Effects of partial cow-calf contact and social companions on health, performance, and behavior of young calves during cold season

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Panahi, E. Ghasemi, A. H. Mahdavi, M. Sadeghi, F. Ahmadi This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7889604/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Provision of cow-calf contact (CCC) in combination with pair housing may enhance welfare and stimulate greater intake of both milk and starter feed, thereby improving the performance and health of calves reared under cold conditions. This study was conducted to investigate the effects of combining partial daily CCC (5 h/d) with pair housing (19 h/d) in dairy calves reared in outdoor pens during winter, when the mean ambient temperature was 6.2°C throughout the study period. A total of 30 Holstein calves (birth weight = 37.4 ± 3.4 kg) were enrolled at birth. Fourteen calves received daily dam contact and were pair-housed (DC-PH), while the remaining 16 calves had no dam contact (NC); of these, 8 were pair-housed (NC-PH) and 8 were individually housed (NC-IH). Dam contact was maintained until day 60, after which all calves were weaned and group-housed until day 80. Milk consumption was greater in DC than NC calves (7.4 vs. 5.5 L/d). During the pre-weaning period, starter feed intake (d 0–30) was lower in DC vs. NC calves but not different from day 30–60. Pre-weaning average daily gain and feed efficiency (pre- and post-weaning) did not differ across treatment groups. However, DC-PH calves had superior post-weaning growth compared with NC calves. Rumen development was improved in DC vs. NC calves, as indicated by greater dry matter and NDF digestibility and protozoal counts. NDF digestibility was greater in NC-PH vs. NC-IH calves (87.7 vs. 81.4%). Pre-weaning blood glucose and post-weaning βHBA concentrations were greater, but pre-weaning cortisol was lower in DC calves compared with NC calves. Health challenges and antibiotic treatments were most frequent in DC-PH calves and least in NC-PH calves. During an 8-h behavioral recording prior to weaning, DC-PH calves spent less time devoting to non-nutritive oral activities such as licking the stall, fences, and sucking on other calves, and tended to spend more time in standing or contacting other calves, playing alone, walking, and ruminating. After weaning, DC-PH calves spent more time devoting to eating, resting, rumination, walking, and social interactions than NC calves, with no differences observed between NC-IH and NC-PH calves. In summary, partial daily dam contact (5 h/d), when combined with pair housing, resulted in superior post-weaning growth, improved rumen development, and positive behavioral expression but was associated with greater health risks under suboptimal winter conditions. Partial dam contact may represent a feasible compromise to enhance calf welfare while maintaining dairy productivity and addressing societal concerns regarding early cow-calf separation. However, disease risks should be mitigated through appropriate environmental management. Health performance contact separation calf Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Introduction Although the neonatal and infancy period in calf occupies only a short duration of the life cycle, it is well established that the environment encountered during this time is crucial for promoting adequate physical, behavioral, and cognitive development, with enduring impacts into adulthood (Cantor et al., 2019 ). Dairy calves are exposed to a wide range of social, managerial, and environmental stressors during early development, which individually or in combination can compromise their health and growth. In modern dairy production systems, calves are typically separated from their dam soon after birth and housed individually for several days to weeks before being transferred to group pens with other calves (Cantor et al., 2019 ). These calves are commonly fed whole milk or milk replacer (4–8 L/d) via automated feeders, buckets, or milk bars with multiple teats, with weaning usually occurring between 6 and 12 weeks of age. Individual housing facilitates health management and monitoring but is labor-intensive and linked to social isolation hindering cognitive and behavioral development (Cantor et al., 2019 ). Both maternal deprivation and peer isolation through individual housing may compromise calf welfare (Valnickova et al., 2014 ). In contrast, rearing calves in groups during the milk-feeding period may promote the development of normal social interactions and stimulate behaviors resembling their natural responses during and after weaning (De Paula Vieira et al., 2010 ). Moreover, group-housed calves could achieve greater body weight at weaning compared to individually housed counterparts, likely because of elevated feed intake before weaning (De Paula Vieira et al., 2010 ; Ahmadi et al., 2022 ). This enhanced feed intake likely reflects social learning and facilitation, as calves observe and are encouraged by peers during feeding, a phenomenon widely documented in livestock foraging behavior (Launchbaugh and Howery, 2005 ). Despite existing animal welfare legislation and the recognized benefits of group housing, most dairy farms continue to house calves individually during the milk-feeding period and transfer them to group housing only after weaning (Da Silva et al., 2020 ). Calves reared with maternal contact have shown enhanced social skills, greater acceptance of novel feeds, and more resilient responses to social challenges later in life (Wagner et al., 2012 ; Zipp and Knierim, 2020 ). However, whole-day dam contact is associated with practical and production-related drawbacks as it reduces the volume of saleable milk, complicates milk let-down, and increases calf milk intake (12–15 L/d), which can suppress solid feed intake and delay rumen development (Bertelsen and Jensen, 2023b ; Sorby et al., 2023 ). Moreover, abrupt separation following full contact may intensify behavioral distress at weaning (Bertelsen and Jensen, 2023a ). Partial dam-contact systems, particularly half-day systems, have been proposed to facilitate gradual calf-cow separation by reducing milk intake and thereby preparing animals for weaning and permanent separation (Johnsen et al., 2016 ; Bertelsen and Jensen, 2023a , b ). Moreover, part-time contact may address practical challenges, such as incomplete milk let-down in the parlor, thereby increasing the volume of saleable milk (Bertelsen and Jensen, 2023b ). Recent evidence further supports these benefits, indicating that calves reared in half-day contact systems spend more time consuming solid feed, which may promote rumen development and ease the transition at separation (Bertelsen and Jensen, 2023a ). Rearing young calves outdoor facilities during winter months increases their energy demands due to cold stress, and insufficient nutrient supply under such conditions can impair growth, health, and welfare. Exposure to low temperatures is particularly challenging for young calves because their limited thermoregulatory capacity and minimal fat reserves hinder effective heat conservation. In dairy calves ≤ 8 weeks of age, the lower critical temperature is approximately 10°C, below which additional energy is required to maintain homeothermy. Under cold conditions, social and maternal factors may play a crucial role in mitigating stress. Calves housed in groups often huddle together for warmth, a behavior that becomes more frequent as ambient temperatures drop (Van Os et al., 2024 ). Similarly, maternal presence may stimulate calf activity, encourage early feeding, and help reduce the risk of cold stress (Le Neindre, 1993 ). Calves reared with maternal contact and/or social partners may also develop improved social skills and exhibit higher nutrient intake, either through increased liquid consumption or enhanced solid feed intake. These effects can contribute to better health and performance, particularly under sub-thermoneutral temperatures. It is possible that providing calves with both components of the natural social environment (group housing and maternal contact) could enhance their growth potential and overall welfare (Valnickova et al., 2014 ). Therefore, the present study investigated the effects of partial daily dam contact and pair housing during the milk-feeding period on the health, growth performance, rumen development, and behavior of Holstein calves reared under cold season. Materials and Methods The study was conducted in the dairy research facility of Isfahan University of Technology (Lavark, Isfahan, Iran) from October 2022 to February 2023. All animal procedures were reviewed by the Animal Care and Use Committee of Isfahan University of Technology prior to the start of the study. All procedures complied with the guidelines of the Iranian Council of Animal Care ( 1995 ) and adhered to the ARRIVE guidelines for reporting in vivo experiments. Animals and treatments Thirty newborn calves (19 males and 11 females; mean body weight = 37.5 ± 3.4 ) were enrolled at birth and assigned to 2 treatment groups. Fourteen calves (8 males and 6 females) received 5 h/d of dam contact and were subsequently pair-housed (DC-PH). The remaining 16 calves had no dam contact (NC), of which 8 were individually housed (NC-IH; 5 males and 3 females) and 8 were pair-housed (NC-PH; 4 pairs; 5 males and 3 females). To ensure age similarity within housing groups, two consecutively calved cows were assigned to the same treatment. For DC-PH calves, dam contact was maintained until day 60, at which point all calves were weaned. All calves remained on study until day 80. A visual representation of the experimental timeline and treatment groups is provided in Fig. 1 . Housing and feeding All NC calves were separated from their dams within 30 min after birth and placed in individual straw-bedded boxes in an indoor calf barn. DC-PH calves remained with their dams in free-stall pens (4.7 × 3.15 m). Regardless of treatment groups, all calves were initially housed in individual straw-bedded boxes in a naturally ventilated indoor barn until 3 d of age. Thereafter, calves were moved either individually or with a peer to outdoor pens (2.1 × 2.2 m). Pens were bedded with sawdust, which was replaced daily. All calves were bottle-fed colostrum from their own dam for the first two feedings, with the volume adjusted according to the birth body weight. After the second bottle-feeding, DC-PH calves were allowed to suckle any remaining colostrum directly from their dam. During the preweaning period, NC calves were fed milk twice daily in 2 equal meals (0800 and 1600 h). These calves received 4 L/d from day 4 to 14, 5 L/d from day 15 to 28, 6 L/d from day 29 to 42, 7 L/d from day 43 to 53, and 4 L/d from day 54 to 59. In contrast, DC-PH calves suckled freely from their dams during the daily contact period (0900–1400 h). Outside this contact period, no supplemental milk was provided to DC-PH calves. Cows were milked 3 times daily (0800, 1600, and 2400 h). From d 3 onward, all calves had ad libitum access to water and starter feed. All calves were weaned at 60 d of age. For NC calves, milk allowance was reduced to one daily meal during the final 6 d before weaning. For DC-PH calves, contact time with the dam was gradually restricted during d 54–59 (3 h/d on d 54–55, 2 h/d on d 56–57, and 1 h/d on d 58–59). After weaning, calves remained in group housing until day 80. Each pen (5 m wide × 8 m long) contained 10 calves and was fitted with a water trough (0.30 m wide × 1.50 m long × 0.35 m high) and a feed bunk (0.40 m wide × 4.0 m long × 0.45 m high) to allow ad libitum access to water and solid feed. Measurements and sampling Daily air temperature in the calf-rearing facility was monitored using a thermometer and verified with the regional meteorological system. Calves were clinically assessed 3 times/week from d 4 to 80 through a standardized health scoring system (Renaud et al., 2017 ) that rated respiratory signs, fecal consistency, rectal temperature, and navel inflammation on a 4-point scale. Farm staff maintained a daily logbook documenting all observed health problems, as well as any antibiotic or other medical treatments administered to cows and calves throughout the study. Clinical health evaluations of calves aged 1–11 weeks were used to calculate a total health score (THS), which reflected both disease duration and severity (van Dixhoorn et al., 2018 ). Calves with lower THS were considered healthier, whereas those with higher THS experienced more frequent or prolonged illness. For disease classification, Calves were classified as having clinical symptoms of common calf diseases: respiratory disease (assigned “yes” if the composite respiratory score ≥ 4, calculated from ocular discharge, nasal discharge, and cough score), neonatal diarrhea (assigned “yes” if fecal score ≥ 2 within the first 4 weeks of life, indicating either infectious diarrhea or feeding-related loose/liquid feces), navel inflammation (assigned “yes” if navel score ≥ 2), and fever (assigned “yes” if rectal temperature score = 3). All clinically detected health problem scores recorded between weeks 1 and 11 were summed into a total health score (THS) for each calf. Calves with a low THS, reflecting few and short-lived clinical symptoms, were considered in good health, whereas calves with a high THS experienced more frequent or prolonged health problems during the first 11 weeks of life. The determination of feed intake involved daily weighing of the starter feed offered and refused, with the resulting values recorded at weekly intervals. Table 1 reported ingredients and chemical compositions of the starter diet fed to calves. During the experimental period, feed samples were collected daily, pooled weekly, and analyzed for nutrient composition. Dry matter content was determined by drying samples at 65°C for 48 h in a forced-air oven, after which they were ground for chemical analysis. Crude protein, crude ash, and ether extract were analyzed according to AOAC (2002), and ADF and NDF were determined following the methods described by Van Soest et al. ( 1991 ). For calves with dam contact, milk intake was estimated by measuring body weight immediately before and after the daily contact period with the dam (Margerison et al, 2002 ). Table 1 Ingredients and chemical compositions of the starter diet fed to calves. Ingredient (% of DM) Value Barley grain 10 Corn grain 47.1 Soybean meal (45% CP) 33 Wheat straw 4.0 Dicalcium phosphate 0.5 Sodium bicarbonate 1.0 Salt 1.4 Calcium carbonate 1.5 Vitamin premix 1 1.5 Chemical composition (% of DM) DM, % of as fed 92.8 CP 19.8 Ether extract 2.47 NDF 19.5 Ash 8.11 ME 2 (Mcal/kg of DM) 3.0 1 Contained per kg of supplement, 1,200,000 IU vitamin A, 250,000 IU vitamin D, 10,000 IU vitamin E, 8.5 g Mn, 320 g Ca, 11.5 g Zn, 5 g Mg, 105 mg Co, 3.7 g Cu, 190 mg I, and 105 mg Se. 2 Calculated according to NRC (2001). Calves were weighed at birth and on d 30, 60, and 80 using a calibrated scale (model EES-500; Etihad Co., Isfahan, Iran). Skeletal growth was assessed at birth and on d 35 and 70 following the methods described by Khan et al. ( 2007 ). Measurements included body length (distance between the points of shoulder and rump), heart girth (chest circumference), hip width (distance between hook bones), withers height (front feet base to withers), body barrel (belly circumference before feeding), chest width (distance between front feet), and hip height (rear feet base to hook bones). Average daily gain was calculated at the individual level as the difference in BW between successive measurement periods (pre- and postweaning), divided by the number of days in each interval. Feed efficiency was calculated as the ratio of average daily gain (ADG; kg) to total DMI (kg). Blood samples (5 mL) were collected from the jugular vein at d 54 (preweaning) and d 61 (postweaning) using vacutainer tubes without anticoagulant. Samples were centrifuged at 2,000 rpm for 20 min, and serum was stored at − 20°C until analysis. Serum was analyzed for glucose (Delta Darman Part; Tehran, Iran), β -hydroxybutyrate (βHBA; Randox Laboratories Ltd., Crumlin, UK), and cortisol concentrations (Monobind Inc., Lake Forest, California, USA). To assess protozoal populations, rumen fluid (20 mL) was collected via an esophageal tube 3 h after the morning meal on d 35 and 60. Samples were strained through cheesecloth and fixed in aldehyde solution by mixing equal volumes (10 mL each) of rumen fluid and 10% formalin. Protozoa were enumerated using a special slide under light microscopy at 40× magnification, and results were expressed as concentration (number/mL rumen fluid; Dehority, 2003 ). To determine apparent total-tract digestibility, fecal grab samples were collected from each calf twice daily for 3 consecutive days (d 78–80). Samples were frozen at − 20°C until analysis, then dried in a forced-air oven at 60°C for 72 h. Acid-insoluble ash served as the internal marker for nutrient digestibility determination according to the method described by Van Keulen and Young ( 1977 ). Behavioral data were collected through direct observation of all calves, using definitions adapted presented in Table 2 (Ahmadi et al., 2022 ; Abdelfattah et al., 2018 ). Observations were conducted once weekly for 8-h period by 4 trained observers who were blinded to the treatments. To validate observer accuracy, calf behavior was additionally recorded via smartphone for several hours and cross-checked against the observational data. Behaviors were sampled at 1-min intervals, with the assumption that each activity persisted throughout the subsequent 1-min interval (Fig. 1 ). Table 2 Description of the recorded behavioral activities*. Behaviour Definition Lying Lying on sternum with the head either raised or placed down. Standing Upright posture with all four feet on the ground, either inactive or active. Eating Consumption of starter feed from the bunk or milk, including when the head is positioned inside the bunk. Ruminating Irregular, repetitive chewing without discernible food in the mouth, occurring either lying or standing. Self-grooming Movements with tongue over own body surface or scratching with a leg. Non-nutritional behavior Biting, sucking or licking any pen structures, except for feed; consuming bedding materials, and calf rolling its tongue outside the mouth. Contact Licking, sniffing, or gently biting another calf. Walking Moving at least two legs to change body position in a forward, backward or sideways motion. Vocalizations All types of vocalizations. Solitary play Locomotor activity such as leaping, jumping, bucking, or turning. *Ahmadi et al. ( 2022 ) and Abdelfattah et al. ( 2018 ). Statistical analysis Before the data analysis, all data were checked for normality by using the UNIVARIATE procedure of SAS. Non-nutritive oral behavior data were not normally distributed and were logarithmically transformed before analysis. All statistical analyzes were performed using SAS (SAS 9.4, SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC). Daily starter feed intake data were averaged by week before analysis. All performance, health, metabolic, ruminal, and behavioral data were analyzed as repeated measures, with measurement time considered the repeated factor, using the following model: Y ijk = µ + T i + M j + (T × M) ij + β(X k −X) + R k + ε ijk where, Y ijk = the dependent variable, µ = the overall mean, T i = the fixed effect of treatment group, M j = the fixed effect of measurement time, (T × M) ij = the interaction between treatment and time, β(X k −X) is the covariate variable (initial BW and structural growth variables), R k = the random effect of calf, and ε ijk = the error term. Least squares means were computed and