Mechanical and Thermal Evaluation of Hybrid Oil Palm Biomass as Partial Replacement of Green Bricks

Mechanical and Thermal Evaluation of Hybrid Oil Palm Biomass as Partial Replacement of Green Bricks | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Mechanical and Thermal Evaluation of Hybrid Oil Palm Biomass as Partial Replacement of Green Bricks Adam Fahmi Ramzaidi, Roziah Zailan, Mohd Faizal Md Jaafar, Fatin Zafirah Mansor, and 2 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-5550833/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 5 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Malaysia’s palm oil industry, a leader in global production, generates significant waste, particularly palm kernel shell (PKS) and palm oil fuel ash (POFA), byproducts of oil extraction and boiler processes. This study explores the potential of hybrid PKS and POFA as partial replacements for sand and cement in brick production, with the aim of reducing landfill waste and greenhouse gas emissions. These materials offer a sustainable and cost-effective approach to produce sustainable bricks with enhanced thermal and insulation properties. Although PKS has a higher water absorption rate than sand, bricks containing PKS meet both Malaysian and American standards for strength, highlighting PKS as a viable, eco-friendly material. Four different brick samples were analyzed to assess their thermal performance, utilizing a test chamber with thermocouples and a data logger to monitor temperature variations. Control bricks showed a 2°C increase from external to internal temperatures, whereas bricks with 30% PKS maintained a narrower 0.88°C temperature difference, demonstrating improved insulation. These findings underscore the potential of hybrid PKS and POFA bricks to significantly enhance thermal insulation, offering an environmentally sustainable alternative to conventional building materials. Green Brick Oil Palm Biomass Palm Kernel Shell Palm Oil Fuel Ash Thermal Performance Building Material Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Introduction Malaysia is abundant in natural resources, with oil palm being a key economic crop. The country accounts for approximately 26% of the world's palm oil production, totaling 19.71 million metric tonnes in 2023, making it the second-largest producer after Indonesia (U.S Department of Agriculture 2024 ). By 2050, Malaysia is expected to produce 35 million tonnes of crude palm oil yearly, driven by the country's high demand for vegetable oil (Naidu and Moorthy 2021 ). While the palm oil industry generates significant economic benefits, it also produces a large amount of biomass by-products considered as waste. As the palm oil milling industry expands in Malaysia, there is a corresponding increase in the production of biomass derived from palm oil mill (POM) operations after oil extraction (Jafri et al. 2021 ). In 2019, the recorded amount of oil palm biomass (OPB) was 13.09 million metric tonnes, with 75% consisting of empty fruit bunches (EFB), mesocarp palm fiber (MPF), and palm kernel shells (PKS), while the remaining 25% was palm oil mill effluent (POME) (Hamzah et al. 2021). Additionally, biomass boilers generate two types of ash: palm oil fuel ash (POFA) and boiler ash. POFA is produced from the combustion of EFB, while boiler ash includes clinker and ash from MSF (Zarina et al. 2013 ). POFA is primarily disposed of in POM stockpile or landfills without any commercial returns, leading to growing environmental concerns related to biomass waste management in Malaysia (Zailan et al. 2021 ). Nowadays, cement sector is facing sustainability challenges due to its substantial carbon emission (CO 2 ) and heavy reliance on natural resources. Cement output is increasing because of the growing demand for concrete, a vital building material especially bricks. The environmental impact of the cement industry is highlighted by the fact that producing one tonne of cement releases almost 0.9 tonnes of CO 2 (Hasanbeigi et al. 2013 ). These elements highlight the necessity of sustainable methods in the building and construction industries. Researchers have explored the conversion of oil palm biomass (OPB) waste into valuable construction materials, such as cement sand bricks, as a sustainable solution to address environmental concerns. Among the OPB by-products, palm kernel shell (PKS) has been extensively studied as a partial sand replacement in brick production (Adazabra et al. 2023 ; Sarani et al. 2023 ; Yusoff et al. 2023). Additionally, palm oil fuel ash (POFA) alone has emerged as another promising material to replace cement in masonry block production and asphalt mixture (Borhan et al. 2010 ; Rahman et al. 2014 ). It has been shown to lower thermal conductivity in concrete by 15–50%, contributing to improved insulation properties (Awang and Arminda 2019 ). Finely milled POFA exhibits pozzolanic properties that enhance concrete’s performance. Specifically, it can improve compressive strength by up to 100%, increase resistance to chloride penetration, reduce heat generation, and enhance durability in acidic environments (Kadir and Sarani 2020 ). Earlier work by Adnan et al. ( 2019 ) assessed the fire resistance performance of POFA-based bricks and reported that although bricks with higher POFA content showed lower compressive strength at 500°C, the strength remained above the minimum requirement for non-load bearing applications. ໿Incorporating POFA in cement sand bricks can enhance the work-ability of the mixture (Ahmad 2019 ). In addition, the use of POFA in foamed concrete blocks has been linked to reductions in indoor air temperature and air conditioning energy consumption over time (Awang and Arminda 2019 ). Meanwhile, PKS, is being studied as a replacement for sand in brick-making due to its unique physical and chemical properties. It is widely available, sustainable, and offers benefits such as lightweight structure (Sarani et al. 2023 ). PKS-bricks shown slow hydration time to improve compressive strength, durability and dimensional stability (Ajayi 2023 ). Other efforts in sustainable brick development include the evaluation of bricks made from dredged sediments in comparison to conventional bricks Manap et al. ( 2016 ), the use of treated POME sludge from the electrocoagulation technique Asikin et al. ( 2021 ) and incorporation of palm oil clinker into sand bricks (Ghazali et al. 2023 ). Furthermore, oil palm shell has been used in lightweight aggregate concrete containing POFA (Muthusamy et al. ( 2020 ). Despite these advancements, thermal evaluation has been largely omitted in all the aforementioned studies, highlighting a critical gap in understanding the thermal performance of such sustainable brick materials. Designing sustainable, energy-efficient buildings requires a deep grasp of bricks' thermal characteristics. Architects and engineers can create structures that maximise passive heating and cooling techniques by using thermal analysis, which offers insightful information on how various brick kinds react to heat (Hassan et al. 2022 ). For instance, buildings can be efficiently insulated by using bricks with low thermal conductivity, which eliminates the need for extra heating or cooling systems. Furthermore, the switch to eco and low energy construction materials heavily relies on thermal analysis. Innovative brick compositions and manufacturing processes are being investigated in ongoing research to improve thermal performance without compromising structural integrity (Sarani et al. 2023 ). These initiatives are essential to reducing the ecological impact of the construction industry and satisfying contemporary sustainability criteria. While previous research has primarily focused on adding POFA, PKS or other materials to burnt clay bricks, this research was conducted to explore the potential of combining both POFA and PKS. Hybrid PKS and POFA were