Evaluation of the mechanical properties of the seeds of twenty-five accessions of African yam bean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa)

Evaluation of the mechanical properties of the seeds of twenty-five accessions of African yam bean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa) | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Evaluation of the mechanical properties of the seeds of twenty-five accessions of African yam bean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa) Samuel O. Baiyeri, Nnaemeka R. Nwakuba, Adesola A. Satimehin This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8902602/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This research assessed the mechanical characteristics of the seeds of 25 African yam bean ( Sphenostylis stenocarpa ) accessions to determine how these properties could influence the crop production operations (pre-harvest), mechanical processing and post-harvest handling. The experiment design was completely randomized. Substantial structural variation was evident in the mechanical parameters, which included seed length, breadth, and thickness, ranging from 7.589-9.822mm, 5.944-7.422mm, and 4.922 to 7.039 mm, respectively, as well as the bio-yield and rupture forces, which varied from 145.83-404.17N and 151.24-1131.94N. Compressive strength and deformation at rupture, which measure mechanical resistance, ranged from 0.0070 to 0.0364MPa and 0.0016 to 3.7917mm, respectively. Energy absorbed at rupture varied widely (0.4337-3.1281mJ), with some accessions, such as TSs 95 and TSs 111, showing outstanding mechanical resiliency, indicating tough seed coat quality and a reduced vulnerability to damage during mechanical handling. Values of friction coefficients for different accessions varied from 0.1090 (glass-Adikpo) to 0.2471 (metal-TSS79), suggesting that surface contact in food machinery design is influenced by AYB accession and variety. These outcomes highlight the importance of genetic variation in seed mechanical attributes, which is crucial for breeding, equipment development, and preservation. African yam bean seed processing bio-yield structural surface absorbed energy process mechanization 1. Introduction African yam bean (AYB), Sphenostylis stenocarpa , is one of the lesser-known, underutilized, and neglected pulses. It produces grain, underground tubers, and root nodules that carry out biological atmospheric nitrogen fixation [ 1 ]. The crop is notable for its high nutrient density among lesser-known legumes. African yam bean seeds have been reported to be rich in iron, zinc, selenium, protein, carbohydrates, and fibre but low in fat and moisture content [ 2 ]. African yam bean is grown in various agro-ecologies in Nigeria, from the wet tropical rainforests in the southern parts to the drier savannas in the northern parts of Nigeria. GRIN [ 3 ] reported that the adaptation of AYB spans across the African continent, ranging from Northeast tropical Africa to West-Central Africa to Southern tropical Africa. African yam bean has huge biodiversity with promising genetic, nutritional, soil fertility, and economic potentials, which have remained unexploited. Most unit operations of the AYB, such as planting, harvesting, postharvest handling, drying, storage, processing, packaging, and transportation, are still done manually and traditionally. These operations are time-consuming and labourious, and lead to the production of low-quality AYB farming and postharvest operations and poor-quality product development. One of the major constraints to the utilization of AYB seeds is due to their hard seed coat, that makes it require long cooking hours and makes their processing into quality food products difficult [ 3 ]. Similarly, the lack of detailed information on the mechanical characteristics of its seeds, which are essential for designing and optimizing machinery for handling, processing, storage, and packaging, is another impediment to its potential to enhance food security in sub-Saharan Africa. The distinctive mechanical property of this leguminous seed frequently poses significant bottlenecks for current food handling equipment, resulting in inefficient processes, seed damage, and lower processing value. Additionally, the lack of standardized mechanical data for various accessions hampers the integration of African yam bean in contemporary agro-processing chains. The availability of modernly designed and fabricated machines and equipment could enhance the efficiency of production, post-harvest handling, and AYB processing operations, which will ultimately improve the utilization of this multipurpose and nutrient-dense legume. In Africa, and especially Nigeria, there is a need for the development of cost and time-saving equipment that will enhance food production, processing and postharvest handling for the sustainability of agri-food production systems and ultimately enhance food and nutrition security. Genetic variation between and within a population of a crop is of great value to the geneticist and plant breeder for the improvement of such a crop [ 4 ]. Genetic variation refers to the differences in biochemical characteristics, physical and physiological characters [ 5 ]. Begna [ 6 ] noted that genetic variability decides the fate of an effective plant breeding program. The existence of huge genetic variation and efficient selection are two major requirements in plant breeding. A successful crop improvement, therefore, relies on the quantity of genetic variation that exists in the genotypes and the selection of genetically superior genotypes [ 6 ]. The larger the number of genotypes used for the evaluation of such traits, the better the possibilities of ascertaining the varietal variation, which is key to any meaningful selection of parents in any breeding program. There are limited studies on the mechanical properties of AYB seeds reported in the literature. Most studies have mainly concentrated on its agronomic features, nutritional composition, and food product development [ 7 – 12 ]. Asoiro and Ani [ 13 ] evaluated the physical properties of the seeds of one AYB accession, while Ohaegbulam et al. [ 14 ] evaluated the engineering properties of the seeds of two AYB accessions. However, a comprehensive evaluation of its mechanical attributes is significantly lacking, particularly when considering various accessions (genotypes). Very little is understood about the seeds' mechanical properties, which directly affect the shelling, dehulling, grinding, and milling processes. To standardize processing methods and facilitate the integration of the commodity into mechanized agricultural systems, no research has yet provided a detailed mechanical profile comparing a wide range of African yam bean accessions. Evaluating a large number of AYB accessions for their mechanical properties could aid engineers in designing and fabricating mechanical contrivances that will be better suited to the various handling and processing operations usually carried out on AYB seeds of a wider range of AYB accessions. Secondly, for the mechanical properties of AYB to be genetically improved, there must be evident variability for the mechanical traits (properties) to be bred for/improved upon in several AYB accessions from which parents could be selected. Most breeding programs rarely evaluate or breed for improved mechanical properties of seeds. As plant breeders become aware of the importance of such breeding efforts, information on the variation with respect to the mechanical properties in the genotypes of crops will be of immense value. In Africa, and especially Nigeria, there is a growing demand among medium- and small-scale farmers and agro-processors for machinery that could fast-track and enhance the various activities along the value and supply chains of various grain legumes. The need for machinery will not be met without first establishing the variability for these mechanical properties that exists in the seeds of important grain legumes such as AYB. The objective of this study was, therefore, to evaluate the mechanical properties of twenty-five AYB accessions from the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Ibadan, and Benue State, Nigeria. The objective of this study, therefore, focuses on quantifying and comparing the mechanical behaviour of the AYB seeds across different (25) accessions to assess their appropriateness for pre-harvesting and post-harvest handling, processing, and storage. This study will offer insights into intra-species diversity by evaluating a large number of AYB accessions, which can inform local adaptation approaches, breeding strategies, and the selection of cultivars for mechanization. By enabling the effective processing and marketing of this overlooked yet promising leguminous crop, the results will benefit stakeholders at every stage of the value chain, from agro-industrial entrepreneurs to farmers, agronomists, plant breeders and food processing engineers. 2.Materials and Methods 2.1 African yam seed sample collection and preparation The seeds of the African yam bean accessions (twenty-five accessions) used for the mechanical properties study were collected from the Genetic Resources Center (GRC) of the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Ibadan and Benue State, Nigeria. The African yam bean seeds were evaluated in a field trial at the Department of Crop Science, University of Nigeria, Nsukka (UNN) research farm. These African yam bean accessions were: TSs 1, TSs 9, TSs 10, TSs 23, TSs 33, TSs 48, TSs 49, TSs 60, TSs 61, TSs 69, TSs 79, TSs 86, TSs 93, TSs 94, TSs 95, TSs 96, TSs 109, TSs 111, TSs 116, TSs 118, TSs 137, TSs 138, and TSs 349 while the seeds of two accessions (Adikpo, and Zak Biam) were collected from Benue State, Nigeria. To get the seed samples, the harvested pods were shelled at the Crop Physiology Laboratory of the Department of Crop Science, UNN. Extraneous materials were picked from the African yam bean seed samples. The cleaned-up AYB seeds were put in brown paper envelopes, sealed and sent to the Department of Agricultural and Bioresources Engineering, UNN laboratory for physical properties study. 2.2 Experimental design The laboratory experiment was a completely randomized design (CRD) with fifty replications. The mechanical properties data collected from the African yam bean seed samples were analyzed using the R statistical software version 4.1.1. The library: Agricolae of the R software was used to perform the analysis of variance. The significance of the treatment means was determined by Fisher’s Least Significant Difference (F-LSD) test at a 95% confidence interval. 2.3 Determination of mechanical properties 2.3 Determination of mechanical properties Analyses of some selected mechanical characteristics of the 25 accessions of AYB were conducted as presented in the following sub-sections. The AYB samples were placed on the following linear measurements: length, breadth (at right angles to the length), and thickness (at right angles to the length and breadth, T). The Monsanto Tensometer A220-9, a general-purpose testing device manufactured in the UK, was used for this test. 2.3.1 Computation of bio-yield force (N) This is the resulting force at which the AYB sample starts to crumble. This force is responsible for the bio-sample to yield. The sample was cracked (ruptured) by additional force applied above the bio-yield force. 2.3.2 Estimation of rupture force This refers to the smallest force needed to shatter the AYB sample. The rupture force is usually represented as the peak force in the stress-strain profile. 2.3.3 Rupture point deformation AYB sample deformation at the rupture point, R DP (m), was the deformation in the loading direction. This represented the change in shape of the samples in the loading axis at the point of rupture. 2.3.4 Evaluation of deformation ratio at rupture point The axial pressure at the spot of rupture of the AYB samples represented the deformation ratio at the spot of sample rupture. It is computed as the ratio of the AYB’s dimensions in the axis of loading to the dimensional distortion at the point of breakage. It is estimated using Eq. ( 1 ): 2.3.5 Calculation of compressive strength The calculation of the compressive strength of the AYB samples was done by dividing the force of rupture with AYB contact area (A), given in Eq. ( 2 ). 