacting with patients [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. We hypothesize that such situations are disadvantageous with respect to learning from errors because without the lecturer being present, errors might occur unnoticed and, consequently, are not used didactically.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis would be disadvantageous, as many researchers argue that student mistakes can be didactically very useful, as they allow clinical teachers to gain insight into gaps or misconceptions in students\u0026rsquo; knowledge [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e]. Analysing student mistakes is hence a promising perspective for medical education research, as it helps to better understand how learning from errors in BST can be fostered. This, in turn, may contribute to decreasing the frequency of errors in students\u0026rsquo; later everyday clinical work [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e]. On the basis of information about what students do not (yet) know or where their clinical understanding is limited, clinical teachers can initiate learning activities specifically tailored to improve students\u0026rsquo; knowledge in very targeted, situation-adequate ways [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR33 CR34\" citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e]. Moreover, learning from mistakes can foster the development of \u003cem\u003enegative knowledge\u003c/em\u003e, i.e., knowledge about what incorrect assumptions are or about how something does not work. It has been argued that such knowledge is very valuable in professional contexts, as it provides a cognitive resource for avoiding mistakes on the basis of previous, error-related learning processes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e]. BST offers very promising opportunities in this respect, as it is highly interactive and occurs mostly in small-group settings, in which clinical cases are discussed in detail [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo shed further light on what are good ways for clinical teachers to make didactic use of student mistakes, the current study focuses on the relationship between the contextual conditions in BST and the occurrence of student mistakes in BST. This is a hitherto neglected but important focus, as knowledge of the contextual conditions in BST, which make the occurrence of student mistakes more likely, is relevant for clinical teachers. This is because it can assist clinical teachers in planning BST sessions accordingly and in staying particularly vigilant during phases in which they can expect to observe and make didactic use of student mistakes. More specifically, our research questions (RQs) concern which types of learning content student mistakes can be observed and how the presence of clinical teachers and patients influence the occurrence of student mistakes.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eLearning from mistakes and learning content covered in BST\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWith respect to learning content, the main learning objectives of BST discussed in the pertinent medical education literature are history taking, physical examination, case presentation, clinical reasoning and theoretical knowledge [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e]. As discussed above, the bedside is also ideal for teaching further learning objectives, such as professional behaviour, humanism and respectful physician‒patient interactions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e]. We hypothesize that these learning objectives differ in terms of the opportunities for learning from errors they afford, on the one hand, because, in the context of some learning objectives, more errors occur than in others; on the other hand, different types of mistakes might occur more or less frequently in the context of different learning objectives. To address these questions, we examine the interrelation between the learning content covered in BST, on the one hand, and the frequency and type of student mistakes that occur, on the other hand.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eLearning from mistakes and teacher presence in clinical examinations\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, we investigate the relationship between the presence or absence of a clinical teacher and the handling of student mistakes, whereby we focus on the learning content of a \u003cem\u003eclinical examination\u003c/em\u003e. The focus on teacher presence is relevant because the way teachers react to and handle mistakes strongly influences the degree to which mistakes can be learned from [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e]. When learning from clinical examinations in the context of BST, medical students acquire skills through practical training. They often start by examining fellow students until they gain a deeper understanding of specific examination techniques and their anatomical/physiological background. They subsequently practice with patients who were previously assessed by doctors within supervised clinical training. Our focus on clinical examination as learning content is because, in the context of our previous study [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e], we observed a large variance in teacher presence vs. absence as well as frequent student mistakes. Furthermore, the practical nature of clinical examination and its multistep character provide a good basis for observing errors in the presence vs. absence of medical teachers because supervising physicians often rotate between student groups.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eLearning from mistakes and patient presence\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEventually, we investigate how patient presence influences the occurrence of student mistakes in BST. As discussed above, mistakes may give direction to the learning process\u0026mdash;even more than tasks that were completed successfully. In contrast to their learning potential, studies have shown that, in many cases, mistakes are not made use of in didactically meaningful ways [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e]. When focusing on medical education settings, a \u0026ldquo;stigma of being wrong\u0026rdquo; is often observed, as McDermott puts it. This stigma needs to be \u0026ldquo;removed first\u0026rdquo; to \u0026ldquo;create a supportive learning environment [\u0026hellip;] that encourages our trainees to think critically, express their thoughts, and receive timely feedback, all while including their patients\u0026rdquo; [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e]. In this respect, the presence of a patient as a relevant third party is accentuated as a specificity of medical education in general and of BST in particular. Students may feel embarrassed in front of a patient, particularly when they make a mistake. Furthermore, such situations may also affect the doctor\u0026ndash;patient relationship: Williams et al. described concerns expressed by medical teachers during focus group discussions related to the notion that mistakes occurring during bedside teaching could cause patients to lose confidence in the students as clinicians and in the teachers as team leaders. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e] \u0026ldquo;It is likely that doctors are aware of this situation and adjust their response in front of the patient. Further research on [\u0026hellip;] how the teacher\u0026rsquo;s reaction changes in the presence and absence of the patient is needed\" [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn summary, we examine differences in the occurrence of student mistakes (as an important prerequisite for learning from these mistakes) depending on the social form (plenary vs. small group, teacher present vs. absent, patient present vs. absent). We propose the following RQs in the present study:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRQ 1: How is the learning content covered in bedside teaching related to the frequency and types of student mistakes?\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRQ 2: How does the presence or absence of medical teachers during a clinical examination impact the frequency and types of mistakes that occur?\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRQ 3: How do clinical teachers\u0026rsquo; reactions to student mistakes change depending upon the presence and absence of the patient during BST sessions?\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBedside Teaching sessions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe videotaped 39 BST sessions in clinical medical education at TUM rechts der Isar University Hospital. Each course was scheduled for 180 minutes and attended by approximately 6 students, mostly in their second clinical year (fourth year of medical studies overall). In the local medical curriculum, a total of 360 such sessions are offered each semester over a time span of twelve weeks. Thus, each student attended twelve BST sessions of which eight were internal medicine, two were neurology, and two were orthopaedics.