employed to formulate and fabricate green bricks. The feasibility of using it as partial replacements for sand and cement in green brick production was investigated. The goal is twofold: to address the growing waste management problem associated with the palm oil industry and to develop sustainable building materials that exhibit acceptable mechanical strength and improved thermal insulation. The study targets non-load-bearing wall applications, particularly in hot climates where thermal comfort is essential. These objectives are addressed through systematic testing of compressive strength, water absorption, and thermal performance to encourage greener building methods and identify an optimal eco brick composition. Methodology Key procedures were followed in the formation of brick process to guarantee standard and sustainability when utilizing PKS and POFA to partially replace the sand and cement. To determine the ideal blend, the materials, PKS, POFA, sand, and cement are first carefully measured and combined in various ratios. To guarantee uniformity, the mixture is subsequently molded into brick forms using conventional molds. To reinforce the cement and enhance its qualities, the bricks are cured for a predetermined amount of time under carefully monitored conditions. Bricks are tested using compressive strength evaluations to determine how much weight they can support and water absorption tests to determine how resistant they are to moisture under various circumstances. In order to ascertain if bricks are suitable for energy-efficient building, thermal analysis assesses the bricks' capacity to insulate and regulate temperature variations. Raw Material Preparation Cement, sand, water, POFA, PKS, and a small amount of fibreglass for brick reinforcement are the ingredients utilized in this study to make cement sand bricks. Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) was chosen as it has 2.1% sulphate (SO 2 ), 0.01% chloride, with a specific surface area of 440 m 2 /kg, a setting time of 155 minutes, and a clarity of 0.8 mm. Table 1 outlines the differences in chemical composition between OPC and POFA, whereas Table 2 provides a comparison of their respective physical properties. Table 1 Chemical composition of OPC and POFA Chemical composition (%) OPC POFA Silica, SiO 2 16.40 62.5 Alumina, Al 2 O 3 4.24 4.68 Iron Oxide, Fe 2 O 3 3.53 3.73 Calcium, CaO 68.30 7.7 Potassium, K 2 O 0.22 3.69 Sulphur trioxide, SO 3 2.65 2.06 Loss on Ignition, LOI 2.2 6.5 SiO 2 + Al 2 O 3 + Fe 2 O 3 24.8 70.91 Table 2 Physical properties of OPC and POFA (Khalid et al. 2014 ; Shahid et al. 2022). Physical properties OPC POFA Specific surface area (m 2 /kg) 440 - Normal consistency (%) 32 - Compressive strength (28 day) 46.8 - Specific gravity 3.13 1.66 Particle size (µm) Between 0.04 and 100 Between 1 and 80 Main Substitute Substances (PKS and POFA) Main substitute substances, PKS and POFA as shown in Fig. 1 were collected from Lepar Palm Oil Mill in Kuantan Pahang, Malaysia. Then, the PKS and POFA was first crushed and sieved with a sieve shaker OCTAGON 200CL to achieve particle sizes between 1 and 3 mm. It was then washed and dried outdoors for three consecutive days. Brick Sample Preparation The composition ratios of all materials in this study (PKS, cement, POFA and sand) were intended to be 10%, 20%, and 30% by volume (B0, B10, B20, and B30) as in Table 3 . The replacement levels were selected based on a combination of prior research findings, practical engineering constraints, and standard compliance considerations (Ahmad 2019 ; Muthusamy et al. 2021 ). These levels allow for a stepwise evaluation of performance trends in mechanical strength, water absorption, and thermal behaviour without exceeding the threshold where brick quality may fall below ASTM and MS requirements. This range is widely used in the early-stage evaluation of alternative materials and is suitable for identifying optimal replacement levels before scaling up or extending into long-term durability testing. Every sample aside from the control also was added with 5g of fiberglass. ໿Fiberglass can enhance the function of cement and increase strength of bricks as reinforcement due to its high tensile strength, allowing it to withstand significant pulling forces without breaking (Banerjee et al. 2023 ). The brick control specimen was made with a cement-to-sand ratio of zero percent. The cement-to-water ratio applied throughout this study was consistently maintained at 0.7 (Ahmad 2019 ). The samples were made by mixing entire substances in a rotating mixer to produce mortar. Until the mortar reached homogeneity, mixing continued for approximately 5–10 minutes. After that, the mortar was put into a fabricated mold and compacted in three layers with 28 strokes per layer using a tamping rod. As seen in Fig. 2 , the samples were removed from the mold after 24 hours and proceed with curing process for seven days prior to the tests for compression, density, and water absorption. The range of green bricks made using various composition ratios is depicted in Fig. 3 . Table 3 Volume proportions of prepared test brick Sample Weight (g) PKS Cement/POFA Sand B0 (Control) 0 800/0 3200 B10 (10%) 800 720/80 2400 B20 (20%) 1600 640/160 1600 B30 (30%) 2400 560/240 800 Brick Sample Testing Compressive Test The mixture samples were prepared in accordance with BS EN 771-3:2011 (Sarman et al. 2022 ). The compressive test was performed three times for each sample, and the average values were calculated. The compression test was conducted using an Matest Universal Testing Machine in Fig. 4 at a ramping speed of 12 mm min -1 . Eq. 1 expressed the compressive strength: $$\:Cs=\frac{F}{A}$$ 1 where Cs is compressive strength of brick (MPa), F is the maximum force exerted into sample (N), and A is the imparted surface area (mm 2 ). Water Absorption Test The water absorption test was conducted after 7 days of curing, following the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) C642 standard 27 (ASTM C642-21, 2024 ). The samples were oven-dried at 110°C overnight and then allowed to cool to room temperature in the laboratory. They were then completely submerged in water at a room temperature of 25°C for one day. Afterward, the samples were drained to remove excess water. Water absorption was calculated using the Eq. 2: \(\:WA=\frac{Ww-Wd}{Wd}\) x 100% (2) where WA is water absorption (%), Ww is the weight of sample after immersion (g), and Wd is weight of dry specimen (g). Thermal Analysis Thermal measurements were conducted to study the heat characteristics of the four brick samples using a thermal chamber model, as adopted in the study by Yasira et al. ( 2024 ). The square box chamber, made from pine wood panels with a thickness of approximately 0.02 m, was designed to withstand external temperature influences. It represented a room-sized space of about 0.55 m x 0.35 m. In this study, the external temperature was averaged at 30°C, reflecting Malaysia's climate, where the maximum recorded temperature is 40°C. During testing, each brick sample was slotted into an opening that matched the sample's width. The purpose of the experiment was to investigate the difference between internal and external air temperatures within the chamber. Three thermocouples were attached both inside and outside the chamber and connected to a data logger with TC08 software for real-time temperature recording. The study was conducted in triplicate to ensure accurate and consistent results. Figure 5 illustrates the experimental setup for the chamber and the placement points of the thermocouples. Result and Discussion Compressive Test - Effect of composition ratio Figure 6 displays the compressive strength of different PKS and POFA composition ratios used to substitute sand and cement in the brick-making process. Notably, every PKS brick's compressive strength satisfied the ASTM C55 ( 2017 ) and