2.3.6 Computation of the overall total strain energy The rupture energy need of the AYB samples (Nm) was computed by calculating the domain under the curve between the starting and rupture points. Additionally, it was computed using Eq. ( 3 ): 2.3.7 Estimation of the coefficient of static friction The coefficient of static friction of bio-products on surfaces of asbestos, plastic, glass, corrugated metal sheet, aluminium, and plywood was estimated using the methodology of Asoiro et al. [ 15 ] and Nwakuba et al. [ 16 ]. The seeds were put in a hollow metal cube with a hollow end and put on a tilting platform that could be adjusted. The cube started to slide down the surface when the surface was slowly slanted to an inclination ̟. The calculation of µ, was established using Eq. ( 4 ). 3. Results and Discussion The analysis of the mechanical attributes of the seeds across the varying accessions of AYB showed notable differences in their physical and mechanical features. Deformation, compressive strength, and energy at rupture are three mechanical characteristics of AYB seeds that vary considerably across the 25 accessions under study. These variations indicate genetic diversity. These changes are useful for enhancing postharvest operation efficiency and optimizing equipment calibration. 3.1 Seed dimensions The length, breadth, and thickness of the seeds varied significantly among the accessions (Table 1 ). They varied in width from 5.944 mm (TSs 33) to 7.422 mm (Adikpo), thickness from 4.922 mm (TSs 48) to 7.039 mm (Adikpo), and length from 7.589 mm (Adikpo) to 9.822 mm (TSs 69). These variations point to a high level of morphological diversity that is probably influenced by both genetic and environmental variables. The effectiveness of mechanical processing, including sorting, dehulling, and packing, is greatly influenced by the size of the seeds [ 17 ]. While smaller seeds could be more vulnerable to damage from impacts, larger seeds with greater thickness and width, like those from Adikpo and TSs 69, might need more mechanical pressures during handling or processing. This result is in line with the findings of Oluwole et al. [ 18 ], who noted that the mechanical properties and postharvest output of leguminous seeds are greatly influenced by their size and shape heterogeneity. Table 1 Effect of accession on the length, width, thickness, bio-yield force and rupture force of twenty-five African yam bean accessions. Accession Length (mm) Width (mm) Thickness (mm) Bio-yield Force (N) Rupture Force (N) TSs 1 8.444 6.611 6.178 348.61 815.28 TSs 9 6.844 6.422 6.039 244.44 391.67 TSs 10 8.667 6.244 6.089 272.22 518.06 TSs 23 8.822 6.656 5.844 241.67 354.17 TSs 33 8.122 5.944 5.267 264.33 367.08 TSs 48 8.788 6.267 4.922 183.33 226.39 TSs 49 9.522 6.600 6.322 376.39 610.42 TSs 60 7.900 6.333 5.811 248.61 422.22 TSs 61 8.033 6.289 5.967 404.17 687.50 TSs 69 9.822 6.778 6.278 233.33 304.17 TSs 79 8.644 6.678 5.711 238.89 434.72 TSs 86 8.244 6.200 5.633 347.22 657.00 TSs 93 8.144 6.900 6.478 172.17 206.89 TSs 94 8.800 6.389 6.044 279.17 462.50 TSs 95 9.033 6.933 6.388 254.16 1131.94 TSs 96 8.567 6.867 6.722 268.06 608.33 TSs 109 8.733 6.556 6.000 274.86 363.89 TSs 111 8.633 6.956 6.656 229.16 673.61 TSs 116 7.667 6.000 5.822 301.94 392.63 TSs 118 9.044 6.822 6.289 329.16 631.94 TSs 137 7.800 6.311 5.922 163.89 204.16 TSs 138 8.333 6.344 6.289 230.50 504.17 TSs 349 8.011 6.667 6.256 295.83 151.24 Adikpo 7.589 7.422 7.039 258.33 409.72 Zak Biam 8.600 6.967 6.522 145.83 205.56 Mean 8.432 6.566 6.140 264.25 483. 96 F-LSD 0.961 0.408 0.513 108.54 467.43 3.2 Bio-yield, rupture forces and mechanical correlations The bio-yield force, which denotes the beginning point of permanent deformity, varied between 145.83 N (Zak Biam) to 404.17 N (TSs 61). Stronger seed coat integrity, which is beneficial for storage and transportation but might cause problems during mechanical shelling/peeling, was indicated by the exceptionally high bio-yield forces displayed by seeds from TSs 61 and TSs 49. Similarly, the force of rupture, or the force necessary to produce total structural collapse, also varied greatly, ranging from 151.24 N (TSs 349) to an impressive 1131.94 N (TSs 95). A sturdy and mechanically resistant seed structure is indicated by the very High rupture force measured for TSs 95. This may benefit mechanical strength, but it requires a greater mechanical energy input during shelling or cracking tasks. The variations in mechanical strength reported here are consistent with prior studies on legumes, where key factors influencing resistance to mechanical forces include seed coat composition, moisture content, and seed geometry [19–21]. At the moment of rupture point, the deformation varied between 0.0016 mm (TSs 69) and 3.7917 mm (TSs 111) as shown in Table 2 . Accessions such as TSs 1, TSs 61, TSs 111, and Adikpo showed substantially greater deformation before breakage, indicating increased seed coat suppleness and elasticity. Reduced deformation values in TSs 69, 137, and 93, on the other hand, suggest brittle behaviour and increase the likelihood of breaking during handling and processing. The range of compressive strength was 0.0364 MPa (TSs 95) to 0.0070 MPa (TSs 69). More sturdy accessions, such as TSs 95, 86, and 111, need more effort to tear, suggesting that their seed coats are structurally tougher. This mechanical resistance is consistent with other research that highlighted the significance of genotype and morphology in mechanical performance, such as Ogunjimi et al. [ 19 ] and Uyeri and Uguru [ 20 ], which revealed comparable variation in leguminous seeds. The spectrum of energy absorption at rupture, which exhibited variations in the seeds' ability to take in stress before failure, was 0.4337 MJ (TSs 137) to 3.1281 MJ (TSs 111). Strong seed coat quality is illustrated by the greater energy values seen in TSs 111, 86, and 1, which provide superior defense against physical seed damage during postharvest processing. The study's findings about the variation in mechanical characteristics across AYB accessions support previous findings by Uyeri and Uguru [ 20 ], who emphasized the impact of varietal variations on rupture force and mechanical strength in insufficiently utilized legumes. Breeding initiatives that seek to create accessions more suitable for mechanical processing to lower postharvest losses will benefit from this variability. Furthermore, the substantial variation in rupture forces is in line with the results of Oluwole et al. [ 18 ] and Nwakuba et al. [ 16 ], who observed that the structural configuration of the cotyledons and seed coat, moisture content, and genetic variables all had a major impact on the mechanical characteristics of legumes. Table 2 Effect of accession on the deformation at the rupture point, deformation ratio at rupture, compressive strength and energy of twenty-five African yam bean accessions. Accession Deformation at rupture point (mm) Deformation ratio at rupture Compressive strength (MPa) Energy (MJ) TSs 1 3.4167 0.4129 0.0318 3.0600 TSs 9 0.0038 0.0001 0.0172 1.4961 TSs 10 0.0034 0.0004 0.0226 1.9732 TSs 23 0.0026 0.0003 0.0135 0.9602 TSs 33 2.2658 0.2794 0.0210 0.8787 TSs 48 0.0029 0.0003 0.0092 0.6552 TSs 49 3.0139 0.3163 0.0156 1.9892 TSs 60 0.0047 0.0006 0.0243 2.0024 TSs 61 2.9889 0.3708 0.0302 2.3899 TSs 69 0.0016 0.0002 0.0070 0.4908 TSs 79 0.0029 0.0034 0.0176 1.6815 TSs 86 0.0048 0.0006 0.0320 3.1253 TSs 93 0.0023 0.0003 0.0095 0.4787 TSs 94 0.0031 0.0004 0.0188 1.5680 TSs 95 0.0694 0.0075 0.0364 1.5244 TSs 96 0.0036 0.0004 0.0192 2.7213 TSs 109 2.2778 0.2607 0.0133 0.8699 TSs 111 3.7917 0.4406 0.0271 3.1281 TSs 116 2.0833 0.2755 0.0268 0.8897 TSs 118 0.0035 0.0004 2.7415 2.6659 TSs 137 0.0021 0.0003 0.0122 0.4337 TSs 138 0.0026 0.0003 0.2313 1.5151 TSs 349 0.0036 0.0005 0.0278 2.0803 Adikpo 2.5556 0.5548 0.0213 1.0601 Zak Biam 0.0028 0.0003 0.0081 0.6140 Mean 0.9005 0.1170 0.0213 1.6101 F-LSD 0.5727 0.1593 0.0221 1.3092 3.3 Coefficient of static friction of AYB accessions on different structural surfaces and implications on food machinery design and selection The impact of the static coefficient of friction of the various studied AYB accessions on different structural surfaces is presented in Table 3 . It is suggested that variations in physiological or surface characteristics (such as chemical composition, degree of moisture, texture, etc .) amongst AYB accessions influence their interactions with various structural surfaces. Accessions such as TSs 79 and 349 have noticeably elevated values with particular materials, which could indicate coarser or more sticky surfaces that impact processing convenience or machinery throughput. Plastic and glass with mean coefficients of friction (CoF), 0.1827 and 0.1216, have low motion opposition, which lowers the energy requirement in hoppers, chutes, and conveyors. Thus, they are excellent for non-sticky surfaces, sliding elements, and regions where food products need to flow without adhering. Stronger grip is offered by metal (0.2203), aluminium (0.2209), and wood (0.2208). They are helpful in applications requiring tight contact, such as material holders, grips, and drive rolls. Also, during processes including cutting, shaping, or coating, they improve spatial rigidity. Table 3 Effect of accession on the coefficient of static friction of the seeds of twenty-five African yam bean accessions on asbestos, plastic, glass, metal, aluminum and wood. Accession Asbestos Plastic Glass Metal Aluminum Wood TSs 1 0.1790 0.1885 0.1281 0.2227 0.2201 0.2145 TSs 9 0.1375 0.1929 0.1222 0.2252 0.2215 0.2228 TSs 10 0.1626 0.1826 0.1186 0.2174 0.2212 0.2224 TSs 23 0.1401 0.1815 0.1238 0.2244 0.2237 0.2125 TSs 33 0.1484 0.2031 0.1234 0.2209 0.2211 0.2266 TSs 48 0.1451 0.1231 0.1231 0.2187 0.2219 0.2211 TSs 49 0.1434 0.1846 0.1249 0.2220 0.2217 0.2226 TSs 60 0.1504 0.1569 0.1240 0.2385 0.2168 0.2192 TSs 61 0.1357 0.1838 0.1340 0.2219 0.2131 0.2215 TSs 69 0.1716 0.1802 0.1203 0.1927 0.2211 0.2238 TSs 79 0.1835 0.1821 0.1111 0.2471 0.2215 0.2208 TSs 86 0.1531 0.1766 0.1260 0.2218 0.2197 0.2215 TSs 93 0.1312 0.1713 0.1164 0.2040 0.2218 0.2164 TSs 94 0.1668 0.1868 0.1194 0.2233 0.2213 0.2211 TSs 95 0.1487 0.1725 0.1270 0.2083 0.2199 0.2204 TSs 96 0.1484 0.1809 0.1144 0.2254 0.2211 0.2216 TSs 109 0.1641 0.1765 0.1252 0.2254 0.2242 0.2208 TSs 111 0.1412 0.1920 0.1163 0.2017 0.2196 0.2216 TSs 116 0.1404 0.1900 0.1109 0.2238 0.2213 0.2214 TSs 118 0.1367 0.1688 0.1245 0.1986 0.2226 0.2249 TSs 137 0.1369 0.1958 0.1233 0.2244 0.2182 0.2207 TSs 138 0.1740 0.1977 0.1186 0.2229 0.2229 0.2199 TSs 349 0.1416 0.2161 0.1297 0.2221 0.2217 0.2180 Adikpo 0.1520 0.1881 0.1090 0.2196 0.2230 0.2203 Zak Biam 0.1705 0.1872 0.1248 0.2236 0.2207 0.2208 Mean 0.1522 0.1827 0.1216 0.2203 0.2209 0.2208 F-LSD 0.0064 0.0085 0.0023 0.0084 0.0052 0.0073 CV 7.57 8.38 9.37 6.91 4.25 5.90 The greatest average values ( \(\sim\) 0.2203 ≤ \(\stackrel{-}{x}\) 0.2209) are found for metal, aluminium, and wood, indicating that these structural surfaces are either increasingly prevalent or preserved in greater quantities in the particular situation under study. Glass exhibits a low and extremely fluctuating presence, as evidenced by its lowest average value (0.1216) and largest CV (9.37%). Asbestos and plastic have larger CVS (8.38% and 7.57%, respectively) and intermediate values, suggesting greater sample variation. The samples' high mean values for metal (0.2203) and aluminium (0.2209) indicate that they are often used or accumulate in test conditions, which may result in: i) structural dependability and excellent durability against wear are essential for grain processing, ii) if retention is prolonged, it might also indicate the possibility of contamination, particularly if surface treatments or maintenance are inadequate. Glass exhibits the most variability (CV: 9.37%) and the lowest mean (0.1216). This lends credence to the notion that glass's brittleness makes it unsuitable for movable machinery components that are undergoing stress. However, because of its inertness and ease of cleaning, it continues to be ideal for viewing screens or non-contact storage. The moderate retention of plastic (0.1827) combined with a high coefficient of variation (8.38%) indicates variability in efficiency. Plastics are utilized extensively in gaskets, seals, and housings because they are flexible and affordable. However, wear, deterioration, and leaching, particularly in hot or acidic environments, are major problems. Even with a fairly high mean retention rate (0.2208), wood is typically unfit for use in contemporary food processing equipment because of retained microbes and porosity, as well as its propensity to deteriorate and absorb moisture can affect personal hygiene. Asbestos has significant mean values (0.1522), but its toxicity makes it a major prohibition for machinery that comes in contact with food materials. 