compared using Tukey’s test, with statistical significance declared at P ≤ 0.05 and tendencies at 0.05 < P < 0.10. Data for THS and nutrient digestibility were analyzed using a similar statistical model, excluding the time effect. Because of low prevalence in some treatment groups, the proportions of calves classified with clinical symptoms of specific health conditions and those treated with antibiotics were analyzed using Fisher’s exact test for pairwise comparisons. Results Environmental conditions Daily air temperature profile in the calf rearing facility is presented in Fig. 2 ; mean maximum, average, and minimum values during the trial were 12.7, 6.2, and − 0.3°C, respectively. Health of calves and antibiotic use Effect of dam contact and companions on THS is reported in Table 3 . About 90% of clinical symptoms were observed during the first 7 wk, whereas calves remained in relatively good health during the final 4 wk of the study. DC calves had a greater mean total health score (THS; 4.14 ± 0.81) than NC calves ( P = 0.004). Within the NC group, NC-IH calves had higher THS (3.63 ± 1.07) compared with NC-PH calves (1.13 ± 1.07; P = 0.005). THS values ranged from 0–12 in DC-PH calves, 0–8 in NC-PH calves, and 0–10 in NC-IH calves (Table 3 ). During the first 7 wk, 37% of calves required antibiotic treatment. The prevalence of antibiotic use tended to be higher in DC than NC calves (6 out of 14 calves versus 5 out of 16 calves; P = 0.02), with no difference between NC-IH and NC-PH calves. Three calves died of severe pneumonia during the trial: 2 from the DC-PH group and 1 from the NC-IH group. Table 3 Effect of dam contact and companion on total health score (THS; mean ± SE). Item Treatment groups* P -value No dam contact (NC) Dam contact (DC) Treatment NC-IH (n = 8) NC-PH (n = 8) DC-PH (n = 14) NC-IH vs. NC-PH NC vs. DC THS 3.63 ± 1.07 1.13 ± 1.07 4.14 ± 0.81 0.005 0.004 *NC-IH = no dam contact, individually housed; NC-PH = no dam contact, pair-housed; DC-PH = dam contact (5 h/d), pair-housed. Performance outcomes Effects of dam contact and social housing on calf performance are presented in Table 4 . At 30 and 60 d, no differences were observed among treatments for body weight or ADG. Body weight (d 80) and ADG (d 0–80) were greater in DC vs. NC calves ( P = 0.03 and P = 0.02, respectively), with no difference between NC-IH and NC-PH calves. Only during d 0–30, DC calves had lower solid feed intake than NC calves ( P = 0.01). Pre-weaning average daily weight gain and feed efficiency (pre- and post-weaning) did not differ across treatment groups. No treatment × time interaction was observed for either solid feed intake or feed efficiency ( P > 0.10). As expected, milk intake was significantly higher in DC vs. NC calves. Table 4 Effect of dam contact and companion on calf performance. Items Treatment groups* SEM P -values No dam contact (NC) Dam contact (DC) Treatment Time Time × treatment NC-IH (n = 8) NC-PH (n = 8) DC-PH (n = 14) NC-IH vs. NC-PH NC vs. DC Body weight, kg Birth (d 0) 37.2 37.1 37.7 0.66 0.98 0.68 < 0.001 0.01 d 30 45.8 46.9 47.0 1.19 0.77 0.76 d 60 63.7 65.8 66.2 1.19 0.48 0.58 d 80 81.6 83.8 92.8 1.19 0.73 0.03 ADG, kg d 0–30 0.278 0.314 0.327 0.04 0.57 0.61 < 0.001 0.09 d 30–60 0.596 0.628 0.638 0.04 0.29 0.41 d 60–80 0.892 0.898 1.332 0.04 0.79 0.02 d 0–80 0.551 0.578 0.695 0.04 0.67 0.02 Milk intake, kg DM/d d 0–30 0.616 0.616 0.775 0.02 1.00 0.01 < 0.001 < 0.001 d 30–60 0.759 0.759 1.073 0.02 1.00 < 0.001 Solid feed intake, kg DM/d d 0–30 0.078 0.063 0.045 0.02 0.29 0.01 < 0.001 0.78 d 30–60 0.407 0.456 0.383 0.02 0.58 0.36 Total intake, kg DM/d d 0–30 0.694 0.679 0.820 0.03 0.29 0.04 < 0.001 0.05 d 30–60 1.166 1.215 1.460 0.03 0.58 0.002 Feed efficiency 1 d 0–30 0.405 0.457 0.413 0.03 0.49 0.81 0.07 0.94 d 30–60 0.491 0.529 0.445 0.03 0.66 0.24 *NC-IH = no dam contact, individually housed; NC-PH = no dam contact, pair-housed; DC-PH = dam contact (5 h/d), pair-housed. 1 Calculated as kg weight gain/kg total D Effects of dam contact and social housing on skeletal growth measures are presented in Table 5. Hip width, body barrel, and hip height were not different across treatment groups. However, DC calves had greater body length and withers height at day 80 compared with NC calves ( P = 0.03 and P = 0.02, respectively). Heart girth also tended to be greater in DC calves ( P = 0.06). Also, a treatment × time interaction effect was observed for body length and withers height at d 80 and heart girth at d 60 ( P ≥ 0.02; Table 5). Table 5. Effect of dam contact and social companion on calf skeletal measures. Items Treatment groups* SEM P -value No dam contact (NC) Dam contact (DC) Treatment Time Time × treatment NC-IH (n = 8) NC-PH (n = 8) DC-PH (n = 14) NC-IH vs. NC-PH NC vs. DC Body length, cm Birth (d 0) 53.0 53.9 56.2 0.55 0.59 0.04 <0.001 0.003 d 60 64.9 63.6 65.0 0.70 0.42 0.58 d 80 69.3 69.3 72.7 0.70 0.99 0.03 Hip width, cm Birth (d 0) 12.0 11.9 12.7 0.55 0.76 0.03 <0.001 0.99 d 60 15.9 16.3 16.5 0.21 0.45 0.30 d 80 17.5 17.8 18.0 0.25 0.60 0.55 Hip height, cm Birth 76.9 76.3 78.6 0.55 0.79 0.15 <0.001 0.56 d 60 86.9 86.5 86.3 0.71 0.78 0.79 d 80 91.0 90.6 91.3 0.71 0.77 0.70 Withers height, cm Birth (d 0) 49.0 49.0 49.6 0.56 0.99 0.61 <0.001 0.02 d 60 54.7 55.5 54.9 0.64 0.63 0.89 d 80 59.5 59.1 62.1 0.65 0.87 0.02 Body barrel, cm Birth (d 0) 79.6 78.4 81.3 0.55 0.48 0.07 <0.001 0.65 d 60 99.7 101.4 99.9 1.26 0.85 0.98 d 80 111.9 113.2 113.8 1.26 0.72 0.78 Heart girth, cm Birth (d 0) 76.6 75.3 77.6 0.55 0.38 0.09 <0.001 0.03 d 60 95.0 95.9 91.9 0.95 0.63 0.06 d 80 101.8 103.1 102.0 0.94 0.62 0.81 Chest width, cm Birth (d 0) 8.62 8.63 9.43 0.55 0.99 0.12 <0.001 0.13 d 60 12.6 12.3 12.8 0.21 0.41 0.42 d 80 13.6 13.4 14.3 0.21 0.71 0.13 *NC-IH = no dam contact, individually housed; NC-PH = no dam contact, pair-housed; DC-PH = dam contact (5 h/d), pair-housed. Blood metabolites Effects of dam contact and social housing on selected blood metabolites are presented in Table 6. Before weaning, DC calves had higher glucose concentrations and lower cortisol concentrations compared with NC calves. β HBA concentration was lower before weaning but higher after weaning in DC vs. NC calves. No differences in blood glucose, β HBA, and cortisol were observed between NC-IH and NC-PH calves. Also, a significant interaction between treatment and time was observed for cortisol and β HBA concentrations ( P ≤ 0.05). Table 6. Effect of dam contact and social companion on selected blood metabolites. Items Treatment groups* SEM P -value No dam contact (NC) Dam contact (DC) Treatment Time Time × treatment NC-IH (n = 8) NC-PH (n = 8) DC-PH (n = 14) NC-IH vs. NC-PH NC vs. DC Glucose, mg/dL Preweaning, d 54 139.1 137.5 148.8 1.32 0.66 <0.001 <0.001 0.66 Postweaning, d 61 103.3 99.3 107.6 1.32 0.32 0.12 βHBA, mmol/L Preweaning, d 54 0.090 0.093 0.058 0.01 0.85 0.005 <0.001 <0.01 Postweaning, d 61 0.111 0.134 0.165 0.01 0.28 0.03 Cortisol, µg/dL Preweaning, d 54 2.20 2.28 1.73 0.08 0.74 <0.01 0.24 0.05 Postweaning, d 61 2.12 1.80 2.05 0.08 0.28 0.61 *NC-IH = no dam contact, individually housed; NC-PH = no dam contact, pair-housed; DC-PH = dam contact (5 h/d), pair-housed Rumen protozoa Effects of dam contact and social housing on protozoa counts in calf rumen are presented in Table 7 . Rumen protozoa numbers increased with age in all groups, but calves with dam contact (DC) consistently had higher counts than those without dam contact ( P < 0.001). On day 35, protozoa abundance was not different between NC-IH and NC-PH calves. However, on day 70, protozoa counts were greater in NC-PH calves compared with NC-IH ( P = 0.03). Table 7. Effect of dam contact and social companion on the number of protozoa in calf rumen. Treatment groups* SEM P -value No dam contact (NC) Dam contact (DC) Treatment Time Time × treatment NC-IH (n = 8) NC-PH (n = 8) DC-PH (n = 14) NC-IH vs. NC-PH NC vs. DC Protozoa numbers (×10 5 /mL) 1.67 1.76 2.44 0.11 0.65 <0.001 <0.001 0.04 2.34 2.93 4.03 0.11 0.03 <0.001 *NC-IH = no dam contact, individually housed; NC-PH = no dam contact, pair-housed; DC-PH = dam contact (5 h/d), pair-housed. Nutrient digestibility Effects of dam contact and social housing on DM and NDF digestibility are shown in Table 8 . DC calves had greater digestibility of NDF ( P = 0.02) and DM ( P = 0.04) compared with NC calves. Within NC calves, NC-PH calves had higher DM digestibility than NC-IH calves (81.4 vs. 87.7%; P = 0.03), whereas no difference was observed for NDF digestibility ( P = 0.13). Table 8. Effect of dam contact and social companion on nutrient digestibility in calves. Digestibility (%) Treatment groups* SEM P -value No dam contact (NC) Dam contact (DC) NC-IH (n = 8) NC-PH (n = 8) DC-PH (n = 14) NC-IH vs. NC-PH NC vs. DC DM 81.4 87.7 88.1 1.40 0.03 0.04 NDF 46.5 60.3 68.4 4.07 0.13 0.02 *NC-IH = no dam contact, individually housed; NC-PH = no dam contact, pair-housed; DC-PH = dam contact (5 h/d), pair-housed. General activity patterns Effects of dam contact and social housing on calf behaviors are presented in Fig. 3 . A significant treatment × time interaction was observed for general activity patterns ( P < 0.001). During the preweaning period, DC calves spent more time standing compared with NC calves, whereas after weaning this trend reversed, with NC calves increasing standing time and DC calves decreasing it. Similarly, DC calves slept less than NC calves before weaning but showed the greatest proportion of resting time after weaning ( P < 0.001). No differences were detected between NC-IH and NC-PH calves. Play behaviors (leaping and jumping) were more frequent in DC-PH calves during the milk-feeding period but decreased after weaning, when NC calves (particularly NC-IH calves) exhibited greater play activity ( P < 0.001). Time spent eating solid feed did not differ between treatments until wk 7. At wk 8, eating time increased in NC calves, whereas after weaning (wk 9–11) it was greater in DC calves ( P < 0.001). Within the NC group, no differences were observed before weaning, but after weaning, NC-PH calves spent more time eating than NC-IH calves ( P < 0.001). Social behaviors were also affected by treatment groups. DC calves consistently spent more time in social contact and walking than NC calves ( P < 0.001). Self-grooming was initially greater in DC calves during the first 2 wk but declined thereafter, while NC calves showed increasing self-grooming until wk 8, after which it decreased but remained higher than in DC calves. Within the NC group, self-grooming was longer in NC-PH than in NC-IH calves before weaning but shorter after weaning. Non-nutritive oral behaviors (e.g., licking and cross-sucking) were lowest in DC calves and highest in NC calves across the 11-wk period ( P < 0.001). Before weaning, these behaviors were greater in NC-PH calves than in NC-IH calves ( P = 0.01), but no differences were observed postweaning. Vocalizations were least frequent in DC calves until wk 8. During wk 9 (first week after weaning), vocalizations increased sharply in all groups, with no treatment differences ( P = 0.10). Thereafter, vocalizations declined again and were lowest in DC-PH calves ( P < 0.001). DC calves ruminated longer than NC calves up to wk 6, with no differences at wk 7–9. After weaning, rumination was again greater in DC calves compared with NC calves. NC-PH calves spent more time rumination than NC-IH calves ( P < 0.001). Discussion Health status During winter, calves are particularly vulnerable to cold stress and temperature fluctuations, compounded by wind and humidity. This susceptibility is linked to poor body insulation (low subcutaneous fat and thin skin), a relatively high surface area-to-body mass ratio, immature regulation of skin vasculature, and heat loss via evaporation from the wet body surface at birth. As a result, the mechanisms required to maintain thermal balance in response to environmental temperature variation are not yet fully developed (Holt, 2014 ). The minimum critical temperature is estimated at approximately 15°C for calves under 3 wk of age (Arieli et al., 1995 ( and 5°C for older calves (Drackley, 2008 ). Below these thresholds, calves expend additional energy to maintain homeothermy, which can compromise growth, immunity, and the productivity if not compensated by increased nutrient intake (Holt, 2014 ; Van Os et al., 2024 ). Housing conditions, particularly barn climate, bedding quality, and hygiene, further influence calf vulnerability to disease (Gulliksen et al., 2009 ; Wenker et al., 2022 ). In the present study, two common calf disorders: diarrhea and respiratory disease (Mee, 2008 ) contributed to the increased THS observed in DC calves. The risk of respiratory disorders in young calves is elevated under suboptimal barn conditions, including inappropriate temperature, humidity, air movement (drafts), air quality, and especially wet bedding (Curtis et al., 2016 ). The higher prevalence of ocular and nasal discharge, together with a greater tendency for antibiotic use in DC calves compared with NC calves during the first 7 weeks of life, likely reflected an increased incidence of respiratory disease. In contrast, inadequate hygiene, housing, and feeding practices are considered the primary management-related contributors to diarrhea (Klein-Jobstl et al., 2014 ). Elevated THS was largely attributed to diarrhea, potentially linked to excessive milk intake that predisposes calves to digestive upset (Roth et al., 2009 ). Group housing conditions may have further increased exposure to enteric pathogens via contact with manure-contaminated floors in the DC pen (Roland et al., 2016 ). Our findings are in agreement with previous reports identifying a heightened incidence of diarrhea in calves reared with dam contact (Roth et al., 2009 ; Wenker et al., 2022 ; Sinnott et al., 2024 ). However, other research on prolonged full CCC has shown no significant effect or even beneficial effects on calf health status (Johnsen et al., 2015 ; Roth et al., 2009 ). These inconsistencies may reflect differences in study design and methodology, as many of these studies did not assess calf health as a primary outcome, were conducted in facilities with differing barn designs, and often relied on relatively small sample sizes. Farmers who transitioned from conventional rearing to full CCC systems generally reported benefits for both calf and cow (Neave et al., 2021 ; Vaarst et al., 2020 ), though they also noted the need for additional infrastructure to support these systems (Neave et al., 2021 ). Consequently, optimizing housing systems and management practices is essential for maintaining calf health in CCC systems throughout the transition and beyond. Growth and intake Exposure to cold stress increases calf energy requirements for thermoregulation, thereby elevating maintenance costs and reducing energy available for growth if not compensated by increased nutrient intake (Holt, 2014 ; Van Os et al., 2024 ). Holt ( 2014 ) reported that winter-born calves consumed more starter feed but achieved similar weight gains, indicating that dietary energy was diverted toward heat production rather than tissue accretion. This explanation is consistent with the high susceptibility of calves to cold stress, driven by their large surface area-to-mass ratio and limited ruminal fermentation capacity, which constrains endogenous heat generation (Van Os et al., 2024 ). In this experiment, preweaning feed intake (except during d 0–30) and growth performance did not differ among treatment groups. This likely reflects the diversion of dietary energy toward heat production. However, calves with dam contact consumed less starter feed during the first month of life (d 0–30), most likely because their greater milk intake through suckling met their nutrient requirements and reduced the motivation to consume solid feed. Previous research has shown that calves fed large quantities of milk generally consume less solid feed preweaning (Jasper and Weary, 2002 ; Sorby et al., 2023 ) and that full dam contact calves typically ingest less starter than limit-fed artificially reared calves (Fröberg et al., 2011; de Passillé & Rushen, 2016). A review by Khan et al. ( 2011 ) also concluded that higher milk allowances decreased pre-weaning solid feed intake likely because of inducing satiety through both metabolic feedback (increased circulating glucose and insulin level) and physical gut fill from abomasal curd, thereby reducing the calf motivation to consume solid feed. From d 30–60, starter feed intake of DC calves was not different from NC calves, despite the higher milk intake in DC calves. This may suggest that as calves mature, factors such as increased rumen capacity and the developmental changes in feeding motivation may affect the satiety-related suppression of solid feed intake observed earlier in the preweaning period. Supporting this interpretation, Diaz et al. ( 2001 ) reported bedding consumption in milk-fed calves deprived of starter feed, an indication of behavioral evidence of an intrinsic and progressively stronger drive to seek solid feed as calves age. Most studies on calves reared in CCC systems report a growth advantage compared with non-contact calves, although some studies have found reduced or no effects (e.g., increased growth: Valnickova et al., 2014 ; decreased growth: Bertelsen and Jensen, 2023b ). Consistent with the present study, Froberg et al. ( 2008 ) found no difference in weight gain between treatments, although they reported greater variability within the suckling group. However, we observed increased growth in DC calves after weaning (day 80). This finding aligns with Meagher et al. ( 2019 ), who reported that growth benefits of dam contact persisted for several months post-weaning, but contrasts with Wenker et al. ( 2022 ), who observed no postweaning differences in body weight across separation strategies. One possible explanation is that social facilitation and social learning promote earlier and greater solid feed intake in group-housed calves (Valnickova et al., 2014 ). The postweaning growth advantage observed in DC calves may reflect enhanced social skills, improved resilience to the stress of weaning, and facilitated feed intake through social interactions. Blood metabolites In neonatal calves, circulating glucose concentrations are high and comparable to those of monogastrics, as energy supply is derived primarily from intestinal absorption of lactose before the rumen is functional (Lohakare et al., 2012 ). With advancing age, glucose concentrations decline as energy metabolism shifts toward volatile fatty acids produced via ruminal fermentation (Baldwin et al., 2004 ). In our study, the higher preweaning glucose concentrations observed in DC calves likely reflected their greater milk consumption and reduced ruminal development relative to NC calves, consistent with findings that lactose digestion provides the major energy source during this stage (Hammon et al., 2002 ; Baldwin et al., 2004 ). Serum β HBA is widely considered a biomarker of rumen development, as its concentration rises with increasing intake of starter feed and enhanced ruminal fermentation (Quigley et al., 1991 ). In our study, postweaning βHBA concentrations were greater in DC calves, coinciding with increased solid feed intake and higher DM and NDF digestibility. This may suggest a more advanced rumen development compared with NC calves. Perez et al. ( 2017 ) demonstrated that separating calves from their mothers stimulates stress responses in both, including vocal behavior, greater locomotor activity, fence-line seeking, reduced body weight, and higher cortisol concentrations. Cortisol, in particular, is widely recognized as a reliable indicator of stress and welfare status (Perez et al., 2017 ). Before weaning, DC calves had lower