MS 76:1972 (SIRIM 2024 ) minimum requirements. For both materials, the lowest substitution ratio of 10% produced the highest compressive strength at 8.46 MPa. This outcome was supported by Yusoff et al. ( 2024 ), when 10% of PKS and ash were added to their bricks. The findings showed that the amount of sand replenishment affected brick strength, with highest compressive strength at 23.4 MPa during 7 days curing followed by a decline at 15% and 20% replacement. These results imply that brick strength decreased with increasing material substitution ratios, which is in line with earlier studies. According to Kamarulzaman et al. ( 2018 ), this decrease is probably caused by the different particle sizes and shapes of PKS and the chemical makeup of POFA in comparison to sand and cement. This leads to holes in the brick matrix and decreased mechanical strength. Micro-porosity and considerable cracking in PKS were discovered by FESEM analysis, as seen in Fig. 7 , resulting in "weak zones" that weaken the structure. Brick strength was further decreased by increasing the compressive strength, which caused the PKS structure to fracture and more voids to form between the PKS and sand particles. Water Absorption Test Testing the durability of bricks often involves measuring their water absorption capacity, an important indicator of performance. Key parameters to consider include the pore structure and mechanical strength of the bricks. A higher pore count in cement bricks can increase their susceptibility to water penetration. Generally, increasing the replacement of sand with other materials tends to increase the water absorption of the bricks. This pattern has been observed in previous studies, where higher levels of waste material replacing sand resulted in increased water absorption. Investigation on the structural behaviour of agricultural lightweight concrete bricks revealed that substituting different agricultural wastes for sand greatly enhanced water absorption (Maaze and Shrivastava 2023 ). Significantly lowering the sand content was found to have an effect on the cement-PKS bonding, increasing porosity and, in turn, water absorption. After seven days of curing, a water absorption test was performed in accordance with ASTM C642-21 ( 2024 ). All bricks with different composition ratios of sand replacement exhibited higher water absorption than the control bricks, as shown in Fig. 8 . The increase in water absorption for the various composition ratios was observed to be 2.9%, 2.2%, and 0.5% higher, respectively, compared to the control specimen. This result is consistent with earlier studies showing that replacing sand with different materials increases water absorption (Razi et al. 2016 ). All composition ratios, however, fall within the 12% threshold. Thermal Analysis Table 4 displays the findings from the heat measurements. It stated that the inside air temperature being substantially lower and maintaining an average of 32°C in comparison to the exterior air temperature. The passage of outside air into the confined compartment at 30°C caused the interior temperature to rise significantly in the thermal chamber with regular bricks and 10% POFA bricks. A positive trend emerged from this thermal analysis: adding more POFA to eco-bricks produced a cooler indoor testing chamber than using regular bricks, indicating POFA's potential as a sustainable, temperature-regulating building material. Two reasons are responsible for the observed drop in interior temperature (1.88°C at 30% POFA replacement). The use of porous POFA and PKS in eco-bricks enhances insulation by trapping air and reducing thermal mass, thereby limiting heat absorption from the external environment and contributing to a cooler interior space. This study highlights POFA's potential as an insulating material for building construction by showing that raising the percentage of POFA helps regulate internal temperature. These results are consistent with recent studies on POFA's performance as a building insulation material (Bobirică 2015). To validate these results and investigate the ideal POFA concentration for thermal performance, detailed thermal conductivity testing should be conducted. Table 4 Variations of the temperatures measured at average external temperatures Types of Brick Average External Temperature(°C) Internal Temperature (°C) Min Max Average B0 30 31.73 32.26 32.00 B10 (10%) 29.86 30.21 30.00 B20 (20%) 29.45 30.36 29.91 B30 (30%) 28.68 29.56 29.12 However, as Fig. 9 illustrates, these preliminary findings demonstrate the potential of POFA-based eco-bricks for the construction of energy-efficient structures with enhanced thermal comfort. Conclusion In this research, the objectives of evaluating cement-sand bricks with PKS and POFA as partial replacements for cement and sand has been established. Results showed that compressive strength varied depending on replacement levels, affecting the bricks' structural integrity. Water absorption tests indicated that higher POFA content increased moisture absorption, which impacts durability. Thermal analysis showed a 0.88°C temperature reduction in bricks with 30% PKS and POFA, suggesting improved insulation properties, which can enhance energy efficiency in buildings. In summary, using hybrid PKS and POFA can influence the strength, durability, and thermal performance of cement-sand bricks, offering potential benefits for energy-efficient green brick. Declarations Ethical Approval This is not applicable Consent to participate This is not applicable Consent to Publish This is not applicable Clinical trial number This is not applicable Funding This work was supported by Fundamental Research Grant of UMPSA (Grant numbers: RDU220310) and RDU220319). Authors Contribution Material preparation, data collection, and analysis were carried out by Adam Fahmi Ramzaidi. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Adam Fahmi Ramzaidi and Roziah Zailan, and all authors provided comments on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Mohd Faizal Md Jaafar, Fatin Zafirah Mansor, Putri Zulaiha Razi, and Rahimah Embong provided advisory support on the fabrication and testing of the green bricks. Acknowledgement The authors would like to thank Universiti Malaysia Pahang Al-Sultan Abdullah (UMPSA) for the financial support provided through the RDU220310 and RDU220319 grants. Sincere gratitude is also extended to the Faculty of Civil Engineering, UMPSA, for the facilities and technical support, as well as to Lepar Palm Oil Mill for providing the raw materials used in this study. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-5550833","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":469181326,"identity":"8e55642f-5fe7-4c83-a10a-14c6344f582a","order_by":0,"name":"Adam Fahmi Ramzaidi","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Universiti Malaysia Pahang Al-Sultan Abdullah","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Adam","middleName":"Fahmi","lastName":"Ramzaidi","suffix":""},{"id":469181327,"identity":"941d5c29-9868-45a6-8941-68268c7a3e3c","order_by":1,"name":"Roziah 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Md","lastName":"Jaa","suffix":"Md"},{"id":469181329,"identity":"abeeee65-ad77-4eea-b1cc-19fd2da0c71c","order_by":3,"name":"Fatin Zafirah Mansor","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Universiti Malaysia Pahang Al-Sultan Abdullah","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Fatin","middleName":"Zafirah","lastName":"Mansor","suffix":""},{"id":469181330,"identity":"d3953fe5-d3ef-41b5-a9f3-61238b9ae83f","order_by":4,"name":"Putri Zulaiha Razi","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Universiti Malaysia Pahang Al-Sultan Abdullah","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Putri","middleName":"Zulaiha","lastName":"Razi","suffix":""},{"id":469181331,"identity":"f77a5db5-3f6f-43ff-bf7e-a7b9f853c4a6","order_by":5,"name":"Rahimah Embong","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Universiti Malaysia Pahang Al-Sultan Abdullah","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Rahimah","middleName":"","lastName":"Embong","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-11-29 17:38:50","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5550833/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5550833/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":94986707,"identity":"d643588c-afe7-4a07-9dee-7129a77f41b4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-03 07:00:39","extension":"xml","order_by":2,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":10109,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"esprESPRD2416075.