3.4 Relevance to equipment design and postharvest processing The observed differences have profound effects on automation and postharvest processing and mechanization. With increased bio-yield and rupture pressures, accessions such as TSs 95, TSs 61, and TSs 49 are more resilient to mechanical stress, reducing seed breakage during handling and storage. However, effective shelling or peeling necessitates equipment with adequate breaking force. The necessity for more delicate handling techniques to reduce mechanical losses is suggested by the fact that accessions that possess lower rupture forces, such as Zak Biam, TSs 137, and TSs 349, are more likely to be damaged under severe compression stresses. Accessions with lower rupture forces, such as Zak Biam, TSs 137, and TSs 349, on the other hand, are more likely to sustain damage from high compression stresses. This suggests that more cautious handling procedures are required to avoid mechanical losses. In a comparable vein, Ogunjimi et al. [ 19 ] reported that seed hardness affected peeling equipment efficiency and damage rates in their study on cowpea. 4. Conclusion The mechanical attributes of 25 African yam bean ( Sphenostylis stenocarpa ) accessions were assessed in this study, and the results showed considerable differences in both strength and dimensions of the bean. The seeds varied in width from 5.944 mm (TSs 33) to 7.422 mm (Adikpo), thickness from 4.922 mm (TSs 48) to 7.039 mm (Adikpo), and length from 7.589 mm (Adikpo) to 9.822 mm (TSs 69). There were also significant variations in mechanical strength indices. Bio-yield force varied between 145.83 N (Zak Biam) to 404.17 N (TSs 61), whereas rupture force spanned from 151.24 N (TSs 349) to 1131.94 N (TSs 95). Compressive strength varied from 0.0070 MPa to 0.0364 MPa, rupture force from 151.24 N to 1131.94 N, bio-yield force from 145.83 N to 404.17 N, and seed length from 7.589 mm to 9.822 mm. Friction coefficient values for various accessions ranged from 0.1090 (glass-Adikpo) to 0.2471 (metal-TSS 79), indicating that AYB accession and variety had an impact on surface contact in food machinery design. These findings highlight the necessity of taking varietal characteristics into account when choosing accessions for breeding and processing, or the development of seed processing equipment. These differences demonstrate the morphological and genetic variation of the AYB accessions and emphasize the need it is to take accession-specific factors into account when designing postharvest handling and processing machinery. Whereas accessions with lower values could be more prone to mechanical damage during handling, but simpler to handle mechanically, samples with greater rupture and bio-yield forces might provide benefits for longevity in storage. Minimizing mechanical damage during seed processing, increasing peeling efficiency, and assisting with breeding initiatives targeted at boosting postharvest operation efficiency and final product quality all depend on a knowledge of the mechanical responses of AYB seeds. The results can be used to inform the development of effective, variety-specific decorticating and storage equipment. However, the knowledge gathered from this research is crucial for directing planting and postharvest loss diminution, equipment design, breeding schemes in AYB production and breeding, and usage systems. Future research ought to explore how mechanical characteristics are affectethed by AYB maturity and process variables to establish models that predict for processing of AYB seeds. Incorporating genetic and ecological data could improve the choice of seed samples for commercial and culinary uses. Declarations Ethics, Consent to Participate, and Consent to Publish declarations Not applicable Clinical trial number not applicable Permissions to collect the plants/plant parts: Appropriate permission was received from the Genetic Resources Centre, IITA, Ibadan, Nigeria to use their African yam bean seeds for our research The seeds of African yam bean with the TSs … were collected from the Genetic Resources Centre, IITA, Ibadan, Nigeria. The seeds of the other two accessions, Adikpo and Zak Biam (the local checks), were bought from two markets in Benue State and were grown along with IITA accessions. This did not violate any national laws. Plant Guidelines The collection of the seed used in our study/NAME OF PLANT complied with local or national guidelines. FUNDING DECLARATION This research was funded by the African yam bean/Cassava evaluation grant received from the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Ibadan, Nigeria. Author Contribution SB conceived the study, contributed materials, performed experiments, analysed data, and wrote the manuscript. NR wrote the manuscript. AA wrote the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript Acknowledgement We thank the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) Ibadan, Nigeria, for funding this research. Data Availability The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request References Baiyeri SO, Uguru MI, Ogbonna PE, Okechukwu R, Iwu E (2019). Evaluation of the nodulation, root and above-ground biomass characteristics of African yam bean. Nig J Crop Sci 6 (2): 22-29. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/380515220_Evaluation_of_the_nodulation_root_and_above_ground_biomass_characteristics_of_African_yam_bean_Sphenostylis_stenocarpa_accession#fullTextFileContent Baiyeri SO, Uguru M I, Ogbonna PE, Okechukwu R (2018) . Growth, yield and yield components of African yam bean and cassava in African yam bean/cassava cropping systems in a derived savannah agro-ecology. Nig J Crop Sci 5(2):73– 82.https://www.researchgate.net/publication/329936282_GROWTH_YIELD_AND_YIELD_COMPONENTS_OF_AFRICAN_YAM_BEAN_AND_CASSAVA_IN_AFRICAN_YAM_BEANCASSAVA_CROPPING_SYSTEMS_IN_A_DERIVED_SAVANNAH_AGRO-ECOLOGY#fullTextFileContent GRIN (2009). Genetic Resources Information Network (GRIN). GRIN Taxonomy for Plants. http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?35250#dist Accessed 12/04/2012 Emma-Okafor LC, Obiefuna JC, Alagba RA, Okoli NA, Ibeawuchi II (2016). Evaluation of selected tree leaves as green manure mulch for sustainable plantain production in the rainforest agroecology of southeastern Nigeria. Int J Agric Rural Devt 19: 2576-2582. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/334587294_30_EVALUATION_OF_SELECTED_TREE_LEAVES_AS_GREEN_MANURE_MULCH_FOR_SUSTAINABLE_PLANTAIN_PRODUCTION_IN_THE_RAINFOREST_AGROECOLOGY_OF_SOUTHEASTERN_NIGERIA Rao VR, Hodgkin T (2002). Genetic diversity and conservation and utilization of plant genetic resources. Plt Cell Tiss Organ Cult 68: 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1013359015812 Begna T (2021). Role and economic importance of crop genetic diversity in food security. Int J Agric Sci Food Tech 7(1): 164-169. https://dx.doi.org/10.17352/2455-815X.000104 George TT, Obilana AO, Oyeyinka SA (2020). The prospects of African yam bean: past and future importance. Heliyon 6(11): e05458. DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e05458 Baiyeri SO, Uguru MI, Ogbonna PE, Okechukwu R (2022). Evaluation of elite and local African yam bean cultivars for yield and yield-related traits. Trop Agric (Trinidad) 99(2): 90-105. https://journals.sta.uwi.edu/ojs/index.php/ta/article/view/7227 Abioye VF, Ade-Omowaye BIO (2022). Chemical composition, nutritional, functional and pasting properties of yellow root cassava grits and African yam bean flour blends. Int Food Stud 11: 12-22. https://doi.org/10.7455/ijfs/11.1.2022.a7 Baiyeri SO,Samuel-Baiyeri CCA, Jandong EA, Otitoju GTO (2023a). Bioavailability of micronutrients, minerals and antinutrient evaluation of the seeds of African yam bean ( Sphenostylis stenocarpa ) accessions . J Home Econ Res 30(1): 85-96. https://journals.heran.org/index.php/JHER/article/view/8/7 Baiyeri SO, Samuel-Baiyeri CCA (2023b). Bioavailability, nutrients, antinutrient composition of African yam bean tubers. Trop J Nat Prod Res 7(4): 2823-2828. http://www.doi.org/10.26538/tjnpr/v7i4.26 Udo ME, Opara DC, Ibokette ME, Archibong DE (2024). Proximate composition and vitamins profile of African yam bean flour used as meals in Akwa-Ibom State, Nigeria. Int J Health Sci Res 14(5): 168-175. DOI: https://doi.org/10.52403/ijhsr.20240519 Asoiro FU, Ani AO (2011). Determination of some physical properties of African yam beans. Pacific J Sci Tech 12(1): 374- 380. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/319617763_Determination_of_some_Physical_Properties_of_African_Yam_Beans Ohaegbulam PO, Okorie SU, Ojinnaka MC (2018). Evaluation of the engineering properties of two varieties of African Yam Bean ( Sphenostylis stenocarpa ) seeds. J Hum Nut Food Sci 6(1): 11158.https://www.jscimedcentral.com/public/assets/articles/nutrition-6-1118.pdf Asoiro FU, Ezeoha SL, Ugwu CB, Ezenne GI (2017). Physical properties of unshelled, shelled and kernel of velvet tamarind ( Dialium guineense ) fruit from Nigeria. Cogent Food and Agric 3: 1287618. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311932.2017.1287618 Nwakuba NR, Chukwuezie OC, Uzoigwe FC, Chukwu P (2019). Friction coefficients of local food grains on different structural surfaces. J Eng Res Reports 6(3): 1 – 9. https://doi/10.9734/JERR/2019/v6i316951 Adegunwa MO, Alamu EO, Bakare HA (2011). Effect of Processing on the Nutritional and Anti-nutritional Composition of African Yam Bean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa) . J Food Sci Tech 48(2): 244–250. https://doi.org/10.1080/23312009.2017.1383707 Oluwole OO, Aworunse OS, Aina AI, Oyesola OL, Popoola JO, Oyatomi OA, Abberton MT, Obembe OO. (2021). A review of biotechnological approaches towards crop improvement in African yam bean ( Sphenostylis stenocarpa Hochst. Ex A. Rich.). Heliyon . 7(11):e08481. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e08481 Ogunjimi LAO, Aviara NA, Aregbesola OA (2002). Some engineering properties of locust bean seed. Journal of Food Engineering Food 55(2): 95–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0260-8774(02)00021-3 Uyeri, C. and Uguru, H. (2019). Compressive resistance of groundnut kernels as influenced by kernel size. Journal of Engineering Research and Reports 3(4), 1-7. https://doi.org/10.9734/jerr/2018/v3i416887 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8902602","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":604659179,"identity":"20f0525b-f5aa-473b-a148-0477fb0018b0","order_by":0,"name":"Samuel O. Baiyeri","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA+ElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBAC+QYQWcCQwMAMYhjYMLA3MLDh1WJwAEzCtaQx8BwgpIUBpgUCDhOhhf10msQHA4Y8/nYew8cVBecTeyQS2B5X4PNLT+42yRkGDMUSh3mMDc8Y3AZpYTc8g8+aA7nbpHkMGBIbDvOYSTYAteznOcAm2YBPy/m326T/ALXMP8xj/rPB4FxiD0EtN4C2AL2fuAFoC2ODwYHEHvYG/FoMbrzdbNljIFFseJitGOiwZOMe9sZ2Q3xa5PtzN974UWGTJ3f+8MaPDX/sZHuYmY89xOswCJAAYg4DKIeRCA0QwP6AWJWjYBSMglEwwgAADPBL71s1wPEAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"Federal University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Samuel","middleName":"O.","lastName":"Baiyeri","suffix":""},{"id":604659182,"identity":"be249ab8-09e3-41e1-9d7c-06edcc3721a1","order_by":1,"name":"Nnaemeka R. Nwakuba","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Federal University of Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Nnaemeka","middleName":"R.","lastName":"Nwakuba","suffix":""},{"id":604659185,"identity":"b684ff10-f834-4b0d-b613-1e048cfbe1bf","order_by":2,"name":"Adesola A. Satimehin","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Federal University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Adesola","middleName":"A.","lastName":"Satimehin","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-02-17 15:56:42","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8902602/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8902602/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":108603939,"identity":"4f7a7caa-fa19-4ca8-b91a-9f5c807eaf90","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-06 11:57:33","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":509830,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8902602/v1/32552582-320e-4cf6-8346-0f3fbbfa337d.