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSample, recruitment and ethical considerations\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn a prestudy, we filmed three BST sessions. These data were needed to examine and optimize the process of data collection, particularly the coding scheme developed for the subsequent main study. In the main study, a total of 36 BST sessions were videotaped, 12 in internal medicine, neurology, and orthopaedics. All analyses reported in this paper rely on data from these sessions. The selection of BSTs to be filmed took place at least two weeks prior to the respective session. The teaching clinician was contacted one week before the recording to discuss open questions. The clinical teacher identified suitable patients on the ward and asked for their consent to participate in both the BST session and the study. We obtained written approval for participation in the study from all patients, students and clinical teachers. The students in these sessions received an e-mail in advance and were given the opportunity to change to another course if they did not wish to take part in the study. Seven students switched sessions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe 36 videotaped BST sessions had a cumulative length of 78.4 hours. They were taught by 24 different teachers. This means that we filmed twelve teachers once and twelve teachers twice. A total of 259 students and 84 patients took part in the filmed sessions. Out of the latter, 47 were audible (but not visible) in our video data, and the others were visited by subgroups of students not accompanied by a cameraperson from our research team. At the beginning of each session, before starting the recording, a member of our team was present to again inform the participants about our study, respond to arising questions and collect written consent from all participants. We obtained full consent prior to any filming. The ethics committee of the TUM rechts der Isar University Hospital reviewed and approved the present study (Ethics vote code: 360/18S).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eVideo recording of bedside teaching sessions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt; Insert Figure 1 about here \u0026gt;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs illustrated in Figure 1, we used a video camera with a tripod and directional microphone to record the BST sessions. We did not pause or stop the recording until the clinical teacher had finished the session to ensure comparability of the videos. The camera followed the group when the teaching location was changed (e.g., from a meeting room to a patient room). In general, we filmed from an overview perspective so that the teacher, the students and, where appropriate, other (e.g., medical) objects were recorded. In the patient room, we ensured that the faces of the patients were not visible in the videos to retain their anonymity. To do so, the cameraperson always stood next to the head of the patient\u0026rsquo;s bed, and the camera was directed towards the students and the lecturer. In this way, the patients were not visible but were audible in the video recordings. At the beginning of each session, the cameraperson silently chose one particular student in the group whom the camera followed, e.g., in cases when the group was divided into smaller groups. This means that if different patients were examined simultaneously, the camera did not switch between subgroups but remained with the predesigned students\u0026rsquo; subgroup. Additionally, the cameraperson did not interrupt the course of the session as much as possible.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAnalysing the video material: categorial system and coding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo analyse the video data, we created an exhaustive-disjunctive\u003ca href=\"#_ftn1\" name=\"_ftnref1\" title=\"\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e hierarchical categorial system on the basis of the rating schemes developed by Seidel et al. \u003c!--[if supportFields]\u003e\u003cspan style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:200%'\u003e\u003cspan style='mso-element:field-begin'\u003e\u003c/span\u003eADDIN CitaviPlaceholder{{"$id":"1","$type":"SwissAcademic.Citavi.Citations.WordPlaceholder, SwissAcademic.Citavi","Entries":[{"$id":"2","$type":"SwissAcademic.Citavi.Citations.WordPlaceholderEntry, 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We first used the video data from the preliminary study to train the raters: both raters coded video material from the preliminary study and then visualized and compared the results and discussed deviations. Through an iterative process, initially defined categories were revised multiple times to further refine our categorical system. Only after a satisfactory level of agreement was reached did we move on to the main study. Interrater reliability was determined on the basis of 37418 one-second intervals generated after coding four videos (total duration: approximately ten hours).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTwo members of our research team (AB and HR) used \u003cem\u003eMicrosoft Excel\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eand \u003cem\u003eMangold Interact\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eto code the video data regarding \u003cem\u003estudent mistakes\u003c/em\u003e,\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;learning content\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003esocial structure\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e[43].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the first round, all \u003cem\u003estudent mistakes\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003ewere marked along with other codes. 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Mistakes on both verbal and nonverbal levels (e.g., during the clinical examination) were included.\u0026nbsp;In a subsequent step, we differentiated several types of mistakes on the basis of the classification advanced by Anderson and Krathwohl\u0026nbsp;[45]\u0026nbsp;on\u0026nbsp;the basis of\u0026nbsp;Bloom\u0026rsquo;s taxonomy (\u003c!--[if supportFields]\u003e\u003cspan style='mso-element:field-begin'\u003e\u003c/span\u003eADDIN 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Table 1). In a further coding round, we operationalized teacher reactions by drawing upon three categories adopted from Wuttke [47, 48] and Crespo \u003c!--[if supportFields]\u003e\u003cspan style='mso-element:field-begin'\u003e\u003c/span\u003eADDIN 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Rubisch","Id":"421ba044-8324-43af-9ede-dcc5f9e2e0a4","ModifiedOn":"2020-03-31T23:19:14","Project":{"$ref":"8"}}],"Quotations":[],"Rating":0,"ReferenceType":"BookEdited","ShortTitle":"Gläser-Zikuda, Seifried (Ed.) 2008 – Lehrerexpertise","ShortTitleUpdateType":0,"SourceOfBibliographicInformation":"GBV Gemeinsamer Bibliotheksverbund","StaticIds":["2c6f7de8-8f25-4a35-ac46-03538d28eb87"],"Subtitle":"Analyse und Bedeutung unterrichtlichen Handelns","TableOfContentsComplexity":0,"TableOfContentsSourceTextFormat":0,"Tasks":[],"Title":"Lehrerexpertise","Translators":[],"Year":"2008","YearResolved":"2008","CreatedBy":"_Hannah Rubisch","CreatedOn":"2020-03-31T23:19:14","ModifiedBy":"_Hannah Rubisch","Id":"f6adfdf4-a5f8-4d31-9e70-0faf3907d527","ModifiedOn":"2020-03-31T23:19:19","Project":{"$ref":"8"}},"Publishers":[],"Quotations":[],"Rating":0,"ReferenceType":"Contribution","ShortTitle":"Wuttke 2008 – Umgang mit Fehlern und Ungewißheit","ShortTitleUpdateType":0,"SourceOfBibliographicInformation":"kops.uni-konstanz.de","StaticIds":["e19fdff3-767c-46f1-a7a3-aa7a67da5689"],"TableOfContentsComplexity":0,"TableOfContentsSourceTextFormat":0,"Tasks":[],"Title":"Umgang mit Fehlern und Ungewißheit im Unterricht : Entwicklung eines Beobachtungsinstruments und erste empirische Befunde","Translators":[],"Year":"2008","YearResolved":"2008","CreatedBy":"_Hannah Rubisch","CreatedOn":"2020-03-31T21:54:19","ModifiedBy":"_Hannah Rubisch","Id":"db77f7c1-49c9-4675-85e5-b70cc386b91b","ModifiedOn":"2020-03-31T23:29:23","Project":{"$ref":"8"}},"UseNumberingTypeOfParentDocument":false}],"FormattedText":{"$id":"29","Count":1,"TextUnits":[{"$id":"30","FontStyle":{"$id":"31","Neutral":true},"ReadingOrder":1,"Text":"[48]"}]},"Tag":"CitaviPlaceholder#27d24904-d8cb-11ae-a2ad-bd5c48dfc0b3","Text":"[48]","WAIVersion":"7.0.6.1"}}\u003cspan style='mso-element:field-separator'\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c![endif]--\u003e[48]\u003c!