Residents’ Support for Tourism in Early-Stage Themed Rural Destinations: Testing the Boundary Conditions of Social Exchange Theory in Wunvzhou, China

Residents’ Support for Tourism in Early-Stage Themed Rural Destinations: Testing the Boundary Conditions of Social Exchange Theory in Wunvzhou, China | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article Residents’ Support for Tourism in Early-Stage Themed Rural Destinations: Testing the Boundary Conditions of Social Exchange Theory in Wunvzhou, China Jianyu Chen, Sharifah Rohayah Sheikh Dawood This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-9018224/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 10 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Tourism development in emerging rural destinations often generates visible benefits, yet community support does not always follow in a straightforward way. Focusing on Wunvzhou, China, this study examines how residents interpret tourism’s economic, social, and environmental changes and whether such perceptions consistently translate into supportive attitudes. Rather than assuming that perceived gains automatically lead to endorsement, we explore the role of perceived fairness in shaping these relationships. Survey data from 296 residents were analyzed using PLS-SEM. The results indicate that positive impact perceptions and tourism involvement are associated with stronger support; however, the strength of these associations declines when residents perceive unequal benefit distribution. These findings suggest that exchange-based support is contingent upon perceived legitimacy of outcomes. The study highlights the importance of fairness and inclusion in sustaining community support during early stages of rural destination development. Earth and environmental sciences/Environmental social sciences Scientific community and society/Geography Social science/Geography Tourism impacts Residents’ attitudes Social Exchange Theory Relative Deprivation Theory Wunvzhou Figures Figure 1 1. Introduction Tourism-led transformation in rural regions is frequently accompanied by promises of economic revitalization and community renewal. Yet local reactions to such change are rarely uniform. While some residents welcome new opportunities, others respond more cautiously, even when tangible improvements are visible. Understanding why support emerges in some contexts but weakens in others remains central to tourism scholarship. A substantial body of research explains resident support through Social Exchange Theory (SET), arguing that residents tend to endorse tourism when they perceive that benefits outweigh costs (Nunkoo and Ramkissoon 2012; Ap 1992 ). Empirically, SET-informed models repeatedly show that residents’ evaluations of economic, socio-cultural, and environmental impacts are closely tied to their support for tourism development (Rasoolimanesh et al. 2015 ; Gursoy et al. 2002; Stylidis et al. 2014 ). However, the same “benefit–support” logic has been increasingly criticized as too unconditional—as if positive perceived impacts automatically translate into support. In practice, residents’ judgments are often contingent on who benefits, how benefits are distributed, and whether the development is perceived as fair (Ward and Berno 2011). Emerging evidence from tourism contexts indicates that justice- and equity-related appraisals can shape or even override simple cost–benefit reasoning, influencing residents’ willingness to support tourism (Wang et al. 2021 ). This motivates a “boundary condition” question: under what conditions does SET’s benefit–support relationship hold strongly, and when does it weaken? This question is especially salient in early-stage themed rural destinations, where tourism is newly scaled up, institutions and participation mechanisms are still forming, and residents’ attitudes may be more malleable and sensitive to perceived changes. Wunvzhou (China) represents such a context: as a themed rural destination in an early development phase, it provides an appropriate empirical setting to test when perceived impacts translate into support and when they do not. Rather than treating Wunvzhou as a purely descriptive case, this study uses it as a theory-testing context to examine the boundary conditions of SET. Accordingly, we theorize that residents’ support is driven not only by perceived impacts but also by two key conditions. First, tourism involvement should function as a proximal mechanism that strengthens support because involved residents are more likely to access benefits and form favorable evaluations (Gursoy et al. 2002; Rasoolimanesh et al. 2015 ). Second, relative deprivation / perceived unfairness may act as a boundary condition that attenuates the translation of perceived impacts into support: even if residents recognize destination-level benefits, perceived disadvantage can reduce their willingness to endorse tourism expansion (Pan and Yang 2023; Wang and Pfister 2008). Building on these arguments, this study develops and tests a model in which perceived economic, socio-cultural, and environmental impacts and tourism involvement directly predict residents’ support, while relative deprivation conditions (moderates) the impact–support links. Methodologically, we employ PLS-SEM to estimate the measurement and structural models and to test moderation effects with SmartPLS, which is appropriate for latent-variable models with multiple predictors and interaction terms (Henseler et al. 2015 ). By reframing resident support as a conditional outcome, this study contributes by (1) positioning early-stage themed rural destinations as a theoretically meaningful context for SET boundary testing, and (2) showing how participation and perceived fairness shape whether perceived impacts convert into resident support—offering actionable implications for inclusive governance in formative destination phases. As a rapidly developing, state-supported themed rural destination characterized by concentrated investment and evolving governance arrangements, Wunvzhou provides an analytically revealing context to examine whether exchange mechanisms remain stable under conditions of uneven benefit distribution. 2. Literature Review 2.1 Social Exchange Theory (SET) SET, originally developed by Homans (1961), argues that human interactions are guided by the subjective evaluation of costs and benefits. SET has been extensively employed in tourism studies to understand residents' attitudes toward tourism development(Rasoolimanesh et al. 2015 ; Nunkoo and Gursoy 2012; Perdue et al. 1990 ) According to SET, residents support tourism development if they perceive benefits, such as economic prosperity, employment opportunities, and infrastructure improvements, to outweigh costs, including environmental degradation, cultural disruption, and overcrowding(Gursoy et al. 2002). Despite its broad application, SET has been criticized for oversimplifying residents’ decisions as purely economic transactions, thus neglecting critical socio-psychological dimensions such as emotional attachment, community pride, and place identity(Látková and Vogt 2012 ; Nunkoo and Gursoy 2012; Sharpley 2014 ). Moreover, SET-based studies often assume that stable community perceptions form over time, thus largely focusing on mature tourism destinations rather than newly developed, themed tourism areas, where residents’ perceptions are characterized by high levels of uncertainty and fluctuating expectations (Sharpley and Telfer 2015). Although SET emphasizes rational cost–benefit evaluation, it pays limited attention to distributive justice and subjective comparison processes (Greenberg 2002 ). Tourism development frequently generates uneven benefit distribution across communities, resulting in differentiated access to employment, entrepreneurship, and land-based returns (King and Dinkoksung 2014). Under such conditions, residents’ evaluations may be shaped less by aggregate benefits and more by perceived fairness . Recent research highlights the importance of justice perceptions and trust in shaping tourism support (Ward and Berno 2011; Wang et al. 2021 ). These studies suggest that exchange outcomes are embedded in social comparison processes, indicating that benefit–support relationships may not operate uniformly across individuals. This study addresses this gap by examining how SET applies within the unique context of a newly developed rural-themed tourism destination in Wunvzhou, exploring the nuanced relationship between perceived benefits and costs at the early stage of tourism development. 2.2 Relative Deprivation Theory (RDT) RDT, initially conceptualized by Stouffer (1949), refers to individuals or groups feeling deprived compared with a particular reference group, triggering negative attitudes or resentment even when objective economic conditions improve. Applied to tourism contexts, RDT has been instrumental in understanding resident dissatisfaction and community conflicts arising from perceived inequities in tourism benefit distribution (Kachniewska 2015 ; Muler Gonzalez et al. 2018). Recent studies employing RDT in tourism research highlight that when tourism revenues disproportionately benefit external investors, government authorities, or selected community segments, perceptions of deprivation become prominent, potentially triggering opposition to tourism projects despite their economic merits (Muler Gonzalez et al. 2018; Nunkoo and So 2016). However, empirical evidence based on RDT within rural Chinese destinations experiencing rapid tourism-led transformations remains limited. Relative Deprivation Theory (RDT) provides a theoretical lens for understanding how perceived inequity influences attitudes(Runciman 1972). Rather than focusing on objective deprivation, RDT emphasizes subjective perceptions of disadvantage relative to reference groups. In tourism contexts, feelings of exclusion and unfair benefit allocation have been shown to affect residents’ support for development (Pan and Yang 2023; Zuo et al. 2017). Conceptually, relative deprivation does not replace exchange logic but may constrain it. Even when residents recognize economic or social improvements at the destination level, perceived unfairness may attenuate their willingness to support continued tourism expansion. Thus, RDT can be reconceptualized as specifying a boundary condition for SET. Therefore, this research applies RDT to analyze the impacts of the distribution of perceived inequitable tourism benefits on residents’ attitudes in the Wunvzhou scenic area, aiming to enrich the understanding of how relative deprivation shapes community responses in rapidly evolving rural tourism contexts. 2.3 Integration of SET and RDT Previous studies examining residents' attitudes toward tourism development have relied predominantly on SET, which emphasizes economic rationality and assumes that residents evaluate tourism primarily on the basis of tangible costs and benefits (Nunkoo and Ramkissoon 2012). While SET has successfully explained residents' attitudes in well-established tourism contexts, it tends to overlook residents' deeper socio-psychological responses, particularly in contexts of rapid tourism-induced change. Relative RDT complements SET by providing insights into how perceptions of the unequal distribution of tourism benefits can lead to feelings of dissatisfaction and resentment, even when overall economic conditions are improving (Muler Gonzalez et al. 2018). Integrating SET with RDT provides a more comprehensive theoretical perspective to understand the dynamics of resident attitudes in newly emerging tourism destinations, such as Wunvzhou. This integrative approach considers both rational economic evaluations and emotional perceptions of fairness, thus capturing the multidimensional nature of community responses to tourism (Mitchell and Eagles 2001). The combined use of these two theories addresses the critical limitation of using either theory in isolation and enriches the academic discourse on tourism impacts by acknowledging that residents' support or opposition to tourism can simultaneously be rational and emotional and influenced by both perceived economic gains and social inequalities (Bernini et al. 2015 ). Consequently, this theoretical integration contributes significantly to the literature by offering deeper insights into community attitudes and behavior in rapidly evolving tourism contexts. Building on SET and RDT, this study proposes a conditional framework in which perceived impacts and tourism involvement positively influence residents’ support, but relative deprivation moderates these relationships. By explicitly testing whether the strength of impact–support links varies across levels of perceived deprivation, the study advances a more context-sensitive and theoretically refined understanding of resident–tourism relationships. 2.4 Residents' Attitudes toward Themed Tourism Destinations The literature on residents’ perceptions of tourism development has focused predominantly on either mature, established destinations (Almeida García et al. 2015; Látková and Vogt 2012 ) or mass tourism contexts (Andereck et al. 2005 ). There is a clear dearth of research specifically targeting emerging culturally themed rural destinations, despite their growing popularity and distinct developmental characteristics (Kim et al. 2013; Rasoolimanesh et al. 2015 ). Additionally, existing studies frequently adopt a homogeneous perspective toward local residents, overlooking critical intra-community diversity, such as demographic distinctions (age, educational level, income source) and participation in tourism-related activities (Nunkoo and Ramkissoon 2012; Sharpley 2014 ) This oversight is particularly critical in newly emerging tourism settings, where varying levels of involvement and demographic characteristics can substantially alter resident perceptions. 