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Evaluation of the mechanical properties of the seeds of twenty-five accessions of African yam bean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa)","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eAfrican yam bean (AYB), \u003cem\u003eSphenostylis stenocarpa\u003c/em\u003e, is one of the lesser-known, underutilized, and neglected pulses. It produces grain, underground tubers, and root nodules that carry out biological atmospheric nitrogen fixation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. The crop is notable for its high nutrient density among lesser-known legumes. African yam bean seeds have been reported to be rich in iron, zinc, selenium, protein, carbohydrates, and fibre but low in fat and moisture content [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. African yam bean is grown in various agro-ecologies in Nigeria, from the wet tropical rainforests in the southern parts to the drier savannas in the northern parts of Nigeria. GRIN [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e] reported that the adaptation of AYB spans across the African continent, ranging from Northeast tropical Africa to West-Central Africa to Southern tropical Africa. African yam bean has huge biodiversity with promising genetic, nutritional, soil fertility, and economic potentials, which have remained unexploited. Most unit operations of the AYB, such as planting, harvesting, postharvest handling, drying, storage, processing, packaging, and transportation, are still done manually and traditionally. These operations are time-consuming and labourious, and lead to the production of low-quality AYB farming and postharvest operations and poor-quality product development. One of the major constraints to the utilization of AYB seeds is due to their hard seed coat, that makes it require long cooking hours and makes their processing into quality food products difficult [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. Similarly, the lack of detailed information on the mechanical characteristics of its seeds, which are essential for designing and optimizing machinery for handling, processing, storage, and packaging, is another impediment to its potential to enhance food security in sub-Saharan Africa. The distinctive mechanical property of this leguminous seed frequently poses significant bottlenecks for current food handling equipment, resulting in inefficient processes, seed damage, and lower processing value. Additionally, the lack of standardized mechanical data for various accessions hampers the integration of African yam bean in contemporary agro-processing chains.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe availability of modernly designed and fabricated machines and equipment could enhance the efficiency of production, post-harvest handling, and AYB processing operations, which will ultimately improve the utilization of this multipurpose and nutrient-dense legume. In Africa, and especially Nigeria, there is a need for the development of cost and time-saving equipment that will enhance food production, processing and postharvest handling for the sustainability of agri-food production systems and ultimately enhance food and nutrition security. Genetic variation between and within a population of a crop is of great value to the geneticist and plant breeder for the improvement of such a crop [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. Genetic variation refers to the differences in biochemical characteristics, physical and physiological characters [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. Begna [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e] noted that genetic variability decides the fate of an effective plant breeding program. The existence of huge genetic variation and efficient selection are two major requirements in plant breeding. A successful crop improvement, therefore, relies on the quantity of genetic variation that exists in the genotypes and the selection of genetically superior genotypes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. The larger the number of genotypes used for the evaluation of such traits, the better the possibilities of ascertaining the varietal variation, which is key to any meaningful selection of parents in any breeding program.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThere are limited studies on the mechanical properties of AYB seeds reported in the literature. Most studies have mainly concentrated on its agronomic features, nutritional composition, and food product development [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR8 CR9 CR10 CR11\" citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. Asoiro and Ani [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e] evaluated the physical properties of the seeds of one AYB accession, while Ohaegbulam et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e] evaluated the engineering properties of the seeds of two AYB accessions. However, a comprehensive evaluation of its mechanical attributes is significantly lacking, particularly when considering various accessions (genotypes). Very little is understood about the seeds' mechanical properties, which directly affect the shelling, dehulling, grinding, and milling processes. To standardize processing methods and facilitate the integration of the commodity into mechanized agricultural systems, no research has yet provided a detailed mechanical profile comparing a wide range of African yam bean accessions. Evaluating a large number of AYB accessions for their mechanical properties could aid engineers in designing and fabricating mechanical contrivances that will be better suited to the various handling and processing operations usually carried out on AYB seeds of a wider range of AYB accessions. Secondly, for the mechanical properties of AYB to be genetically improved, there must be evident variability for the mechanical traits (properties) to be bred for/improved upon in several AYB accessions from which parents could be selected. Most breeding programs rarely evaluate or breed for improved mechanical properties of seeds. As plant breeders become aware of the importance of such breeding efforts, information on the variation with respect to the mechanical properties in the genotypes of crops will be of immense value.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Africa, and especially Nigeria, there is a growing demand among medium- and small-scale farmers and agro-processors for machinery that could fast-track and enhance the various activities along the value and supply chains of various grain legumes. The need for machinery will not be met without first establishing the variability for these mechanical properties that exists in the seeds of important grain legumes such as AYB. The objective of this study was, therefore, to evaluate the mechanical properties of twenty-five AYB accessions from the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Ibadan, and Benue State, Nigeria.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe objective of this study, therefore, focuses on quantifying and comparing the mechanical behaviour of the AYB seeds across different (25) accessions to assess their appropriateness for pre-harvesting and post-harvest handling, processing, and storage. This study will offer insights into intra-species diversity by evaluating a large number of AYB accessions, which can inform local adaptation approaches, breeding strategies, and the selection of cultivars for mechanization. By enabling the effective processing and marketing of this overlooked yet promising leguminous crop, the results will benefit stakeholders at every stage of the value chain, from agro-industrial entrepreneurs to farmers, agronomists, plant breeders and food processing engineers.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2.Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.1 African yam seed sample collection and preparation\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe seeds of the African yam bean accessions (twenty-five accessions) used for the mechanical properties study were collected from the Genetic Resources Center (GRC) of the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Ibadan and Benue State, Nigeria. The African yam bean seeds were evaluated in a field trial at the Department of Crop Science, University of Nigeria, Nsukka (UNN) research farm. These African yam bean accessions were: TSs 1, TSs 9, TSs 10, TSs 23, TSs 33, TSs 48, TSs 49, TSs 60, TSs 61, TSs 69, TSs 79, TSs 86, TSs 93, TSs 94, TSs 95, TSs 96, TSs 109, TSs 111, TSs 116, TSs 118, TSs 137, TSs 138, and TSs 349 while the seeds of two accessions (Adikpo, and Zak Biam) were collected from Benue State, Nigeria. To get the seed samples, the harvested pods were shelled at the Crop Physiology Laboratory of the Department of Crop Science, UNN. Extraneous materials were picked from the African yam bean seed samples. The cleaned-up AYB seeds were put in brown paper envelopes, sealed and sent to the Department of Agricultural and Bioresources Engineering, UNN laboratory for physical properties study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.2 Experimental design\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe laboratory experiment was a completely randomized design (CRD) with fifty replications. The mechanical properties data collected from the African yam bean seed samples were analyzed using the \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e statistical software version 4.1.1. The library: \u003cem\u003eAgricolae\u003c/em\u003e of the \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e software was used to perform the analysis of variance. The significance of the treatment means was determined by Fisher\u0026rsquo;s Least Significant Difference (F-LSD) test at a 95% confidence interval.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.3 Determination of mechanical properties\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.3 Determination of mechanical properties\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAnalyses of some selected mechanical characteristics of the 25 accessions of AYB were conducted as presented in the following sub-sections. The AYB samples were placed on the following linear measurements: length, breadth (at right angles to the length), and thickness (at right angles to the length and breadth, T). The Monsanto Tensometer A220-9, a general-purpose testing device manufactured in the UK, was used for this test.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.3.1 Computation of bio-yield force (N)\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThis is the resulting force at which the AYB sample starts to crumble. This force is responsible for the bio-sample to yield. The sample was cracked (ruptured) by additional force applied above the bio-yield force.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.3.2 Estimation of rupture force\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThis refers to the smallest force needed to shatter the AYB sample. The rupture force is usually represented as the peak force in the stress-strain profile.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.3.3 Rupture point deformation\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAYB sample deformation at the rupture point, R\u003csub\u003eDP\u003c/sub\u003e (m), was the deformation in the loading direction. This represented the change in shape of the samples in the loading axis at the point of rupture.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e\u003cem\u003e2.3.4 Evaluation of deformation ratio at rupture point\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe axial pressure at the spot of rupture of the AYB samples represented the deformation ratio at the spot of sample rupture. It is computed as the ratio of the AYB\u0026rsquo;s dimensions in the axis of loading to the dimensional distortion at the point of breakage. It is estimated using Eq.\u0026nbsp;(\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e):\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Equ1\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e\u003cimg src=\"https://myfiles.space/user_files/58895_8739fc6c57c1c19a/58895_custom_files/img1773333536.png\" width=\"922\" height=\"122\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e\u003cem\u003e2.3.5 Calculation of\u003c/em\u003e compressive strength\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe calculation of the compressive strength of the AYB samples was done by dividing the force of rupture with AYB contact area (A), given in Eq.