--[if supportFields]\u003e\u003cspan style='mso-element:field-end'\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c![endif]--\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRegarding the reliability of the measurements, we found a high interrater agreement value of Cohen\u0026rsquo;s Kappa = 0.84 for both categories, \u003cem\u003estudent\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003emistakes\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003etypes\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;of student\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003emistakes\u003c/em\u003e. For \u003cem\u003efeedback\u003c/em\u003e, a satisfactory value of Cohen\u0026rsquo;s Kappa = 0.64 was reached. For the \u003cem\u003elevel of elaboration\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eand\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;time for correction\u003c/em\u003e, the values were\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eCohen\u0026rsquo;s Kappa = 0.91 (very good) and 0.66 (satisfactory), respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt; Insert Table 2 about here \u0026gt;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 2\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eCategories of teacher reactions to student mistakes (cf. [22])\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTeacher reactions to student mistakes \u0026ndash; Procedure of correction\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFeedback\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eExplicit rejection\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTeacher/another student directly rejects or immediately corrects statement/action (e.g., false examination technique)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFurther inquiry\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWrong statements/actions are not immediately corrected. Instead, student group is asked for judgement\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLevel of elaboration\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLow\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTeacher does not further discuss wrongful assumptions or reasons behind mistake\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHigh\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTeacher initiates discussion and/or elaborates about mistake (for qualitative analysis of feedback cf. [49] and [47], [48]) \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTime for correction of mistake\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTeacher does not leave student sufficient time to self-correct mistake\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStudent is given time to self-correct the mistake. Student\u0026rsquo;s process of verbal reflection may be supported by nonverbal (e.g., nodding) or verbal signals (\u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eyes, correct\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo;)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe drew upon pertinent literature [8, 50, 51] to code \u003cem\u003elearning content\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e(cf. Figure 2) characteristically covered in bedside teaching sessions. We achieved very good [42] interrater reliability for \u003cem\u003elearning content\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e(0.83), \u003cem\u003epresence of the teacher\u003c/em\u003e (0.99) and \u003cem\u003epresence of the patient\u003c/em\u003e (\u0026gt;0.99).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt; Insert Figure 2 about here \u0026gt;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStatistical analyses\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe used \u003cem\u003eIBM SPSS\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003efor \u003cem\u003eWindows\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e(version 26.0) to perform both descriptive and inferential statistical calculations. The significance threshold was set to \u003cem\u003ep\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt; 0.05. In the following section, our data are presented in terms of absolute and relative frequencies. The respective data were determined to be continuous but not normally distributed. Correlations were measured by Pearson\u0026rsquo;s correlation coefficient (RQ 2). To answer RQ 3, we focus on different categories of clinical teachers\u0026rsquo; reactions to student mistakes: feedback, level of elaboration and time for correction of a mistake. The respective data had binary characteristics, and Mann‒Whitney U tests were applied to test for differences in central tendency in the teachers\u0026rsquo; reactions to mistakes depending upon the presence and absence of the patient (RQ 3).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRQ1: How is\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ethe\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003elearning content covered in bedside teaching related to\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ethe\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003efrequency and types of student mistakes?\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe 36 BST sessions we filmed had a mean duration of 128.9 min (\u003cem\u003eSD\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= 30.5 min); the shortest session lasted 79.9 min, and the longest session lasted 181.9 min, with an IQR of 57.0 min from 103.6 to 160.6 min, cf. overall duration in [41, Figure 3]. This figure depicts the heterogeneity of the filmed BST sessions regarding overall duration and learning content, apparent from the strongly scattered data.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLearning content and student mistakes.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003eWe were able to assign a specific type of learning content from our categorial system to 81.4% of the overall BST time recorded. (18.6% of the time, the learning content was coded as \u0026ldquo;other\u0026rdquo;; cf. Figure 2). Overall, we observed relatively high frequencies of student mistakes (of all types) in the context of the types of learning content: \u003cem\u003eclinical examination\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e(7.9 mistakes per hour on average), \u003cem\u003ecase presentation\u003c/em\u003e (6.4 mistakes per hour on average), \u003cem\u003etheoretical knowledge\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e(6.3 mistakes per hour on average), and clinical reasoning (5.1 mistakes per hour on average; cf. Table 3). Lower frequencies of student mistakes were observed in the context of \u003cem\u003eclinical examination\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e(3.6 \u003cem\u003eapplication mistakes [skills]\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eper hour), \u003cem\u003eclinical reasoning\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e(2.3 \u003cem\u003ereproduction mistakes\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eper hour)\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eand \u003cem\u003ecase presentation\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e(2.1 \u003cem\u003eapplication mistakes [skills]\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eper hour). Overall, we counted 4.8 student mistakes per hour of BST. The type of learning content in which we observed the highest frequency of student mistakes was \u003cem\u003etheoretical knowledge\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e(4.4 reproduction mistakes per hour), which, at the same time, was the type of learning content on which the smallest share of time was spent (cf. [41, Figure 3]; \u003cem\u003eMN\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= 7 min, \u003cem\u003eIQR\u003c/em\u003e = 1\u0026ndash;14 min).