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5550833/v1/3d28baed6b8dd48a9e2b4680.xml"},{"id":94882214,"identity":"b18183fd-8ea3-48df-b6e6-066736e5527b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-31 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17:13:56","extension":"xml","order_by":24,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":89392,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"ESPRD24160751structuring.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5550833/v1/a134454e39e3664d1dfe75e4.xml"},{"id":94882226,"identity":"f89a8d54-27b2-472c-8b29-030d9fa9a102","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-31 17:13:56","extension":"html","order_by":25,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":99453,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5550833/v1/e5822836c72ecf21fafa3c32.html"},{"id":94882205,"identity":"7c9eafc2-268d-41e6-91ae-cd4c799e5c9f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-31 17:13:55","extension":"jpeg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":331076,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSubstitute substances\u003cstrong\u003e \u003c/strong\u003e(a) Raw POFA (b) PKS\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5550833/v1/17f8d778e71cac24ed8bd7d3.jpeg"},{"id":94986549,"identity":"1ef49cdc-f353-4dc9-b356-c57442f1daae","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-03 07:00:25","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":522705,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePreparation of fabricated brick\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5550833/v1/f72f4430cbd53a32ff835570.png"},{"id":94987358,"identity":"d301f92b-ffa8-44fc-983e-0d1ed3117600","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-03 07:01:46","extension":"jpeg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":321152,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eRanges of green bricks after 7 days of curing process\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5550833/v1/14b785f25220a7c026258b2d.jpeg"},{"id":94882208,"identity":"a2a1efcc-dba3-44d1-b555-fc5e855e35a7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-31 17:13:55","extension":"jpeg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":114938,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eUniversal Testing Machine\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5550833/v1/1a550f6093efc8d915a05eb3.jpeg"},{"id":94986752,"identity":"60b7387a-1857-4f1a-bdd5-abe16aa26f14","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-03 07:00:43","extension":"jpeg","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":176988,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe experimental setup for thermal measurement\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage5.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5550833/v1/f046b81abf61ac6368c96977.jpeg"},{"id":94987171,"identity":"27840c39-be19-4dde-a4f2-b5a105d73f7c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-03 07:01:24","extension":"jpeg","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":284601,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCharacteristics of compressive strength of bricks with different replacement ratios\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage6.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5550833/v1/3fa7595de318287cc3bff912.jpeg"},{"id":94987475,"identity":"8a59f9a0-c51c-4d08-8abc-43754f837f8f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-03 07:01:57","extension":"jpeg","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":312966,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFESEM images of PKS at 1000x magnification\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage7.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5550833/v1/839cc10e3bee327ac51e5480.jpeg"},{"id":94986781,"identity":"50d47790-1d00-43b1-b9e4-336ff01e6d86","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-03 07:00:47","extension":"jpeg","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":258034,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCharacteristics of water absorption for bricks with different replacement ratios\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage8.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5550833/v1/099ac79a4227aece431190f0.jpeg"},{"id":94986191,"identity":"64b02a89-04a5-4c9a-bdc2-5a7cbdd2ba40","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-03 07:00:02","extension":"jpeg","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":227135,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eInternal temperature variation based on different percentages of material\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage9.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5550833/v1/60ce0c7a1778a9c8199231b1.jpeg"},{"id":95653888,"identity":"2701cef2-743e-40d2-a405-b01f5cb2ab1e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-11 16:04:23","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":3329758,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5550833/v1/829b3c65-b01c-402c-8759-aa37fcfc11ab.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"Mechanical and Thermal Evaluation of Hybrid Oil Palm Biomass as Partial Replacement of Green Bricks","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eMalaysia is abundant in natural resources, with oil palm being a key economic crop. The country accounts for approximately 26% of the world's palm oil production, totaling 19.71\u0026nbsp;million metric tonnes in 2023, making it the second-largest producer after Indonesia (U.S Department of Agriculture \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). By 2050, Malaysia is expected to produce 35\u0026nbsp;million tonnes of crude palm oil yearly, driven by the country's high demand for vegetable oil (Naidu and Moorthy \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). While the palm oil industry generates significant economic benefits, it also produces a large amount of biomass by-products considered as waste. As the palm oil milling industry expands in Malaysia, there is a corresponding increase in the production of biomass derived from palm oil mill (POM) operations after oil extraction (Jafri et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). In 2019, the recorded amount of oil palm biomass (OPB) was 13.09\u0026nbsp;million metric tonnes, with 75% consisting of empty fruit bunches (EFB), mesocarp palm fiber (MPF), and palm kernel shells (PKS), while the remaining 25% was palm oil mill effluent (POME) (Hamzah et al. 2021). Additionally, biomass boilers generate two types of ash: palm oil fuel ash (POFA) and boiler ash. POFA is produced from the combustion of EFB, while boiler ash includes clinker and ash from MSF (Zarina et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). POFA is primarily disposed of in POM stockpile or landfills without any commercial returns, leading to growing environmental concerns related to biomass waste management in Malaysia (Zailan et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNowadays, cement sector is facing sustainability challenges due to its substantial carbon emission (CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e) and heavy reliance on natural resources. Cement output is increasing because of the growing demand for concrete, a vital building material especially bricks. The environmental impact of the cement industry is highlighted by the fact that producing one tonne of cement releases almost 0.9 tonnes of CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e (Hasanbeigi et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). These elements highlight the necessity of sustainable methods in the building and construction industries.