2.5 Moderating Factors: Tourism Involvement and Relative Deprivation Individual characteristics and experiences may moderate the relationship between perceptions of tourism impact and attitudes. Tourism involvement, referring to the extent of residents’ direct or indirect engagement with tourism (e.g., employment, entrepreneurship), has been found to enhance residents’ positive attitudes, as it increases perceived benefits and agency (Wang and Pfister 2008). Conversely, relative deprivation may weaken the positive effects of perceived benefits, as individuals focus more on comparative losses than absolute gains (Gautam and Bhalla 2024). Despite these theoretical propositions, few empirical studies have tested these moderation effects in a combined framework, and even fewer have done so in early-stage, themed rural destinations, where involvement opportunities and benefit distribution are often uneven and politicized. In this study, tourism involvement is specified as a direct antecedent of supportive attitudes, whereas relative deprivation is tested as a moderator that may weaken the perception–attitude links. 2.6 Research Gaps and Conceptual Framework Despite accumulated knowledge, three gaps persist. First, SET has often been applied without incorporating social justice perspectives, limiting our understanding of the fairness concerns that shape attitudes. Second, the roles of tourism involvement and relative deprivation as boundary conditions remain underexamined. Third, early-stage, themed rural destinations in developing countries are seldom investigated. To address these gaps, we develop an integrated framework (Fig. 1 ) that combines SET with RDT, models involvement as a direct antecedent, and tests whether relative deprivation weakens the perception–attitude links. Source: Authors’ own work 2.7 Research hypotheses Social Exchange Theory (SET) posits that residents evaluate tourism development through a cost–benefit framework (Ap 1992 ; Nunkoo and Ramkissoon 2012). When tourism generates perceived economic, social, or environmental gains, residents are expected to reciprocate with supportive attitudes. This exchange-based logic has been consistently validated across tourism contexts (Gursoy et al., 2002; Rasoolimanesh et al., 2015 ). However, the applicability of SET presumes that residents interpret benefits as personally or collectively meaningful. In early-stage themed rural destinations, benefit distribution may be uneven, and not all residents participate equally in tourism activities. Therefore, while perceived impacts are expected to exert positive effects on support, these effects may not operate uniformly across individuals. Direct Effects: Exchange-Based Predictions H1: Perceived economic impacts positively influence residents’ support for tourism. H2: Perceived social impacts positively influence residents’ support for tourism. H3: Perceived environmental impacts positively influence residents’ support for tourism. Tourism involvement reflects residents’ direct exposure to exchange outcomes. Residents engaged in tourism are more likely to internalize benefits and thus exhibit stronger supportive attitudes. H4: Tourism involvement positively influences residents’ support for tourism. Boundary Condition: Relative Deprivation Relative Deprivation Theory (Runciman 1972) suggests that individuals evaluate outcomes not only in absolute terms but also through social comparison. When residents perceive themselves as disadvantaged relative to others, feelings of unfairness may weaken the positive influence of perceived benefits on support (Wang et al. 2021 ). Thus, relative deprivation is conceptualized as a boundary condition that constrains the exchange logic of SET. H5a: Relative deprivation negatively moderates the relationship between perceived economic impacts and support, such that the relationship is weaker under higher levels of relative deprivation. H5b: Relative deprivation negatively moderates the relationship between perceived social impacts and support. H5c: Relative deprivation negatively moderates the relationship between perceived environmental impacts and support. Together, these hypotheses test whether the positive exchange-based relationships predicted by SET remain robust under conditions of perceived inequity. 3. Methodology 3.1 Study area and Sampling Procedure The Wunvzhou Scenic Area, located in Wuyuan County, Jiangxi Province, China, is a newly developed cultural tourism destination featuring historical legends and traditional Huizhou culture. Officially opened in 2021, the site quickly became a regional tourism hotspot, attracting visitors with immersive large-scale performances, ancient-style architecture, and themed storytelling based on the folklore of Wunü (five daughters). The project was developed with significant government and private investment as part of rural revitalization efforts in East China. It integrates cultural heritage, ecological landscapes, and creative tourism formats such as night-time performances and interactive exhibitions. Rapid development has brought about notable socioeconomic transformations within host communities. According to internal estimates from site management (2023), Wunvzhou received approximately 1.2 million visitors in 2023, generating over 85 million RMB in tourism revenue. The development created over 450 local jobs, including positions in performance, catering, transport, and management services. However, concerns have emerged regarding uneven benefit distribution, rising costs of living, and cultural commodification, particularly among long-term residents not directly employed in tourism. The site serves as a representative case of emerging “theme-based” rural tourism in China. Rapid tourism expansion, reliance on cultural narratives, and strong government involvement provide a valuable context for investigating how residents perceive tourism impacts and form attitudes toward tourism development. Data were collected via stratified convenience sampling across villages/communities within the scenic area, with onsite snowballing used to reach underrepresented subgroups. 3.2 Research Design This study adopts a quantitative approach, using a structured questionnaire survey to empirically investigate the relationships between residents’ perceived impacts (economic, environmental, and social) and their attitudes toward tourism development. Furthermore, we examine the moderating role of relative deprivation and model tourism involvement as a direct antecedent. The choice of a quantitative methodology aligns with prior studies investigating community perceptions and attitudes within tourism contexts (Nunkoo and Ramkissoon 2012; Gursoy et al. 2002). 3.3 Sampling and Data Collection A structured questionnaire was administered via face‒to‒face surveys in May 2025 via a stratified convenience sampling approach across multiple villages and neighborhoods within the scenic area. A total of 320 questionnaires were distributed, and 296 valid responses were retained (92.5%). 3.4 Questionnaire Design and Measurement The questionnaire comprised three sections aligned with the conceptual model and used reflective (Mode A) measures for all latent constructs. Section 1 captured demographics (gender, age, education, length of residence, and personal/household tourism employment) for profiling and subgroup checks. Section 2 measured the core constructs on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree; 5 = strongly agree) using validated items adapted to the local context. Perceived economic impact (PEI; e.g., jobs, income opportunities) and perceived social impact (PSI; e.g., cultural preservation, community pride) each included five items (Andereck et al. 2005; Nunkoo and Ramkissoon 2012; Rasoolimanesh et al. 2015). Perceived environmental impact (PEnvI) comprises three positively worded items reflecting environmental quality and management improvements. Attitudes toward tourism (ATT) uses three items capturing overall support for local tourism development (Gursoy et al. 2019; Rasoolimanesh et al. 2015). Section 3 operationalizes the moderators: Tourism Involvement (TI; three items on personal/household engagement in tourism; e.g., “My family engages in tourism-related activities”) and Relative Deprivation (RD; three items on perceived unfairness/exclusion; e.g., “Others in my community benefit more from tourism than I do”), with RD items adapted from González et al. (2018) and Jeong et al. (2022). Higher scores indicate stronger agreement with the intended meaning of each construct. The instrument was drafted in English, translated into Chinese and back-translated by independent bilinguals; discrepancies were resolved by a third reviewer to ensure semantic equivalence and cultural appropriateness. A pilot test (n = 30) with local residents informed minor wording refinements; no reverse-coded items were retained to avoid respondent confusion. To mitigate common method bias, respondents were assured anonymity, item order was randomized within construct blocks, and scale anchors were standardized; ex post, full collinearity variance inflation factor (VIF) values were examined to assess CMV/multicollinearity (target < 3.3 in subsequent analysis). For PLS-SEM, construct scores were handled as latent variable scores estimated in SmartPLS 4; for descriptive summaries, we report mean scores at the construct level. 3.5 Pilot and Reliability Checks Prior to structural estimation, the reflective measurement model was rigorously assessed in SmartPLS 4 following current PLS‒SEM guidelines. Content validity was ensured through expert review, translation/back-translation, and a pilot test (n = 30), as described in Section 3.4. Internal consistency reliability. For each construct, we examined Cronbach’s α, rho_A, and Composite Reliability (CR). The acceptable thresholds were ≥ 0.70 (with 0.60–0.70 tolerable in early exploratory stages). These indices jointly indicate whether the indicators consistently reflect their latent construct. Convergent validity. We inspected outer loadings (preferred ≥ 0.70) and average variance extracted (AVE) (target ≥ 0.50), confirming that a construct explains at least half of the variance in its indicators. When an indicator’s loading fell between 0.40–0.70, retention was determined case-by-case on the basis of its theoretical importance and impact on the CR/AVE; indicators with loadings < 0.40 were candidates for removal. Discriminant validity was examined with the HTMT ratio (target < .85; a more liberal .90 threshold is sometimes reported) with bias-corrected confidence intervals from bootstrapping to verify that 1.00 was not included. As a secondary cross-check, we inspected the Fornell–Larcker criterion and cross-loadings to ensure that each indicator loaded higher on its own construct than on others. Multicollinearity and common-method bias. To mitigate ex ante CMV, we applied procedural remedies (anonymity, randomized item blocks, standardized anchors). Ex post, we computed full collinearity VIFs for all the constructs; values < 3.3 indicate that neither vertical nor lateral collinearity (and thus CMV) is likely to bias estimates. Predictor-level VIFs were also checked (target < 3.3) to rule out multicollinearity in the structural stage. Measurement invariance for moderation and the MGA. Because moderation by relative deprivation (RD) was tested via both interaction terms and multigroup analysis (MGA) (high vs. low RD), we followed the MICOM procedure to assess invariance prior to comparing path coefficients: (1) configural invariance (identical data treatment and model specification across groups); (2) compositional invariance via permutation tests; and (3) equality of means/variances (permutation-based). The establishment of at least configural and compositional invariance supports meaningful between-group comparisons; a lack of full invariance is acknowledged in the interpretation of MGA results. Decision rules and reporting. Item purification (if any) was driven by theory and the criteria above, prioritizing parsimony without compromising content validity. Summary statistics for loadings, α, rho_A, CR, AVE, and HTMT are reported in the Measurement Model results (Table 5), whereas overall model quality (e.g., SRMR, R², and Q²) and hypothesis tests appear in Sections 4.4–4.6. This two-stage approach ensures that reliability and validity are established before drawing inferences about the structural relationships. Table 2. Construct Operationalization Note: All the constructs are reflective (Mode A). The measurement properties (factor loadings, α , CR, AVE, and HTMT) are reported in Table 5. Abbreviations: SD = strongly disagree; SA = strongly agree. Source: Authors’ own work 3.6 Data analysis Data were analyzed using variance-based structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) in SmartPLS 4. This analytical strategy allows assessment of whether exchange-based relationships operate consistently across fairness conditions, thereby testing the boundary conditions of SET. Beyond