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt; Insert Table 3 about here \u0026gt;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 3\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eFrequency and type of student mistakes per hour during different types of learning content covered in BST\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"100%\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 17px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"7\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eType of mistake per hour\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOverall per hour\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWrong Application of Skills\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWrong Application of Knowledge\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAnalytic Mistakes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eReproduction Mistakes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOther Mistakes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMistakes related to Misinterpretation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eComprehension Mistakes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"6\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLearning Content\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCE\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.570\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.092\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.252\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.890\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.210\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.042\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.798\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.854\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCP\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.074\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.082\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.803\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.090\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.090\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.262\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.402\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCR\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.774\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.915\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.322\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.070\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.070\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.985\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.137\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHT\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.366\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.122\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.122\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.610\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTK\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.569\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.364\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.190\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.139\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.262\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOT\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.068\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.068\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.068\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.068\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.068\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.068\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.068\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.068\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 17px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOverall\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.448\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.672\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.259\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.577\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.090\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.052\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.711\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.809\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eCE=Clinical Examination, CP=Case Presentation, CR=Clinical Reasoning, HT=History Taking, TK=Theoretical Knowledge, OT=Other\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRQ2: influence of the presence of the clinical teacher on student mistakes during the clinical examination\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 4 displays the descriptions of different types of student mistakes and the percentage of time the medical teacher was present during the clinical examination.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt; Insert Table 4 about here \u0026gt;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 4\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003eStudent mistakes and presence of the clinical teacher during the clinical examination in BST\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"93%\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 23px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDuration Clinical Examination [s]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePresence of Teacher\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(percentage of time)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMistakes during Clinical Examination\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eReproduction Mistakes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eComprehension Mistakes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWrong Application of Skills\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWrong Application of Knowledge\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAnalytic Mistakes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 23px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1596.944\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e72%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.48\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.91\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.39\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.59\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.48\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 23px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMedian\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1324.500\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 23px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStandard Deviation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1304.3421\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e42%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.2080\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.6170\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.9600\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.7090\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.2990\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.3720\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 23px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMinimum\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e201\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 23px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMaximum\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7069\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePercentile\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e780.75\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2134.75\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote.\u003c/em\u003e Sample: \u003cem\u003eN\u003c/em\u003e = 54 clinical examinations\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 5\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eStudent mistakes and presence of the clinical teacher by different types of learning content in BST\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"96%\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eType of learning content\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePresence of Teacher\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(percentage of time)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eReproduction Mistakes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eComprehension Mistakes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWrong Application of Skills\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWrong Application of Knowledge\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAnalytic Mistakes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOverall\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCE\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e72%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.910\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.390\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.590\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.480\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.110\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.480\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCP\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.500\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCR\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e42%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.617\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.960\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.709\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.299\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.372\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.208\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHT\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTK\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOT\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSum\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.250\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.250\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eCE=Clinical