cortisol concentrations than NC calves, suggesting reduced stress and potentially improved welfare under dam contact conditions. Rumen protozoa The dam has long been hypothesized to serve as the primary source of microbial inoculation for the calf rumen (Becker and Hsiung, 1929 ). Beyond providing nutritional support, maternal contact may therefore be essential for the early establishment of a diverse ruminal microbiota. In artificially reared calves, separation from the dam and reliance on milk replacer are thought to limit microbial exposure, particularly hindering the development of ciliate protozoa (Newbold et al., 2015 ). Reports on the timing of protozoal colonization, however, remain inconsistent. For example, Naga et al. ( 1968 ) observed an earlier appearance of ciliate protozoa in buffalo and cow calves subjected to early weaning, suggesting that reduced milk intake can stimulate solid feed consumption and accelerate rumen development. Indeed, increased starter intake is recognized as a key driver of microbial proliferation in the developing rumen (Warner, 1961 ; Valehi et al., 2022 ). In the present study, solid feed intake (d 30–60) did not differ among treatment groups; nevertheless, protozoal counts were consistently greater in DC calves than in NC calves. This indicates that dam contact itself, rather than nutrient intake, was the main contributor to enhanced protozoal colonization. Direct microbial transfer from the dam via saliva, skin, or fecal contact, likely facilitated the establishment of protozoa in DC calves and may help explain the superior nutrient digestibility observed in this group. Nutrient digestibility Previous studies have suggested that greater milk allowance before weaning may reduce starter intake and delay rumen development, thereby impairing postweaning nutrient digestibility (Hill et al., 2010 ). However, when calves are weaned at approximately 50 to 56 d of age, starter intake and rumen adaptation are sufficient to support a smooth transition to solid feed, regardless of preweaning milk level (Bach et al., 2013 ; Hu et al., 2020 ; Valehi et al., 2022 ). In our study, calves were weaned at 60 d, which likely provided adequate time for rumen maturation in DC calves despite their greater milk consumption, explaining the improved DM and NDF digestibility observed in these calves. Protozoa play an important role in ruminal fiber digestion, contributing an estimated 25–30% of total fiber degradation, particularly of hemicellulose (Costa et al., 2010 ). The higher protozoal counts observed in DC calves therefore provide a plausible biological explanation for the enhanced digestibility of NDF in this group. Overall, these findings suggest that dam contact not only influenced microbial colonization but also improved digestive efficiency through its effects on protozoal populations. Behavior development Prolonged CCC has been shown to influence both physical and behavioral development (Wenker et al., 2022 ). In the present study, calves with half-day dam contact displayed greater levels of standing, play, walking, and social interaction with peers before weaning compared with NC calves. After weaning and integration, DC calves spent more time resting, eating, and ruminating, consistent with the advantages of CCC in reducing aggression and being more adaptable to the environment. Similar patterns have been reported in heifers reared with full CCC, which tended to be more submissive than heifers reared without CCC (Wagner et al., 2012 and Zipp and Knierim, 2015 ). These outcomes suggest smoother adjustment to group housing, supported by observations of shorter lying latencies, longer feeding duration, and more frequent lying bouts in CCC-reared animals (Wagner et al., 2012 ). Also, as dairy calves are highly motivated for early-life social contact (Ede et al., 2021), these behavioral advantages highlight CCC as an important welfare factor. The longer standing periods observed in DC-PH calves could signal a motivation to interact with their dams. This interpretation is supported by research showing that young animals are less inclined to explore peers or novel contexts without maternal presence (Cantor et al, 2019 ). On the other hand, a wider and more active range of social behaviors during conspecific interactions (such as head butting, sniffing, tail wagging, rubbing, and play) has been observed in calves reared with CCC relative to those reared without CCC (Buchli et al., 2017 ; Wagner et al., 2013 ). This is consistent with the results of our study as DC-PH calves expressed a wider range of social behaviors than NC calves both prior to weaning and after integration. Full CCC has been shown to reduce abnormal behaviors in calves. In addition to a decrease in tongue rolling (Froberg and Lidfors., 2009; Bieber et al., 2022 ), studies have reported rare occurrences of cross-sucking and non-nutritive sucking in full CCC systems (Veissier et al., 2013 ; Roth et al., 2009 ), although some studies found no differences (Bertelsen and Jensen, 2023b ). Natural suckling most likely accounts for these effects by supporting higher milk consumption (~ 9 L/d during 9 wk of part-time contact [De Passillé et al., 2008] and ~ 15 L/d during 13 wk of full contact [Roth et al., 2009 ]), meeting the calf’s need to suckle, and allowing more frequent milk meals (Beaver et al., 2019 ). By contrast, common artificial feeding practices often rely on buckets or teat buckets that deliver milk at high flow rates, offering calves little opportunity to satisfy their suckling motivation and resulting in limited or absent oral stimulation (De Passillé, 2001). These results are consistent with the present study, because in our study, the incidence of non-nutritive behavior such as cross-sucking of other calves or sucking of fences and objects was lower in DC calves than in NC calves throughout the entire experimental period. Play is widely recognized as beneficial for animal welfare; however, restricted social environments during early development may constrain both the opportunity and the motivation to engage in play (Valnickova et al., 2014 ). Increased space allowance promotes play behavior by minimizing environmental restrictions and enhancing opportunities for play. In the present experiment, NC calves showed more solitary play during the integration period (after weaning) compared to other treatment groups, and the amount of walking and movement in them increased more intensively. This increase in solitary play may reflect an activity rebound in response to the larger space allowance of the test arena compared with the confined home pen (Valnickova et al., 2014 ). These findings agree with those of Wenker et al. ( 2022 ) and Wagner et al. ( 2013 ), who reported that calves reared without CCC engaged in more solitary play during post-integration tests compared with calves reared with full CCC. Calves with full CCC often perform locomotor play in the alleys of the cow barn (Wagner et al., 2013 ; Waiblinger et al., 2020 ), which may reduce their motivation for locomotor play in the test arena relative to calves that experienced more restricted housing conditions (Wagner et al., 2013 ). Furthermore, improved welfare associated with maternal contact, potentially mediated by hormonal systems, may foster a stronger motivation for social play and interaction with conspecifics, thereby contributing to the reduction in solitary play observed after integration. Calves frequently engage in self-grooming, which contributes to hygiene maintenance (Kohari et al., 2009 ). The sensitivity of this behavior to physiological and environmental influences suggests a possible connection to calf comfort and welfare. A reduction in self-grooming has been reported following experimental disease challenges designed to induce sickness behavior (Hixson et al., 2018 ). Self-grooming is a behavior that is associated with the comfort, welfare, health and maintaining the hygiene of an animal (Kohari et al., 2009 ; Hixson et al., 2018 ). Social grooming in semi-wild herds occurs predominantly between dam and calf (Reinhardt et al., 1981). Bertelsen and Jensen ( 2023a ) also stated that compared with artificial rearing, where calves have either no or very limited social contact (individual housing), or only calf contact (pair or group housing) during the milk feeding period, half-day contact still provides opportunity for suckling and maternal grooming. Therefore, the reduced occurrence of self-grooming in DC-PH calves may result from maternal behavior displayed by cows, which involves licking, nursing, staying close to the calf, and protecting it from threats (von Keyserlingk and Weary, 2007 ). Therefore, maternal licking can reduce the need for calves to groom themselves. Once calves were weaned and integrated, self-grooming diminished in both groups but still was greater in NC calves. This pattern may reflect a shift toward social grooming, which agrees with contact behaviors and is thought to support the development of social bonds, as calves spend more time grooming familiar companions than unfamiliar ones (Færevik et al., 2007 ). The higher vocalization observed in DC calves at weaning compared to NC calves may reflect their motivation to reunite with the cow and obtain milk, rather than solely the need for milk (Enriquez et al., 2010 ; Loberg et al., 2007 ). Stressful challenges to animal welfare, such as weaning, commonly elicit distress behaviors including increased activity and high-pitched vocalizations (Nicolao et al., 2022 ; Johnsen et al., 2015 ). The development of these distress behaviors can be interpreted as adaptive responses aimed at signaling a need for resources (Weary et al., 2008 ). Because DC calves simultaneously endured maternal separation and milk withdrawal, their distress behaviors were expressed with greater frequency and intensity. Conclusions Our findings demonstrated that rearing calves with partial dam contact during winter improves postweaning growth performance, rumen development, and behavioral welfare, but also increases susceptibility to health problems, particularly respiratory disease and diarrhea, under cold housing conditions. Dam contact was associated with increased protozoal counts, greater digestibility of DM and NDF, and elevated postweaning β HBA concentrations, indicating enhanced ruminal development in these calves. DC calves displayed more social play, rumination, and reduced non-nutritive oral behaviors. This may be reflective of an improved welfare, although weaning separation induced marked distress responses. Despite these benefits, the increased incidence of health issues may highlight the need for improved environmental and health management, especially during winter months. Partial daily dam contact appears to be sufficient to promote rumen microbial and behavioral development while maintaining the feasibility in commercial dairy systems. Thus, it represents a promising rearing approach that supports both calf welfare and milk harvest efficiency, provided that management strategies effectively mitigate health risks and weaning stress. Future research should aim to optimize the duration and environmental management of CCC across different climatic and production systems to balance productivity, welfare, and societal expectations for sustainable dairy production. Animal Ethic declaration All animal procedures were reviewed by the Animal Care and Use Committee of Isfahan University of Technology prior to the start of the study. All procedures complied with the guidelines of the Iranian Council of Animal Care ( 1995 ) and adhered to the ARRIVE guidelines for reporting in vivo experiments. Declarations Animal Ethic declaration All animal procedures were reviewed by the Animal Care and Use Committee of Isfahan University of Technology prior to the start of the study. All procedures complied with the guidelines of the Iranian Council of Animal Care (1995) and adhered to the ARRIVE guidelines for reporting in vivo experiments. Declaration of conflict of interest Authors declare no conflicts of interest Authors’ contribution statement Z. Panahi : Conceptualization, Methodology, Data Analysis, Writing – original draft. E. Ghasemi: Supervision, Project Administration, Methodology, Data Analysis, Writing – review & editing. A. H. Mahdavi : Supervision, Methodology, Writing – review & editing. M. Sadeghi : Methodology, Writing – review & editing. F. Ahmadi : Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing – review & editing. Data Availability Declaration of conflict of interestAuthors declare no conflicts of interest References Abdelfattah EM, Karousa. MM, Lay DC Jr., Marchant-Forde JN, Eicher SD (2018) Short communication: Effect of age at group housing on behavior, cortisol, health, and leukocyte differential counts of neonatal bull dairy calves. J Dairy Sci 101(1):596–602 Ahmadi F, Ghasemi. E, Alikhani. 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A, Waiblinger S (2012) Integration into the dairy cow herd: Long-term effects of mother contact during the first twelve weeks of life. Appl Anim Behav Sci 141:117–129 Waiblinger S, Wagner. K, Hillmann. E, Barth K (2020) Play and social behaviour of calves with or without access to their dam and other cows. J Dairy Res 87:144–147 Warner ACI (1961) Some factors influencing the rumen microbial population. J Gen Micro 28:129–146 Weary DM, Jasper. J, Hötzel MJ (2008) Understanding weaning distress. Appl Anim Behav Sci 110:24–41 Wenker ML, Verwer. CM, Bokkers. EAM, Te Beest DE, Gort. G, De Oliveira D, Koets. A, Bruckmaier. RM, Gross. JJ, van Reenen CG (2022) Effect of different types of cow-calf contact on health, blood parameters, and performance of dairy cow and calf. Fron Vet Sci 9:855086 Zipp KA, Knierim U (2015) Do dam-reared heifers have advantages during integration into the dairy herd? In: Current Research in Applied Ethology. KTBL Darmstadt 510, pp. 158–169 Zipp KA, Knierim U (2020) Physical development, ease of integration into the dairy herd and performance of primiparous dairy cows reared with full whole-day, half-day or no mother-contact as calves. J Dairy Res 87(Suppl 1):154–156 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. 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10:05:29","extension":"xml","order_by":52,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":219924,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"acc1d0d0779844778d681972301a829f1structuring.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7889604/v1/630821624035eccfaacd235b.xml"},{"id":95525859,"identity":"bc8c18d0-7e7d-40b5-8a5a-9b9c16c796ad","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-10 10:05:44","extension":"html","order_by":53,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":236570,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7889604/v1/2207210b5503c8bf450ddd24.html"},{"id":95374820,"identity":"a84a64f4-cd37-4a05-bba0-ba3e56645e81","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-07 10:33:57","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":63563,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTimeline of experimental events and description of treatment groups. Arrows indicate the calf management treatments: DC-PH = dam contact (5 h/day), pair-housed; NC-IH = no dam contact, individually housed; NC-PH = no dam contact, pair-housed. After weaning, all calves were moved to group housing until day 80. The central timeline shows the schedule of animal-based measures: body weight (orange; days 0, 30, 60, 80), skeletal growth (blue; days 0, 35, 70), blood samples (green; days 54, 61), rumen fluid (red; days 35, 60), fecal samples (yellow; days 78, 80), and weekly 8-hour behavioral observations.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7889604/v1/bde215683cf38b6b7dc33b29.png"},{"id":95526477,"identity":"8ccc7937-1ce8-4236-a8b9-65e08d1a1b67","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-10 10:07:03","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":84084,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePattern of daily temperature changes (minimum, average and maximum) recorded during the 80-d experimental period. Dashed lines represent the lower critical temperature thresholds for calves ≤3 wk of age (15°C) and \u0026gt;3 wk of age (5°C).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7889604/v1/0b32563d4867de7391374a3e.png"},{"id":95374821,"identity":"b4271986-71ec-4181-947c-dbe4ea45b03d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-07 10:33:57","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":328712,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eInteraction effects of treatment group (DC-PH = 5 h/d dam contact, pair-housed; NC-IH = no dam contact, individually housed; NC-PH = no dam contact, pair-housed) and time on calf behaviors during the preweaning (weeks 1–8) and postweaning (weeks 9–12) periods. The vertical dashed line indicates weaning. Behaviors recorded were (A) sleeping, (B) standing, (C) playing, (D) eating, (E) social contact, (F) grooming, (G) non-feeding oral behaviors, (H) walking, (I) vocalizing, and (J) ruminating. An asterisk (*) indicates a significant difference between DC-PH calves with NC-IH and NC-PH calves (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.05).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7889604/v1/3bde24f7fd04802693b13579.png"},{"id":100728556,"identity":"c754d1fc-4634-4e34-b593-b41aa428f803","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-20 20:55:38","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1797574,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7889604/v1/685f75ef-8a42-4b03-9030-968cb2aece92.