The educational attainment of autistic individuals and individuals with high autistic traits: A study of 230,000 people in the United Kingdom

The educational attainment of autistic individuals and individuals with high autistic traits: A study of 230,000 people in the United Kingdom | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article The educational attainment of autistic individuals and individuals with high autistic traits: A study of 230,000 people in the United Kingdom Elizabeth Weir, Simon White, Fiona Matthews, Tanya Procyshyn, and 2 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7905433/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Educational attainment is a key social determinant of health; however, there is a paucity of research worldwide on the educational attainment of autistic people. Leveraging data from a large, anonymous online survey, the study matched 14,519 autistic adults and 37,458 non-autistic adults with high autistic traits (henceforth high AQ) 1:5 on age, gender, and UK region to non-autistic adults. Autistic and high AQ people had lower levels of educational attainment than others, on average; however, autistic people achieved postgraduate qualifications at similar levels to matched peers. This suggests that most autistic and high AQ people experience significant barriers to educational attainment, but some autistic people achieve advanced educational qualifications. In addition, it provides evidence that educational systems may fail to effectively support a wider range of learners than those with formally recognized special educational needs. As educational attainment predicts long-term health and financial stability, timely autism diagnosis and adaptations to national and international educational policies are urgently needed. Health sciences/Risk factors Health sciences/Health care/Public health/Epidemiology Health sciences/Health care/Quality of life Health sciences/Health care/Health policy Figures Figure 1 Introduction Adults with higher educational attainment have better health and longer lifespans than their peers with relatively lower levels of attainment. 1 – 3 Analysis of data from 26 OECD countries across 1995–2015 illustrated that rates of tertiary education are strongly linked to life expectancy, infant mortality, child vaccination, and educational enrollment rates. 1 It is also clear that disengagement with the education and employment systems during adolescence and early adulthood is associated with long term financial instability, disability, unemployment, risk of mental health conditions (including risk of suicide), and drug use. 4 – 6 Although the Office of National Statistics (ONS) has reported that autism is the most common special educational need among pupils with an Education, Health, and Care Plan in the United Kingdom (UK), 7 there are currently no large-scale studies on the educational attainment of autistic individuals in the UK. Autism comprises a set of heterogeneous, neurodevelopmental conditions characterized by differences in social communication, repetitive behaviors, restricted interests, and sensory perception. 8 Autism is common, 9–13 with approximately 1 in 34 children aged 10–14 years now receiving a diagnosis in England, 9 and non-autistic individuals in the general population carry varying levels of autistic traits. 14 Studies of autistic traits across the population (measured by long and short versions of the Autism Spectrum Quotient, AQ or AQ-10) 15 , 16 illustrate roughly normal distributions among both autistic and non-autistic individuals, respectively, 14,17 though autistic individuals have a much higher mean-level of autistic traits compared with members of the general population. 14 , 17 Several lines of independent evidence from across the globe suggest both historical and ongoing changes in the demographics of autistic people, 9–13 and that access to autism diagnosis has differed according to factors such as sex, age, geographic area, and ethnicity. 9 – 13 , 18 These differences in access are likely multifactorial both among and between individuals, with evidence that changes in diagnostic criteria, 9,10 increased awareness of the condition, 9,10,12,13 differing presentation of autistic features, 19,23 internalizing of difficulties, 19 camouflaging, 20 and misdiagnosis with other conditions 22 may all be contributing factors. Unfortunately, evidence suggests that autistic adults have poor outcomes in adulthood. Autistic individuals have shortened lifespans 24 , 25 and worryingly high rates of physical and mental health conditions. 26 – 30 Estimates suggest that over 60% of autistic adults have a co-occurring mental health condition, 28,29 and that 1 in 4 have attempted suicide. 31 The latest ONS statistics suggest that 71% of autistic adults in the UK are not in any form of paid employment. 32 Although educational attainment has key links to life expectancy, mental health, employment, and financial independence, 1–6 there are a paucity of large-scale studies on the educational attainment of autistic individuals around the globe. 33 Several genetic studies suggest positive associations between autism genes and educational attainment 34 – 37 and outcomes reported across epidemiological and qualitative studies produce mixed results. 38 – 49 While studies of academic performance suggest heterogeneity between autistic students, 38,43 large, representative epidemiological studies on educational attainment principally paint a grim picture: autistic individuals have lower levels of educational attainment than others. 39 , 40 , 44 , 45 , 48 In particular, autistic people are more likely to become disengaged with the education system and are likely to have no educational qualifications at all. 44 , 50 Several studies highlight barriers to educational attainment, including notably high rates of co-occurring diagnoses, 40,45,51–55 lack of academic and non-academic supports, 53,56–63 poor wellbeing/mental health, 53–55,57−62 and particular autistic features that can pose challenges in traditional educational environments (e.g., differences in attention, processing speed, sensory sensitivities, and executive control). 43 , 51 , 54 , 57 – 60 Several studies also showed that it may take longer for some autistic students to achieve educational qualifications than others, 45,52 and that autistic women were particularly less likely to complete educational qualifications, even compared to autistic men. 45 – 47 , 49 There are several key limitations in the size and scope of current studies. First, research in this area comprises small samples, with less than 10,000 autistic individuals in the largest study to date. 38 – 49 Second, the majority of studies only consider attainment to a high school level and no large-scale studies consider how frequently autistic individuals achieve postgraduate qualifications. 38–40,42−45 Third, despite evidence that attainment may take longer for autistic people, no large-scale studies consider lifetime attainment. Fourth, no large-scale studies assess the educational outcomes of individuals with high levels of autistic traits, who are inherently likely to include undiagnosed individuals (as well as those with high levels of autistic traits who do not meet diagnostic criteria for an autism diagnosis). The present study aims to establish the educational outcomes of autistic individuals and people with high levels of autistic traits in the UK using large age-, gender-, and region-matched samples. The study should expand our understanding of outcomes across all educational levels (including postgraduate qualifications), at a range of ages, between genders, and among individuals particularly likely to be undiagnosed. Methods The present study employed secondary analysis of a large sample of cross-sectional survey data obtained as part of the 2017 Channel 4 documentary titled “Are you autistic?”. A convenience sampling design was utilized, as the survey was advertised via the Channel 4 TV website ( https://www.channel4.com ); participants were asked if their results could be used for research purposes. The Survey Participants provided demographic information (age, gender, educational attainment, geographic location/region, handedness, and occupation category) and self-reported neurodevelopmental and psychiatric diagnoses. Participants also completed the short versions of four self-report measures used to assess autistic traits, empathy, systemizing, and sensory sensitivity (AQ-10, EQ-10, SQ-10, and SPQ-10, respectively). Further information on specific question content has been provided in the Supplement. Educational attainment was ascertained with the following options: “Did not complete High School (or A-levels)’; ‘High School (or A-levels) Diploma’; ‘Undergraduate degree’; ‘Postgraduate degree’; ‘Prefer not to say’. Diagnoses of neurodevelopmental and psychiatric conditions were ascertained via the following question: “Have you been formally diagnosed with any of the following (please click all that apply?)”. Participants were able to select multiple of the following options: ‘Attention Deficit/ Hyperactivity Disorder’; ‘Autism Spectrum Disorder’; ‘Bipolar Disorder’; ‘Depression’; ‘Learning disability’; ‘Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder’; ‘Schizophrenia’; ‘I prefer not to say’; and ‘I have not been diagnosed with any of these conditions’. As the survey was anonymized, self-reported diagnoses could not be verified; however, the wording of the question should limit self-diagnosed individuals. In regard to demographic covariates, age was coded continuously; gender was coded as a factor variable with the options of ‘Female’, ‘Male’, or ‘Other’; and geographic region within the UK was coded as a factor variable with the options of ‘Wales’, ‘Scotland’, ‘Northern Ireland’, ‘London (England)’, ‘North East (England)’, ‘North West (England)’, ‘Yorkshire and Humber (England)’, ‘West Midlands (England)’, ‘East Midlands (England)’, ‘South East (England)’, and ‘South West (England)’. All neurodevelopmental and psychiatric conditions were coded separately as binary variables. While we were unable to use IP address to identify duplicates, due to ethical constraints, we asked participants to declare “Have you taken this survey before? To make sure our data are as accurate and useful as possible please tell us if you’ve taken this survey before.” All responses that indicated that they had previously taken the survey were excluded. Exclusion Criteria 758,916 initial responses to the survey were recorded; however, several exclusion criteria were applied. First, 63,750 responses were excluded due to self-reported duplicate response. Second, 98,065 participants were excluded for failing to provide data for at least one of the following: age, gender, educational attainment, geographical location/region, neurodevelopmental/psychiatric diagnoses, or measures of autistic traits. Third, as educational attainment can be affected by a wide range of policies and social factors, we limited our potential sample to UK residents. Fourth, we limited our age range to individuals aged 19–90 years, as younger individuals may not have had the opportunity to complete any of these educational qualifications. Matching Procedure The first sample comprised 14,519 autistic individuals matched to 72,595 non-autistic individuals and the second comprised 37,458 non-autistic individuals with high autistic traits (high AQ) matched to 187,290 non-autistic individuals with low autistic traits (low AQ). For the purposes of our study, high AQ individuals scored 6–10 and low AQ individuals scored 0–5 on the Autism Spectrum Quotient 10-item version (AQ-10). 