Examination, CP=Case Presentation, CR=Clinical Reasoning, HT=History Taking, TK=Theoretical Knowledge, OT=Other. Sample: N = 54 clinical examinations\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt; Insert Table 5 about here \u0026gt;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOwing to the large differences in the length of the clinical examination (from 3 \u0026ndash; 118 minutes), we do not outline the absolute time but rather the percentage of time the medical teacher was present during the clinical examination. On average, the time dedicated to teaching, learning and practising the clinical examination was 27 minutes (\u003cem\u003eSD\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= 22 minutes). In the BST sessions we filmed, the medical teacher was present during the clinical examination 72.00% of the time (min = 0.00%, max = 100.00% of the time,\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;IQR\u003c/em\u003e = 39.25% \u0026ndash; 100.00%). On average, 3.50 (\u003cem\u003eSD\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= 5.20) student mistakes occurred during the clinical examination.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCorrelations\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe found positive correlations for all the variables examined. Below, the effects, which have an uncorrected p-value \u0026lt;0.05, are discussed. All correlations are shown in Table 6.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt; Insert Table 6 about here \u0026gt;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 6\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eExamining Pearson\u0026rsquo;s correlations between teacher presence and student mistakes during the clinical examination\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"100%\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePearson\u0026rsquo;s correlation coefficients\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePresence of Teacher (percentage of time)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCorrelation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ep\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOverall mistakes during clinical Examination\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.369\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.006\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eReproduction Mistakes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.365\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.007\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eComprehension Mistakes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.266\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.052\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWrong Application of Skills\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.262\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.056\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWrong Application of Knowledge\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.224\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.104\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAnalytic Mistakes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.201\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.144\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe found a medium-sized significant correlation between the frequency of student mistakes during the clinical examination and the presence of the clinical teacher (0.369). Furthermore, there was a significant correlation between the occurrence of reproduction mistakes and the presence of the teacher (0.365). Both correlations are significant after correction for multiple testing. We did not find a significant correlation between the presence of the teacher and the occurrence of any other mistakes (0.266, 0.262, 0.224 and 0.201).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRQ3: influence of the presence of the patient on clinical teachers\u0026rsquo; reactions to student mistakes\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFinally, we investigated whether the reactions of the clinical teachers to student mistakes changed depending upon the presence or absence of the patient (cf. Tables 7 and 8). We coded the presence of the patient by selecting the\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003epatient room\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003efor \u003cem\u003elocation\u003c/em\u003e, cf. our categorial system: [41, Figure 2].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt; Insert Table 7 about here \u0026gt;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 7\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eFrequencies of different types of clinical teachers\u0026rsquo; reactions to student mistakes (feedback; level of elaboration and time for correction) in relation to the presence vs. absence of a patient in BST\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"567\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFeedback\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eExplicit rejection\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFurther inquiry\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMean Rank\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRank Sum\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePatient absent\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e166\u003cbr\u003e\u003cem\u003e(64.80%)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e90\u003cbr\u003e\u003cem\u003e(35.20%)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e181.39\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e46436.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePatient present\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e65\u003cbr\u003e\u003cem\u003e(56.00%)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e51\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e(44.00%)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e197.78\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22942.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLevel of elaboration\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLow\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHigh\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMean Rank\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRank Sum\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePatient absent\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e114\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e(44.50%)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e142\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e(55.50%)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e187.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e47916.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePatient present\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e53\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e(45.70%)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e63\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e(54.30%)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e185.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21462.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTime for correction\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMean Rank\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRank Sum\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePatient absent\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e118\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e(46.10%)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e138\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e(53.90%)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e184.77\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e47300.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePatient present\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e(43.10%)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e66\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e(56.90%)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e190.33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 118px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22078.