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Effects of partial cow-calf contact and social companions on health, performance, and behavior of young calves during cold season","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eAlthough the neonatal and infancy period in calf occupies only a short duration of the life cycle, it is well established that the environment encountered during this time is crucial for promoting adequate physical, behavioral, and cognitive development, with enduring impacts into adulthood (Cantor et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Dairy calves are exposed to a wide range of social, managerial, and environmental stressors during early development, which individually or in combination can compromise their health and growth. In modern dairy production systems, calves are typically separated from their dam soon after birth and housed individually for several days to weeks before being transferred to group pens with other calves (Cantor et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). These calves are commonly fed whole milk or milk replacer (4\u0026ndash;8 L/d) via automated feeders, buckets, or milk bars with multiple teats, with weaning usually occurring between 6 and 12 weeks of age. Individual housing facilitates health management and monitoring but is labor-intensive and linked to social isolation hindering cognitive and behavioral development (Cantor et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Both maternal deprivation and peer isolation through individual housing may compromise calf welfare (Valnickova et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). In contrast, rearing calves in groups during the milk-feeding period may promote the development of normal social interactions and stimulate behaviors resembling their natural responses during and after weaning (De Paula Vieira et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, group-housed calves could achieve greater body weight at weaning compared to individually housed counterparts, likely because of elevated feed intake before weaning (De Paula Vieira et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Ahmadi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). This enhanced feed intake likely reflects social learning and facilitation, as calves observe and are encouraged by peers during feeding, a phenomenon widely documented in livestock foraging behavior (Launchbaugh and Howery, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). Despite existing animal welfare legislation and the recognized benefits of group housing, most dairy farms continue to house calves individually during the milk-feeding period and transfer them to group housing only after weaning (Da Silva et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Calves reared with maternal contact have shown enhanced social skills, greater acceptance of novel feeds, and more resilient responses to social challenges later in life (Wagner et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Zipp and Knierim, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR80\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). However, whole-day dam contact is associated with practical and production-related drawbacks as it reduces the volume of saleable milk, complicates milk let-down, and increases calf milk intake (12\u0026ndash;15 L/d), which can suppress solid feed intake and delay rumen development (Bertelsen and Jensen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023b\u003c/span\u003e; Sorby et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, abrupt separation following full contact may intensify behavioral distress at weaning (Bertelsen and Jensen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023a\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePartial dam-contact systems, particularly half-day systems, have been proposed to facilitate gradual calf-cow separation by reducing milk intake and thereby preparing animals for weaning and permanent separation (Johnsen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Bertelsen and Jensen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023a\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003eb\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, part-time contact may address practical challenges, such as incomplete milk let-down in the parlor, thereby increasing the volume of saleable milk (Bertelsen and Jensen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023b\u003c/span\u003e). Recent evidence further supports these benefits, indicating that calves reared in half-day contact systems spend more time consuming solid feed, which may promote rumen development and ease the transition at separation (Bertelsen and Jensen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023a\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eRearing young calves outdoor facilities during winter months increases their energy demands due to cold stress, and insufficient nutrient supply under such conditions can impair growth, health, and welfare. Exposure to low temperatures is particularly challenging for young calves because their limited thermoregulatory capacity and minimal fat reserves hinder effective heat conservation. In dairy calves\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;8 weeks of age, the lower critical temperature is approximately 10\u0026deg;C, below which additional energy is required to maintain homeothermy. Under cold conditions, social and maternal factors may play a crucial role in mitigating stress. Calves housed in groups often huddle together for warmth, a behavior that becomes more frequent as ambient temperatures drop (Van Os et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Similarly, maternal presence may stimulate calf activity, encourage early feeding, and help reduce the risk of cold stress (Le Neindre, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e). Calves reared with maternal contact and/or social partners may also develop improved social skills and exhibit higher nutrient intake, either through increased liquid consumption or enhanced solid feed intake. These effects can contribute to better health and performance, particularly under sub-thermoneutral temperatures. It is possible that providing calves with both components of the natural social environment (group housing and maternal contact) could enhance their growth potential and overall welfare (Valnickova et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, the present study investigated the effects of partial daily dam contact and pair housing during the milk-feeding period on the health, growth performance, rumen development, and behavior of Holstein calves reared under cold season.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe study was conducted in the dairy research facility of Isfahan University of Technology (Lavark, Isfahan, Iran) from October 2022 to February 2023. All animal procedures were reviewed by the Animal Care and Use Committee of Isfahan University of Technology prior to the start of the study. All procedures complied with the guidelines of the Iranian Council of Animal Care (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e) and adhered to the ARRIVE guidelines for reporting \u003cem\u003ein vivo\u003c/em\u003e experiments.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eAnimals and treatments\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThirty newborn calves (19 males and 11 females; mean body weight\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;37.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.4 ) were enrolled at birth and assigned to 2 treatment groups. Fourteen calves (8 males and 6 females) received 5 h/d of dam contact and were subsequently pair-housed (DC-PH). The remaining 16 calves had no dam contact (NC), of which 8 were individually housed (NC-IH; 5 males and 3 females) and 8 were pair-housed (NC-PH; 4 pairs; 5 males and 3 females). To ensure age similarity within housing groups, two consecutively calved cows were assigned to the same treatment. For DC-PH calves, dam contact was maintained until day 60, at which point all calves were weaned. All calves remained on study until day 80. A visual representation of the experimental timeline and treatment groups is provided in Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eHousing and feeding\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll NC calves were separated from their dams within 30 min after birth and placed in individual straw-bedded boxes in an indoor calf barn. DC-PH calves remained with their dams in free-stall pens (4.7 \u0026times; 3.15 m). Regardless of treatment groups, all calves were initially housed in individual straw-bedded boxes in a naturally ventilated indoor barn until 3 d of age. Thereafter, calves were moved either individually or with a peer to outdoor pens (2.1 \u0026times; 2.2 m). Pens were bedded with sawdust, which was replaced daily. All calves were bottle-fed colostrum from their own dam for the first two feedings, with the volume adjusted according to the birth body weight. After the second bottle-feeding, DC-PH calves were allowed to suckle any remaining colostrum directly from their dam.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDuring the preweaning period, NC calves were fed milk twice daily in 2 equal meals (0800 and 1600 h). These calves received 4 L/d from day 4 to 14, 5 L/d from day 15 to 28, 6 L/d from day 29 to 42, 7 L/d from day 43 to 53, and 4 L/d from day 54 to 59. In contrast, DC-PH calves suckled freely from their dams during the daily contact period (0900\u0026ndash;1400 h). Outside this contact period, no supplemental milk was provided to DC-PH calves. Cows were milked 3 times daily (0800, 1600, and 2400 h). From d 3 onward, all calves had \u003cem\u003ead libitum\u003c/em\u003e access to water and starter feed. All calves were weaned at 60 d of age. For NC calves, milk allowance was reduced to one daily meal during the final 6 d before weaning. For DC-PH calves, contact time with the dam was gradually restricted during d 54\u0026ndash;59 (3 h/d on d 54\u0026ndash;55, 2 h/d on d 56\u0026ndash;57, and 1 h/d on d 58\u0026ndash;59). After weaning, calves remained in group housing until day 80. Each pen (5 m wide \u0026times; 8 m long) contained 10 calves and was fitted with a water trough (0.30 m wide \u0026times; 1.50 m long \u0026times; 0.35 m high) and a feed bunk (0.40 m wide \u0026times; 4.0 m long \u0026times; 0.45 m high) to allow \u003cem\u003ead libitum\u003c/em\u003e access to water and solid feed.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eMeasurements and sampling\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDaily air temperature in the calf-rearing facility was monitored using a thermometer and verified with the regional meteorological system. Calves were clinically assessed 3 times/week from d 4 to 80 through a standardized health scoring system (Renaud et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) that rated respiratory signs, fecal consistency, rectal temperature, and navel inflammation on a 4-point scale. Farm staff maintained a daily logbook documenting all observed health problems, as well as any antibiotic or other medical treatments administered to cows and calves throughout the study. Clinical health evaluations of calves aged 1\u0026ndash;11 weeks were used to calculate a total health score (THS), which reflected both disease duration and severity (van Dixhoorn et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Calves with lower THS were considered healthier, whereas those with higher THS experienced more frequent or prolonged illness. For disease classification, Calves were classified as having clinical symptoms of common calf diseases: respiratory disease (assigned \u0026ldquo;yes\u0026rdquo; if the composite respiratory score\u0026thinsp;\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;4, calculated from ocular discharge, nasal discharge, and cough score), neonatal diarrhea (assigned \u0026ldquo;yes\u0026rdquo; if fecal score\u0026thinsp;\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;2 within the first 4 weeks of life, indicating either infectious diarrhea or feeding-related loose/liquid feces), navel inflammation (assigned \u0026ldquo;yes\u0026rdquo; if navel score\u0026thinsp;\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;2), and fever (assigned \u0026ldquo;yes\u0026rdquo; if rectal temperature score\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3). All clinically detected health problem scores recorded between weeks 1 and 11 were summed into a total health score (THS) for each calf. Calves with a low THS, reflecting few and short-lived clinical symptoms, were considered in good health, whereas calves with a high THS experienced more frequent or prolonged health problems during the first 11 weeks of life.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe determination of feed intake involved daily weighing of the starter feed offered and refused, with the resulting values recorded at weekly intervals. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e reported ingredients and chemical compositions of the starter diet fed to calves. During the experimental period, feed samples were collected daily, pooled weekly, and analyzed for nutrient composition. Dry matter content was determined by drying samples at 65\u0026deg;C for 48 h in a forced-air oven, after which they were ground for chemical analysis. Crude protein, crude ash, and ether extract were analyzed according to AOAC (2002), and ADF and NDF were determined following the methods described by Van Soest et al. (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003e). For calves with dam contact, milk intake was estimated by measuring body weight immediately before and after the daily contact period with the dam (Margerison et al, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIngredients and chemical compositions of the starter diet fed to calves.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66.6667%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIngredient (% of DM)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33.3333%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eValue\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66.6667%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBarley grain\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33.3333%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66.6667%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCorn grain\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33.3333%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e47.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66.6667%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSoybean meal (45% CP)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33.3333%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66.6667%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWheat straw\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33.3333%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66.6667%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDicalcium phosphate\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33.3333%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66.6667%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSodium bicarbonate\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33.3333%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66.6667%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSalt\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33.3333%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66.6667%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCalcium carbonate\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33.3333%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66.6667%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVitamin premix\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33.3333%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66.6667%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChemical composition (% of DM)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33.3333%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.6667%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDM, % of as fed\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 33.3333%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e92.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.6667%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCP\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 33.3333%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.6667%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEther extract\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 33.3333%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.47\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.6667%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNDF\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 33.3333%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.6667%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAsh\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 33.3333%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.6667%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eME\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e (Mcal/kg of DM)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 33.3333%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003eContained per kg of supplement, 1,200,000 IU vitamin A, 250,000 IU vitamin D, 10,000 IU vitamin E, 8.5 g Mn, 320 g Ca, 11.5 g Zn, 5 g Mg, 105 mg Co, 3.7 g Cu, 190 mg I, and 105 mg Se.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003eCalculated according to NRC (2001).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCalves were weighed at birth and on d 30, 60, and 80 using a calibrated scale (model EES-500; Etihad Co., Isfahan, Iran). Skeletal growth was assessed at birth and on d 35 and 70 following the methods described by Khan et al. (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). Measurements included body length (distance between the points of shoulder and rump), heart girth (chest circumference), hip width (distance between hook bones), withers height (front feet base to withers), body barrel (belly circumference before feeding), chest width (distance between front feet), and hip height (rear feet base to hook bones). Average daily gain was calculated at the individual level as the difference in BW between successive measurement periods (pre- and postweaning), divided by the number of days in each interval. Feed efficiency was calculated as the ratio of average daily gain (ADG; kg) to total DMI (kg).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBlood samples (5 mL) were collected from the jugular vein at d 54 (preweaning) and d 61 (postweaning) using vacutainer tubes without anticoagulant. Samples were centrifuged at 2,000 rpm for 20 min, and serum was stored at \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;20\u0026deg;C until analysis. Serum was analyzed for glucose (Delta Darman Part; Tehran, Iran), \u003cem\u003e\u0026beta;\u003c/em\u003e-hydroxybutyrate (\u0026beta;HBA; Randox Laboratories Ltd., Crumlin, UK), and cortisol concentrations (Monobind Inc., Lake Forest, California, USA).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo assess protozoal populations, rumen fluid (20 mL) was collected via an esophageal tube 3 h after the morning meal on d 35 and 60. Samples were strained through cheesecloth and fixed in aldehyde solution by mixing equal volumes (10 mL each) of rumen fluid and 10% formalin. Protozoa were enumerated using a special slide under light microscopy at 40\u0026times; magnification, and results were expressed as concentration (number/mL rumen fluid; Dehority, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo determine apparent total-tract digestibility, fecal grab samples were collected from each calf twice daily for 3 consecutive days (d 78\u0026ndash;80). Samples were frozen at \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;20\u0026deg;C until analysis, then dried in a forced-air oven at 60\u0026deg;C for 72 h. Acid-insoluble ash served as the internal marker for nutrient digestibility determination according to the method described by Van Keulen and Young (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1977\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBehavioral data were collected through direct observation of all calves, using definitions adapted presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e (Ahmadi et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Abdelfattah et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Observations were conducted once weekly for 8-h period by 4 trained observers who were blinded to the treatments. To validate observer accuracy, calf behavior was additionally recorded via smartphone for several hours and cross-checked against the observational data. Behaviors were sampled at 1-min intervals, with the assumption that each activity persisted throughout the subsequent 1-min interval (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDescription of the recorded behavioral activities*.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBehaviour\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDefinition\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLying\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLying on sternum with the head either raised or placed down.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStanding\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUpright posture with all four feet on the ground, either inactive or active.