estimating direct relationships, PLS-SEM was employed to examine whether the exchange-based relationships predicted by Social Exchange Theory operate conditionally under varying levels of perceived relative deprivation. This approach is appropriate given the multiple latent constructs, inclusion of moderation, and moderate sample size, and it is robust to nonnormality. Before modeling, we screened for missing values, outliers, and univariate normality; descriptive statistics were computed for all the items and constructs. To address common-method bias and multicollinearity, we inspected full collinearity variance inflation factor (VIF) values (target < 3.3). Bivariate correlations are reported for descriptive statistics only; inferential claims are based on the PLS‒SEM estimates. Measurement model evaluation. All the constructs were modeled reflectively (Mode A). Reliability was assessed via Cronbach’s alpha and composite reliability (CR) (acceptable ≥ 0.70). Convergent validity was evaluated via average variance extracted (AVE) (target ≥ 0.50) and outer loadings (preferred ≥ 0.70). Discriminant validity was examined with the HTMT (target < .85; a more liberal .90 threshold is sometimes reported). Indicator loadings and cross-loadings were also reviewed to ensure construct clarity and identify any theoretically unwarranted items. Structural model estimation. Path coefficients were estimated with 5,000 bootstrap resamples (bias-corrected intervals) to obtain t values, p values, and confidence intervals. Model quality was judged via SRMR (approximate model fit), R² for endogenous constructs (explanatory power), f² for effect sizes of exogenous predictors (small ≈ .02; medium ≈ .15; large ≈ .35), and Q² (Stone–Geisser predictive relevance by blindfolding). Predictor VIFs were checked to confirm acceptable multicollinearity (target < 3.3). Moderation analysis. To explicitly test the boundary conditions of Social Exchange Theory, the moderating role of relative deprivation was examined using the two-stage approach in PLS-SEM. Latent variable scores were saved from the main model, interaction terms (e.g., PEI×RD) were created, and the interactions were re-estimated to obtain moderation effects. Multi-group analysis (MGA) was conducted as a robustness check to determine whether the strength of the exchange-based relationships differs systematically across levels of perceived relative deprivation.. Tourism involvement (TI) was modeled as a direct predictor (H4), which is consistent with the hypothesized framework, rather than as a moderator. Algorithm settings (replicability). PLS algorithm with path weighting scheme; maximum 300 iterations; stop criterion 1e-7; bootstrapping = 5,000 subsamples (two-tailed tests; BCa confidence intervals). Blindfolding for Q² followed SmartPLS guidelines (omission distance set accordingly). Where relevant, PLSpredict was consulted to gauge the out-of-sample predictive performance of the attitudes construct. This workflow ensures that reliability and validity are established prior to hypothesis testing, that moderation is examined with both interaction terms and MGA, and that reporting aligns with current best practices for PLS-SEM in tourism research. 3.7 Ethical statement All the respondents were informed about the research purpose, guaranteed anonymity, and assured of confidentiality regarding their provided information. Participation was voluntary, and informed consent was explicitly obtained at the start of the questionnaire. This study involving human participants was reviewed and approved by the Ethics Committee of the Office of Research and Development, Shangrao Normal University, China (Approval No. SRNC-REC-2025-022701). All methods were carried out in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations and in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. Informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to their participation in the study. 4. Results 4.1 Respondents' Demographic Profile This profile highlights the heterogeneity needed to test our model. The high share of long-term residents (>20 years: 39.5%) offers a vantage point on perceived social/environmental change, directly linking to H2–H3 under SET. The prevalence of tourism involvement (indirect or direct: 72.9%) aligns with H4 and indicates that many respondents experience benefits through employment or household ties—conditions under which support for tourism is theoretically expected to rise. Moreover, the income spread and mixed education levels speak to perceived fairness and awareness, supplying variance relevant to RDT and moderation tests (H5a–H5c). Age diversity ensures that cohorts with potentially different risk–benefit trade-offs are represented, improving the external validity of the structural paths. We emphasize that these patterns are descriptive and serve to contextualize the subsequent PLS‒SEM tests; formal inferences about paths and moderation are reported in Sections 4.4–4.5. 4.2 Descriptive Statistics of Perceived Tourism Impacts and Attitudes Descriptive results regarding perceived tourism impacts (economic, social, and environmental) and residents’ attitudes are reported in Table 4. The respondents generally expressed positive perceptions of economic benefits (M = 3.85, SD = 0.82), followed by social impacts (M = 3.62, SD = 0.79), whereas environmental impacts were slightly lower but still positive (M = 3.48, SD = 0.91). Overall, residents exhibited favorable attitudes toward tourism development (M = 3.91, SD = 0.87). 4.3 Measurement Model Evaluation All outer loadings were statistically significant and exceeded 0.70 (p < .001). The composite reliability (CR) ranged from 0.86--0.90; the AVE values were ≥ 0.56, supporting convergent validity. The HTMT values were less than 0.85, indicating discriminant validity. 4.4 Structural Model Results (PLS-SEM) The structural relationships were estimated using PLS-SEM in SmartPLS 4. The structural model showed acceptable fit (SRMR = 0.059). The model explained substantial variance in residents’ attitudes (R²_Attitudes = 0.62; Q²_Attitudes = 0.38). As hypothesized, perceived economic (β = 0.47), social (β = 0.33), environmental (β = 0.21), and tourism involvement (β = 0.24) perceptions positively predicted residents’ attitudes (all p < .01). Effect sizes indicated practical importance for economic (f² = 0.18) and social (f² = 0.11) impacts, with smaller effects for environmental (f² = 0.06) and involvement (f² = 0.08) impacts. The results of the multicollinearity tests were acceptable (all VIFs < 2.3). Taken together, these results indicate practically meaningful effects for economic and social impacts (f² ≥ .10), with smaller yet significant contributions of environmental perceptions and involvement. 4.5 Moderation Analysis: Testing the Boundary Conditions of SET Two-stage interaction models indicated that relative deprivation negatively moderated the perception–attitude links: economic × RD (β_int = −0.12, t = −2.47, p = .014), social × RD (β_int = −0.10, t = −2.11, p = .035), and environmental × RD (β_int = −0.08, t = −2.03, p = .043). Multigroup analysis (MGA) comparing the high RD group with the low RD group corroborated the direction of the effects. To examine whether the exchange-based relationships operate uniformly across residents, the moderating role of relative deprivation was tested. The interaction effects indicate that relative deprivation significantly weakens the positive relationships between perceived impacts and residents’ support. Specifically, under higher levels of perceived relative deprivation, the strength of the perceived impact–support relationships decreases. In other words, even when residents acknowledge economic, social, or environmental benefits, their willingness to support tourism diminishes if they perceive the distribution of those benefits as unfair. These findings suggest that the exchange logic proposed by SET does not operate universally. Instead, its explanatory power is contingent upon perceptions of distributive fairness. The results therefore provide empirical evidence that relative deprivation functions as a boundary condition constraining exchange-based support. 4.6 Summary of Hypothesis Testing To provide a clear overview of all hypotheses tested in this study, Table 8 presents a summary of the statistical methods, effect estimates, significance levels, and support status for each hypothesis. All the proposed hypotheses (H1–H5c) were supported by the data. 5. Discussion 5.1 Exchange Mechanisms in Early-Stage Rural Destinations This study set out to examine whether the exchange-based logic of Social Exchange Theory (SET) operates uniformly in early-stage themed rural destinations. The structural model results confirm that perceived economic, social, and environmental impacts significantly increase residents’ support for tourism development. These findings are consistent with established SET-based research suggesting that residents reciprocate perceived benefits with supportive attitudes (Ap 1992; Nunkoo and Ramkissoon 2012). Importantly, tourism involvement also exerts a positive direct influence on support. Residents who are directly or indirectly engaged in tourism demonstrate stronger endorsement of development, indicating that exposure to exchange outcomes reinforces positive evaluations. Together, these results suggest that exchange mechanisms are active and meaningful in early-stage rural tourism contexts. However, confirming the presence of exchange-based effects was not the central contribution of this study. Rather, the primary objective was to assess whether these effects remain stable across different conditions. 5.2 Relative Deprivation as a Boundary Condition The moderation results reveal that the positive relationships between perceived impacts and residents’ support weaken under higher levels of perceived relative deprivation. This finding is theoretically significant. While SET assumes that perceived benefits translate into support, it implicitly presumes that individuals interpret those benefits as personally or collectively fair. The present findings demonstrate that this assumption does not always hold. Even when residents recognize economic or social improvements at the destination level, their support diminishes if they perceive themselves as disadvantaged relative to others. This suggests that exchange-based support operates conditionally rather than universally. Relative deprivation constrains the strength of the benefit–support relationship, indicating that fairness perceptions shape how residents interpret exchange outcomes. In this sense, Relative Deprivation Theory (RDT) does not replace SET but refines it by specifying the contextual boundary under which exchange logic remains effective.These findings suggest that exchange-based support is contingent upon the perceived legitimacy of benefit distribution, indicating that fairness perceptions define the boundary within which SET retains explanatory power.This suggests that exchange-based support should be conceptualized as legitimacy-dependent rather than purely benefit-driven. 5.3 Theoretical Implications This study advances the resident–tourism literature in three ways. First, it shifts the analytical focus from verifying exchange relationships to testing their boundary conditions. Much prior research has treated SET as a general explanatory framework, assuming stable relationships between perceived impacts and support. By demonstrating that these relationships weaken under perceived inequity, this study specifies when SET-based predictions hold and when they attenuate. Second, the findings integrate exchange theory with distributive justice perspectives. Rather than conceptualizing perceived impacts as purely economic evaluations, the results show that fairness perceptions intervene in the cognitive processing of benefits. This theoretical refinement aligns resident-support research more closely with broader social-psychological models of comparative evaluation. Third, the early-stage themed rural destination context highlights the structural conditions under which boundary effects become salient. In rapidly developing destinations, uneven benefit distribution and evolving governance arrangements may amplify perceptions of relative deprivation. This suggests that the boundary conditions of SET may be especially relevant in transitional tourism environments. 5.4 Practical Implications From a governance perspective, the findings indicate that generating aggregate benefits is insufficient to ensure sustained community support. Policymakers must address not only economic gains but also perceptions of equitable distribution. First, transparent benefit-sharing mechanisms should be institutionalized early in the development process to prevent perceived exclusion. Second, expanding resident participation in tourism-related activities may strengthen supportive attitudes by increasing exposure to exchange outcomes. Third, communication strategies should emphasize inclusiveness and procedural fairness, particularly in early-stage projects where structural inequalities may emerge. These measures are particularly critical in themed rural destinations undergoing rapid transformation, where social comparisons are heightened and perceptions of distributive injustice may quickly undermine support. 