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt; Insert Table 8 about here \u0026gt;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 8\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003ePatient Presence and Teacher Reactions: Inferential Statistical Comparisons\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"557\" class=\"fr-table-selection-hover\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 140px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 139px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFeedback\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 139px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLevel of Elaboration\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 139px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTime for correction\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 140px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMann‒Whitney-U Test\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 139px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13540\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 139px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14676\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 139px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14404\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 140px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWilcoxon W\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 139px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e46436\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 139px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21462\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 139px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e47300\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 140px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eZ\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 139px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-1.620\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 139px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.208\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 139px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.536\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 140px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAsymptotic Significance (2-tailed)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 139px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.105\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 139px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.835\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 139px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.592\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe found no significant differences regarding teachers\u0026rsquo; reactions to student mistakes, depending upon the presence or absence of a patient. Although the clinical teachers in our study reacted less frequently with explicit rejection to student mistakes when a patient was present (56.00% compared with 64.80% when no patient was present), the Mann‒Whitney U test did not reach statistical significance. Additionally, the teachers did not significantly modify their levels of elaboration or provide more time for correction after a mistake, depending upon the presence of a patient.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn this study, we identified correlations between learning content, social structure (specifically, the presence of the clinical teacher), and the occurrence of student mistakes in BST sessions. Furthermore, we analysed clinical teachers\u0026rsquo; reactions to these mistakes, particularly considering the presence or absence of a patient. In our analysis, we focused on the characteristic educational objectives of BST as reported in the pertinent literature, namely, history taking, clinical examination, case presentation, clinical reasoning and theoretical knowledge [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e], and investigated the frequency and types of student mistakes occurring within these contexts. Overall, during the BST sessions observed, almost five student mistakes occurred per hour on average, which underlines that clinical teachers should not only correct but also actively address these mistakes and make didactic use of them. The sheer frequency of student mistakes suggests that instruction in the context of BST will be more effective if teachers handle student errors in didactically productive ways to address gaps in student knowledge and skills [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhen we looked closer into how many mistakes occurred in different types of learning content covered in BST, we found significant differences. While the teaching of theoretical knowledge played a minor role in terms of time allocation within the BST sessions we filmed, many mistakes occurred in this context, particularly reproduction mistakes. These are mistakes that occur when remembering or retrieving content that has been previously learned [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e], such as basic medical knowledge. This pattern might suggest challenges with retaining foundational knowledge or accessing it under the cognitive load inherent in clinical scenarios. Furthermore, we also observe many reproduction mistakes in the context of the learning content clinical reasoning. These recurring errors could also indicate deeper, underlying misconceptions \u0026ndash; flawed or incomplete understandings that resist simple correction. Identifying these errors requires more than surface-level correction; diagnostic approaches such as targeted questioning or analysing error patterns are needed. However, during clinical examination and case presentations, we primarily observed the wrong application of skills-type mistakes. These errors relate more directly to procedural execution or integrating skills in practice. This distinction the need for targeted, observation-based feedback focused on procedural aspects, which inherently relies on direct supervision.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, we focused the learning content physical examination, as it is argued that the bedside is the ideal place for teaching such clinical skills [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e]. In our sample, we found that clinical examination was performed in almost all (but three) sessions. However, on average, clinical teachers supervised the students only 72% of the time they were practising clinical examinations. Hence, 28% of the time, potential mistakes during the performance of the examination may have gone unnoticed\u0026mdash;if there was no fellow student who recognised and pointed out the mistake. This lack of consistent supervision is a significant concern, as it represents missed learning opportunities and carries the risk of students reinforcing incorrect techniques through unguided practice. However, clinical teachers cannot supervise several small groups at once. Therefore, they should at least instruct students to supervise each other as well as possible, point out the mistakes of their peers and inform the teacher in cases when they are unsure. This outcome aligns with the literature indicating that a lack of direct observation is a critical issue [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR55\" citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e]. In our categorical scheme for the event of an occurring mistake, we define the code \u0026lsquo;mistake\u0026rsquo; on the basis of a correction made by the teacher or another student [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e]. Thus, we might have underestimated the actual error rate during unsupervised practice. However, how effectively undergraduate medical students can detect and correct their fellow students\u0026rsquo; mistakes, given their limited clinical experience, remains an open question. Effective peer feedback requires goals, training, and a supportive environment, which may not always be present. As discussed above, we found a significant positive correlation between the presence of the clinical teacher and the number of student mistakes observed in general and reproduction mistakes in particular. This can be explained partially by our definition of the code mistake (the occurrence of a correction); however, we argue that during the clinical examination in undergraduate BST, mistakes occur, which may go unnoticed if the student group is unsupervised but are more likely to be identified and addressed by a present teacher.