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEating\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eConsumption of starter feed from the bunk or milk, including when the head is positioned inside the bunk.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRuminating\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIrregular, repetitive chewing without discernible food in the mouth, occurring either lying or standing.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSelf-grooming\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMovements with tongue over own body surface or scratching with a leg.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNon-nutritional behavior\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBiting, sucking or licking any pen structures, except for feed; consuming bedding materials, and calf rolling its tongue outside the mouth.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eContact\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLicking, sniffing, or gently biting another calf.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWalking\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMoving at least two legs to change body position in a forward, backward or sideways motion.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVocalizations\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAll types of vocalizations.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSolitary play\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLocomotor activity such as leaping, jumping, bucking, or turning.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003ctfoot\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\"\u003e*Ahmadi et al. (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) and Abdelfattah et al. (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tfoot\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eStatistical analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBefore the data analysis, all data were checked for normality by using the UNIVARIATE procedure of SAS. Non-nutritive oral behavior data were not normally distributed and were logarithmically transformed before analysis. All statistical analyzes were performed using SAS (SAS 9.4, SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC). Daily starter feed intake data were averaged by week before analysis. All performance, health, metabolic, ruminal, and behavioral data were analyzed as repeated measures, with measurement time considered the repeated factor, using the following model:\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eY\u003csub\u003eijk\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026micro;\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;T\u003csub\u003ei\u003c/sub\u003e + M\u003csub\u003ej\u003c/sub\u003e + (T \u0026times; M)\u003csub\u003eij\u003c/sub\u003e + \u0026beta;(X\u003csub\u003ek\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026minus;X)\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;R\u003csub\u003ek\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;\u0026epsilon;\u003csub\u003eijk\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ewhere, Y\u003csub\u003eijk\u003c/sub\u003e = the dependent variable, \u0026micro;\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;the overall mean, T\u003csub\u003ei\u003c/sub\u003e = the fixed effect of treatment group, M\u003csub\u003ej\u003c/sub\u003e = the fixed effect of measurement time, (T \u0026times; M)\u003csub\u003eij\u003c/sub\u003e = the interaction between treatment and time, \u0026beta;(X\u003csub\u003ek\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026minus;X) is the covariate variable (initial BW and structural growth variables), R\u003csub\u003ek\u003c/sub\u003e = the random effect of calf, and \u0026epsilon;\u003csub\u003eijk\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;the error term.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLeast squares means were computed and compared using Tukey\u0026rsquo;s test, with statistical significance declared at \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;0.05 and tendencies at 0.05\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.10. Data for THS and nutrient digestibility were analyzed using a similar statistical model, excluding the time effect. Because of low prevalence in some treatment groups, the proportions of calves classified with clinical symptoms of specific health conditions and those treated with antibiotics were analyzed using Fisher\u0026rsquo;s exact test for pairwise comparisons.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eEnvironmental conditions\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDaily air temperature profile in the calf rearing facility is presented in Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e; mean maximum, average, and minimum values during the trial were 12.7, 6.2, and \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.3\u0026deg;C, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eHealth of calves and antibiotic use\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEffect of dam contact and companions on THS is reported in Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e. About 90% of clinical symptoms were observed during the first 7 wk, whereas calves remained in relatively good health during the final 4 wk of the study. DC calves had a greater mean total health score (THS; 4.14\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.81) than NC calves (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.004). Within the NC group, NC-IH calves had higher THS (3.63\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.07) compared with NC-PH calves (1.13\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.07; \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.005). THS values ranged from 0\u0026ndash;12 in DC-PH calves, 0\u0026ndash;8 in NC-PH calves, and 0\u0026ndash;10 in NC-IH calves (Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). During the first 7 wk, 37% of calves required antibiotic treatment. The prevalence of antibiotic use tended to be higher in DC than NC calves (6 out of 14 calves versus 5 out of 16 calves; \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.02), with no difference between NC-IH and NC-PH calves. Three calves died of severe pneumonia during the trial: 2 from the DC-PH group and 1 from the NC-IH group.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEffect of dam contact and companion on total health score (THS; mean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SE).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth rowspan=\"3\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eItem\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth colspan=\"3\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTreatment groups*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth colspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e-value\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth colspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo dam contact (NC)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDam contact (DC)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth colspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTreatment\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNC-IH\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;8)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNC-PH\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;8)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDC-PH\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;14)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNC-IH vs. NC-PH\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNC vs. DC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTHS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.63\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.13\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.14\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.81\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.005\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.004\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e*NC-IH\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;no dam contact, individually housed; NC-PH\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;no dam contact, pair-housed; DC-PH\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;dam contact (5 h/d), pair-housed.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003ePerformance outcomes\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEffects of dam contact and social housing on calf performance are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e. At 30 and 60 d, no differences were observed among treatments for body weight or ADG. Body weight (d 80) and ADG (d 0\u0026ndash;80) were greater in DC vs. NC calves (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.03 and \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.02, respectively), with no difference between NC-IH and NC-PH calves. Only during d 0\u0026ndash;30, DC calves had lower solid feed intake than NC calves (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.01). Pre-weaning average daily weight gain and feed efficiency (pre- and post-weaning) did not differ across treatment groups. No treatment \u0026times; time interaction was observed for either solid feed intake or feed efficiency (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.10). As expected, milk intake was significantly higher in DC vs. NC calves.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEffect of dam contact and companion on calf performance.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth rowspan=\"3\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eItems\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth colspan=\"4\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTreatment groups*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth rowspan=\"3\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSEM\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth colspan=\"4\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e-values\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo dam contact (NC)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDam contact (DC)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTreatment\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTime\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTime \u0026times; treatment\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNC-IH\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;8)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNC-PH\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;8)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDC-PH\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;14)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNC-IH vs.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNC-PH\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNC vs.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"10\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBody weight, kg\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBirth (d 0)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e37.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e37.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e37.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.66\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.98\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.68\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ed 30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e45.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e46.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e47.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.77\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.76\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ed 60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e63.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e65.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e66.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.48\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.58\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ed 80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e81.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e83.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e92.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.73\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"10\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eADG, kg\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ed 0\u0026ndash;30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.278\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.314\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.327\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.57\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.61\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ed 30\u0026ndash;60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.596\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.628\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.638\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.29\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.41\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ed 60\u0026ndash;80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.892\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.898\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.332\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.79\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ed 0\u0026ndash;80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.551\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.578\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.695\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.67\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"10\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMilk intake, kg DM/d\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ed 0\u0026ndash;30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.616\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.616\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.775\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ed 30\u0026ndash;60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.759\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.759\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.073\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"10\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSolid feed intake, kg DM/d\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ed 0\u0026ndash;30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.078\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.063\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.045\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.29\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.78\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ed 30\u0026ndash;60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.407\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.456\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.383\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.58\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.36\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"10\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal intake, kg DM/d\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ed 0\u0026ndash;30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.694\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.679\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.820\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.29\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ed 30\u0026ndash;60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.166\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.215\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.460\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.58\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.002\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"10\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFeed efficiency\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ed 0\u0026ndash;30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.405\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.457\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.413\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.49\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.81\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.94\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ed 30\u0026ndash;60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.491\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.529\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.445\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.66\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"10\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e*NC-IH\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;no dam contact, individually housed; NC-PH\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;no dam contact, pair-housed; DC-PH\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;dam contact (5 h/d), pair-housed.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e Calculated as kg weight gain/kg total D\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEffects of dam contact and social housing on skeletal growth measures are presented in Table 5. Hip width, body barrel, and hip height were not different across treatment groups. However, DC calves had greater body length and withers height at day 80 compared with NC calves (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.03 and \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.02, respectively). Heart girth also tended to be greater in DC calves (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.06). Also, a treatment \u0026times; time interaction effect was observed for body length and withers height at d 80 and heart girth at d 60 (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;0.02; Table\u0026nbsp;5).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 5.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eEffect of dam contact and social companion on calf skeletal measures.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003ctable width=\"92%\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eItems\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"3\" style=\"width: 36%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTreatment groups*\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" style=\"width: 5%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSEM\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"4\" style=\"width: 43%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e-value\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 18%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo dam contact (NC)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDam contact (DC)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 21%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTreatment\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTime\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTime \u0026times; treatment\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNC-IH\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(n = 8)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNC-PH\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(n = 8)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDC-PH\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(n = 14)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNC-IH vs.