14 – 16 Individuals were matched 1:5 exactly on age, gender, and UK region; all participants in the study were between 19–89 years of age and were located in the UK at the time of the questionnaire. Matching was conducted using the ‘matchit’ function from the MatchIt package in R. Statistical Analyses All analyses were conducted using R version 4.1.2. Adjusted conditional logistic regression models were employed (‘clogit’ function from the ‘survival’ package) with the difference in University-level qualifications serving as a reference level. Specifically, Model 1 was unadjusted; and Model 2 accounted for diagnoses of ADHD, bipolar, depression, learning disability, OCD, and schizophrenia. The Efron approximation was employed for analyses comparing individuals with high vs low levels of autistic traits respectively. Descriptive demographic statistics were performed using the ‘CrossTable’ function from the ‘gmodels’ package for Pearson’s Chi-squared test (for categorical covariates) and the ‘wilcox.test’ function from the ‘stats’ package for the Mann Whitney U tests (for continuous covariates). Ethics As the present study was secondary use of deidentified and anonymized data, the University of Cambridge Psychology Research Ethics Committee confirmed that formal ethical review was not needed. Informed consent was obtained for all participants included in this study. Community Engagement After completion of the analyses, we conducted an online focus group with five autistic adults, in which we discussed the study’s results and their own personal experiences. The focus group helped to inform the interpretation of our findings, and particularly the limitations of this study. To recruit members of the focus group, email invitations were sent via the Cambridge Autism Research Database (CARD). Focus group participants had the opportunity to participate via video, audio, or chat based on their communication styles and preferences, as well as their accessibility needs. Results The first sample (comparing autistic vs. non-autistic participants) predominantly comprises younger individuals, and oversamples people resident in the Southeast, Southwest, and Northeast of England, and in Wales. There were group differences in AQ-10 score and in the rates of neurodevelopmental and psychiatric conditions between the autistic and non-autistic individuals. Generally, the autistic group had relatively higher proportions of psychiatric and neurodevelopmental conditions than the non-autistic group (p < 0.001), which aligns with previous findings. 26 – 29 However, our sample shows only a small difference in proportion of depression (23.7% vs 22.9%, p = 0.05), which contrasts with previous findings showing greater rates of depression among autistic people. 26 , 28 , 29 A summary of demographic information for this sample is provided in Table 1 . Table 1 Participant Demographics for Autistic Adults vs Non-Autistic Adults Matched on Age, Gender, and UK Region Characteristics Autistic (n = 14,519) Non-autistic (n = 72,595) p-values (Sig.) Age (years), mean (SD) 26.90 (9.69) 26.90 (9.69) Age (years), categories, N (%) 19–24 8,610 (59.30) 43,050 (59.30) 25–29 2,133 (14.69) 10,665 (14.69) 30–39 1,935 (13.33) 9,675 (13.33) 40–49 1,192 (8.21) 5,960 (8.21) 50–59 513 (3.53) 2,565 (3.53) 60–69 123 (0.85) 615 (0.85) 70+ 13 (0.09) 65 (0.09) AQ-10 Score, mean (SD) 4.94 (2.85) 3.38 (2.26) < 2x10 − 16 Female 4.72 (2.91) 3.18 (2.22) Male 5.16 (2.77) 3.58 (2.27) Other 7.97 (2.29) 5.76 (2.63) Gender, N (%) Female 7,462 (51.39) 37,310 (51.39) Male 7,025 (48.39) 35,125 (48.39) Other 32 (0.22) 160 (0.22) UK Country/Region, N (%) Wales 824 (5.68) 4,120 (5.68) Scotland 1,385 (9.54) 6,925 (9.54) Northern Ireland 551 (3.80) 2,755 (3.80) London (England) 1,759 (12.11) 8,795 (12.11) Northeast (England) 869 (5.98) 4,345 (5.98) Northwest (England) 1,670 (11.50) 8,350 (11.50) Yorkshire and Humber (England) 1,123 (7.73) 5,615 (7.73) West Midlands (England) 1,122 (7.73) 5,610 (7.73) East Midlands (England) 1,087 (7.49) 5,435 (7.49) Southeast (England) 2,526 (17.40) 12,630 (17.40) Southwest (England) 1,603 (11.04) 8,015 (11.04) Other ND or Psychiatric Condition ADHD 1,222 (8.42) 1,415 (1.95) < 2x10 − 16 Bipolar 280 (1.93) 854 (1.18) 2.9x10 − 13 Depression 3,436 (23.67) 16,631 (22.91) 0.05 Learning Disability 1,234 (8.50) 3,114 (4.29) < 2x10 − 16 OCD 571 (3.93) 1,458 (2.01) < 2x10 − 16 Schizophrenia 136 (0.94) 94 (0.13) < 2x10 − 16 p-values were from Pearson’s Chi Square test (categorical) or from a Mann-Whitney U test (means) AQ-10 = Autism Quotient (10-item); short version of validated questionnaire to assess autistic traits ND = Neurodevelopmental ADHD = Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder OCD = Obsessive Compulsive Disorder SD = standard deviation Sig. = significance level [INSERT Table 1 HERE] The second sample (comparing high vs. low AQ participants) includes a very high representation of women and younger individuals. This second sample oversamples individuals resident in the Southeast of England, Southwest of England, and Scotland and undersamples those in the West Midlands of England. As with the first sample, there were group differences in the rates of neurodevelopmental and psychiatric conditions between the high and low AQ groups, respectively. The high AQ group had relatively higher proportions of all psychiatric and neurodevelopmental conditions compared to the low AQ group (all p < 0.001). Further information on the sample’s demographic data is provided in Table 2 below. Table 2 Participant Demographics for Non-Autistic Adults with High Autistic Traits vs Non-Autistic Adults with Low Autistic Traits Matched on Age, Gender, and UK Region Characteristics Non-autistic with high autistic traits (n = 37,458) Non-autistic with low autistic traits (n = 187,290) p-values (Sig.) Age (years), mean (SD) 30.47 (11.41) 30.47 (11.41) Age (years), categories, N (%) 19–24 17,205 (45.93) 86,025 (45.93) 25–29 4,042 (10.79) 20,210 (10.79) 30–39 7,663 (20.46) 38,315 (20.46) 40–49 5,705 (15.23) 28,525 (15.23) 50–59 2,249 (6.00) 11,245 (6.00) 60–69 519 (1.39) 2,595 (1.39) 70+ 75 (0.20) 375 (0.20) AQ-10 Score, mean (SD) 7.09 (1.15) 2.41 (1.48) < 2x10 − 16 Female 7.11 (1.16) 2.36 (1.48) Male 7.03 (1.11) 2.63 (1.47) Gender, N (%) Female 30,584 (81.65) 152,920 (81.65) Male 6,874 (18.35) 34,370 (18.35) UK Country/Region, N (%) Wales 1,604 (4.28) 8,020 (4.28) Scotland 4,134 (11.04) 20,670 (11.04) Northern Ireland 1,473 (3.93) 7,365 (3.93) London (England) 4,890 (13.05) 24,450 (13.05) Northeast (England) 1,995 (5.33) 9,975 (5.33) Northwest (England) 4,211 (11.24) 21,055 (11.24) Yorkshire and Humber (England) 2,802 (7.48) 14,010 (7.48) West Midlands (England) 2,513 (6.71) 12,565 (6.71) East Midlands (England) 2,359 (6.30) 11,795 (6.30) Southeast (England) 7,138 (19.06) 35,690 (19.06) Southwest (England) 4,339 (11.58) 21,695 (11.58) Other ND or Psychiatric Condition ADHD 1,160 (3.10) 1,968 (1.05) < 2x10 − 16 Bipolar 1,090 (2.91) 1,857 (0.99) < 2x10 − 16 Depression 15,459 (41.27) 44,985 (24.02) < 2x10 − 16 Learning Disability 2,713 (7.24) 5,686 (3.04) < 2x10 − 16 OCD 1,668 (4.45) 3,899 (2.08) < 2x10 − 16 Schizophrenia 76 (0.20) 123 (0.07) 3.6 x 10 − 16 p-values were from Pearson’s Chi Square test (categorical) or from a Mann-Whitney U test (means) AQ-10 = Autism Quotient (10-item); short version of validated questionnaire to assess autistic traits ND = Neurodevelopmental ADHD = Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder OCD = Obsessive Compulsive Disorder SD = standard deviation Sig. = significance level [INSERT Table 2 HERE] Using University-level attainment as a reference level, autistic individuals were more likely to report ‘Less than A-level qualifications’ and ‘A-level qualifications’, even after covarying for a range of neurodevelopmental and psychiatric conditions. However, Postgraduate qualifications were equally as common after adjusting for neurodevelopmental and psychiatric conditions. A similar pattern emerged for high AQ individuals. Even after accounting for a range of neurodevelopmental and psychiatric conditions, high AQ individuals were more likely to report ‘Less than A-level qualifications’ or ‘A-level qualifications’ than low AQ matched peers. High AQ individuals were less likely than low AQ matched peers to achieve ‘Postgraduate qualifications’. Full results for these two groups can be found in Table 3 below. Further detail on the adjusted models are available in Supplementary Table S1 . Table 3 Relatively Lower Educational Attainment Among Autistic Individuals and Non-Autistic Individuals with High Autistic Traits Compared to Matched Controls Case N (%) Control N (%) Model 1 Model 2 Odds Ratio (95% CI) p-value Odds Ratio (95% CI) p-value Autistic vs. Non-Autistic Participants Less Than A-Level Qualification 1,358 (9.35) 3,231 (4.45) 2.60 (2.42, 2.79) < 2x10 − 16 2.31 (2.14, 2.48) < 2x10 − 16 A-Level Qualifications 5,392 (37.14) 24,042 (33.12) 1.33 (1.28, 1.38) < 2x10 − 16 1.30 (1.25, 1.35) < 2x10 − 16 University-Level Qualifications 6,272 (43.20) 36,372 (50.10) -- -- Postgraduate Qualifications 1,497 (10.31) 8,950 (12.33) 1.01 (0.95, 1.08) 0.78 1.00 (0.93, 1.06) 0.93 High Autistic Traits vs. Low Autistic Traits Participants Less Than A-Level Qualification 2,896 (7.73) 8,730 (4.66) 1.80 (1.72, 1.87) < 2x10 − 16 1.49 (1.43, 1.56) < 2x10 − 16 A-Level Qualifications 13,699 (36.57) 60,612 (32.36) 1.25 (1.22, 1.28) < 2x10 − 16 1.17 (1.14, 1.19) < 2x10 − 16 University-Level Qualifications 15,925 (42.51) 88,136 (47.06) -- -- Postgraduate Qualifications 4,938 (13.18) 29,812 (15.92) 0.94 (0.91, 0.97) 5.7 x 10 − 4 0.97 (0.93, 1.00) 0.04 95% CI = 95% Confidence Interval Model 1- unadjusted Model 2- adjusting for ADHD, bipolar, depression, learning disability, OCD, and schizophrenia -- Indicates the reference-level for the model; odds ratios and confidence intervals for all covariate levels have been estimated and provided in Supplementary Table S1 [INSERT Table 3 HERE] Results from the present study do not suggest that differences in educational attainment are concentrated in a particular UK region. Figure 1 shows that gaps in educational attainment are seen in all geographic regions within the UK. [INSERT FIGURE 1 HERE] Due to the overrepresentation of women in the sample (and particularly in the second sample), we also performed gender-stratified analyses. These results largely mirrored overall findings: autistic men and women, as well as high AQ men and women were all more likely to have ‘Less than A-level qualifications’ and ‘A-level qualifications’. Autistic men, autistic women, and high AQ men were all similarly likely to complete ‘Postgraduate Qualifications’ compared to each of their respective matched sets. In contrast, high AQ women were marginally less likely than low AQ women to achieve ‘Postgraduate Qualifications’. Full results can be found in Tables 4 and 5 below. Table 4 Relatively Lower Educational Attainment Among Autistic Women and Non-Autistic Women with High Autistic Traits Compared to Matched Women Case N (%) Control N (%) Model 1 Model 2 Odds Ratio (95% CI) p-value Odds Ratio (95% CI) p-value Autistic vs. Non-Autistic Women Less Than A-Level Qualification 727 (9.74) 1,766 (4.73) 2.55 (2.31, 2.82) < 2x10 − 16 2.42 (2.19, 2.68) < 2x10 − 16 A-Level Qualifications 2,787 (37.35) 12,385 (33.20) 1.34 (1.27, 1.42) < 2x10 − 16 1.34 (1.27, 1.42) < 2x10 − 16 University-Level Qualifications 3,094 (41.46) 18,078 (48.45) -- -- Postgraduate Qualifications 854 (11.45) 5,081 (13.62) 1.02 (0.94, 1.12) 0.62 1.02 (0.94, 1.12) 0.63 High Autistic Traits vs. Low Autistic Traits Women Less Than A-Level Qualification 2,631 (8.60) 8,027 (5.25) 1.78 (1.70, 1.86) < 2x10 − 16 1.47 (1.41, 1.54) < 2x10 − 16 A-Level Qualifications 11,495 (37.59) 51,076 (33.40) 1.25 (1.21, 1.28) < 2x10 − 16 1.16 (1.13, 1.19) < 2x10 − 16 University-Level Qualifications 11,897 (38.90) 66,063 (43.20) -- -- Postgraduate Qualifications 4,561 (14.91) 27,754 (18.15) 0.93 (0.90, 0.97) 2.4 x 10 − 4 0.96 (0.93, 1.00) 0.03 95% CI = 95% Confidence Interval Model 1- unadjusted Model 2- adjusting for ADHD, bipolar, depression, learning disability, OCD, and schizophrenia -- Indicates the reference-level for the model; odds ratios and confidence intervals for all covariate levels have been estimated and provided in Supplementary Table S2 Table 5 Relatively Lower Educational Attainment Among Autistic Men and Non-Autistic Men with High Autistic Traits Compared to Matched Men Case N (%) Control N (%) Model 1 Model 2 Odds Ratio (95% CI) p-value Odds Ratio (95% CI) p-value Autistic vs. Non-Autistic Men Less Than A-Level Qualification 624 (8.88) 1,459 (4.15) 2.63 (2.37, 2.92) < 2x10 − 16 2.18 (1.95, 2.43) < 2x10 − 16 A-Level Qualifications 2,597 (36.97) 11,593 (33.01) 1.32 (1.24, 1.40) < 2x10 − 16 1.26 (1.19, 1.34) 2.0 x 10 − 14 University-Level Qualifications 3,164 (45.04) 18,217 (51.86) -- -- Postgraduate Qualifications 640 (9.11) 3,856 (10.98) 0.99 (0.90, 1.09) 0.89 0.97 (0.88, 1.07) 0.53 High Autistic Traits vs. Low Autistic Traits Men Less Than A-Level Qualification 265 (3.86) 703 (2.05) 1.98 (1.74, 2.25) < 2x10 − 16 1.66 (1.46, 1.89) 1.5 x 10 − 14 A-Level Qualifications 2,204 (32.06) 9,536 (27.75) 1.25 (1.19, 1.32) < 2x10 − 16 1.19 (1.13, 1.25) 1.6 x 10 − 10 University-Level Qualifications 4,028 (58.60) 22,073 (64.22) -- -- Postgraduate Qualifications 377 (5.48) 2,058 (5.99) 1.01 (0.90, 1.13) 0.86 1.01 (0.91, 1.13) 0.83 95% CI = 95% Confidence Interval Model 1- unadjusted Model 3- adjusting for ADHD, bipolar, depression, learning disability, OCD, and schizophrenia -- Indicates the reference-level for the model; odds ratios and confidence intervals for all covariate levels have been estimated and provided in Supplementary Table S3 [INSERT Table 4 HERE] [INSERT Table 5 HERE] Discussion In the largest study to date, our results suggested that both autistic and high AQ people have lower levels of educational attainment than age, gender and region matched peers after accounting for co-occurring diagnoses of other neurodevelopmental and psychiatric conditions. It is critically important to address these gaps, as lower educational attainment is associated with shorter life expectancy, poorer mental health, lower employment, and financial instability. 