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eResearchers have explored the conversion of oil palm biomass (OPB) waste into valuable construction materials, such as cement sand bricks, as a sustainable solution to address environmental concerns. Among the OPB by-products, palm kernel shell (PKS) has been extensively studied as a partial sand replacement in brick production (Adazabra et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Sarani et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Yusoff et al. 2023). Additionally, palm oil fuel ash (POFA) alone has emerged as another promising material to replace cement in masonry block production and asphalt mixture (Borhan et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Rahman et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). It has been shown to lower thermal conductivity in concrete by 15\u0026ndash;50%, contributing to improved insulation properties (Awang and Arminda \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Finely milled POFA exhibits pozzolanic properties that enhance concrete\u0026rsquo;s performance. Specifically, it can improve compressive strength by up to 100%, increase resistance to chloride penetration, reduce heat generation, and enhance durability in acidic environments (Kadir and Sarani \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Earlier work by Adnan et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) assessed the fire resistance performance of POFA-based bricks and reported that although bricks with higher POFA content showed lower compressive strength at 500\u0026deg;C, the strength remained above the minimum requirement for non-load bearing applications. ໿Incorporating POFA in cement sand bricks can enhance the work-ability of the mixture (Ahmad \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). In addition, the use of POFA in foamed concrete blocks has been linked to reductions in indoor air temperature and air conditioning energy consumption over time (Awang and Arminda \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Meanwhile, PKS, is being studied as a replacement for sand in brick-making due to its unique physical and chemical properties. It is widely available, sustainable, and offers benefits such as lightweight structure (Sarani et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). PKS-bricks shown slow hydration time to improve compressive strength, durability and dimensional stability (Ajayi \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Other efforts in sustainable brick development include the evaluation of bricks made from dredged sediments in comparison to conventional bricks Manap et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), the use of treated POME sludge from the electrocoagulation technique Asikin et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) and incorporation of palm oil clinker into sand bricks (Ghazali et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, oil palm shell has been used in lightweight aggregate concrete containing POFA (Muthusamy et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Despite these advancements, thermal evaluation has been largely omitted in all the aforementioned studies, highlighting a critical gap in understanding the thermal performance of such sustainable brick materials.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDesigning sustainable, energy-efficient buildings requires a deep grasp of bricks' thermal characteristics. Architects and engineers can create structures that maximise passive heating and cooling techniques by using thermal analysis, which offers insightful information on how various brick kinds react to heat (Hassan et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). For instance, buildings can be efficiently insulated by using bricks with low thermal conductivity, which eliminates the need for extra heating or cooling systems. Furthermore, the switch to eco and low energy construction materials heavily relies on thermal analysis. Innovative brick compositions and manufacturing processes are being investigated in ongoing research to improve thermal performance without compromising structural integrity (Sarani et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). These initiatives are essential to reducing the ecological impact of the construction industry and satisfying contemporary sustainability criteria.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhile previous research has primarily focused on adding POFA, PKS or other materials to burnt clay bricks, this research was conducted to explore the potential of combining both POFA and PKS. Hybrid PKS and POFA were employed to formulate and fabricate green bricks. The feasibility of using it as partial replacements for sand and cement in green brick production was investigated. The goal is twofold: to address the growing waste management problem associated with the palm oil industry and to develop sustainable building materials that exhibit acceptable mechanical strength and improved thermal insulation. The study targets non-load-bearing wall applications, particularly in hot climates where thermal comfort is essential. These objectives are addressed through systematic testing of compressive strength, water absorption, and thermal performance to encourage greener building methods and identify an optimal eco brick composition.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methodology","content":"\u003cp\u003eKey procedures were followed in the formation of brick process to guarantee standard and sustainability when utilizing PKS and POFA to partially replace the sand and cement. To determine the ideal blend, the materials, PKS, POFA, sand, and cement are first carefully measured and combined in various ratios. To guarantee uniformity, the mixture is subsequently molded into brick forms using conventional molds. To reinforce the cement and enhance its qualities, the bricks are cured for a predetermined amount of time under carefully monitored conditions. Bricks are tested using compressive strength evaluations to determine how much weight they can support and water absorption tests to determine how resistant they are to moisture under various circumstances. In order to ascertain if bricks are suitable for energy-efficient building, thermal analysis assesses the bricks' capacity to insulate and regulate temperature variations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eRaw Material Preparation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eCement, sand, water, POFA, PKS, and a small amount of fibreglass for brick reinforcement are the ingredients utilized in this study to make cement sand bricks. Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) was chosen as it has 2.1% sulphate (SO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e), 0.01% chloride, with a specific surface area of 440 m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e/kg, a setting time of 155 minutes, and a clarity of 0.8 mm. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e outlines the differences in chemical composition between OPC and POFA, whereas Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e provides a comparison of their respective physical properties.