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNC-PH\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNC vs.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"9\" style=\"width: 100%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBody length, cm\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBirth (d 0)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e53.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e53.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e56.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.55\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.59\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.003\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ed 60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e64.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e63.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e65.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.70\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.42\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.58\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ed 80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e69.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e69.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e72.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.70\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.99\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"9\" style=\"width: 100%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHip width, cm\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBirth (d 0)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.55\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.76\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.99\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ed 60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ed 80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.55\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"9\" style=\"width: 100%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHip height, cm\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBirth\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e76.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e76.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e78.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.55\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.79\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.56\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ed 60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e86.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e86.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e86.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.71\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.78\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.79\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ed 80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e91.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e90.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e91.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.71\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.77\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.70\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"9\" style=\"width: 100%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWithers height, cm\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBirth (d 0)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e49.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e49.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e49.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.56\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.99\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.61\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ed 60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e54.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e55.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e54.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.64\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.63\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.89\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ed 80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e59.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e59.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e62.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.65\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.87\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"9\" style=\"width: 100%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBody barrel, cm\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBirth (d 0)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e79.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e78.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e81.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.55\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.48\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.65\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ed 60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e99.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e101.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e99.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.85\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.98\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ed 80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e111.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e113.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e113.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.72\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.78\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"9\" style=\"width: 100%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHeart girth, cm\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBirth (d 0)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e76.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e75.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e77.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.55\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.38\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ed 60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e95.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e95.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e91.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.95\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.63\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ed 80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e101.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e103.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e102.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.94\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.62\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.81\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"9\" style=\"width: 100%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChest width, cm\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBirth (d 0)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.62\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.63\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.43\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.55\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.99\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ed 60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.41\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.42\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ed 80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 5%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.71\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e*NC-IH = no dam contact, individually housed; NC-PH = no dam contact, pair-housed; DC-PH = dam contact (5 h/d), pair-housed.\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eBlood metabolites\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEffects of dam contact and social housing on selected blood metabolites are presented in Table 6. Before weaning, DC calves had higher glucose concentrations and lower cortisol concentrations compared with NC calves. \u003cem\u003e\u0026beta;\u003c/em\u003eHBA concentration was lower before weaning but higher after weaning in DC vs. NC calves. No differences in blood glucose, \u003cem\u003e\u0026beta;\u003c/em\u003eHBA, and cortisol were observed between NC-IH and NC-PH calves. Also, a significant interaction between treatment and time was observed for cortisol and \u003cem\u003e\u0026beta;\u003c/em\u003eHBA concentrations (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;0.05).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 6.\u003c/strong\u003e Effect of dam contact and social companion on selected blood metabolites.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003ctable width=\"98%\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" style=\"width: 18%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eItems\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"4\" style=\"width: 33%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTreatment groups*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" style=\"width: 6%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSEM\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"4\" style=\"width: 41%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e-value\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 17%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo dam contact (NC)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 2%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDam contact (DC)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 19%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTreatment\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTime\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTime \u0026times; treatment\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNC-IH\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(n = 8)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNC-PH\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;(n = 8)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 2%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDC-PH\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(n = 14)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNC-IH vs. NC-PH\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNC vs.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"10\" style=\"width: 100%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGlucose, mg/dL\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePreweaning, d 54\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e139.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e137.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 2%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e148.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.32\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.66\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.66\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePostweaning, d 61\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e103.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e99.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 2%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e107.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.32\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.32\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"10\" style=\"width: 100%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026beta;HBA, mmol/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePreweaning, d 54\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.090\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.093\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 2%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.058\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.85\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.005\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePostweaning, d 61\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.111\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.134\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 2%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.165\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"10\" style=\"width: 100%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCortisol, \u0026micro;g/dL\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePreweaning, d 54\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 2%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.73\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.74\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePostweaning, d 61\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 2%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 6%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.61\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"10\" style=\"width: 100%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e*NC-IH = no dam contact, individually housed; NC-PH = no dam contact, pair-housed; DC-PH = dam contact (5 h/d), pair-housed\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eRumen protozoa\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEffects of dam contact and social housing on protozoa counts in calf rumen are presented in Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e. Rumen protozoa numbers increased with age in all groups, but calves with dam contact (DC) consistently had higher counts than those without dam contact (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). On day 35, protozoa abundance was not different between NC-IH and NC-PH calves. However, on day 70, protozoa counts were greater in NC-PH calves compared with NC-IH (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.03).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 7.\u003c/strong\u003e Effect of dam contact and social companion on the number of protozoa in calf rumen.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003ctable width=\"90%\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr style=\"height: 35px;\"\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"height: 35px; width: 36%;\" colspan=\"4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTreatment groups*\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"height: 153px; width: 7%;\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSEM\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"height: 35px; width: 44%;\" colspan=\"4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e-value\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr style=\"height: 59px;\"\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"height: 59px; width: 18%;\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNo dam contact (NC)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"height: 59px; width: 2%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"height: 59px; width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDam contact (DC)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"height: 59px; width: 20%;\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTreatment\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"height: 118px; width: 7%;\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTime\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"height: 118px; width: 16%;\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTime \u0026times; treatment\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr style=\"height: 59px;\"\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"height: 59px; width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNC-IH\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(n = 8)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"height: 59px; width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNC-PH\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;(n = 8)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"height: 59px; width: 2%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"height: 59px; width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDC-PH\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(n = 14)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"height: 59px; width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNC-IH vs.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;NC-PH\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"height: 59px; width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNC vs.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr style=\"height: 37px;\"\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"height: 37px; width: 100%;\" colspan=\"9\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eProtozoa numbers (\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e/mL)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr style=\"height: 35.7781px;\"\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"height: 35.7781px; width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1.67\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"height: 35.7781px; width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.76\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"height: 35.7781px; width: 2%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"height: 35.7781px; width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.44\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"height: 35.7781px; width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"height: 35.7781px; width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.65\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"height: 35.7781px; width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"height: 35.7781px; width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"height: 35.7781px; width: 16%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr style=\"height: 35px;\"\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"height: 35px; width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.34\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"height: 35px; width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.93\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"height: 35px; width: 2%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"height: 35px; width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"height: 35px; width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"height: 35px; width: 9%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"height: 35px; width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"height: 35px; width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"height: 35px; width: 16%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr style=\"height: 35px;\"\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"height: 35px; width: 100%;\" colspan=\"9\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e*NC-IH = no dam contact, individually housed; NC-PH = no dam contact, pair-housed; DC-PH = dam contact (5 h/d), pair-housed.