5.5 Reframing Resident Support as Conditional Taken together, the findings suggest that residents’ support for tourism in early-stage rural destinations should not be viewed as a simple function of perceived benefits. Instead, support emerges from a conditional exchange process shaped by perceived fairness and social comparison. By specifying relative deprivation as a boundary condition, this study refines the explanatory scope of Social Exchange Theory and contributes to a more context-sensitive understanding of resident–tourism relationships. 6. Conclusion This study examined residents’ support for tourism in an early-stage themed rural destination by explicitly testing the boundary conditions of Social Exchange Theory (SET). Drawing on Relative Deprivation Theory (RDT), the research proposed that while perceived economic, social, and environmental impacts and tourism involvement positively influence residents’ support, these relationships may weaken under conditions of perceived relative deprivation. The findings confirm that exchange-based mechanisms operate in the expected direction: residents who perceive greater benefits and who are more involved in tourism are more likely to support development. However, the results further demonstrate that these positive relationships are not uniform. Perceived relative deprivation significantly attenuates the strength of impact–support links, indicating that fairness perceptions shape how residents interpret exchange outcomes. By specifying relative deprivation as a boundary condition, this study refines SET rather than merely applying it. The findings suggest that exchange-based support is conditional upon perceived distributive fairness, particularly in early-stage rural destinations characterized by uneven participation and evolving governance structures. This theoretical refinement advances resident–tourism research by shifting the focus from whether exchange mechanisms operate to when and under what conditions they hold. Practically, the results underscore that generating aggregate benefits alone is insufficient to sustain community support. Policymakers and destination managers must prioritize transparent benefit-sharing mechanisms, broaden participation opportunities, and address perceptions of inequity alongside environmental management. In emerging themed rural destinations, inclusive governance is essential to prevent the erosion of support during formative development phases. Future research may extend this boundary-condition perspective to different destination types and longitudinal settings to further examine how fairness perceptions interact with tourism development trajectories over time. By specifying fairness as a structural boundary of exchange-based support, this study contributes to a more conditional and context-sensitive formulation of Social Exchange Theory within tourism research. Declarations Data Availability The datasets generated and/or analysed during the current study are not publicly available due to participant privacy and ethical restrictions but are available from the first author on reasonable request. Funding This research was supported by Jiangxi Provincial Higher Education Humanities and Social Sciences Research Project (Grant No.JC2510) Author contributions J.C. conceptualized the study, developed the research design, conducted data collection and statistical analysis, and drafted the manuscript. S.R.S.D. provided supervision, contributed to theoretical development and methodological refinement, and critically revised the manuscript for important intellectual content. All authors reviewed and approved the final manuscript. Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests. References Almeida García, Fernando, Antonia Balbuena Vázquez, and Rafael Cortés Macías. 2015. “Resident’s Attitudes towards the Impacts of Tourism.” Tourism Management Perspectives 13 (January): 33–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2014.11.002. Andereck, Kathleen L., Karin M. Valentine, Richard C. Knopf, and Christine A. Vogt. 2005. “Residents’ Perceptions of Community Tourism Impacts.” Annals of Tourism Research 32 (4): 1056–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2005.03.001. Ap, John. 1992. “Residents’ Perceptions on Tourism Impacts.” Annals of Tourism Research 19 (4): 665–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/0160-7383(92)90060-3. Bernini, Cristina, Mariagiulia Matteucci, and Stefania Mignani. 2015. “A Bayesian Multidimensional IRT Approach for the Analysis of Residents’ Perceptions toward Tourism.” University of Salento. https://doi.org/10.1285/I20705948V8N3P272. Gautam, Vikas, and Saubhagya Bhalla. 2024. “How Residents’ Perceived Justice and Emotional Solidarity Interact With Their Quality of Life and Support for Tourism Development?” International Journal of Tourism Research 26 (5): e2739. https://doi.org/10.1002/jtr.2739. Greenberg, Jerald. 2002. Advances in Organizational Justice . Stanford University Press. Gursoy, Dogan, Claudia Jurowski, and Muzaffer Uysal. 2002. “Resident Attitudes: A Structural Modeling Approach.” Annals of Tourism Research 29 (1): 79–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0160-7383(01)00028-7. Gursoy, Dogan, Zhe Ouyang, Robin Nunkoo, and Wei Wei. 2019. “Residents’ Impact Perceptions of and Attitudes towards Tourism Development: A Meta-Analysis.” Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management 28 (3): 306–33. https://doi.org/10.1080/19368623.2018.1516589. Henseler, Jörg, Christian M. Ringle, and Marko Sarstedt. 2015. “A New Criterion for Assessing Discriminant Validity in Variance-Based Structural Equation Modeling.” Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science 43 (1): 115–35. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-014-0403-8. Kachniewska, Magdalena Anna. 2015. “Tourism Development as a Determinant of Quality of Life in Rural Areas.” Worldwide Hospitality and Tourism Themes 7 (5): 500–515. https://doi.org/10.1108/WHATT-06-2015-0028. Kim, Kyungmi, Muzaffer Uysal, and M. Joseph Sirgy. 2013. “How Does Tourism in a Community Impact the Quality of Life of Community Residents?” Tourism Management 36 (June): 527–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2012.09.005. King, Ross, and Sairoong Dinkoksung. 2014. “Ban Pa-Ao, pro-Poor Tourism and Uneven Development.” Tourism Geographies 16 (4): 687–703. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616688.2013.865071. Látková, Pavlína, and Christine A. Vogt. 2012. “Residents’ Attitudes toward Existing and Future Tourism Development in Rural Communities.” Journal of Travel Research 51 (1): 50–67. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287510394193. Mitchell, Ross E., and Paul F. J. Eagles. 2001. “An Integrative Approach to Tourism: Lessons from the Andes of Peru.” Journal of Sustainable Tourism 9 (1): 4–28. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669580108667386. Muler Gonzalez, Vanessa, Lluis Coromina, and Nuria Galí. 2018. “Overtourism: Residents’ Perceptions of Tourism Impact as an Indicator of Resident Social Carrying Capacity - Case Study of a Spanish Heritage Town.” Tourism Review 73 (3): 277–96. https://doi.org/10.1108/TR-08-2017-0138. Nunkoo, Robin, and Dogan Gursoy. 2012. “Residents’ Support for Tourism: An Identity Perspective.” Annals of Tourism Research 39 (1): 243–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2011.05.006. Nunkoo, Robin, and Haywantee Ramkissoon. 2012. “Power, Trust, Social Exchange and Community Support.” Annals of Tourism Research 39 (2): 997–1023. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2011.11.017. Nunkoo, Robin, and Kevin Kam Fung So. 2016. “Residents’ Support for Tourism: Testing Alternative Structural Models.” Journal of Travel Research 55 (7): 847–61. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287515592972. Pan, Jinyu, and Zhenzhi Yang. 2023. “Knowledge Mapping of Relative Deprivation Theory and Its Applicability in Tourism Research.” Humanities and Social Sciences Communications 10 (1): 68. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-01520-5. Perdue, Richard R., Patrick T. Long, and Lawrence Allen. 1990. “Resident Support for Tourism Development.” Annals of Tourism Research 17 (4): 586–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/0160-7383(90)90029-Q. Rasoolimanesh, S. Mostafa, Mastura Jaafar, Ned Kock, and T. Ramayah. 2015. “A Revised Framework of Social Exchange Theory to Investigate the Factors Influencing Residents’ Perceptions.” Tourism Management Perspectives 16 (October): 335–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2015.10.001. Runciman, W. G. (Walter Garrison). 1972. Relative Deprivation and Social Justice : A Study of Attitudes to Social Inequality in Twentieth-Century England . Pelican Books. Penguin. https://cir.nii.ac.jp/crid/1970304959828495879. Sharpley, Richard. 2014. “Host Perceptions of Tourism: A Review of the Research.” Tourism Management 42 (June): 37–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2013.10.007. Sharpley, Richard, and David J. Telfer. 2015. Tourism and Development: Concepts and Issues . Channel View Publications. Stylidis, Dimitrios, Avital Biran, Jason Sit, and Edith M. Szivas. 2014. “Residents’ Support for Tourism Development: The Role of Residents’ Place Image and Perceived Tourism Impacts.” Tourism Management 45 (December): 260–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2014.05.006. Wang, Bojie, Siyuan He, Qingwen Min, Feng Cui, and Guoping Wang. 2021. “Influence of Residents’ Perception of Tourism’s Impact on Supporting Tourism Development in a GIAHS Site: The Mediating Role of Perceived Justice and Community Identity.” Land 10 (10). https://doi.org/10.3390/land10100998. Wang, Yasong (Alex), and Robert E. Pfister. 2008. “Residents’ Attitudes Toward Tourism and Perceived Personal Benefits in a Rural Community.” Journal of Travel Research 47 (1): 84–93. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287507312402. Ward, Colleen, and Tracy Berno. 2011. “Beyond Social Exchange Theory: Attitudes Toward Tourists.” Annals of Tourism Research 38 (4): 1556–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2011.02.005. Zuo, Bing, Dogan Gursoy, and Geoffrey Wall. 2017. “Residents’ Support for Red Tourism in China: The Moderating Effect of Central Government.” Annals of Tourism Research 64 (May): 51–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2017.03.001. Tables Tables 2 to 8 are available in the supplementary files section Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-9018224","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":623282059,"identity":"61820ae7-d89b-48ff-9833-e0e2a5217abe","order_by":0,"name":"Jianyu Chen","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Universiti Sains","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Jianyu","middleName":"","lastName":"Chen","suffix":""},{"id":623282062,"identity":"e087eb6d-7638-4df5-96de-bac9d15934b4","order_by":1,"name":"Sharifah Rohayah Sheikh Dawood","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAoElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYFCCBBDBLEe6FmPStSQ2EK1Bvj35mcSHCuv0DedPJzDdbCNCi8GZZ2aSM86k5264kbuBOZcoLRIJZrd52w4DtfASqUV+Rvo3kJZ0g/NnidTCcCMHbEuCwQGiHXbmTflPoF8MZwL9cjjnHDEOa0/fbAAMMXm+82c3Ps4pI8ZhyOAAIxupWhgY/pCuZRSMglEwCoY/AAA5lzvTuqj5PwAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"Universiti Sains","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Sharifah","middleName":"Rohayah Sheikh","lastName":"Dawood","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-03-03 08:55:52","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9018224/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9018224/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":107135878,"identity":"94023744-65fc-4ca4-ac61-e3224f7b960b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-17 08:01:08","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":62453,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConceptual Framework\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSource: Authors’ own work\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9018224/v1/b685b9714a22ca6ea4802754.png"},{"id":107705193,"identity":"d18a2cf7-abce-4973-98a6-f23bc6531e0b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-24 09:09:21","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":314950,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9018224/v1/8e57178f-d473-41d9-8300-dd61ab2e29e7.pdf"},{"id":107135877,"identity":"dec6c6cc-f3bc-45cc-bfb7-75ac35056373","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-17 08:01:08","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":22972,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Tables.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9018224/v1/d0a7b33a1901b1d6cce30e0b.