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOn the basis of these results, critical questions arise regarding the degree to which errors made during BST seminars are corrected since students may find themselves mostly relying on the clinical expertise of their fellow students. The results of RQ2 confirm this, as only approximately two-thirds of the time dedicated to the \u0026ldquo;teaching\u0026rdquo; of the physical examination involved the presence of a teacher. These findings are congruent with the pertinent literature: Haring et al. noted that direct observation of the students\u0026rsquo; interactions with patients, particularly their physical examination skills, appears to not be standard practice [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR55\" citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e], whereas Rousseau et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e] argued that there is a \u0026ldquo;lack of direct observation of trainees in performing [physical examination] skills\u0026rdquo;. Various reasons for this lack of observation during the clinical examination have been proposed in recent years, with the \u0026ldquo;hospital environment and its chaotic nature, time constraints and conflicting responsibilities\u0026rdquo; [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e] having been identified as the most important barrier [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e57\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e58\u003c/span\u003e]. These systemic pressures must be evaluated and taken into account by medical faculties when planning BST sessions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, pertinent research has shown that teachers\u0026rsquo; error management behaviour is likely to influence students\u0026rsquo; attitudes towards learning from mistakes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e59\u003c/span\u003e], as \u0026ldquo;teachers\u0026rsquo; maladaptive ways of handling\u0026rsquo; students\u0026rsquo; mistakes are likely to increase students\u0026rsquo; fear of failure and may foster maladaptive motivational patterns, such as [\u0026hellip;] experiencing generalized negative emotions\u0026rdquo; in the context of failures [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e]. Effectively leveraging mistakes requires fostering an error management culture, where errors are viewed as learning opportunities rather than solely as incidents to be avoided. This culture encourages open discussion and analysis of errors for improvement. Central to this is psychological safety [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e60\u003c/span\u003e]\u0026mdash;the shared belief that the environment is safe for interpersonal risk-taking, such as admitting errors or asking questions, without fear of negative consequences. When learners do not feel psychologically safe, they may hesitate to engage in the various behaviours needed to learn from mistakes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e]. However, when discussing student mistakes and teachers\u0026rsquo; reactions in BST, it is important to keep in mind the presence of the patient as a third party. While mistakes hold the potential for students to feel embarrassed in front of a patient, they may also be sensitive situations for the doctor\u0026ndash;patient relationship [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e]. In that sense, the patient\u0026rsquo;s presence creates a complex triadic interaction. In another paper by our research group discussing student mistakes in BST, we hypothesized that \u0026ldquo;doctors are aware of this situation and adjust their response in front of the patient\u0026rdquo;, calling for \u0026ldquo;further research on [\u0026hellip;] how teachers\u0026rsquo; reactions change depending upon the presence and absence of patients\u0026rdquo; [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the present study, we did not observe that clinical teachers\u0026rsquo; reactions to student mistakes changed depending upon the presence or absence of a patient. Teachers did not significantly modify their levels of elaboration, the directness of negative feedback, or the time they provided for correction of student mistakes, depending upon whether a patient was present. This could point towards a lack of awareness regarding patient presence vs. absence, creating somewhat different didactic circumstances regarding learning from mistakes in BST. Future research should focus on the degree of clinical teachers\u0026rsquo; sensitivity in this respect because the opportunity for better learning from mistakes might be deferred if not handled with specific strategies, such as briefly acknowledging the error, using guiding questions, or explicitly \u0026lsquo;bookmarking\u0026rsquo; it for later debriefing.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhether clinical teachers succeed in tapping the learning potential of mistakes depends on how they handle them, i.e., how they are reported back to the students and if and how they are further discussed. Effective feedback is crucial in this respect; it should be specific, descriptive, actionable, timely, balanced, objective, and learner-engaging. Models such as Pendleton\u0026rsquo;s rules, Ask-Tell-Ask, or ARCH can provide structure [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e61\u003c/span\u003e]. However, the effectiveness of any feedback hinges on the underlying psychological safety, as was already discussed previously. In our study, we analysed how teachers handle student mistakes in bedside teaching. The questions of how well students actually learn from these mistakes and how the way mistakes are handled by clinical teachers influences students\u0026rsquo; learning outcomes remain open to be addressed in further research [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, the finding that seminars filmed were sometimes shorter than the scheduled 180 minutes suggests potential unused time. This time could be strategically employed for active learning, specifically targeting common errors or misconceptions identified during the session. Strategies such as brief diagnostic probes, think-pair-sharing activities, or focused retrieval practices could transform these minutes into valuable, targeted learning opportunities, enhancing the efficiency of BST [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e62\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn sum, student mistakes are frequent in BST and represent significant learning opportunities. Capitalising on these mistakes requires teachers to move beyond straightforward correction of mistakes towards fostering a psychologically safe environment where errors can be openly discussed and analysed. Addressing the challenge of inconsistent supervision, particularly during skill-based activities such as clinical examination, is crucial in our view. Teachers also need to be supported in developing good strategies to provide effective, elaborate feedback and navigate the complexities of the patient\u0026rsquo;s presence. Recognizing patterns in student errors, diagnosing underlying misconceptions, and potentially utilizing available time for targeted active learning are key areas for improving the pedagogical effectiveness of BST. Future research should continue to explore student perspectives on errors and feedback, evaluate interventions aimed at improving error management and feedback practices, and investigate the long-term impact of psychologically safe learning environments.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003cp\u003eBST Bedside Teaching\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIQR Interquartile range\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMN Mean\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRQ Research Question\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSD Standard deviation\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eApproval for this study was obtained from the ethics committee of the Klinikum Rechts der Isar, application code 360/18S. Informed consent to participate in written form was obtained from all study participants. We carried out all methods in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and materials\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll data (except the original video recordings) and materials are available upon direct request to the corresponding author: [email protected].\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOpen Access funding enabled and organised by Projekt DEAL. The authors did not receive support from any organisation for the submitted work. All authors certify that they have no affiliations with or involvement in any organisation or entity with any financial or non-financial interest in the subject matter or materials discussed in this manuscript.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors\u0026rsquo; contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePOB and MG conceptualized the study and the research questions. HPKR, ALB and MG collected the data. ALB and HPKR performed the statistical analyses. HPKR drafted the manuscript. POB, MG and ALB critically commented on the manuscript. All authors have read and approved the final version and agreed to be accountable for all aspects of the work.