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eNutrient digestibility\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEffects of dam contact and social housing on DM and NDF digestibility are shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e. DC calves had greater digestibility of NDF (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.02) and DM (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.04) compared with NC calves. Within NC calves, NC-PH calves had higher DM digestibility than NC-IH calves (81.4 vs. 87.7%; \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.03), whereas no difference was observed for NDF digestibility (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.13).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003eTable 8. Effect of dam contact and social companion on nutrient digestibility in calves.\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tabb\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth rowspan=\"3\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDigestibility (%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth colspan=\"4\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTreatment groups*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth rowspan=\"3\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSEM\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth colspan=\"2\" rowspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e-value\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth colspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo dam contact (NC)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDam contact (DC)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNC-IH\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;8)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNC-PH\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;8)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDC-PH\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;14)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNC-IH vs.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNC-PH\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNC vs. DC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDM\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e81.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e87.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e88.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.40\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNDF\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e46.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e60.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e68.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"8\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e*NC-IH\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;no dam contact, individually housed; NC-PH\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;no dam contact, pair-housed; DC-PH\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;dam contact (5 h/d), pair-housed.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eGeneral activity patterns\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEffects of dam contact and social housing on calf behaviors are presented in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e. A significant treatment \u0026times; time interaction was observed for general activity patterns (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). During the preweaning period, DC calves spent more time standing compared with NC calves, whereas after weaning this trend reversed, with NC calves increasing standing time and DC calves decreasing it. Similarly, DC calves slept less than NC calves before weaning but showed the greatest proportion of resting time after weaning (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). No differences were detected between NC-IH and NC-PH calves. Play behaviors (leaping and jumping) were more frequent in DC-PH calves during the milk-feeding period but decreased after weaning, when NC calves (particularly NC-IH calves) exhibited greater play activity (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). Time spent eating solid feed did not differ between treatments until wk 7. At wk 8, eating time increased in NC calves, whereas after weaning (wk 9\u0026ndash;11) it was greater in DC calves (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). Within the NC group, no differences were observed before weaning, but after weaning, NC-PH calves spent more time eating than NC-IH calves (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSocial behaviors were also affected by treatment groups. DC calves consistently spent more time in social contact and walking than NC calves (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). Self-grooming was initially greater in DC calves during the first 2 wk but declined thereafter, while NC calves showed increasing self-grooming until wk 8, after which it decreased but remained higher than in DC calves. Within the NC group, self-grooming was longer in NC-PH than in NC-IH calves before weaning but shorter after weaning. Non-nutritive oral behaviors (e.g., licking and cross-sucking) were lowest in DC calves and highest in NC calves across the 11-wk period (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). Before weaning, these behaviors were greater in NC-PH calves than in NC-IH calves (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.01), but no differences were observed postweaning. Vocalizations were least frequent in DC calves until wk 8. During wk 9 (first week after weaning), vocalizations increased sharply in all groups, with no treatment differences (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.10). Thereafter, vocalizations declined again and were lowest in DC-PH calves (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). DC calves ruminated longer than NC calves up to wk 6, with no differences at wk 7\u0026ndash;9. After weaning, rumination was again greater in DC calves compared with NC calves. NC-PH calves spent more time rumination than NC-IH calves (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eHealth status\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eDuring winter, calves are particularly vulnerable to cold stress and temperature fluctuations, compounded by wind and humidity. This susceptibility is linked to poor body insulation (low subcutaneous fat and thin skin), a relatively high surface area-to-body mass ratio, immature regulation of skin vasculature, and heat loss via evaporation from the wet body surface at birth. As a result, the mechanisms required to maintain thermal balance in response to environmental temperature variation are not yet fully developed (Holt, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). The minimum critical temperature is estimated at approximately 15\u0026deg;C for calves under 3 wk of age (Arieli et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e( and 5\u0026deg;C for older calves (Drackley, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). Below these thresholds, calves expend additional energy to maintain homeothermy, which can compromise growth, immunity, and the productivity if not compensated by increased nutrient intake (Holt, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Van Os et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Housing conditions, particularly barn climate, bedding quality, and hygiene, further influence calf vulnerability to disease (Gulliksen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Wenker et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the present study, two common calf disorders: diarrhea and respiratory disease (Mee, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e) contributed to the increased THS observed in DC calves. The risk of respiratory disorders in young calves is elevated under suboptimal barn conditions, including inappropriate temperature, humidity, air movement (drafts), air quality, and especially wet bedding (Curtis et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). The higher prevalence of ocular and nasal discharge, together with a greater tendency for antibiotic use in DC calves compared with NC calves during the first 7 weeks of life, likely reflected an increased incidence of respiratory disease. In contrast, inadequate hygiene, housing, and feeding practices are considered the primary management-related contributors to diarrhea (Klein-Jobstl et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Elevated THS was largely attributed to diarrhea, potentially linked to excessive milk intake that predisposes calves to digestive upset (Roth et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Group housing conditions may have further increased exposure to enteric pathogens via contact with manure-contaminated floors in the DC pen (Roland et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Our findings are in agreement with previous reports identifying a heightened incidence of diarrhea in calves reared with dam contact (Roth et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Wenker et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Sinnott et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). However, other research on prolonged full CCC has shown no significant effect or even beneficial effects on calf health status (Johnsen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Roth et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese inconsistencies may reflect differences in study design and methodology, as many of these studies did not assess calf health as a primary outcome, were conducted in facilities with differing barn designs, and often relied on relatively small sample sizes. Farmers who transitioned from conventional rearing to full CCC systems generally reported benefits for both calf and cow (Neave et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Vaarst et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), though they also noted the need for additional infrastructure to support these systems (Neave et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Consequently, optimizing housing systems and management practices is essential for maintaining calf health in CCC systems throughout the transition and beyond.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eGrowth and intake\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eExposure to cold stress increases calf energy requirements for thermoregulation, thereby elevating maintenance costs and reducing energy available for growth if not compensated by increased nutrient intake (Holt, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Van Os et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Holt (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) reported that winter-born calves consumed more starter feed but achieved similar weight gains, indicating that dietary energy was diverted toward heat production rather than tissue accretion. This explanation is consistent with the high susceptibility of calves to cold stress, driven by their large surface area-to-mass ratio and limited ruminal fermentation capacity, which constrains endogenous heat generation (Van Os et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). In this experiment, preweaning feed intake (except during d 0\u0026ndash;30) and growth performance did not differ among treatment groups. This likely reflects the diversion of dietary energy toward heat production.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHowever, calves with dam contact consumed less starter feed during the first month of life (d 0\u0026ndash;30), most likely because their greater milk intake through suckling met their nutrient requirements and reduced the motivation to consume solid feed. Previous research has shown that calves fed large quantities of milk generally consume less solid feed preweaning (Jasper and Weary, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; Sorby et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) and that full dam contact calves typically ingest less starter than limit-fed artificially reared calves (Fr\u0026ouml;berg et al., 2011; de Passill\u0026eacute; \u0026amp; Rushen, 2016). A review by Khan et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e) also concluded that higher milk allowances decreased pre-weaning solid feed intake likely because of inducing satiety through both metabolic feedback (increased circulating glucose and insulin level) and physical gut fill from abomasal curd, thereby reducing the calf motivation to consume solid feed. From d 30\u0026ndash;60, starter feed intake of DC calves was not different from NC calves, despite the higher milk intake in DC calves. This may suggest that as calves mature, factors such as increased rumen capacity and the developmental changes in feeding motivation may affect the satiety-related suppression of solid feed intake observed earlier in the preweaning period. Supporting this interpretation, Diaz et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e) reported bedding consumption in milk-fed calves deprived of starter feed, an indication of behavioral evidence of an intrinsic and progressively stronger drive to seek solid feed as calves age.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMost studies on calves reared in CCC systems report a growth advantage compared with non-contact calves, although some studies have found reduced or no effects (e.g., increased growth: Valnickova et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; decreased growth: Bertelsen and Jensen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023b\u003c/span\u003e). Consistent with the present study, Froberg et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e) found no difference in weight gain between treatments, although they reported greater variability within the suckling group. However, we observed increased growth in DC calves after weaning (day 80). This finding aligns with Meagher et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), who reported that growth benefits of dam contact persisted for several months post-weaning, but contrasts with Wenker et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), who observed no postweaning differences in body weight across separation strategies. One possible explanation is that social facilitation and social learning promote earlier and greater solid feed intake in group-housed calves (Valnickova et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). The postweaning growth advantage observed in DC calves may reflect enhanced social skills, improved resilience to the stress of weaning, and facilitated feed intake through social interactions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eBlood metabolites\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn neonatal calves, circulating glucose concentrations are high and comparable to those of monogastrics, as energy supply is derived primarily from intestinal absorption of lactose before the rumen is functional (Lohakare et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). With advancing age, glucose concentrations decline as energy metabolism shifts toward volatile fatty acids produced via ruminal fermentation (Baldwin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). In our study, the higher preweaning glucose concentrations observed in DC calves likely reflected their greater milk consumption and reduced ruminal development relative to NC calves, consistent with findings that lactose digestion provides the major energy source during this stage (Hammon et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; Baldwin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSerum \u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003eHBA is widely considered a biomarker of rumen development, as its concentration rises with increasing intake of starter feed and enhanced ruminal fermentation (Quigley et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003e). In our study, postweaning βHBA concentrations were greater in DC calves, coinciding with increased solid feed intake and higher DM and NDF digestibility. This may suggest a more advanced rumen development compared with NC calves.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePerez et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) demonstrated that separating calves from their mothers stimulates stress responses in both, including vocal behavior, greater locomotor activity, fence-line seeking, reduced body weight, and higher cortisol concentrations. Cortisol, in particular, is widely recognized as a reliable indicator of stress and welfare status (Perez et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Before weaning, DC calves had lower cortisol concentrations than NC calves, suggesting reduced stress and potentially improved welfare under dam contact conditions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eRumen protozoa\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe dam has long been hypothesized to serve as the primary source of microbial inoculation for the calf rumen (Becker and Hsiung, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1929\u003c/span\u003e). Beyond providing nutritional support, maternal contact may therefore be essential for the early establishment of a diverse ruminal microbiota. In artificially reared calves, separation from the dam and reliance on milk replacer are thought to limit microbial exposure, particularly hindering the development of ciliate protozoa (Newbold et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Reports on the timing of protozoal colonization, however, remain inconsistent. For example, Naga et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1968\u003c/span\u003e) observed an earlier appearance of ciliate protozoa in buffalo and cow calves subjected to early weaning, suggesting that reduced milk intake can stimulate solid feed consumption and accelerate rumen development. Indeed, increased starter intake is recognized as a key driver of microbial proliferation in the developing rumen (Warner, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1961\u003c/span\u003e; Valehi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). In the present study, solid feed intake (d 30\u0026ndash;60) did not differ among treatment groups; nevertheless, protozoal counts were consistently greater in DC calves than in NC calves. This indicates that dam contact itself, rather than nutrient intake, was the main contributor to enhanced protozoal colonization. Direct microbial transfer from the dam via saliva, skin, or fecal contact, likely facilitated the establishment of protozoa in DC calves and may help explain the superior nutrient digestibility observed in this group.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eNutrient digestibility\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003ePrevious studies have suggested that greater milk allowance before weaning may reduce starter intake and delay rumen development, thereby impairing postweaning nutrient digestibility (Hill et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). However, when calves are weaned at approximately 50 to 56 d of age, starter intake and rumen adaptation are sufficient to support a smooth transition to solid feed, regardless of preweaning milk level (Bach et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Hu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Valehi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). In our study, calves were weaned at 60 d, which likely provided adequate time for rumen maturation in DC calves despite their greater milk consumption, explaining the improved DM and NDF digestibility observed in these calves.