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChemical composition of OPC and POFA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChemical composition (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOPC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePOFA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSilica, SiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlumina, Al\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.68\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIron Oxide, Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCalcium, CaO\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e68.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePotassium, K\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSulphur trioxide, SO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLoss on Ignition, LOI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;Al\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70.91\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhysical properties of OPC and POFA (Khalid et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Shahid et al. 2022).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhysical properties\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOPC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePOFA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecific surface area (m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e/kg)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e440\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNormal consistency (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCompressive strength\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(28 day)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e46.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecific gravity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.66\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticle size (\u0026micro;m)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBetween 0.04 and 100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBetween 1 and 80\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eMain Substitute Substances (PKS and POFA)\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMain substitute substances, PKS and POFA as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e were collected from Lepar Palm Oil Mill in Kuantan Pahang, Malaysia. Then, the PKS and POFA was first crushed and sieved with a sieve shaker OCTAGON 200CL to achieve particle sizes between 1 and 3 mm. It was then washed and dried outdoors for three consecutive days.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eBrick Sample Preparation\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe composition ratios of all materials in this study (PKS, cement, POFA and sand) were intended to be 10%, 20%, and 30% by volume (B0, B10, B20, and B30) as in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e. The replacement levels were selected based on a combination of prior research findings, practical engineering constraints, and standard compliance considerations (Ahmad \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Muthusamy et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). These levels allow for a stepwise evaluation of performance trends in mechanical strength, water absorption, and thermal behaviour without exceeding the threshold where brick quality may fall below ASTM and MS requirements. This range is widely used in the early-stage evaluation of alternative materials and is suitable for identifying optimal replacement levels before scaling up or extending into long-term durability testing.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEvery sample aside from the control also was added with 5g of fiberglass. ໿Fiberglass can enhance the function of cement and increase strength of bricks as reinforcement due to its high tensile strength, allowing it to withstand significant pulling forces without breaking (Banerjee et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). The brick control specimen was made with a cement-to-sand ratio of zero percent. The cement-to-water ratio applied throughout this study was consistently maintained at 0.7 (Ahmad \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). The samples were made by mixing entire substances in a rotating mixer to produce mortar. Until the mortar reached homogeneity, mixing continued for approximately 5\u0026ndash;10 minutes. After that, the mortar was put into a fabricated mold and compacted in three layers with 28 strokes per layer using a tamping rod. As seen in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, the samples were removed from the mold after 24 hours and proceed with curing process for seven days prior to the tests for compression, density, and water absorption. The range of green bricks made using various composition ratios is depicted in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVolume proportions of prepared test brick\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWeight (g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePKS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCement/POFA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSand\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB0 (Control)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e800/0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3200\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB10 (10%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e800\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e720/80\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2400\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB20 (20%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1600\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e640/160\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1600\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB30 (30%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2400\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e560/240\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e800\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eBrick Sample Testing\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCompressive Test\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe mixture samples were prepared in accordance with BS EN 771-3:2011 (Sarman et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). The compressive test was performed three times for each sample, and the average values were calculated. The compression test was conducted using an Matest Universal Testing Machine in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e at a ramping speed of 12 mm min\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e. Eq.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Equ1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e expressed the compressive strength:\u003cdiv id=\"Equ1\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ1\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:Cs=\\frac{F}{A}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e1\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ewhere Cs is compressive strength of brick (MPa), F is the maximum force exerted into sample (N), and A is the imparted surface area (mm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eWater Absorption Test\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe water absorption test was conducted after 7 days of curing, following the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) C642 standard 27 (ASTM C642-21, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). The samples were oven-dried at 110\u0026deg;C overnight and then allowed to cool to room temperature in the laboratory. They were then completely submerged in water at a room temperature of 25\u0026deg;C for one day. Afterward, the samples were drained to remove excess water. Water absorption was calculated using the Eq.