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Residents’ Support for Tourism in Early-Stage Themed Rural Destinations: Testing the Boundary Conditions of Social Exchange Theory in Wunvzhou, China","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eTourism-led transformation in rural regions is frequently accompanied by promises of economic revitalization and community renewal. Yet local reactions to such change are rarely uniform. While some residents welcome new opportunities, others respond more cautiously, even when tangible improvements are visible. Understanding why support emerges in some contexts but weakens in others remains central to tourism scholarship. A substantial body of research explains resident support through Social Exchange Theory (SET), arguing that residents tend to endorse tourism when they perceive that benefits outweigh costs (Nunkoo and Ramkissoon 2012; Ap \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e). Empirically, SET-informed models repeatedly show that residents\u0026rsquo; evaluations of economic, socio-cultural, and environmental impacts are closely tied to their support for tourism development (Rasoolimanesh et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Gursoy et al. 2002; Stylidis et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, the same \u0026ldquo;benefit\u0026ndash;support\u0026rdquo; logic has been increasingly criticized as too unconditional\u0026mdash;as if positive perceived impacts automatically translate into support. In practice, residents\u0026rsquo; judgments are often contingent on who benefits, how benefits are distributed, and whether the development is perceived as fair (Ward and Berno 2011). Emerging evidence from tourism contexts indicates that justice- and equity-related appraisals can shape or even override simple cost\u0026ndash;benefit reasoning, influencing residents\u0026rsquo; willingness to support tourism (Wang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). This motivates a \u0026ldquo;boundary condition\u0026rdquo; question: under what conditions does SET\u0026rsquo;s benefit\u0026ndash;support relationship hold strongly, and when does it weaken?\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis question is especially salient in early-stage themed rural destinations, where tourism is newly scaled up, institutions and participation mechanisms are still forming, and residents\u0026rsquo; attitudes may be more malleable and sensitive to perceived changes. Wunvzhou (China) represents such a context: as a themed rural destination in an early development phase, it provides an appropriate empirical setting to test when perceived impacts translate into support and when they do not. Rather than treating Wunvzhou as a purely descriptive case, this study uses it as a theory-testing context to examine the boundary conditions of SET.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccordingly, we theorize that residents\u0026rsquo; support is driven not only by perceived impacts but also by two key conditions. First, tourism involvement should function as a proximal mechanism that strengthens support because involved residents are more likely to access benefits and form favorable evaluations (Gursoy et al. 2002; Rasoolimanesh et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Second, relative deprivation / perceived unfairness may act as a boundary condition that attenuates the translation of perceived impacts into support: even if residents recognize destination-level benefits, perceived disadvantage can reduce their willingness to endorse tourism expansion (Pan and Yang 2023; Wang and Pfister 2008). Building on these arguments, this study develops and tests a model in which perceived economic, socio-cultural, and environmental impacts and tourism involvement directly predict residents\u0026rsquo; support, while relative deprivation conditions (moderates) the impact\u0026ndash;support links.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMethodologically, we employ PLS-SEM to estimate the measurement and structural models and to test moderation effects with SmartPLS, which is appropriate for latent-variable models with multiple predictors and interaction terms (Henseler et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). By reframing resident support as a conditional outcome, this study contributes by (1) positioning early-stage themed rural destinations as a theoretically meaningful context for SET boundary testing, and (2) showing how participation and perceived fairness shape whether perceived impacts convert into resident support\u0026mdash;offering actionable implications for inclusive governance in formative destination phases.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs a rapidly developing, state-supported themed rural destination characterized by concentrated investment and evolving governance arrangements, Wunvzhou provides an analytically revealing context to examine whether exchange mechanisms remain stable under conditions of uneven benefit distribution.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Literature Review","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Social Exchange Theory (SET)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSET, originally developed by Homans (1961), argues that human interactions are guided by the subjective evaluation of costs and benefits. SET has been extensively employed in tourism studies to understand residents' attitudes toward tourism development(Rasoolimanesh et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Nunkoo and Gursoy 2012; Perdue et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e) According to SET, residents support tourism development if they perceive benefits, such as economic prosperity, employment opportunities, and infrastructure improvements, to outweigh costs, including environmental degradation, cultural disruption, and overcrowding(Gursoy et al. 2002).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite its broad application, SET has been criticized for oversimplifying residents\u0026rsquo; decisions as purely economic transactions, thus neglecting critical socio-psychological dimensions such as emotional attachment, community pride, and place identity(L\u0026aacute;tkov\u0026aacute; and Vogt \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Nunkoo and Gursoy 2012; Sharpley \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, SET-based studies often assume that stable community perceptions form over time, thus largely focusing on mature tourism destinations rather than newly developed, themed tourism areas, where residents\u0026rsquo; perceptions are characterized by high levels of uncertainty and fluctuating expectations (Sharpley and Telfer 2015).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough SET emphasizes rational cost\u0026ndash;benefit evaluation, it pays limited attention to distributive justice and subjective comparison processes (Greenberg \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). Tourism development frequently generates uneven benefit distribution across communities, resulting in differentiated access to employment, entrepreneurship, and land-based returns (King and Dinkoksung 2014). Under such conditions, residents\u0026rsquo; evaluations may be shaped less by aggregate benefits and more by perceived fairness .\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRecent research highlights the importance of justice perceptions and trust in shaping tourism support (Ward and Berno 2011; Wang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). These studies suggest that exchange outcomes are embedded in social comparison processes, indicating that benefit\u0026ndash;support relationships may not operate uniformly across individuals.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study addresses this gap by examining how SET applies within the unique context of a newly developed rural-themed tourism destination in Wunvzhou, exploring the nuanced relationship between perceived benefits and costs at the early stage of tourism development.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2 Relative Deprivation Theory (RDT)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eRDT, initially conceptualized by Stouffer (1949), refers to individuals or groups feeling deprived compared with a particular reference group, triggering negative attitudes or resentment even when objective economic conditions improve. Applied to tourism contexts, RDT has been instrumental in understanding resident dissatisfaction and community conflicts arising from perceived inequities in tourism benefit distribution (Kachniewska \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Muler Gonzalez et al. 2018).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRecent studies employing RDT in tourism research highlight that when tourism revenues disproportionately benefit external investors, government authorities, or selected community segments, perceptions of deprivation become prominent, potentially triggering opposition to tourism projects despite their economic merits (Muler Gonzalez et al. 2018; Nunkoo and So 2016). However, empirical evidence based on RDT within rural Chinese destinations experiencing rapid tourism-led transformations remains limited.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRelative Deprivation Theory (RDT) provides a theoretical lens for understanding how perceived inequity influences attitudes(Runciman 1972). Rather than focusing on objective deprivation, RDT emphasizes subjective perceptions of disadvantage relative to reference groups. In tourism contexts, feelings of exclusion and unfair benefit allocation have been shown to affect residents\u0026rsquo; support for development (Pan and Yang 2023; Zuo et al. 2017).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eConceptually, relative deprivation does not replace exchange logic but may constrain it. Even when residents recognize economic or social improvements at the destination level, perceived unfairness may attenuate their willingness to support continued tourism expansion. Thus, RDT can be reconceptualized as specifying a boundary condition for SET.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTherefore, this research applies RDT to analyze the impacts of the distribution of perceived inequitable tourism benefits on residents\u0026rsquo; attitudes in the Wunvzhou scenic area, aiming to enrich the understanding of how relative deprivation shapes community responses in rapidly evolving rural tourism contexts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3 Integration of SET and RDT\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrevious studies examining residents' attitudes toward tourism development have relied predominantly on SET, which emphasizes economic rationality and assumes that residents evaluate tourism primarily on the basis of tangible costs and benefits (Nunkoo and Ramkissoon 2012). While SET has successfully explained residents' attitudes in well-established tourism contexts, it tends to overlook residents' deeper socio-psychological responses, particularly in contexts of rapid tourism-induced change. Relative RDT complements SET by providing insights into how perceptions of the unequal distribution of tourism benefits can lead to feelings of dissatisfaction and resentment, even when overall economic conditions are improving (Muler Gonzalez et al. 2018).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIntegrating SET with RDT provides a more comprehensive theoretical perspective to understand the dynamics of resident attitudes in newly emerging tourism destinations, such as Wunvzhou. This integrative approach considers both rational economic evaluations and emotional perceptions of fairness, thus capturing the multidimensional nature of community responses to tourism (Mitchell and Eagles 2001). The combined use of these two theories addresses the critical limitation of using either theory in isolation and enriches the academic discourse on tourism impacts by acknowledging that residents' support or opposition to tourism can simultaneously be rational and emotional and influenced by both perceived economic gains and social inequalities (Bernini et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Consequently, this theoretical integration contributes significantly to the literature by offering deeper insights into community attitudes and behavior in rapidly evolving tourism contexts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBuilding on SET and RDT, this study proposes a conditional framework in which perceived impacts and tourism involvement positively influence residents\u0026rsquo; support, but relative deprivation moderates these relationships. By explicitly testing whether the strength of impact\u0026ndash;support links varies across levels of perceived deprivation, the study advances a more context-sensitive and theoretically refined understanding of resident\u0026ndash;tourism relationships.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4 Residents' Attitudes toward Themed Tourism Destinations\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe literature on residents\u0026rsquo; perceptions of tourism development has focused predominantly on either mature, established destinations (Almeida Garc\u0026iacute;a et al. 2015; L\u0026aacute;tkov\u0026aacute; and Vogt \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e) or mass tourism contexts (Andereck et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). There is a clear dearth of research specifically targeting emerging culturally themed rural destinations, despite their growing popularity and distinct developmental characteristics (Kim et al. 2013; Rasoolimanesh et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdditionally, existing studies frequently adopt a homogeneous perspective toward local residents, overlooking critical intra-community diversity, such as demographic distinctions (age, educational level, income source) and participation in tourism-related activities (Nunkoo and Ramkissoon 2012; Sharpley \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) This oversight is particularly critical in newly emerging tourism settings, where varying levels of involvement and demographic characteristics can substantially alter resident perceptions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.5 Moderating Factors: Tourism Involvement and Relative Deprivation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndividual characteristics and experiences may moderate the relationship between perceptions of tourism impact and attitudes. Tourism involvement, referring to the extent of residents\u0026rsquo; direct or indirect engagement with tourism (e.g., employment, entrepreneurship), has been found to enhance residents\u0026rsquo; positive attitudes, as it increases perceived benefits and agency (Wang and Pfister 2008). Conversely, relative deprivation may weaken the positive effects of perceived benefits, as individuals focus more on comparative losses than absolute gains (Gautam and Bhalla 2024).