\u0026nbsp;(\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Equ2\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e\u003cimg src=\"https://myfiles.space/user_files/58895_8739fc6c57c1c19a/58895_custom_files/img1773333549.png\" width=\"922\" height=\"110\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.3.6 Computation of the overall total strain energy\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe rupture energy need of the AYB samples (Nm) was computed by calculating the domain under the curve between the starting and rupture points. Additionally, it was computed using Eq.\u0026nbsp;(\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e):\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Equ3\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e\u003cimg src=\"https://myfiles.space/user_files/58895_8739fc6c57c1c19a/58895_custom_files/img1773333565.png\" width=\"922\" height=\"69\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e\u003cem\u003e2.3.7 Estimation of the coefficient of static friction\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe coefficient of static friction of bio-products on surfaces of asbestos, plastic, glass, corrugated metal sheet, aluminium, and plywood was estimated using the methodology of Asoiro et al. [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e] and Nwakuba et al. [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]. The seeds were put in a hollow metal cube with a hollow end and put on a tilting platform that could be adjusted. The cube started to slide down the surface when the surface was slowly slanted to an inclination ̟. The calculation of \u0026micro;, was established using Eq.\u0026nbsp;(\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Equ4\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e\u003cimg src=\"https://myfiles.space/user_files/58895_8739fc6c57c1c19a/58895_custom_files/img1773333584.png\" width=\"922\" height=\"54\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results and Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe analysis of the mechanical attributes of the seeds across the varying accessions of AYB showed notable differences in their physical and mechanical features. Deformation, compressive strength, and energy at rupture are three mechanical characteristics of AYB seeds that vary considerably across the 25 accessions under study. These variations indicate genetic diversity. These changes are useful for enhancing postharvest operation efficiency and optimizing equipment calibration.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1 Seed dimensions\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe length, breadth, and thickness of the seeds varied significantly among the accessions (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). They varied in width from 5.944 mm (TSs 33) to 7.422 mm (Adikpo), thickness from 4.922 mm (TSs 48) to 7.039 mm (Adikpo), and length from 7.589 mm (Adikpo) to 9.822 mm (TSs 69). These variations point to a high level of morphological diversity that is probably influenced by both genetic and environmental variables. The effectiveness of mechanical processing, including sorting, dehulling, and packing, is greatly influenced by the size of the seeds [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]. While smaller seeds could be more vulnerable to damage from impacts, larger seeds with greater thickness and width, like those from Adikpo and TSs 69, might need more mechanical pressures during handling or processing. This result is in line with the findings of Oluwole et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e], who noted that the mechanical properties and postharvest output of leguminous seeds are greatly influenced by their size and shape heterogeneity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEffect of accession on the length, width, thickness, bio-yield force and rupture force of twenty-five African yam bean accessions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccession\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLength (mm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWidth (mm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThickness (mm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBio-yield Force (N)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRupture Force (N)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.444\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.611\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.178\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e348.61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e815.28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.844\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.422\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.039\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e244.44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e391.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.667\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.244\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.089\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e272.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e518.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.822\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.656\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.844\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e241.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e354.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.122\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.944\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.267\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e264.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e367.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.788\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.267\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.922\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e183.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e226.39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.522\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.600\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.322\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e376.39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e610.42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.900\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.333\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.811\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e248.61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e422.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.033\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.289\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.967\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e404.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e687.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.822\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.778\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.278\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e233.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e304.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 79\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.644\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.678\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.711\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e238.89\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e434.72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 86\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.244\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.200\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.633\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e347.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e657.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 93\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.144\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.900\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.478\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e172.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e206.89\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 94\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.800\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.389\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.044\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e279.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e462.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.033\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.933\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.388\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e254.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1131.94\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.567\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.867\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.722\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e268.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e608.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 109\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.733\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.556\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e274.86\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e363.89\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 111\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.633\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.956\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.656\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e229.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e673.61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 116\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.667\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.822\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e301.94\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e392.63\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 118\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.044\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.822\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.289\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e329.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e631.94\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 137\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.800\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.311\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.922\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e163.89\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e204.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 138\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.333\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.344\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.289\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e230.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e504.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 349\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.011\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.667\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.256\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e295.83\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e151.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdikpo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.589\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.422\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.039\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e258.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e409.72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eZak Biam\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.600\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.967\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.522\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e145.83\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e205.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.432\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.566\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.140\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e264.