\u0026nbsp;2:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e \u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:WA=\\frac{Ww-Wd}{Wd}\\)\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/span\u003e x 100% (2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ewhere WA is water absorption (%), Ww is the weight of sample after immersion (g), and Wd is weight of dry specimen (g).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eThermal Analysis\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThermal measurements were conducted to study the heat characteristics of the four brick samples using a thermal chamber model, as adopted in the study by Yasira et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). The square box chamber, made from pine wood panels with a thickness of approximately 0.02 m, was designed to withstand external temperature influences. It represented a room-sized space of about 0.55 m x 0.35 m. In this study, the external temperature was averaged at 30\u0026deg;C, reflecting Malaysia's climate, where the maximum recorded temperature is 40\u0026deg;C.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDuring testing, each brick sample was slotted into an opening that matched the sample's width. The purpose of the experiment was to investigate the difference between internal and external air temperatures within the chamber. Three thermocouples were attached both inside and outside the chamber and connected to a data logger with TC08 software for real-time temperature recording. The study was conducted in triplicate to ensure accurate and consistent results. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e illustrates the experimental setup for the chamber and the placement points of the thermocouples.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Result and Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCompressive Test - Effect of composition ratio\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e displays the compressive strength of different PKS and POFA composition ratios used to substitute sand and cement in the brick-making process. Notably, every PKS brick's compressive strength satisfied the ASTM C55 (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) and MS 76:1972 (SIRIM \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) minimum requirements. For both materials, the lowest substitution ratio of 10% produced the highest compressive strength at 8.46 MPa. This outcome was supported by Yusoff et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), when 10% of PKS and ash were added to their bricks. The findings showed that the amount of sand replenishment affected brick strength, with highest compressive strength at 23.4 MPa during 7 days curing followed by a decline at 15% and 20% replacement.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese results imply that brick strength decreased with increasing material substitution ratios, which is in line with earlier studies. According to Kamarulzaman et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e), this decrease is probably caused by the different particle sizes and shapes of PKS and the chemical makeup of POFA in comparison to sand and cement. This leads to holes in the brick matrix and decreased mechanical strength. Micro-porosity and considerable cracking in PKS were discovered by FESEM analysis, as seen in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e, resulting in \"weak zones\" that weaken the structure. Brick strength was further decreased by increasing the compressive strength, which caused the PKS structure to fracture and more voids to form between the PKS and sand particles.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eWater Absorption Test\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTesting the durability of bricks often involves measuring their water absorption capacity, an important indicator of performance. Key parameters to consider include the pore structure and mechanical strength of the bricks. A higher pore count in cement bricks can increase their susceptibility to water penetration. Generally, increasing the replacement of sand with other materials tends to increase the water absorption of the bricks. This pattern has been observed in previous studies, where higher levels of waste material replacing sand resulted in increased water absorption. Investigation on the structural behaviour of agricultural lightweight concrete bricks revealed that substituting different agricultural wastes for sand greatly enhanced water absorption (Maaze and Shrivastava \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Significantly lowering the sand content was found to have an effect on the cement-PKS bonding, increasing porosity and, in turn, water absorption.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAfter seven days of curing, a water absorption test was performed in accordance with ASTM C642-21 (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). All bricks with different composition ratios of sand replacement exhibited higher water absorption than the control bricks, as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e. The increase in water absorption for the various composition ratios was observed to be 2.9%, 2.2%, and 0.5% higher, respectively, compared to the control specimen. This result is consistent with earlier studies showing that replacing sand with different materials increases water absorption (Razi et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). All composition ratios, however, fall within the 12% threshold.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eThermal Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e displays the findings from the heat measurements. It stated that the inside air temperature being substantially lower and maintaining an average of 32\u0026deg;C in comparison to the exterior air temperature. The passage of outside air into the confined compartment at 30\u0026deg;C caused the interior temperature to rise significantly in the thermal chamber with regular bricks and 10% POFA bricks. A positive trend emerged from this thermal analysis: adding more POFA to eco-bricks produced a cooler indoor testing chamber than using regular bricks, indicating POFA's potential as a sustainable, temperature-regulating building material.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTwo reasons are responsible for the observed drop in interior temperature (1.88\u0026deg;C at 30% POFA replacement). The use of porous POFA and PKS in eco-bricks enhances insulation by trapping air and reducing thermal mass, thereby limiting heat absorption from the external environment and contributing to a cooler interior space. This study highlights POFA's potential as an insulating material for building construction by showing that raising the percentage of POFA helps regulate internal temperature. These results are consistent with recent studies on POFA's performance as a building insulation material (Bobirică 2015). To validate these results and investigate the ideal POFA concentration for thermal performance, detailed thermal conductivity testing should be conducted.