1 – 6 Our results also provide support for complex relationships between autism and autistic traits with educational attainment, as similar numbers of autistic people achieved ‘Postgraduate qualifications’ as their non-autistic peers. This complex relationship may be related to the heterogeneity across autistic people (and high AQ individuals) in which most autistic people experience significant barriers to achieving educational qualifications, 39,40,44,45,48 and a notable subset achieve high levels of educational qualifications. This is the first study to confirm that high AQ individuals are less likely to attain educational qualifications than matched peers. These findings could indicate that underdiagnosis of autism may be associated with lower educational attainment and provide further evidence of the importance of accurate and timely diagnosis of autism. In addition, these findings may also suggest that educational systems and provisions fail to meet the needs of a much wider range of learners than those who hold a diagnosis (potentially including those who may not reach the diagnostic threshold). While it has not been studied, it is possible that challenges in traditional educational environments may extend to high AQ students based on their specific autistic traits. This is supported by evidence that traditional educational environments are unlikely to accommodate differences associated with autism, including those related to attention, executive function, and sensory sensitivities. 43 , 44 , 54 , 57 – 60 As such, educational settings that take a ‘one-size-fits-all’ approach may be inappropriate not only for autistic people, but also for a wider group of learners. Existing qualitative research suggests that academic and non-academic supports are frequently desired but inconsistently available for autistic students. 53 , 56 – 63 Autistic university students report that social support, 51,53,60–62 mentorship, 51,60 counseling, 51,60 housing accommodations, 51,60 tutoring, 51 extra time, 51 and copies of notes 51 may support attainment; they also highlighted that financial difficulties 51 and lack of knowledge about autism from University faculty and students 51 , 60 can be barriers to attainment. Discrimination, stigma, and bullying 64 , 65 in schools may negatively impact attainment, school attendance, and quality of life for autistic students. As such, policymakers, educators, and autistic people must work collaboratively to adapt educational environments, provide relevant evidence-based reasonable adjustments, and to reduce the stigma and discrimination that autistic students face. There are several important limitations to keep in mind regarding this study. Both samples are unlikely to be representative of the UK population due to sampling biases from our convenience sampling design and advertisement to Channel4 audiences. Both samples include relatively higher proportions of young, female, and highly educated individuals. Over 60% of both our non-autistic and low AQ comparison groups reported tertiary qualifications whereas 2023 data from the OECD suggests that only 53% of individuals aged 25–64 in the UK had these qualifications. 66 In addition, our autistic group had a relatively lower mean AQ score than would be expected (4.94; SD = 2.85), though this was still significantly higher than the mean score among our non-autistic comparison group. These biases may limit the generalizability of our results, particularly to older and male individuals. Additionally, the first sample has a relatively higher proportion of non-autistic individuals with depression than would be expected; 67–69 as depression has been consistently linked to lower educational attainment on average. 70 We were unable to consider the influence of ethnicity or other important co-occurring conditions (e.g., dyslexia, anxiety, and PTSD among others), as this information was not collected in the original survey. As such, it is not possible to assess the impact of ethnicity or these conditions on educational attainment, or to determine how representative this sample is of the UK population regarding these factors. In addition, given the convenience sample nature of the study design linked to a TV programme it is possible that interested individuals with autism or high autistic traits from across the education spectrum are more likely to respond to the survey, whereas those without show the well known educational bias towards taking part in surveys . 71 Finally, this study can only provide quantitative information on the number of individuals who achieved particular levels of educational attainment and does not give further information about the individual trajectories of attempts at particular educational qualifications, or the factors that contributed to attainment (or lack thereof). Future research should aim to understand longitudinal trajectories and the efficacy of educational accommodations for autistic students. This study highlights the success of a subset of autistic and high AQ individuals who achieve high levels of educational attainment. However, it is not clear whether these individuals were able to achieve high levels of qualifications despite significant barriers to attainment, including the need for multiple attempts at a degree or relatively later attainment than peers. 45 , 52 As such, future research should investigate the age of attainment, duration of degree, and number of attempts at each degree-level when assessing educational attainment among autistic learners. In addition, it should leverage qualitative methods to understand educational experiences and identify key factors that promote autistic flourishing in educational environments. Finally, to develop targeted policy recommendations, future research must probe whether educational supports, reasonable adjustments, or specific programs are integral to attainment for autistic students, or if understanding your own identity via diagnosis is critical to self-advocacy. Conclusions Autistic people and non-autistic people with high autistic traits in the UK have lower educational attainment than age, gender, and region-matched peers. However, a similar proportion of autistic and non-autistic matched peers achieved ‘Postgraduate qualifications’, demonstrating a complex relationship between autism and autistic traits with educational attainment. This is the first study to assess the outcomes of individuals with high levels of autistic traits but without formal diagnoses. These findings may suggest that educational systems are failing to meet the needs of autistic students and a wider group of individuals (who lack or who do not qualify for autism diagnosis). As such, the findings likely suggest that adaptations are needed both to educational environments to improve accessibility and to diagnostic pathways for autism. Future research must consider the impact of diagnosis on educational attainment, the efficacy of the implementation of reasonable adjustments, and the ways in which educational systems can be adapted to meet the needs of all learners. As educational attainment is linked to life expectancy, mental health, employment, and financial independence, policymakers around the globe must address these inequalities for autistic people and those with high levels of autistic traits. Declarations Author Contributions EW conceived the study. EW and FM developed the methodology. EW analyzed the data and wrote the manuscript. SW and FM provided support with statistical analysis. EW and TP had full access to the data and take responsibility for the integrity of the data. All authors provided critical feedback and revisions. All authors review and approved the final manuscript. Acknowledgements We are grateful to all our participants, as well as the Cambridge Autism Research Database for assisting with recruitment for our focus group. We also thank the members of our post-analysis focus group, including AR Lavender, Karen Henry, Ross Henley and all other focus group participants who preferred to remain anonymous. We thank Channel4 for sharing the anonymized data with us. SBC received funding from the Wellcome Trust 214322\Z\18\Z. For the purpose of Open Access, the author has applied a CC BY public copyright licence to any Author Accepted Manuscript version arising from this submission. EW and TP are funded by Autism Action. SBC also received funding from the Innovative Medicines Initiative 2 Joint Undertaking under grant agreement No 777394 for the project AIMS-2-TRIALS. This Joint Undertaking receives support from the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme and EFPIA and AUTISM SPEAKS, Autistica, SFARI. The University of Cambridge Autism Research Centre received funding for this work from the Autism Research Trust (from a donation by the Queen Anne’s Gate Foundation), whose legacy work is now managed by Autism Action, in 2019, SFARI, the Templeton World Charitable Fund and the MRC. We are grateful to Cambridge University Development and Alumni Relations (CUDAR) for anonymous donations. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to publish the results. Any views expressed are those of the author(s) and not necessarily those of the funders (including IHI-JU2). All research at the Department of Psychiatry in the University of Cambridge is supported by the NIHR Cambridge Biomedical Research Centre (NIHR203312) and the NIHR Applied Research Collaboration East of England. The views expressed are those of the author(s) and not necessarily those of the NIHR or the Department of Health and Social Care. Conflicts of Interest Disclosures None Data Availability Statement Participants did not provide consent for their data to be publicly shared, even though the data is anonymized. As such, data will be made available to potential collaborators only if they submit a research proposal to the Autism Research Centre, University of Cambridge, UK and received ethical approval. References Raghupathi V, Raghupathi W. The influence of education on health: an empirical assessment of OECD countries for the period 1995–2015. Arch Public Health . 2020;78(1):20. doi:10.1186/s13690-020-00402-5 Slominski L, Sameroff A, Rosenblum K, Kasser T. 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12:00:45","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":46282,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7905433/v1/fdbcf6ef82f9a33718f8e696.png"},{"id":94315545,"identity":"0addc36a-bc07-4c1c-be7b-c3843b85a727","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-27 12:00:26","extension":"xml","order_by":7,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":193097,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"NCOMMS25840940structuring.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7905433/v1/5941d7478d5b3f3bca777931.xml"},{"id":94315359,"identity":"2d483021-2430-4509-aac8-4b8eb93514b9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-27 11:59:53","extension":"html","order_by":8,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":208203,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7905433/v1/e312e43db4740e95afa9b005.html"},{"id":94315405,"identity":"ea7b351f-e561-4aca-9115-5bbae16d6ca0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-27 11:59:59","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":238300,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eProportion of individuals who have not completed A-levels within each major region in the UK, both for autistic versus non-autistic (a) and high autistic traits versus low autistic traits (b).