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e483. 96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eF-LSD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.961\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.408\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.513\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e108.54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e467.43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2 Bio-yield, rupture forces and mechanical correlations\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe bio-yield force, which denotes the beginning point of permanent deformity, varied between 145.83 N (Zak Biam) to 404.17 N (TSs 61). Stronger seed coat integrity, which is beneficial for storage and transportation but might cause problems during mechanical shelling/peeling, was indicated by the exceptionally high bio-yield forces displayed by seeds from TSs 61 and TSs 49. Similarly, the force of rupture, or the force necessary to produce total structural collapse, also varied greatly, ranging from 151.24 N (TSs 349) to an impressive 1131.94 N (TSs 95). A sturdy and mechanically resistant seed structure is indicated by the very High rupture force measured for TSs 95. This may benefit mechanical strength, but it requires a greater mechanical energy input during shelling or cracking tasks. The variations in mechanical strength reported here are consistent with prior studies on legumes, where key factors influencing resistance to mechanical forces include seed coat composition, moisture content, and seed geometry [19\u0026ndash;21].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAt the moment of rupture point, the deformation varied between 0.0016 mm (TSs 69) and 3.7917 mm (TSs 111) as shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. Accessions such as TSs 1, TSs 61, TSs 111, and Adikpo showed substantially greater deformation before breakage, indicating increased seed coat suppleness and elasticity. Reduced deformation values in TSs 69, 137, and 93, on the other hand, suggest brittle behaviour and increase the likelihood of breaking during handling and processing. The range of compressive strength was 0.0364 MPa (TSs 95) to 0.0070 MPa (TSs 69). More sturdy accessions, such as TSs 95, 86, and 111, need more effort to tear, suggesting that their seed coats are structurally tougher. This mechanical resistance is consistent with other research that highlighted the significance of genotype and morphology in mechanical performance, such as Ogunjimi et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e] and Uyeri and Uguru [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e], which revealed comparable variation in leguminous seeds.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe spectrum of energy absorption at rupture, which exhibited variations in the seeds' ability to take in stress before failure, was 0.4337 MJ (TSs 137) to 3.1281 MJ (TSs 111). Strong seed coat quality is illustrated by the greater energy values seen in TSs 111, 86, and 1, which provide superior defense against physical seed damage during postharvest processing. The study's findings about the variation in mechanical characteristics across AYB accessions support previous findings by Uyeri and Uguru [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e], who emphasized the impact of varietal variations on rupture force and mechanical strength in insufficiently utilized legumes. Breeding initiatives that seek to create accessions more suitable for mechanical processing to lower postharvest losses will benefit from this variability. Furthermore, the substantial variation in rupture forces is in line with the results of Oluwole et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e] and Nwakuba \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e], who observed that the structural configuration of the cotyledons and seed coat, moisture content, and genetic variables all had a major impact on the mechanical characteristics of legumes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEffect of accession on the deformation at the rupture point, deformation ratio at rupture, compressive strength and energy of twenty-five African yam bean accessions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccession\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDeformation at rupture point (mm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDeformation ratio at rupture\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCompressive strength (MPa)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnergy\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(MJ)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.4167\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.4129\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0318\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.0600\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0038\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0172\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.4961\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0034\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0004\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0226\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.9732\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0026\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0003\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0135\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.9602\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.2658\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2794\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0210\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.8787\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0029\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0003\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0092\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.6552\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.0139\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.3163\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0156\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.9892\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0047\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0006\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0243\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.0024\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.9889\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.3708\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0302\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.3899\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0016\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0002\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0070\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.4908\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 79\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0029\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0034\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0176\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.6815\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 86\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0048\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0006\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0320\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1253\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 93\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0003\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0095\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.4787\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 94\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0031\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0004\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0188\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.5680\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0694\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0075\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0364\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.5244\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0036\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0004\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0192\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.7213\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 109\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.2778\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2607\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0133\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.8699\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 111\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.7917\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.4406\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0271\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1281\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 116\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.0833\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2755\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0268\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.8897\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 118\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0035\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0004\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.7415\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.6659\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 137\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0021\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0003\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0122\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.4337\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 138\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0026\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0003\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2313\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.5151\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 349\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0036\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0005\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0278\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.0803\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdikpo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.5556\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.5548\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0213\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.0601\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eZak Biam\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0028\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0003\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0081\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.6140\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.9005\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1170\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0213\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.6101\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eF-LSD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.5727\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1593\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0221\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.3092\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003e3.3 Coefficient of static friction of AYB accessions on different structural surfaces and implications on food machinery design and selection\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe impact of the static coefficient of friction of the various studied AYB accessions on different structural surfaces is presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e. It is suggested that variations in physiological or surface characteristics (such as chemical composition, degree of moisture, texture, \u003cem\u003eetc\u003c/em\u003e.) amongst AYB accessions influence their interactions with various structural surfaces. Accessions such as TSs 79 and 349 have noticeably elevated values with particular materials, which could indicate coarser or more sticky surfaces that impact processing convenience or machinery throughput. Plastic and glass with mean coefficients of friction (CoF), 0.1827 and 0.1216, have low motion opposition, which lowers the energy requirement in hoppers, chutes, and conveyors. Thus, they are excellent for non-sticky surfaces, sliding elements, and regions where food products need to flow without adhering. Stronger grip is offered by metal (0.2203), aluminium (0.2209), and wood (0.2208). They are helpful in applications requiring tight contact, such as material holders, grips, and drive rolls. Also, during processes including cutting, shaping, or coating, they improve spatial rigidity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEffect of accession on the coefficient of static friction of the seeds of twenty-five African yam bean accessions on asbestos, plastic, glass, metal, aluminum and wood.