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariations of the temperatures measured at average external temperatures\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTypes of Brick\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAverage External Temperature(\u0026deg;C)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInternal Temperature (\u0026deg;C)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMin\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMax\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAverage\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31.73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB10 (10%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29.86\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB20 (20%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29.45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30.36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29.91\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB30 (30%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.68\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, as Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e illustrates, these preliminary findings demonstrate the potential of POFA-based eco-bricks for the construction of energy-efficient structures with enhanced thermal comfort.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn this research, the objectives of evaluating cement-sand bricks with PKS and POFA as partial replacements for cement and sand has been established. Results showed that compressive strength varied depending on replacement levels, affecting the bricks' structural integrity. Water absorption tests indicated that higher POFA content increased moisture absorption, which impacts durability. Thermal analysis showed a 0.88\u0026deg;C temperature reduction in bricks with 30% PKS and POFA, suggesting improved insulation properties, which can enhance energy efficiency in buildings. In summary, using hybrid PKS and POFA can influence the strength, durability, and thermal performance of cement-sand bricks, offering potential benefits for energy-efficient green brick.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003ch2\u003eEthical Approval\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis is not applicable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eConsent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis is not applicable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Publish\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis is not applicable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003ch2\u003eClinical trial number\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis is not applicable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFunding\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis work was supported by Fundamental Research Grant of UMPSA (Grant numbers: RDU220310) and RDU220319).\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthors Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMaterial preparation, data collection, and analysis were carried out by Adam Fahmi Ramzaidi. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Adam Fahmi Ramzaidi and Roziah Zailan, and all authors provided comments on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Mohd Faizal Md Jaafar, Fatin Zafirah Mansor, Putri Zulaiha Razi, and Rahimah Embong provided advisory support on the fabrication and testing of the green bricks.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe authors would like to thank Universiti Malaysia Pahang Al-Sultan Abdullah (UMPSA) for the financial support provided through the RDU220310 and RDU220319 grants. Sincere gratitude is also extended to the Faculty of Civil Engineering, UMPSA, for the facilities and technical support, as well as to Lepar Palm Oil Mill for providing the raw materials used in this study.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability Statement\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eData available on request\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAdazabra AN, Viruthagiri G, Foli BY (2023) Evaluating the technological properties of fired clay bricks incorporated with palm kernel shell. J Building Eng 72:106673\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAdnan SH, Azemi NFNM, Osman MH, Jeni MLA, Ern PAS, Yassin NIM, Akasyah WMN (2019) Influence of Palm oil fuel ash (POFA) towards fire resistance performance of brick. 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Reviews Adv Mater Sci 34(1):37\u0026ndash;43\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":true,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"environmental-science-and-pollution-research","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"espr","sideBox":"Learn more about [Environmental Science and Pollution Research](https://www.springer.com/journal/11356)","snPcode":"11356","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/11356/3","title":"Environmental Science and Pollution Research","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Green Brick, Oil Palm Biomass, Palm Kernel Shell, Palm Oil Fuel Ash, Thermal Performance, Building Material","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5550833/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5550833/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eMalaysia\u0026rsquo;s palm oil industry, a leader in global production, generates significant waste, particularly palm kernel shell (PKS) and palm oil fuel ash (POFA), byproducts of oil extraction and boiler processes. This study explores the potential of hybrid PKS and POFA as partial replacements for sand and cement in brick production, with the aim of reducing landfill waste and greenhouse gas emissions. These materials offer a sustainable and cost-effective approach to produce sustainable bricks with enhanced thermal and insulation properties. Although PKS has a higher water absorption rate than sand, bricks containing PKS meet both Malaysian and American standards for strength, highlighting PKS as a viable, eco-friendly material. Four different brick samples were analyzed to assess their thermal performance, utilizing a test chamber with thermocouples and a data logger to monitor temperature variations. Control bricks showed a 2\u0026deg;C increase from external to internal temperatures, whereas bricks with 30% PKS maintained a narrower 0.88\u0026deg;C temperature difference, demonstrating improved insulation. These findings underscore the potential of hybrid PKS and POFA bricks to significantly enhance thermal insulation, offering an environmentally sustainable alternative to conventional building materials.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Mechanical and Thermal Evaluation of Hybrid Oil Palm Biomass as Partial Replacement of Green Bricks","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-10-31 17:13:50","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5550833/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"","date":"2025-06-10T11:31:24+00:00","index":0,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-06-10T11:18:05+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"Environmental Science and Pollution Research","date":"2025-05-20T04:31:04+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Environmental Science and Pollution Research","date":"2025-05-16T01:43:14+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"decision","content":"Major Revision","date":"2025-03-26T18:55:33+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"environmental-science-and-pollution-research","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"espr","sideBox":"Learn more about [Environmental Science and Pollution Research](https://www.springer.com/journal/11356)","snPcode":"11356","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/11356/3","title":"Environmental Science and Pollution Research","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"455005bf-fd72-4456-ba69-2ab5794eb4d4","owner":[],"postedDate":"October 31st, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-12-13T18:20:39+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-10-31 17:13:50","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-5550833","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-5550833","identity":"rs-5550833","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}