\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7905433/v1/6c3cbeb61d569804eb6af35d.png"},{"id":94505605,"identity":"240224fd-143b-4306-95d6-7e4f4c776e53","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-28 16:14:42","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1668617,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7905433/v1/7ecec7fa-d99c-48e0-b536-085da4718a19.pdf"},{"id":94315902,"identity":"8797e25a-cb07-4972-8f18-750119837ecb","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-27 12:01:09","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":22992,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"Supplementary Material","description":"","filename":"SupplementaryMaterialNatureComms.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7905433/v1/f105a084c97f744fd992b51a.docx"}],"financialInterests":"There is \u003cb\u003eNO\u003c/b\u003e Competing Interest.","formattedTitle":"The educational attainment of autistic individuals and individuals with high autistic traits: \r\nA study of 230,000 people in the United Kingdom","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eAdults with higher educational attainment have better health and longer lifespans than their peers with relatively lower levels of attainment.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR2\" citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Analysis of data from 26 OECD countries across 1995\u0026ndash;2015 illustrated that rates of tertiary education are strongly linked to life expectancy, infant mortality, child vaccination, and educational enrollment rates.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e It is also clear that disengagement with the education and employment systems during adolescence and early adulthood is associated with long term financial instability, disability, unemployment, risk of mental health conditions (including risk of suicide), and drug use.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR5\" citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Although the Office of National Statistics (ONS) has reported that autism is the most common special educational need among pupils with an Education, Health, and Care Plan in the United Kingdom (UK),\u003csup\u003e7\u003c/sup\u003e there are currently no large-scale studies on the educational attainment of autistic individuals in the UK.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAutism comprises a set of heterogeneous, neurodevelopmental conditions characterized by differences in social communication, repetitive behaviors, restricted interests, and sensory perception.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Autism is common,\u003csup\u003e9\u0026ndash;13\u003c/sup\u003e with approximately 1 in 34 children aged 10\u0026ndash;14 years now receiving a diagnosis in England,\u003csup\u003e9\u003c/sup\u003e and non-autistic individuals in the general population carry varying levels of autistic traits.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Studies of autistic traits across the population (measured by long and short versions of the Autism Spectrum Quotient, AQ or AQ-10)\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e illustrate roughly normal distributions among both autistic and non-autistic individuals, respectively,\u003csup\u003e14,17\u003c/sup\u003e though autistic individuals have a much higher mean-level of autistic traits compared with members of the general population.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Several lines of independent evidence from across the globe suggest both historical and ongoing changes in the demographics of autistic people,\u003csup\u003e9\u0026ndash;13\u003c/sup\u003e and that access to autism diagnosis has differed according to factors such as sex, age, geographic area, and ethnicity.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR10 CR11 CR12\" citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e These differences in access are likely multifactorial both among and between individuals, with evidence that changes in diagnostic criteria,\u003csup\u003e9,10\u003c/sup\u003e increased awareness of the condition,\u003csup\u003e9,10,12,13\u003c/sup\u003e differing presentation of autistic features,\u003csup\u003e19,23\u003c/sup\u003e internalizing of difficulties,\u003csup\u003e19\u003c/sup\u003e camouflaging,\u003csup\u003e20\u003c/sup\u003e and misdiagnosis with other conditions\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e may all be contributing factors.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eUnfortunately, evidence suggests that autistic adults have poor outcomes in adulthood. Autistic individuals have shortened lifespans\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and worryingly high rates of physical and mental health conditions.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR27 CR28 CR29\" citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Estimates suggest that over 60% of autistic adults have a co-occurring mental health condition,\u003csup\u003e28,29\u003c/sup\u003e and that 1 in 4 have attempted suicide.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e The latest ONS statistics suggest that 71% of autistic adults in the UK are not in any form of paid employment.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlthough educational attainment has key links to life expectancy, mental health, employment, and financial independence,\u003csup\u003e1\u0026ndash;6\u003c/sup\u003e there are a paucity of large-scale studies on the educational attainment of autistic individuals around the globe.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Several genetic studies suggest positive associations between autism genes and educational attainment\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR35 CR36\" citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and outcomes reported across epidemiological and qualitative studies produce mixed results.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR39 CR40 CR41 CR42 CR43 CR44 CR45 CR46 CR47 CR48\" citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e While studies of academic performance suggest heterogeneity between autistic students,\u003csup\u003e38,43\u003c/sup\u003e large, representative epidemiological studies on educational attainment principally paint a grim picture: autistic individuals have lower levels of educational attainment than others.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e In particular, autistic people are more likely to become disengaged with the education system and are likely to have no educational qualifications at all.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Several studies highlight barriers to educational attainment, including notably high rates of co-occurring diagnoses,\u003csup\u003e40,45,51\u0026ndash;55\u003c/sup\u003e lack of academic and non-academic supports, \u003csup\u003e53,56\u0026ndash;63\u003c/sup\u003e poor wellbeing/mental health,\u003csup\u003e53\u0026ndash;55,57\u0026minus;62\u003c/sup\u003e and particular autistic features that can pose challenges in traditional educational environments (e.g., differences in attention, processing speed, sensory sensitivities, and executive control).\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR58 CR59\" citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e57\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e60\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Several studies also showed that it may take longer for some autistic students to achieve educational qualifications than others,\u003csup\u003e45,52\u003c/sup\u003e and that autistic women were particularly less likely to complete educational qualifications, even compared to autistic men.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR46\" citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThere are several key limitations in the size and scope of current studies. First, research in this area comprises small samples, with less than 10,000 autistic individuals in the largest study to date.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR39 CR40 CR41 CR42 CR43 CR44 CR45 CR46 CR47 CR48\" citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Second, the majority of studies only consider attainment to a high school level and no large-scale studies consider how frequently autistic individuals achieve postgraduate qualifications.\u003csup\u003e38\u0026ndash;40,42\u0026minus;45\u003c/sup\u003e Third, despite evidence that attainment may take longer for autistic people, no large-scale studies consider lifetime attainment. Fourth, no large-scale studies assess the educational outcomes of individuals with high levels of autistic traits, who are inherently likely to include undiagnosed individuals (as well as those with high levels of autistic traits who do not meet diagnostic criteria for an autism diagnosis).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe present study aims to establish the educational outcomes of autistic individuals and people with high levels of autistic traits in the UK using large age-, gender-, and region-matched samples. The study should expand our understanding of outcomes across all educational levels (including postgraduate qualifications), at a range of ages, between genders, and among individuals particularly likely to be undiagnosed.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe present study employed secondary analysis of a large sample of cross-sectional survey data obtained as part of the 2017 Channel 4 documentary titled \u0026ldquo;Are you autistic?\u0026rdquo;. A convenience sampling design was utilized, as the survey was advertised via the Channel 4 TV website (\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.channel4.com\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.channel4.com\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e); participants were asked if their results could be used for research purposes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eThe Survey\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eParticipants provided demographic information (age, gender, educational attainment, geographic location/region, handedness, and occupation category) and self-reported neurodevelopmental and psychiatric diagnoses. Participants also completed the short versions of four self-report measures used to assess autistic traits, empathy, systemizing, and sensory sensitivity (AQ-10, EQ-10, SQ-10, and SPQ-10, respectively). Further information on specific question content has been provided in the Supplement.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eEducational attainment was ascertained with the following options: \u0026ldquo;Did not complete High School (or A-levels)\u0026rsquo;; \u0026lsquo;High School (or A-levels) Diploma\u0026rsquo;; \u0026lsquo;Undergraduate degree\u0026rsquo;; \u0026lsquo;Postgraduate degree\u0026rsquo;; \u0026lsquo;Prefer not to say\u0026rsquo;. Diagnoses of neurodevelopmental and psychiatric conditions were ascertained via the following question: \u0026ldquo;Have you been formally diagnosed with any of the following (please click all that apply?)\u0026rdquo;. Participants were able to select multiple of the following options: \u0026lsquo;Attention Deficit/ Hyperactivity Disorder\u0026rsquo;; \u0026lsquo;Autism Spectrum Disorder\u0026rsquo;; \u0026lsquo;Bipolar Disorder\u0026rsquo;; \u0026lsquo;Depression\u0026rsquo;; \u0026lsquo;Learning disability\u0026rsquo;; \u0026lsquo;Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder\u0026rsquo;; \u0026lsquo;Schizophrenia\u0026rsquo;; \u0026lsquo;I prefer not to say\u0026rsquo;; and \u0026lsquo;I have not been diagnosed with any of these conditions\u0026rsquo;. As the survey was anonymized, self-reported diagnoses could not be verified; however, the wording of the question should limit self-diagnosed individuals.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn regard to demographic covariates, age was coded continuously; gender was coded as a factor variable with the options of \u0026lsquo;Female\u0026rsquo;, \u0026lsquo;Male\u0026rsquo;, or \u0026lsquo;Other\u0026rsquo;; and geographic region within the UK was coded as a factor variable with the options of \u0026lsquo;Wales\u0026rsquo;, \u0026lsquo;Scotland\u0026rsquo;, \u0026lsquo;Northern Ireland\u0026rsquo;, \u0026lsquo;London (England)\u0026rsquo;, \u0026lsquo;North East (England)\u0026rsquo;, \u0026lsquo;North West (England)\u0026rsquo;, \u0026lsquo;Yorkshire and Humber (England)\u0026rsquo;, \u0026lsquo;West Midlands (England)\u0026rsquo;, \u0026lsquo;East Midlands (England)\u0026rsquo;, \u0026lsquo;South East (England)\u0026rsquo;, and \u0026lsquo;South West (England)\u0026rsquo;. All neurodevelopmental and psychiatric conditions were coded separately as binary variables. While we were unable to use IP address to identify duplicates, due to ethical constraints, we asked participants to declare \u0026ldquo;Have you taken this survey before? To make sure our data are as accurate and useful as possible please tell us if you\u0026rsquo;ve taken this survey before.