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccession\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAsbestos\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePlastic\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGlass\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMetal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAluminum\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWood\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1790\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1885\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1281\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2227\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2201\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2145\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1375\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1929\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1222\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2252\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2215\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2228\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1626\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1826\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1186\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2174\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2212\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2224\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1401\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1815\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1238\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2244\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2237\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2125\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1484\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2031\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1234\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2209\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2211\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2266\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1451\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1231\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1231\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2187\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2219\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2211\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1434\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1846\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1249\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2220\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2217\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2226\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1504\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1569\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1240\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2385\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2168\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2192\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1357\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1838\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1340\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2219\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2131\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2215\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1716\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1802\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1203\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1927\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2211\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2238\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 79\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1835\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1821\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1111\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2471\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2215\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2208\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 86\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1531\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1766\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1260\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2218\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2197\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2215\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 93\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1312\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1713\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1164\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2040\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2218\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2164\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 94\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1668\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1868\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1194\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2233\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2213\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2211\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1487\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1725\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1270\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2083\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2199\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2204\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1484\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1809\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1144\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2254\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2211\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2216\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 109\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1641\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1765\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1252\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2254\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2242\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2208\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 111\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1412\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1920\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1163\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2017\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2196\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2216\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 116\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1404\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1900\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1109\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2238\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2213\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2214\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 118\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1367\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1688\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1245\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1986\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2226\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2249\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 137\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1369\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1958\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1233\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2244\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2182\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2207\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 138\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1740\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1977\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1186\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2229\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2229\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2199\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTSs 349\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1416\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2161\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1297\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2221\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2217\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2180\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdikpo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1520\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1881\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1090\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2196\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2230\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2203\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eZak Biam\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1705\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1872\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1248\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2236\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2207\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2208\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1522\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1827\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1216\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2203\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2209\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2208\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eF-LSD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0064\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0085\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0084\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0052\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0073\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.91\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe greatest average values (\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\sim\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e 0.2203 \u0026le; \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\stackrel{-}{x}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e 0.2209) are found for metal, aluminium, and wood, indicating that these structural surfaces are either increasingly prevalent or preserved in greater quantities in the particular situation under study. Glass exhibits a low and extremely fluctuating presence, as evidenced by its lowest average value (0.1216) and largest CV (9.37%). Asbestos and plastic have larger CVS (8.38% and 7.57%, respectively) and intermediate values, suggesting greater sample variation. The samples' high mean values for metal (0.2203) and aluminium (0.2209) indicate that they are often used or accumulate in test conditions, which may result in: i) structural dependability and excellent durability against wear are essential for grain processing, ii) if retention is prolonged, it might also indicate the possibility of contamination, particularly if surface treatments or maintenance are inadequate.