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite these theoretical propositions, few empirical studies have tested these moderation effects in a combined framework, and even fewer have done so in early-stage, themed rural destinations, where involvement opportunities and benefit distribution are often uneven and politicized.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this study, tourism involvement is specified as a direct antecedent of supportive attitudes, whereas relative deprivation is tested as a moderator that may weaken the perception\u0026ndash;attitude links.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.6 Research Gaps and Conceptual Framework\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite accumulated knowledge, three gaps persist. First, SET has often been applied without incorporating social justice perspectives, limiting our understanding of the fairness concerns that shape attitudes. Second, the roles of tourism involvement and relative deprivation as boundary conditions remain underexamined. Third, early-stage, themed rural destinations in developing countries are seldom investigated.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo address these gaps, we develop an integrated framework (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e) that combines SET with RDT, models involvement as a direct antecedent, and tests whether relative deprivation weakens the perception\u0026ndash;attitude links.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eSource: Authors\u0026rsquo; own work\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.7 Research hypotheses\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSocial Exchange Theory (SET) posits that residents evaluate tourism development through a cost\u0026ndash;benefit framework (Ap \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e; Nunkoo and Ramkissoon 2012). When tourism generates perceived economic, social, or environmental gains, residents are expected to reciprocate with supportive attitudes. This exchange-based logic has been consistently validated across tourism contexts (Gursoy et al., 2002; Rasoolimanesh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, the applicability of SET presumes that residents interpret benefits as personally or collectively meaningful. In early-stage themed rural destinations, benefit distribution may be uneven, and not all residents participate equally in tourism activities. Therefore, while perceived impacts are expected to exert positive effects on support, these effects may not operate uniformly across individuals.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDirect Effects: Exchange-Based Predictions\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eH1: Perceived economic impacts positively influence residents\u0026rsquo; support for tourism.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eH2: Perceived social impacts positively influence residents\u0026rsquo; support for tourism.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eH3: Perceived environmental impacts positively influence residents\u0026rsquo; support for tourism.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTourism involvement reflects residents\u0026rsquo; direct exposure to exchange outcomes. Residents engaged in tourism are more likely to internalize benefits and thus exhibit stronger supportive attitudes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eH4: Tourism involvement positively influences residents\u0026rsquo; support for tourism.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoundary Condition: Relative Deprivation\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRelative Deprivation Theory (Runciman 1972) suggests that individuals evaluate outcomes not only in absolute terms but also through social comparison. When residents perceive themselves as disadvantaged relative to others, feelings of unfairness may weaken the positive influence of perceived benefits on support (Wang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThus, relative deprivation is conceptualized as a boundary condition that constrains the exchange logic of SET.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eH5a: Relative deprivation negatively moderates the relationship between perceived economic impacts and support, such that the relationship is weaker under higher levels of relative deprivation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eH5b: Relative deprivation negatively moderates the relationship between perceived social impacts and support.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eH5c: Relative deprivation negatively moderates the relationship between perceived environmental impacts and support.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTogether, these hypotheses test whether the positive exchange-based relationships predicted by SET remain robust under conditions of perceived inequity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Methodology","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.1 Study area and Sampling Procedure\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eWunvzhou Scenic Area, located in Wuyuan County, Jiangxi Province, China, is a newly developed cultural tourism destination featuring historical legends and traditional Huizhou culture. Officially opened in 2021, the site quickly became a regional tourism hotspot, attracting visitors with immersive large-scale performances, ancient-style architecture, and themed storytelling based on the folklore of Wun\u0026uuml; (five daughters).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe project was developed with significant government and private investment as part of rural revitalization efforts in East China. It integrates cultural heritage, ecological landscapes, and creative tourism formats such as night-time performances and interactive exhibitions. Rapid development has brought about notable socioeconomic transformations within host communities.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAccording to internal estimates from site management (2023), Wunvzhou received approximately 1.2 million visitors in 2023, generating over 85 million RMB in tourism revenue. The development created over 450 local jobs, including positions in performance, catering, transport, and management services. However, concerns have emerged regarding uneven benefit distribution, rising costs of living, and cultural commodification, particularly among long-term residents not directly employed in tourism.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe site serves as a representative case of emerging \u0026ldquo;theme-based\u0026rdquo; rural tourism in China. Rapid tourism expansion, reliance on cultural narratives, and strong government involvement provide a valuable context for investigating how residents perceive tourism impacts and form attitudes toward tourism development.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData were collected via stratified convenience sampling across villages/communities within the scenic area, with onsite snowballing used to reach underrepresented subgroups.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.2 Research Design\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study adopts a quantitative approach, using a structured questionnaire survey to empirically investigate the relationships between residents\u0026rsquo; perceived impacts (economic, environmental, and social) and their attitudes toward tourism development. Furthermore, we examine the moderating role of relative deprivation and model tourism involvement as a direct antecedent. The choice of a quantitative methodology aligns with prior studies investigating community perceptions and attitudes within tourism contexts (Nunkoo and Ramkissoon 2012; Gursoy et al. 2002).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.3 Sampling and Data Collection\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA structured questionnaire was administered via face‒to‒face surveys in May 2025 via a stratified convenience sampling approach across multiple villages and neighborhoods within the scenic area. A total of 320 questionnaires were distributed, and 296 valid responses were retained (92.5%).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.4 Questionnaire Design and Measurement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe questionnaire comprised three sections aligned with the conceptual model and used reflective (Mode A) measures for all latent constructs. Section 1 captured demographics (gender, age, education, length of residence, and personal/household tourism employment) for profiling and subgroup checks. Section 2 measured the core constructs on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree; 5 = strongly agree) using validated items adapted to the local context. Perceived economic impact (PEI; e.g., jobs, income opportunities) and perceived social impact (PSI; e.g., cultural preservation, community pride) each included five items (Andereck et al. 2005; Nunkoo and Ramkissoon 2012; Rasoolimanesh et al. 2015). Perceived environmental impact (PEnvI) comprises three positively worded items reflecting environmental quality and management improvements. Attitudes toward tourism (ATT) uses three items capturing overall support for local tourism development (Gursoy et al. 2019; Rasoolimanesh et al. 2015). Section 3 operationalizes the moderators: Tourism Involvement (TI; three items on personal/household engagement in tourism; e.g., \u0026ldquo;My family engages in tourism-related activities\u0026rdquo;) and Relative Deprivation (RD; three items on perceived unfairness/exclusion; e.g., \u0026ldquo;Others in my community benefit more from tourism than I do\u0026rdquo;), with RD items adapted from Gonz\u0026aacute;lez et al. (2018) and Jeong et al. (2022). Higher scores indicate stronger agreement with the intended meaning of each construct.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe instrument was drafted in English, translated into Chinese and back-translated by independent bilinguals; discrepancies were resolved by a third reviewer to ensure semantic equivalence and cultural appropriateness. A pilot test (n = 30) with local residents informed minor wording refinements; no reverse-coded items were retained to avoid respondent confusion. To mitigate common method bias, respondents were assured anonymity, item order was randomized within construct blocks, and scale anchors were standardized; ex post, full collinearity variance inflation factor (VIF) values were examined to assess CMV/multicollinearity (target \u0026lt; 3.3 in subsequent analysis). For PLS-SEM, construct scores were handled as latent variable scores estimated in SmartPLS 4; for descriptive summaries, we report mean scores at the construct level.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.5 Pilot and Reliability Checks\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePrior to structural estimation, the reflective measurement model was rigorously assessed in SmartPLS 4 following current PLS‒SEM guidelines. Content validity was ensured through expert review, translation/back-translation, and a pilot test (n = 30), as described in Section 3.4.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInternal consistency reliability. For each construct, we examined Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s \u0026alpha;, rho_A, and Composite Reliability (CR). The acceptable thresholds were \u0026ge; 0.70 (with 0.60\u0026ndash;0.70 tolerable in early exploratory stages). These indices jointly indicate whether the indicators consistently reflect their latent construct.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConvergent validity. We inspected outer loadings (preferred \u0026ge; 0.70) and average variance extracted (AVE) (target \u0026ge; 0.50), confirming that a construct explains at least half of the variance in its indicators. When an indicator\u0026rsquo;s loading fell between 0.40\u0026ndash;0.70, retention was determined case-by-case on the basis of its theoretical importance and impact on the CR/AVE; indicators with loadings \u0026lt; 0.40 were candidates for removal.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDiscriminant validity was examined with the HTMT ratio (target \u0026lt; .85; a more liberal .90 threshold is sometimes reported) with bias-corrected confidence intervals from bootstrapping to verify that 1.00 was not included. As a secondary cross-check, we inspected the Fornell\u0026ndash;Larcker criterion and cross-loadings to ensure that each indicator loaded higher on its own construct than on others.