\u0026rdquo; All responses that indicated that they had previously taken the survey were excluded.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eExclusion Criteria\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e758,916 initial responses to the survey were recorded; however, several exclusion criteria were applied. First, 63,750 responses were excluded due to self-reported duplicate response. Second, 98,065 participants were excluded for failing to provide data for at least one of the following: age, gender, educational attainment, geographical location/region, neurodevelopmental/psychiatric diagnoses, or measures of autistic traits. Third, as educational attainment can be affected by a wide range of policies and social factors, we limited our potential sample to UK residents. Fourth, we limited our age range to individuals aged 19\u0026ndash;90 years, as younger individuals may not have had the opportunity to complete any of these educational qualifications.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eMatching Procedure\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe first sample comprised 14,519 autistic individuals matched to 72,595 non-autistic individuals and the second comprised 37,458 non-autistic individuals with high autistic traits (high AQ) matched to 187,290 non-autistic individuals with low autistic traits (low AQ). For the purposes of our study, high AQ individuals scored 6\u0026ndash;10 and low AQ individuals scored 0\u0026ndash;5 on the Autism Spectrum Quotient 10-item version (AQ-10).\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR15\" citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Individuals were matched 1:5 exactly on age, gender, and UK region; all participants in the study were between 19\u0026ndash;89 years of age and were located in the UK at the time of the questionnaire. Matching was conducted using the \u0026lsquo;matchit\u0026rsquo; function from the \u003cem\u003eMatchIt\u003c/em\u003e package in R.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eStatistical Analyses\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll analyses were conducted using R version 4.1.2. Adjusted conditional logistic regression models were employed (\u0026lsquo;clogit\u0026rsquo; function from the \u0026lsquo;survival\u0026rsquo; package) with the difference in University-level qualifications serving as a reference level. Specifically, Model 1 was unadjusted; and Model 2 accounted for diagnoses of ADHD, bipolar, depression, learning disability, OCD, and schizophrenia. The Efron approximation was employed for analyses comparing individuals with high vs low levels of autistic traits respectively. Descriptive demographic statistics were performed using the \u0026lsquo;CrossTable\u0026rsquo; function from the \u0026lsquo;gmodels\u0026rsquo; package for Pearson\u0026rsquo;s Chi-squared test (for categorical covariates) and the \u0026lsquo;wilcox.test\u0026rsquo; function from the \u0026lsquo;stats\u0026rsquo; package for the Mann Whitney U tests (for continuous covariates).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eEthics\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs the present study was secondary use of deidentified and anonymized data, the University of Cambridge Psychology Research Ethics Committee confirmed that formal ethical review was not needed. Informed consent was obtained for all participants included in this study.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eCommunity Engagement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAfter completion of the analyses, we conducted an online focus group with five autistic adults, in which we discussed the study\u0026rsquo;s results and their own personal experiences. The focus group helped to inform the interpretation of our findings, and particularly the limitations of this study. To recruit members of the focus group, email invitations were sent via the Cambridge Autism Research Database (CARD). Focus group participants had the opportunity to participate via video, audio, or chat based on their communication styles and preferences, as well as their accessibility needs.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe first sample (comparing autistic vs. non-autistic participants) predominantly comprises younger individuals, and oversamples people resident in the Southeast, Southwest, and Northeast of England, and in Wales. There were group differences in AQ-10 score and in the rates of neurodevelopmental and psychiatric conditions between the autistic and non-autistic individuals. Generally, the autistic group had relatively higher proportions of psychiatric and neurodevelopmental conditions than the non-autistic group (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), which aligns with previous findings.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR27 CR28\" citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e However, our sample shows only a small difference in proportion of depression (23.7% vs 22.9%, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.05), which contrasts with previous findings showing greater rates of depression among autistic people.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e A summary of demographic information for this sample is provided in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParticipant Demographics for Autistic Adults vs Non-Autistic Adults Matched on Age, Gender, and UK Region\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCharacteristics\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAutistic\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;14,519)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNon-autistic\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;72,595)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ep-values\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(Sig.)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAge (years), mean (SD)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26.90 (9.69)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26.90 (9.69)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAge (years), categories, N (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e19\u0026ndash;24\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8,610 (59.30)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e43,050 (59.30)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e25\u0026ndash;29\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2,133 (14.69)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10,665 (14.69)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e30\u0026ndash;39\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1,935 (13.33)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9,675 (13.33)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e40\u0026ndash;49\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1,192 (8.21)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5,960 (8.21)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e50\u0026ndash;59\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e513 (3.53)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2,565 (3.53)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e60\u0026ndash;69\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e123 (0.85)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e615 (0.85)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e70+\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13 (0.09)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e65 (0.09)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAQ-10 Score, mean (SD)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.94 (2.85)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.38 (2.26)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;2x10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;16\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eFemale\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.72 (2.91)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.18 (2.22)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMale\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.16 (2.77)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.58 (2.27)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOther\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.97 (2.29)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.76 (2.63)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGender, N (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eFemale\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7,462 (51.39)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e37,310 (51.39)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMale\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7,025 (48.39)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e35,125 (48.39)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOther\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e32 (0.22)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e160 (0.22)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUK Country/Region, N (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eWales\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e824 (5.68)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4,120 (5.68)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eScotland\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1,385 (9.54)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6,925 (9.54)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNorthern Ireland\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e551 (3.80)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2,755 (3.80)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLondon (England)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1,759 (12.11)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8,795 (12.11)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNortheast (England)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e869 (5.98)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4,345 (5.98)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNorthwest (England)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1,670 (11.50)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8,350 (11.50)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eYorkshire and Humber (England)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1,123 (7.73)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5,615 (7.73)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eWest Midlands (England)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1,122 (7.73)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5,610 (7.73)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEast Midlands (England)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1,087 (7.49)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5,435 (7.49)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSoutheast (England)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2,526 (17.40)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12,630 (17.40)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSouthwest (England)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1,603 (11.04)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8,015 (11.04)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOther ND or Psychiatric Condition\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eADHD\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1,222 (8.42)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1,415 (1.95)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;2x10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;16\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBipolar\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e280 (1.93)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e854 (1.18)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.9x10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;13\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDepression\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3,436 (23.67)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16,631 (22.91)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLearning Disability\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1,234 (8.50)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3,114 (4.29)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;2x10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;16\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOCD\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e571 (3.93)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1,458 (2.01)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;2x10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;16\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSchizophrenia\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e136 (0.94)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e94 (0.13)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;2x10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;16\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"4\"\u003ep-values were from Pearson\u0026rsquo;s Chi Square test (categorical) or from a Mann-Whitney U test (means)\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"4\"\u003eAQ-10\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Autism Quotient (10-item); short version of validated questionnaire to assess autistic traits\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"4\"\u003eND\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Neurodevelopmental\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"4\"\u003eADHD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"4\"\u003eOCD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Obsessive Compulsive Disorder\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"4\"\u003eSD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;standard deviation\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"4\"\u003eSig. = significance level\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e[INSERT Table \u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e HERE]\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe second sample (comparing high vs. low AQ participants) includes a very high representation of women and younger individuals. This second sample oversamples individuals resident in the Southeast of England, Southwest of England, and Scotland and undersamples those in the West Midlands of England. As with the first sample, there were group differences in the rates of neurodevelopmental and psychiatric conditions between the high and low AQ groups, respectively. The high AQ group had relatively higher proportions of all psychiatric and neurodevelopmental conditions compared to the low AQ group (all p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). Further information on the sample\u0026rsquo;s demographic data is provided in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e below.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParticipant Demographics for Non-Autistic Adults with High Autistic Traits vs Non-Autistic Adults with Low Autistic Traits Matched on Age, Gender, and UK Region\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCharacteristics\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNon-autistic with high autistic traits\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;37,458)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNon-autistic with low autistic traits\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;187,290)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ep-values\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(Sig.)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAge (years), mean (SD)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30.47 (11.41)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30.47 (11.41)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAge (years), categories, N (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e19\u0026ndash;24\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17,205 (45.93)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e86,025 (45.93)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e25\u0026ndash;29\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4,042 (10.79)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20,210 (10.79)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e30\u0026ndash;39\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7,663 (20.46)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e38,315 (20.46)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e40\u0026ndash;49\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5,705 (15.23)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28,525 (15.23)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e50\u0026ndash;59\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2,249 (6.00)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11,245 (6.00)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e60\u0026ndash;69\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e519 (1.39)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2,595 (1.39)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e70+\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75 (0.20)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e375 (0.20)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAQ-10 Score, mean (SD)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.09 (1.15)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.41 (1.48)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;2x10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;16\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eFemale\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.11 (1.16)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.36 (1.48)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMale\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.03 (1.11)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.63 (1.47)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGender, N (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eFemale\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30,584 (81.65)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e152,920 (81.65)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMale\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6,874 (18.35)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e34,370 (18.35)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUK Country/Region, N (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eWales\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1,604 (4.28)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8,020 (4.28)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eScotland\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4,134 (11.04)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20,670 (11.04)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNorthern Ireland\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1,473 (3.93)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7,365 (3.93)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLondon (England)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4,890 (13.05)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e24,450 (13.05)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNortheast (England)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1,995 (5.33)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9,975 (5.33)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNorthwest (England)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4,211 (11.24)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21,055 (11.24)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eYorkshire and Humber (England)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2,802 (7.48)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14,010 (7.48)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eWest Midlands (England)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2,513 (6.71)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12,565 (6.71)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEast Midlands (England)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2,359 (6.30)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11,795 (6.30)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSoutheast (England)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7,138 (19.06)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e35,690 (19.06)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSouthwest (England)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4,339 (11.58)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21,695 (11.58)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOther ND or Psychiatric Condition\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eADHD\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1,160 (3.10)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1,968 (1.05)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;2x10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;16\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBipolar\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1,090 (2.91)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1,857 (0.99)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;2x10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;16\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDepression\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15,459 (41.27)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e44,985 (24.02)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;2x10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;16\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLearning Disability\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2,713 (7.24)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5,686 (3.04)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;2x10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;16\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOCD\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1,668 (4.45)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3,899 (2.08)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;2x10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;16\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSchizophrenia\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e76 (0.20)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e123 (0.07)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.6 x 10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;16\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"5\"\u003ep-values were from Pearson\u0026rsquo;s Chi Square test (categorical) or from a Mann-Whitney U test (means)\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"5\"\u003eAQ-10\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Autism Quotient (10-item); short version of validated questionnaire to assess autistic traits\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"5\"\u003eND\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Neurodevelopmental\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"5\"\u003eADHD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"5\"\u003eOCD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Obsessive Compulsive Disorder\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"5\"\u003eSD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;standard deviation\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"5\"\u003eSig. = significance level\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e[INSERT Table \u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e HERE]\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eUsing University-level attainment as a reference level, autistic individuals were more likely to report \u0026lsquo;Less than A-level qualifications\u0026rsquo; and \u0026lsquo;A-level qualifications\u0026rsquo;, even after covarying for a range of neurodevelopmental and psychiatric conditions. However, Postgraduate qualifications were equally as common after adjusting for neurodevelopmental and psychiatric conditions. A similar pattern emerged for high AQ individuals. Even after accounting for a range of neurodevelopmental and psychiatric conditions, high AQ individuals were more likely to report \u0026lsquo;Less than A-level qualifications\u0026rsquo; or \u0026lsquo;A-level qualifications\u0026rsquo; than low AQ matched peers. High AQ individuals were less likely than low AQ matched peers to achieve \u0026lsquo;Postgraduate qualifications\u0026rsquo;. Full results for