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGlass exhibits the most variability (CV: 9.37%) and the lowest mean (0.1216). This lends credence to the notion that glass's brittleness makes it unsuitable for movable machinery components that are undergoing stress. However, because of its inertness and ease of cleaning, it continues to be ideal for viewing screens or non-contact storage. The moderate retention of plastic (0.1827) combined with a high coefficient of variation (8.38%) indicates variability in efficiency. Plastics are utilized extensively in gaskets, seals, and housings because they are flexible and affordable. However, wear, deterioration, and leaching, particularly in hot or acidic environments, are major problems. Even with a fairly high mean retention rate (0.2208), wood is typically unfit for use in contemporary food processing equipment because of retained microbes and porosity, as well as its propensity to deteriorate and absorb moisture can affect personal hygiene. Asbestos has significant mean values (0.1522), but its toxicity makes it a major prohibition for machinery that comes in contact with food materials.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e\u003cb\u003e3.4 Relevance to equipment design and postharvest processing\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe observed differences have profound effects on automation and postharvest processing and mechanization. With increased bio-yield and rupture pressures, accessions such as TSs 95, TSs 61, and TSs 49 are more resilient to mechanical stress, reducing seed breakage during handling and storage. However, effective shelling or peeling necessitates equipment with adequate breaking force. The necessity for more delicate handling techniques to reduce mechanical losses is suggested by the fact that accessions that possess lower rupture forces, such as Zak Biam, TSs 137, and TSs 349, are more likely to be damaged under severe compression stresses. Accessions with lower rupture forces, such as Zak Biam, TSs 137, and TSs 349, on the other hand, are more likely to sustain damage from high compression stresses. This suggests that more cautious handling procedures are required to avoid mechanical losses. In a comparable vein, Ogunjimi et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e] reported that seed hardness affected peeling equipment efficiency and damage rates in their study on cowpea.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe mechanical attributes of 25 African yam bean (\u003cem\u003eSphenostylis stenocarpa\u003c/em\u003e) accessions were assessed in this study, and the results showed considerable differences in both strength and dimensions of the bean. The seeds varied in width from 5.944 mm (TSs 33) to 7.422 mm (Adikpo), thickness from 4.922 mm (TSs 48) to 7.039 mm (Adikpo), and length from 7.589 mm (Adikpo) to 9.822 mm (TSs 69). There were also significant variations in mechanical strength indices. Bio-yield force varied between 145.83 N (Zak Biam) to 404.17 N (TSs 61), whereas rupture force spanned from 151.24 N (TSs 349) to 1131.94 N (TSs 95). Compressive strength varied from 0.0070 MPa to 0.0364 MPa, rupture force from 151.24 N to 1131.94 N, bio-yield force from 145.83 N to 404.17 N, and seed length from 7.589 mm to 9.822 mm. Friction coefficient values for various accessions ranged from 0.1090 (glass-Adikpo) to 0.2471 (metal-TSS 79), indicating that AYB accession and variety had an impact on surface contact in food machinery design. These findings highlight the necessity of taking varietal characteristics into account when choosing accessions for breeding and processing, or the development of seed processing equipment.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese differences demonstrate the morphological and genetic variation of the AYB accessions and emphasize the need it is to take accession-specific factors into account when designing postharvest handling and processing machinery. Whereas accessions with lower values could be more prone to mechanical damage during handling, but simpler to handle mechanically, samples with greater rupture and bio-yield forces might provide benefits for longevity in storage. Minimizing mechanical damage during seed processing, increasing peeling efficiency, and assisting with breeding initiatives targeted at boosting postharvest operation efficiency and final product quality all depend on a knowledge of the mechanical responses of AYB seeds. The results can be used to inform the development of effective, variety-specific decorticating and storage equipment. However, the knowledge gathered from this research is crucial for directing planting and postharvest loss diminution, equipment design, breeding schemes in AYB production and breeding, and usage systems. Future research ought to explore how mechanical characteristics are affectethed by AYB maturity and process variables to establish models that predict for processing of AYB seeds. Incorporating genetic and ecological data could improve the choice of seed samples for commercial and culinary uses.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eEthics, Consent to Participate, and Consent to Publish declarations\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eClinical trial number\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003enot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003ePermissions to collect the plants/plant parts:\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAppropriate permission was received from the Genetic Resources Centre, IITA, Ibadan, Nigeria to use their African yam bean seeds for our research\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe seeds of African yam bean with the TSs \u0026hellip; were collected from the Genetic Resources Centre, IITA, Ibadan, Nigeria. The seeds of the other two accessions, Adikpo and Zak Biam (the local checks), were bought from two markets in Benue State and were grown along with IITA accessions. This did not violate any national laws.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003ePlant Guidelines\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe collection of the seed used in our study/NAME OF PLANT complied with local or national guidelines.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eFUNDING DECLARATION\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research was funded by the African yam bean/Cassava evaluation grant received from the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Ibadan, Nigeria.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSB conceived the study, contributed materials, performed experiments, analysed data, and wrote the manuscript. NR wrote the manuscript. AA wrote the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe thank the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) Ibadan, Nigeria, for funding this research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBaiyeri SO, Uguru MI, Ogbonna PE, Okechukwu R, Iwu E (2019). Evaluation of the nodulation, root and above-ground biomass characteristics of African yam bean. Nig J Crop Sci 6 (2): 22-29. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/380515220_Evaluation_of_the_nodulation_root_and_above_ground_biomass_characteristics_of_African_yam_bean_Sphenostylis_stenocarpa_accession#fullTextFileContent \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBaiyeri SO, Uguru M I, Ogbonna PE, Okechukwu R (2018)\u003cstrong\u003e. \u003c/strong\u003eGrowth, yield and yield components of African yam bean and cassava in African yam bean/cassava cropping systems in a derived savannah agro-ecology. Nig J Crop Sci\u003cem\u003e \u003c/em\u003e5(2):73\u0026ndash; 82.https://www.researchgate.net/publication/329936282_GROWTH_YIELD_AND_YIELD_COMPONENTS_OF_AFRICAN_YAM_BEAN_AND_CASSAVA_IN_AFRICAN_YAM_BEANCASSAVA_CROPPING_SYSTEMS_IN_A_DERIVED_SAVANNAH_AGRO-ECOLOGY#fullTextFileContent \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGRIN (2009). Genetic Resources Information Network (GRIN). GRIN Taxonomy for Plants. http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?35250#dist Accessed 12/04/2012 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eEmma-Okafor LC, Obiefuna JC, Alagba RA, Okoli NA, Ibeawuchi II (2016). Evaluation of selected tree leaves as green manure mulch for sustainable plantain production in the rainforest agroecology of southeastern Nigeria. Int J Agric Rural Devt 19: 2576-2582. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/334587294_30_EVALUATION_OF_SELECTED_TREE_LEAVES_AS_GREEN_MANURE_MULCH_FOR_SUSTAINABLE_PLANTAIN_PRODUCTION_IN_THE_RAINFOREST_AGROECOLOGY_OF_SOUTHEASTERN_NIGERIA \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRao VR, Hodgkin T (2002). Genetic diversity and conservation and utilization of plant genetic resources. Plt Cell Tiss Organ Cult\u003cem\u003e \u003c/em\u003e68: 1\u0026ndash;19. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1013359015812 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBegna T (2021). Role and economic importance of crop genetic diversity in food security. 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Some engineering properties of locust bean seed. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Food Engineering\u003c/em\u003e Food 55(2): 95\u0026ndash;99. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0260-8774(02)00021-3 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eUyeri, C. and Uguru, H. (2019). Compressive resistance of groundnut kernels as influenced by kernel size. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Engineering Research and Reports\u003c/em\u003e 3(4), 1-7. https://doi.org/10.9734/jerr/2018/v3i416887\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"African yam bean, seed processing, bio-yield, structural surface, absorbed energy, process mechanization","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8902602/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8902602/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis research assessed the mechanical characteristics of the seeds of 25 African yam bean (\u003cem\u003eSphenostylis stenocarpa\u003c/em\u003e) accessions to determine how these properties could influence the crop production operations (pre-harvest), mechanical processing and post-harvest handling. The experiment design was completely randomized. Substantial structural variation was evident in the mechanical parameters, which included seed length, breadth, and thickness, ranging from 7.589-9.822mm, 5.944-7.422mm, and 4.922 to 7.039 mm, respectively, as well as the bio-yield and rupture forces, which varied from 145.83-404.17N and 151.24-1131.94N. Compressive strength and deformation at rupture, which measure mechanical resistance, ranged from 0.0070 to 0.0364MPa and 0.0016 to 3.7917mm, respectively. Energy absorbed at rupture varied widely (0.4337-3.1281mJ), with some accessions, such as TSs 95 and TSs 111, showing outstanding mechanical resiliency, indicating tough seed coat quality and a reduced vulnerability to damage during mechanical handling. Values of friction coefficients for different accessions varied from 0.1090 (glass-Adikpo) to 0.2471 (metal-TSS79), suggesting that surface contact in food machinery design is influenced by AYB accession and variety. These outcomes highlight the importance of genetic variation in seed mechanical attributes, which is crucial for breeding, equipment development, and preservation.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Evaluation of the mechanical properties of the seeds of twenty-five accessions of African yam bean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa)","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-03-12 16:44:00","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8902602/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"1f4cba61-5bc8-4e1a-83b3-1e57c44f3517","owner":[],"postedDate":"March 12th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[{"type":"decision","content":"Withdrawn","date":"2026-05-06T11:44:15+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-06T11:55:42+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-03-12 16:44:00","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8902602","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8902602","identity":"rs-8902602","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}