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor details\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll authors are affiliated with the TUM Medical Education Center, TUM School of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, Ismaninger Stra\u0026szlig;e 22, 81675 Munich, Germany.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors would like to thank the clinical teachers, students and patients who were part of this study for their willingness to be filmed in the context of this study. Further thanks to all members of the TUM Medical Education Center who contributed to the data collection.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAhmed M-B. What is happening to bedside clinical teaching? 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What do faculty observe of medical students\u0026apos; clinical performance? Teach Learn Med. 2006;18:99\u0026ndash;104. doi:10.1207/s15328015tlm1802_2.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eGonzalo JD, Heist BS, Duffy BL, Dyrbye L, Fagan MJ, Ferenchick G, et al. Identifying and overcoming the barriers to bedside rounds: a multicenter qualitative study. Acad Med. 2014;89:326\u0026ndash;34. doi:10.1097/ACM.0000000000000100.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eRamani S, Orlander JD, Strunin L, Barber TW. Whither bedside teaching? A focus-group study of clinical teachers. Acad Med. 2003;78:384\u0026ndash;90. doi:10.1097/00001888-200304000-00014.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSteuer G, Rosentritt-Brunn G, Dresel M. Dealing with errors in mathematics classrooms: Structure and relevance of perceived error climate. Contemporary Educational Psychology. 2013;38:196\u0026ndash;210. doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2013.03.002.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eEdmondson AC, Higgins M, Singer S, Weiner J. Understanding Psychological Safety in Health Care and Education Organizations: A Comparative Perspective. Research in Human Development. 2016;13:65\u0026ndash;83. doi:10.1080/15427609.2016.1141280.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003evan de Ridder JMM. Pendleton\u0026rsquo;s Rules: A Mini Review of a Feedback Method. AJBSR. 2023;19:19\u0026ndash;21. doi:10.34297/AJBSR.2023.19.002542.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eDuran MJ, Aciego JJ, Gonzalez-Prieto I, Carrillo-Rios J, Gonzalez-Prieto A, Claros-Colome A. A Gamified Active-Learning Proposal for Higher-Education Heterogeneous STEM Courses. Education Sciences. 2025;15:10. doi:10.3390/educsci15010010.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Footnotes","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e Exhaustive-disjunctive categorial system: includes all possibilities (that have not been ruled out). Example for the video code \u003cem\u003esocial structure\u003c/em\u003e: \u003cem\u003eplenary setting\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003esmall group setting\u003c/em\u003e or \u003cem\u003eother\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-medical-education","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"meed","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Medical Education](http://bmcmededuc.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/meed/default.aspx","title":"BMC Medical Education","twitterHandle":"BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Bedside teaching, Medical education, Student mistakes, Teacher reactions, Teaching methods, Teacher presence, Patient presence, Video study","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8311338/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8311338/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003eBackground\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudent mistakes are common in bedside teaching (BST) and can serve as important learning opportunities. However, little is known about how frequently mistakes occur in authentic clinical settings, what types of learning content they involve, and how teacher and patient presence shape teachers\u0026rsquo; handling of these errors. This study investigated (RQ1) the relevance of learning content during student mistakes, (RQ2) associations between mistake types and teachers\u0026rsquo; reactions, and (RQ3) whether teacher and patient presence influence clinical teachers\u0026rsquo; responses to mistakes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethods\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe conducted an observational study based on video recordings of 36 BST sessions across internal medicine, neurology, and orthopaedics (78.4 hours). Using a hierarchical coding scheme, we identified mistakes, classified their learning content and mistake types, and coded teacher reactions as well as teacher and patient presence. Interrater reliability ranged from substantial to excellent. Descriptive statistics were used to determine the frequency of mistakes per hour and their distribution across the learning content. Associations between mistake types and teacher reactions were analysed via Pearson correlations (RQ2). Mann\u0026ndash;Whitney U tests (RQ3) were used when examining whether teachers\u0026rsquo; error-related behaviours differed depending on the presence or absence of the patient.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcross all BST sessions, the students made an average of 4.9 mistakes per hour. Mistakes occurred most often during theoretical knowledge and clinical reasoning, predominantly as reproduction errors, whereas an incorrect application of skills was most frequent during clinical examination and case presentations. Teacher presence was positively associated with the number of observed mistakes, particularly reproduction mistakes. During the physical examination, the students were supervised for only 72% of the active practice time. Teachers\u0026rsquo; reactions\u0026mdash;including elaboration, directness of feedback, and time provided for correction\u0026mdash;did not differ significantly depending on patient presence.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusions\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudent mistakes are common in BST and hold considerable didactic value; however, this value is not fully realised when supervision is inconsistent or when feedback remains limited. Enhancing clinical teachers\u0026rsquo; capacity to detect errors, providing structured and supportive feedback, and adapting their approach to the presence of patients may strengthen their ability to learn from mistakes. Interventions that cultivate psychological safety and promote effective error-management practices could further improve the pedagogical quality of BST.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Making student mistakes didactically useful in bedside teaching: Relevance of learning content, teacher and patient presence","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-12-22 17:15:34","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8311338/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-01-19T05:18:52+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-01-19T03:03:27+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-01-09T05:02:50+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"284987449059531890669547277714310686402","date":"2026-01-07T19:41:32+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"119588069484590381367369715183749395178","date":"2026-01-06T23:33:57+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"176992401576236165016677271563755038164","date":"2025-12-20T06:22:32+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-12-18T04:14:45+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2025-12-15T11:46:12+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-12-12T23:58:48+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-12-12T23:58:00+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"BMC Medical Education","date":"2025-12-08T22:27:36+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-medical-education","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"meed","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Medical Education](http://bmcmededuc.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/meed/default.aspx","title":"BMC Medical Education","twitterHandle":"BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"39dfcccb-120d-47d7-b8ef-db11e6106d38","owner":[],"postedDate":"December 22nd, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"in-revision","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-07T06:25:16+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-12-22 17:15:34","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8311338","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8311338","identity":"rs-8311338","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}