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMulticollinearity and common-method bias. To mitigate ex ante CMV, we applied procedural remedies (anonymity, randomized item blocks, standardized anchors). Ex post, we computed full collinearity VIFs for all the constructs; values \u0026lt; 3.3 indicate that neither vertical nor lateral collinearity (and thus CMV) is likely to bias estimates. Predictor-level VIFs were also checked (target \u0026lt; 3.3) to rule out multicollinearity in the structural stage.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMeasurement invariance for moderation and the MGA. Because moderation by relative deprivation (RD) was tested via both interaction terms and multigroup analysis (MGA) (high vs. low RD), we followed the MICOM procedure to assess invariance prior to comparing path coefficients: (1) configural invariance (identical data treatment and model specification across groups); (2) compositional invariance via permutation tests; and (3) equality of means/variances (permutation-based). The establishment of at least configural and compositional invariance supports meaningful between-group comparisons; a lack of full invariance is acknowledged in the interpretation of MGA results.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDecision rules and reporting. Item purification (if any) was driven by theory and the criteria above, prioritizing parsimony without compromising content validity. Summary statistics for loadings, \u0026alpha;, rho_A, CR, AVE, and HTMT are reported in the Measurement Model results (Table 5), whereas overall model quality (e.g., SRMR, R\u0026sup2;, and Q\u0026sup2;) and hypothesis tests appear in Sections 4.4\u0026ndash;4.6. This two-stage approach ensures that reliability and validity are established before drawing inferences about the structural relationships.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 2. Construct Operationalization\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv align=\"center\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNote: All the constructs are reflective (Mode A). The measurement properties (factor loadings,\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026alpha;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e, CR, AVE, and HTMT) are reported in Table 5.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAbbreviations: SD = strongly disagree; SA = strongly agree.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSource: Authors\u0026rsquo; own work\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.6 Data analysis\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData were analyzed using variance-based structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) in SmartPLS 4. This analytical strategy allows assessment of whether exchange-based relationships operate consistently across fairness conditions, thereby testing the boundary conditions of SET. Beyond estimating direct relationships, PLS-SEM was employed to examine whether the exchange-based relationships predicted by Social Exchange Theory operate conditionally under varying levels of perceived relative deprivation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis approach is appropriate given the multiple latent constructs, inclusion of moderation, and moderate sample size, and it is robust to nonnormality. Before modeling, we screened for missing values, outliers, and univariate normality; descriptive statistics were computed for all the items and constructs. To address common-method bias and multicollinearity, we inspected full collinearity variance inflation factor (VIF) values (target \u0026lt; 3.3). Bivariate correlations are reported for descriptive statistics only; inferential claims are based on the PLS‒SEM estimates.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMeasurement model evaluation. All the constructs were modeled reflectively (Mode A). Reliability was assessed via Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha and composite reliability (CR) (acceptable \u0026ge; 0.70). Convergent validity was evaluated via average variance extracted (AVE) (target \u0026ge; 0.50) and outer loadings (preferred \u0026ge; 0.70). Discriminant validity was examined with the HTMT (target \u0026lt; .85; a more liberal .90 threshold is sometimes reported). Indicator loadings and cross-loadings were also reviewed to ensure construct clarity and identify any theoretically unwarranted items.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStructural model estimation. Path coefficients were estimated with 5,000 bootstrap resamples (bias-corrected intervals) to obtain t values, p values, and confidence intervals. Model quality was judged via SRMR (approximate model fit), R\u0026sup2; for endogenous constructs (explanatory power), f\u0026sup2; for effect sizes of exogenous predictors (small \u0026asymp; .02; medium \u0026asymp; .15; large \u0026asymp; .35), and Q\u0026sup2; (Stone\u0026ndash;Geisser predictive relevance by blindfolding). Predictor VIFs were checked to confirm acceptable multicollinearity (target \u0026lt; 3.3).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eModeration analysis. To explicitly test the boundary conditions of Social Exchange Theory, the moderating role of relative deprivation was examined using the two-stage approach in PLS-SEM. Latent variable scores were saved from the main model, interaction terms (e.g., PEI\u0026times;RD) were created, and the interactions were re-estimated to obtain moderation effects. Multi-group analysis (MGA) was conducted as a robustness check to determine whether the strength of the exchange-based relationships differs systematically across levels of perceived relative deprivation.. Tourism involvement (TI) was modeled as a direct predictor (H4), which is consistent with the hypothesized framework, rather than as a moderator.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlgorithm settings (replicability). PLS algorithm with path weighting scheme; maximum 300 iterations; stop criterion 1e-7; bootstrapping = 5,000 subsamples (two-tailed tests; BCa confidence intervals). Blindfolding for Q\u0026sup2; followed SmartPLS guidelines (omission distance set accordingly). Where relevant, PLSpredict was consulted to gauge the out-of-sample predictive performance of the attitudes construct.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis workflow ensures that reliability and validity are established prior to hypothesis testing, that moderation is examined with both interaction terms and MGA, and that reporting aligns with current best practices for PLS-SEM in tourism research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.7 Ethical statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll the respondents were informed about the research purpose, guaranteed anonymity, and assured of confidentiality regarding their provided information. Participation was voluntary, and informed consent was explicitly obtained at the start of the questionnaire.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study involving human participants was reviewed and approved by the Ethics Committee of the Office of Research and Development, Shangrao Normal University, China (Approval No. SRNC-REC-2025-022701). All methods were carried out in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations and in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. Informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to their participation in the study.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4. Results","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4.1 Respondents\u0026apos; Demographic Profile\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis profile highlights the heterogeneity needed to test our model. The high share of long-term residents (\u0026gt;20 years: 39.5%) offers a vantage point on perceived social/environmental change, directly linking to H2\u0026ndash;H3 under SET. The prevalence of tourism involvement (indirect or direct: 72.9%) aligns with H4 and indicates that many respondents experience benefits through employment or household ties\u0026mdash;conditions under which support for tourism is theoretically expected to rise. Moreover, the income spread and mixed education levels speak to perceived fairness and awareness, supplying variance relevant to RDT and moderation tests (H5a\u0026ndash;H5c). Age diversity ensures that cohorts with potentially different risk\u0026ndash;benefit trade-offs are represented, improving the external validity of the structural paths. We emphasize that these patterns are descriptive and serve to contextualize the subsequent PLS‒SEM tests; formal inferences about paths and moderation are reported in Sections 4.4\u0026ndash;4.5.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4.2 Descriptive Statistics of Perceived Tourism Impacts and Attitudes\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDescriptive results regarding perceived tourism impacts (economic, social, and environmental) and residents\u0026rsquo; attitudes are reported in Table 4. The respondents generally expressed positive perceptions of economic benefits (M = 3.85, SD = 0.82), followed by social impacts (M = 3.62, SD = 0.79), whereas environmental impacts were slightly lower but still positive (M = 3.48, SD = 0.91). Overall, residents exhibited favorable attitudes toward tourism development (M = 3.91, SD = 0.87).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4.3 Measurement Model Evaluation\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll outer loadings were statistically significant and exceeded 0.70 (p \u0026lt; .001). The composite reliability (CR) ranged from 0.86--0.90; the AVE values were \u0026ge; 0.56, supporting convergent validity. The HTMT values were less than 0.85, indicating discriminant validity.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4.4 Structural Model Results (PLS-SEM)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe structural relationships were estimated using PLS-SEM in SmartPLS 4. The structural model showed acceptable fit (SRMR = 0.059). The model explained substantial variance in residents\u0026rsquo; attitudes (R\u0026sup2;_Attitudes = 0.62; Q\u0026sup2;_Attitudes = 0.38). As hypothesized, perceived economic (\u0026beta; = 0.47), social (\u0026beta; = 0.33), environmental (\u0026beta; = 0.21), and tourism involvement (\u0026beta; = 0.24) perceptions positively predicted residents\u0026rsquo; attitudes (all p \u0026lt; .01). Effect sizes indicated practical importance for economic (f\u0026sup2; = 0.18) and social (f\u0026sup2; = 0.11) impacts, with smaller effects for environmental (f\u0026sup2; = 0.06) and involvement (f\u0026sup2; = 0.08) impacts. The results of the multicollinearity tests were acceptable (all VIFs \u0026lt; 2.3).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTaken together, these results indicate practically meaningful effects for economic and social impacts (f\u0026sup2; \u0026ge; .10), with smaller yet significant contributions of environmental perceptions and involvement.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4.5 Moderation Analysis: Testing the Boundary Conditions of SET\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTwo-stage interaction models indicated that relative deprivation negatively moderated the perception\u0026ndash;attitude links: economic \u0026times; RD (\u0026beta;_int = \u0026minus;0.12, t = \u0026minus;2.47, p = .014), social \u0026times; RD (\u0026beta;_int = \u0026minus;0.10, t = \u0026minus;2.11, p = .035), and environmental \u0026times; RD (\u0026beta;_int = \u0026minus;0.08, t = \u0026minus;2.03, p = .043). Multigroup analysis (MGA) comparing the high RD group with the low RD group corroborated the direction of the effects.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo examine whether the exchange-based relationships operate uniformly across residents, the moderating role of relative deprivation was tested. The interaction effects indicate that relative deprivation significantly weakens the positive relationships between perceived impacts and residents\u0026rsquo; support.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSpecifically, under higher levels of perceived relative deprivation, the strength of the perceived impact\u0026ndash;support relationships decreases. In other words, even when residents acknowledge economic, social, or environmental benefits, their willingness to support tourism diminishes if they perceive the distribution of those benefits as unfair.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese findings suggest that the exchange logic proposed by SET does not operate universally. Instead, its explanatory power is contingent upon perceptions of distributive fairness. The results therefore provide empirical evidence that relative deprivation functions as a boundary condition constraining exchange-based support.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4.6 Summary of Hypothesis Testing\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo provide a clear overview of all hypotheses tested in this study, Table 8 presents a summary of the statistical methods, effect estimates, significance levels, and support status for each hypothesis. All the proposed hypotheses (H1\u0026ndash;H5c) were supported by the data.