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eProtozoa play an important role in ruminal fiber digestion, contributing an estimated 25\u0026ndash;30% of total fiber degradation, particularly of hemicellulose (Costa et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). The higher protozoal counts observed in DC calves therefore provide a plausible biological explanation for the enhanced digestibility of NDF in this group. Overall, these findings suggest that dam contact not only influenced microbial colonization but also improved digestive efficiency through its effects on protozoal populations.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eBehavior development\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eProlonged CCC has been shown to influence both physical and behavioral development (Wenker et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). In the present study, calves with half-day dam contact displayed greater levels of standing, play, walking, and social interaction with peers before weaning compared with NC calves. After weaning and integration, DC calves spent more time resting, eating, and ruminating, consistent with the advantages of CCC in reducing aggression and being more adaptable to the environment. Similar patterns have been reported in heifers reared with full CCC, which tended to be more submissive than heifers reared without CCC (Wagner et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e and Zipp and Knierim, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR79\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). These outcomes suggest smoother adjustment to group housing, supported by observations of shorter lying latencies, longer feeding duration, and more frequent lying bouts in CCC-reared animals (Wagner et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Also, as dairy calves are highly motivated for early-life social contact (Ede et al., 2021), these behavioral advantages highlight CCC as an important welfare factor.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe longer standing periods observed in DC-PH calves could signal a motivation to interact with their dams. This interpretation is supported by research showing that young animals are less inclined to explore peers or novel contexts without maternal presence (Cantor et al, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). On the other hand, a wider and more active range of social behaviors during conspecific interactions (such as head butting, sniffing, tail wagging, rubbing, and play) has been observed in calves reared with CCC relative to those reared without CCC (Buchli et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Wagner et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). This is consistent with the results of our study as DC-PH calves expressed a wider range of social behaviors than NC calves both prior to weaning and after integration.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFull CCC has been shown to reduce abnormal behaviors in calves. In addition to a decrease in tongue rolling (Froberg and Lidfors., 2009; Bieber et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), studies have reported rare occurrences of cross-sucking and non-nutritive sucking in full CCC systems (Veissier et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Roth et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e), although some studies found no differences (Bertelsen and Jensen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023b\u003c/span\u003e). Natural suckling most likely accounts for these effects by supporting higher milk consumption (~\u0026thinsp;9 L/d during 9 wk of part-time contact [De Passill\u0026eacute; et al., 2008] and ~\u0026thinsp;15 L/d during 13 wk of full contact [Roth et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e]), meeting the calf\u0026rsquo;s need to suckle, and allowing more frequent milk meals (Beaver et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). By contrast, common artificial feeding practices often rely on buckets or teat buckets that deliver milk at high flow rates, offering calves little opportunity to satisfy their suckling motivation and resulting in limited or absent oral stimulation (De Passill\u0026eacute;, 2001). These results are consistent with the present study, because in our study, the incidence of non-nutritive behavior such as cross-sucking of other calves or sucking of fences and objects was lower in DC calves than in NC calves throughout the entire experimental period.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePlay is widely recognized as beneficial for animal welfare; however, restricted social environments during early development may constrain both the opportunity and the motivation to engage in play (Valnickova et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Increased space allowance promotes play behavior by minimizing environmental restrictions and enhancing opportunities for play. In the present experiment, NC calves showed more solitary play during the integration period (after weaning) compared to other treatment groups, and the amount of walking and movement in them increased more intensively. This increase in solitary play may reflect an activity rebound in response to the larger space allowance of the test arena compared with the confined home pen (Valnickova et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). These findings agree with those of Wenker et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) and Wagner et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e), who reported that calves reared without CCC engaged in more solitary play during post-integration tests compared with calves reared with full CCC. Calves with full CCC often perform locomotor play in the alleys of the cow barn (Wagner et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Waiblinger et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR75\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), which may reduce their motivation for locomotor play in the test arena relative to calves that experienced more restricted housing conditions (Wagner et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, improved welfare associated with maternal contact, potentially mediated by hormonal systems, may foster a stronger motivation for social play and interaction with conspecifics, thereby contributing to the reduction in solitary play observed after integration.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCalves frequently engage in self-grooming, which contributes to hygiene maintenance (Kohari et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). The sensitivity of this behavior to physiological and environmental influences suggests a possible connection to calf comfort and welfare. A reduction in self-grooming has been reported following experimental disease challenges designed to induce sickness behavior (Hixson et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Self-grooming is a behavior that is associated with the comfort, welfare, health and maintaining the hygiene of an animal (Kohari et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Hixson et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Social grooming in semi-wild herds occurs predominantly between dam and calf (Reinhardt et al., 1981). Bertelsen and Jensen (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023a\u003c/span\u003e) also stated that compared with artificial rearing, where calves have either no or very limited social contact (individual housing), or only calf contact (pair or group housing) during the milk feeding period, half-day contact still provides opportunity for suckling and maternal grooming. Therefore, the reduced occurrence of self-grooming in DC-PH calves may result from maternal behavior displayed by cows, which involves licking, nursing, staying close to the calf, and protecting it from threats (von Keyserlingk and Weary, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, maternal licking can reduce the need for calves to groom themselves. Once calves were weaned and integrated, self-grooming diminished in both groups but still was greater in NC calves. This pattern may reflect a shift toward social grooming, which agrees with contact behaviors and is thought to support the development of social bonds, as calves spend more time grooming familiar companions than unfamiliar ones (F\u0026aelig;revik et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe higher vocalization observed in DC calves at weaning compared to NC calves may reflect their motivation to reunite with the cow and obtain milk, rather than solely the need for milk (Enriquez et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Loberg et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). Stressful challenges to animal welfare, such as weaning, commonly elicit distress behaviors including increased activity and high-pitched vocalizations (Nicolao et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Johnsen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). The development of these distress behaviors can be interpreted as adaptive responses aimed at signaling a need for resources (Weary et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). Because DC calves simultaneously endured maternal separation and milk withdrawal, their distress behaviors were expressed with greater frequency and intensity.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eOur findings demonstrated that rearing calves with partial dam contact during winter improves postweaning growth performance, rumen development, and behavioral welfare, but also increases susceptibility to health problems, particularly respiratory disease and diarrhea, under cold housing conditions. Dam contact was associated with increased protozoal counts, greater digestibility of DM and NDF, and elevated postweaning \u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003eHBA concentrations, indicating enhanced ruminal development in these calves. DC calves displayed more social play, rumination, and reduced non-nutritive oral behaviors. This may be reflective of an improved welfare, although weaning separation induced marked distress responses. Despite these benefits, the increased incidence of health issues may highlight the need for improved environmental and health management, especially during winter months. Partial daily dam contact appears to be sufficient to promote rumen microbial and behavioral development while maintaining the feasibility in commercial dairy systems. Thus, it represents a promising rearing approach that supports both calf welfare and milk harvest efficiency, provided that management strategies effectively mitigate health risks and weaning stress. Future research should aim to optimize the duration and environmental management of CCC across different climatic and production systems to balance productivity, welfare, and societal expectations for sustainable dairy production.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec23\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAnimal Ethic declaration\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll animal procedures were reviewed by the Animal Care and Use Committee of Isfahan University of Technology prior to the start of the study. All procedures complied with the guidelines of the Iranian Council of Animal Care (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e) and adhered to the ARRIVE guidelines for reporting \u003cem\u003ein vivo\u003c/em\u003e experiments.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAnimal Ethic declaration\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll animal procedures were reviewed by the Animal Care and Use Committee of Isfahan University of Technology prior to the start of the study. All procedures complied with the guidelines of the Iranian Council of Animal Care (1995) and adhered to the ARRIVE guidelines for reporting \u003cem\u003ein vivo\u003c/em\u003e experiments.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDeclaration of conflict of interest\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAuthors declare no conflicts of interest\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors’ contribution statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZ. Panahi\u003c/strong\u003e: Conceptualization, Methodology, Data Analysis, Writing – original draft. \u003cstrong\u003eE. Ghasemi:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eSupervision, Project Administration, Methodology, Data Analysis, Writing – review \u0026amp; editing. \u003cstrong\u003eA. H. Mahdavi\u003c/strong\u003e: Supervision, Methodology, Writing – review \u0026amp; editing. \u003cstrong\u003eM. Sadeghi\u003c/strong\u003e: Methodology, Writing – review \u0026amp; editing. \u003cstrong\u003eF. Ahmadi\u003c/strong\u003e: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing – review \u0026amp; editing.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eDeclaration of conflict of interestAuthors declare no conflicts of interest\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAbdelfattah EM, Karousa. MM, Lay DC Jr., Marchant-Forde JN, Eicher SD (2018) Short communication: Effect of age at group housing on behavior, cortisol, health, and leukocyte differential counts of neonatal bull dairy calves. J Dairy Sci 101(1):596\u0026ndash;602\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAhmadi F, Ghasemi. E, Alikhani. M, Ghaffari M (2022) Effects of group housing and incremental hay supplementation in calf starters at different ages on growth performance, behavior, and health. Sci. 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UK\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDiaz MC, Van Amburgh ME, Smith JM, Kelsey JM, Hutten EL (2001) Composition of growth of Holstein calves fed milk replacer from birth to 105-kilogram body weight. J Dairy Sci 84(4):830\u0026ndash;842\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDrackley JK (2008) Calf nutrition from birth to breeding. Vet Clin North Am Food Anim Pract 24:55\u0026ndash;86\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eEde T, Weary. DM (2021) M. A. G. von Keyserlingk. Calves are socially motivated. JDS Communication. 3(1):44\u0026ndash;8\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eEnriquez DH, Ungerfeld. R, Quintans. G, Guidoni. AL, H\u0026ouml;tzel MJ (2010) The effects of alternative weaning methods on behaviour in beef calves. Livest Sci 128:20\u0026ndash;27\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eF\u0026aelig;revik G, Andersen IL, Jensen. 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S, Pomies D (2013) Suckling, weaning, and the development of oral behaviours in dairy calves. Appl Anim Behav Sci 147:11\u0026ndash;18\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eVon Keyserlingk MAG, Weary DM (2007) Maternal behavior in cattle. Horm Behav 52:106\u0026ndash;113\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWagner K, Barth. K, Hillmann. E, Palme. R, Futschik. A, Waiblinger S (2013) Mother rearing of dairy calves: Reactions to isolation and to confrontation with an unfamiliar conspecific in a new environment. Appl Anim Behav Sci 147:43\u0026ndash;54\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWagner K, Barth. K, Palme. R, Futschik. A, Waiblinger S (2012) Integration into the dairy cow herd: Long-term effects of mother contact during the first twelve weeks of life. Appl Anim Behav Sci 141:117\u0026ndash;129\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWaiblinger S, Wagner. K, Hillmann. 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In: Current Research in Applied Ethology. KTBL Darmstadt 510, pp. 158\u0026ndash;169\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eZipp KA, Knierim U (2020) Physical development, ease of integration into the dairy herd and performance of primiparous dairy cows reared with full whole-day, half-day or no mother-contact as calves. J Dairy Res 87(Suppl 1):154\u0026ndash;156\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Health, performance, contact, separation, calf","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7889604/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7889604/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eProvision of cow-calf contact (CCC) in combination with pair housing may enhance welfare and stimulate greater intake of both milk and starter feed, thereby improving the performance and health of calves reared under cold conditions. This study was conducted to investigate the effects of combining partial daily CCC (5 h/d) with pair housing (19 h/d) in dairy calves reared in outdoor pens during winter, when the mean ambient temperature was 6.2\u0026deg;C throughout the study period. A total of 30 Holstein calves (birth weight\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;37.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.4 kg) were enrolled at birth. Fourteen calves received daily dam contact and were pair-housed (DC-PH), while the remaining 16 calves had no dam contact (NC); of these, 8 were pair-housed (NC-PH) and 8 were individually housed (NC-IH). Dam contact was maintained until day 60, after which all calves were weaned and group-housed until day 80. Milk consumption was greater in DC than NC calves (7.4 vs. 5.5 L/d). During the pre-weaning period, starter feed intake (d 0\u0026ndash;30) was lower in DC vs. NC calves but not different from day 30\u0026ndash;60. Pre-weaning average daily gain and feed efficiency (pre- and post-weaning) did not differ across treatment groups. However, DC-PH calves had superior post-weaning growth compared with NC calves. Rumen development was improved in DC vs. NC calves, as indicated by greater dry matter and NDF digestibility and protozoal counts. NDF digestibility was greater in NC-PH vs. NC-IH calves (87.7 vs. 81.4%). Pre-weaning blood glucose and post-weaning βHBA concentrations were greater, but pre-weaning cortisol was lower in DC calves compared with NC calves. Health challenges and antibiotic treatments were most frequent in DC-PH calves and least in NC-PH calves. During an 8-h behavioral recording prior to weaning, DC-PH calves spent less time devoting to non-nutritive oral activities such as licking the stall, fences, and sucking on other calves, and tended to spend more time in standing or contacting other calves, playing alone, walking, and ruminating. After weaning, DC-PH calves spent more time devoting to eating, resting, rumination, walking, and social interactions than NC calves, with no differences observed between NC-IH and NC-PH calves. In summary, partial daily dam contact (5 h/d), when combined with pair housing, resulted in superior post-weaning growth, improved rumen development, and positive behavioral expression but was associated with greater health risks under suboptimal winter conditions. Partial dam contact may represent a feasible compromise to enhance calf welfare while maintaining dairy productivity and addressing societal concerns regarding early cow-calf separation. However, disease risks should be mitigated through appropriate environmental management.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Effects of partial cow-calf contact and social companions on health, performance, and behavior of young calves during cold season","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-11-07 10:33:52","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7889604/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"715ea9f1-5931-4f45-9225-cdd04611f1f1","owner":[],"postedDate":"November 7th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-01-20T18:15:23+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-11-07 10:33:52","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7889604","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7889604","identity":"rs-7889604","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}