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e5.1 Exchange Mechanisms in Early-Stage Rural Destinations\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study set out to examine whether the exchange-based logic of Social Exchange Theory (SET) operates uniformly in early-stage themed rural destinations. The structural model results confirm that perceived economic, social, and environmental impacts significantly increase residents’ support for tourism development. These findings are consistent with established SET-based research suggesting that residents reciprocate perceived benefits with supportive attitudes (Ap 1992; Nunkoo and Ramkissoon 2012).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eImportantly, tourism involvement also exerts a positive direct influence on support. Residents who are directly or indirectly engaged in tourism demonstrate stronger endorsement of development, indicating that exposure to exchange outcomes reinforces positive evaluations. Together, these results suggest that exchange mechanisms are active and meaningful in early-stage rural tourism contexts.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHowever, confirming the presence of exchange-based effects was not the central contribution of this study. Rather, the primary objective was to assess whether these effects remain stable across different conditions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e5.2 Relative Deprivation as a Boundary Condition\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe moderation results reveal that the positive relationships between perceived impacts and residents’ support weaken under higher levels of perceived relative deprivation. This finding is theoretically significant. While SET assumes that perceived benefits translate into support, it implicitly presumes that individuals interpret those benefits as personally or collectively fair. The present findings demonstrate that this assumption does not always hold. Even when residents recognize economic or social improvements at the destination level, their support diminishes if they perceive themselves as disadvantaged relative to others.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis suggests that exchange-based support operates conditionally rather than universally. Relative deprivation constrains the strength of the benefit–support relationship, indicating that fairness perceptions shape how residents interpret exchange outcomes. In this sense, Relative Deprivation Theory (RDT) does not replace SET but refines it by specifying the contextual boundary under which exchange logic remains effective.These findings suggest that exchange-based support is contingent upon the perceived legitimacy of benefit distribution, indicating that fairness perceptions define the boundary within which SET retains explanatory power.This suggests that exchange-based support should be conceptualized as legitimacy-dependent rather than purely benefit-driven.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e5.3 Theoretical Implications\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study advances the resident–tourism literature in three ways.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFirst, it shifts the analytical focus from verifying exchange relationships to testing their boundary conditions. Much prior research has treated SET as a general explanatory framework, assuming stable relationships between perceived impacts and support. By demonstrating that these relationships weaken under perceived inequity, this study specifies when SET-based predictions hold and when they attenuate.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSecond, the findings integrate exchange theory with distributive justice perspectives. Rather than conceptualizing perceived impacts as purely economic evaluations, the results show that fairness perceptions intervene in the cognitive processing of benefits. This theoretical refinement aligns resident-support research more closely with broader social-psychological models of comparative evaluation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThird, the early-stage themed rural destination context highlights the structural conditions under which boundary effects become salient. In rapidly developing destinations, uneven benefit distribution and evolving governance arrangements may amplify perceptions of relative deprivation. This suggests that the boundary conditions of SET may be especially relevant in transitional tourism environments.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e5.4 Practical Implications\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFrom a governance perspective, the findings indicate that generating aggregate benefits is insufficient to ensure sustained community support. Policymakers must address not only economic gains but also perceptions of equitable distribution.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFirst, transparent benefit-sharing mechanisms should be institutionalized early in the development process to prevent perceived exclusion. Second, expanding resident participation in tourism-related activities may strengthen supportive attitudes by increasing exposure to exchange outcomes. Third, communication strategies should emphasize inclusiveness and procedural fairness, particularly in early-stage projects where structural inequalities may emerge.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese measures are particularly critical in themed rural destinations undergoing rapid transformation, where social comparisons are heightened and perceptions of distributive injustice may quickly undermine support.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e5.5 Reframing Resident Support as Conditional\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTaken together, the findings suggest that residents’ support for tourism in early-stage rural destinations should not be viewed as a simple function of perceived benefits. Instead, support emerges from a conditional exchange process shaped by perceived fairness and social comparison.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBy specifying relative deprivation as a boundary condition, this study refines the explanatory scope of Social Exchange Theory and contributes to a more context-sensitive understanding of resident–tourism relationships.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"6. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study examined residents’ support for tourism in an early-stage themed rural destination by explicitly testing the boundary conditions of Social Exchange Theory (SET). Drawing on Relative Deprivation Theory (RDT), the research proposed that while perceived economic, social, and environmental impacts and tourism involvement positively influence residents’ support, these relationships may weaken under conditions of perceived relative deprivation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe findings confirm that exchange-based mechanisms operate in the expected direction: residents who perceive greater benefits and who are more involved in tourism are more likely to support development. However, the results further demonstrate that these positive relationships are not uniform. Perceived relative deprivation significantly attenuates the strength of impact–support links, indicating that fairness perceptions shape how residents interpret exchange outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBy specifying relative deprivation as a boundary condition, this study refines SET rather than merely applying it. The findings suggest that exchange-based support is conditional upon perceived distributive fairness, particularly in early-stage rural destinations characterized by uneven participation and evolving governance structures. This theoretical refinement advances resident–tourism research by shifting the focus from whether exchange mechanisms operate to when and under what conditions they hold.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePractically, the results underscore that generating aggregate benefits alone is insufficient to sustain community support. Policymakers and destination managers must prioritize transparent benefit-sharing mechanisms, broaden participation opportunities, and address perceptions of inequity alongside environmental management. In emerging themed rural destinations, inclusive governance is essential to prevent the erosion of support during formative development phases.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFuture research may extend this boundary-condition perspective to different destination types and longitudinal settings to further examine how fairness perceptions interact with tourism development trajectories over time.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBy specifying fairness as a structural boundary of exchange-based support, this study contributes to a more conditional and context-sensitive formulation of Social Exchange Theory within tourism research.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Availability\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets generated and/or analysed during the current study are not publicly available due to participant privacy and ethical restrictions but are available from the first author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research was supported by\u0026nbsp;Jiangxi Provincial Higher Education Humanities and Social Sciences Research Project (Grant No.JC2510)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor contributions\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eJ.C. conceptualized the study, developed the research design, conducted data collection and statistical analysis, and drafted the manuscript. S.R.S.D. provided supervision, contributed to theoretical development and methodological refinement, and critically revised the manuscript for important intellectual content. All authors reviewed and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAlmeida Garc\u0026iacute;a, Fernando, Antonia Balbuena V\u0026aacute;zquez, and Rafael Cort\u0026eacute;s Mac\u0026iacute;as. 2015. \u0026ldquo;Resident\u0026rsquo;s Attitudes towards the Impacts of Tourism.\u0026rdquo; \u003cem\u003eTourism Management Perspectives\u003c/em\u003e 13 (January): 33\u0026ndash;40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2014.11.002.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAndereck, Kathleen L., Karin M. Valentine, Richard C. Knopf, and Christine A. 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Focusing on Wunvzhou, China, this study examines how residents interpret tourism\u0026rsquo;s economic, social, and environmental changes and whether such perceptions consistently translate into supportive attitudes. Rather than assuming that perceived gains automatically lead to endorsement, we explore the role of perceived fairness in shaping these relationships. Survey data from 296 residents were analyzed using PLS-SEM. The results indicate that positive impact perceptions and tourism involvement are associated with stronger support; however, the strength of these associations declines when residents perceive unequal benefit distribution. These findings suggest that exchange-based support is contingent upon perceived legitimacy of outcomes. The study highlights the importance of fairness and inclusion in sustaining community support during early stages of rural destination development.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Residents’ Support for Tourism in Early-Stage Themed Rural Destinations: Testing the Boundary Conditions of Social Exchange Theory in Wunvzhou, China","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-04-17 08:01:04","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9018224/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-04-21T15:14:09+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-04-15T02:35:29+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"247085407790530341351344094272114727291","date":"2026-04-11T09:26:01+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-04-09T10:55:13+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"86015028575629768367411143065953592830","date":"2026-04-09T10:33:59+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2026-04-09T09:21:12+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2026-04-08T01:41:38+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2026-03-19T10:28:03+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2026-03-17T09:19:31+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Scientific Reports","date":"2026-03-17T08:21:09+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"470254d4-502f-4046-873a-cd175c5a52d4","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 17th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[{"id":66330460,"name":"Earth and environmental sciences/Environmental social sciences"},{"id":66330461,"name":"Scientific community and society/Geography"},{"id":66330462,"name":"Social science/Geography"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-14T04:53:32+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-04-17 08:01:04","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-9018224","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-9018224","identity":"rs-9018224","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}