these two groups can be found in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e below. Further detail on the adjusted models are available in Supplementary Table \u003cspan refid=\"MOESM1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRelatively Lower Educational Attainment Among Autistic Individuals and Non-Autistic Individuals with High Autistic Traits Compared to Matched Controls\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCase\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eN (%)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eControl\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eN (%)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eModel 1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eModel 2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOdds Ratio\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e(95% CI)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep-value\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOdds Ratio\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e(95% CI)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep-value\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"7\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAutistic vs. Non-Autistic Participants\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLess Than\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eA-Level Qualification\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1,358\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(9.35)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3,231\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(4.45)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.60\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(2.42, 2.79)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;2x10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;16\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.31\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(2.14, 2.48)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;2x10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;16\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eA-Level\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eQualifications\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5,392\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(37.14)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e24,042\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(33.12)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.33\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(1.28, 1.38)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;2x10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;16\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.30\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(1.25, 1.35)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;2x10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;16\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eUniversity-Level Qualifications\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6,272\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(43.20)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e36,372\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(50.10)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePostgraduate\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eQualifications\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1,497\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(10.31)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8,950\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(12.33)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(0.95, 1.08)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.78\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(0.93, 1.06)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.93\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"7\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHigh Autistic Traits vs. Low Autistic Traits Participants\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLess Than\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eA-Level Qualification\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2,896\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(7.73)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8,730\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(4.66)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.80\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(1.72, 1.87)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;2x10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;16\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.49\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(1.43, 1.56)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;2x10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;16\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eA-Level\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eQualifications\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13,699\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(36.57)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e60,612\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(32.36)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.25\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(1.22, 1.28)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;2x10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;16\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.17\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(1.14, 1.19)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;2x10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;16\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eUniversity-Level Qualifications\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15,925\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(42.51)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e88,136\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(47.06)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePostgraduate\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eQualifications\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4,938\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(13.18)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e29,812\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(15.92)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.94\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(0.91, 0.97)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.7 x 10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;4\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.97\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(0.93, 1.00)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"7\"\u003e95% CI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;95% Confidence Interval\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"7\"\u003eModel 1- unadjusted\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"7\"\u003eModel 2- adjusting for ADHD, bipolar, depression, learning disability, OCD, and schizophrenia\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"7\"\u003e-- Indicates the reference-level for the model; odds ratios and confidence intervals for all covariate levels have been estimated and provided in Supplementary Table \u003cspan refid=\"MOESM1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS1\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e[INSERT Table \u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e HERE]\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eResults from the present study do not suggest that differences in educational attainment are concentrated in a particular UK region. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e shows that gaps in educational attainment are seen in all geographic regions within the UK.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e[INSERT FIGURE \u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e HERE]\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDue to the overrepresentation of women in the sample (and particularly in the second sample), we also performed gender-stratified analyses. These results largely mirrored overall findings: autistic men and women, as well as high AQ men and women were all more likely to have \u0026lsquo;Less than A-level qualifications\u0026rsquo; and \u0026lsquo;A-level qualifications\u0026rsquo;. Autistic men, autistic women, and high AQ men were all similarly likely to complete \u0026lsquo;Postgraduate Qualifications\u0026rsquo; compared to each of their respective matched sets. In contrast, high AQ women were marginally less likely than low AQ women to achieve \u0026lsquo;Postgraduate Qualifications\u0026rsquo;. Full results can be found in Tables\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e below.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRelatively Lower Educational Attainment Among Autistic Women and Non-Autistic Women with High Autistic Traits Compared to Matched Women\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCase\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eN (%)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eControl\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eN (%)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eModel 1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eModel 2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOdds Ratio\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e(95% CI)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep-value\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOdds Ratio\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e(95% CI)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep-value\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"7\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAutistic vs. Non-Autistic Women\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLess Than\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eA-Level Qualification\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e727 (9.74)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1,766\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(4.73)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.55\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(2.31, 2.82)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;2x10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;16\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.42\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(2.19, 2.68)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;2x10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;16\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eA-Level Qualifications\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2,787\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(37.35)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12,385 (33.20)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.34\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(1.27, 1.42)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;2x10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;16\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.34\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(1.27, 1.42)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;2x10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;16\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eUniversity-Level Qualifications\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3,094\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(41.46)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18,078\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(48.45)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePostgraduate\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eQualifications\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e854 (11.45)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5,081\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(13.62)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(0.94, 1.12)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.62\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(0.94, 1.12)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.63\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"7\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHigh Autistic Traits vs. Low Autistic Traits Women\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLess Than\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eA-Level Qualification\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2,631\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(8.60)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8,027\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(5.25)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.78\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(1.70, 1.86)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;2x10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;16\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.47\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(1.41, 1.54)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;2x10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;16\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eA-Level Qualifications\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11,495\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(37.59)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e51,076\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(33.40)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.25\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(1.21, 1.28)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;2x10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;16\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.16\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(1.13, 1.19)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;2x10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;16\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eUniversity-Level Qualifications\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11,897 (38.90)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e66,063\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(43.20)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePostgraduate\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eQualifications\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4,561\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(14.91)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27,754\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(18.15)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.93\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(0.90, 0.97)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.4 x 10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;4\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.96\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(0.93, 1.00)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"7\"\u003e95% CI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;95% Confidence Interval\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"7\"\u003eModel 1- unadjusted\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"7\"\u003eModel 2- adjusting for ADHD, bipolar, depression, learning disability, OCD, and schizophrenia\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"7\"\u003e-- Indicates the reference-level for the model; odds ratios and confidence intervals for all covariate levels have been estimated and provided in Supplementary Table S2\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRelatively Lower Educational Attainment Among Autistic Men and Non-Autistic Men with High Autistic Traits Compared to Matched Men\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCase\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eN (%)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eControl\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eN (%)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eModel 1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eModel 2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOdds Ratio\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e(95% CI)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep-value\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOdds Ratio\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e(95% CI)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep-value\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"7\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAutistic vs. Non-Autistic Men\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLess Than\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eA-Level Qualification\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e624 (8.88)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1,459 (4.15)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.63\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(2.37, 2.92)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;2x10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;16\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.18\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(1.95, 2.43)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;2x10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;16\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eA-Level Qualifications\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2,597\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(36.97)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11,593\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(33.01)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.32\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(1.24, 1.40)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;2x10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;16\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.26\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(1.19, 1.34)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.0 x 10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;14\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eUniversity-Level Qualifications\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3,164\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(45.04)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18,217\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(51.86)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePostgraduate\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eQualifications\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e640\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(9.11)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3,856\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(10.98)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.99\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(0.90, 1.09)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.89\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.97\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(0.88, 1.07)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.53\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"7\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHigh Autistic Traits vs. Low Autistic Traits Men\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLess Than\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eA-Level Qualification\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e265\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(3.86)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e703\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(2.05)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.98\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(1.74, 2.25)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;2x10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;16\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.66\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(1.46, 1.89)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.5 x 10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;14\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eA-Level Qualifications\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2,204\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(32.06)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9,536\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(27.75)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.25\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(1.19, 1.32)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;2x10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;16\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.19\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(1.13, 1.25)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.6 x 10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;10\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eUniversity-Level Qualifications\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4,028\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(58.60)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22,073\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(64.22)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePostgraduate\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eQualifications\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e377\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(5.48)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2,058\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(5.99)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(0.90, 1.13)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.86\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(0.91, 1.13)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.83\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"7\"\u003e95% CI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;95% Confidence Interval\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"7\"\u003eModel 1- unadjusted\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"7\"\u003eModel 3- adjusting for ADHD, bipolar, depression, learning disability, OCD, and schizophrenia\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"7\"\u003e-- Indicates the reference-level for the model; odds ratios and confidence intervals for all covariate levels have been estimated and provided in Supplementary Table S3\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e[INSERT Table \u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e HERE]\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e[INSERT Table \u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e HERE]\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn the largest study to date, our results suggested that both autistic and high AQ people have lower levels of educational attainment than age, gender and region matched peers after accounting for co-occurring diagnoses of other neurodevelopmental and psychiatric conditions. It is critically important to address these gaps, as lower educational attainment is associated with shorter life expectancy, poorer mental health, lower employment, and financial instability.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR2 CR3 CR4 CR5\" citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Our results also provide support for complex relationships between autism and autistic traits with educational attainment, as similar numbers of autistic people achieved \u0026lsquo;Postgraduate qualifications\u0026rsquo; as their non-autistic peers. This complex relationship may be related to the heterogeneity across autistic people (and high AQ individuals) in which most autistic people experience significant barriers to achieving educational qualifications,\u003csup\u003e39,40,44,45,48\u003c/sup\u003e and a notable subset achieve high levels of educational qualifications.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis is the first study to confirm that high AQ individuals are less likely to attain educational qualifications than matched peers. These findings could indicate that underdiagnosis of autism may be associated with lower educational attainment and provide further evidence of the importance of accurate and timely diagnosis of autism. In addition, these findings may also suggest that educational systems and provisions fail to meet the needs of a much wider range of learners than those who hold a diagnosis (potentially including those who may not reach the diagnostic threshold). While it has not been studied, it is possible that challenges in traditional educational environments may extend to high AQ students based on their specific autistic traits. This is supported by evidence that traditional educational environments are unlikely to accommodate differences associated with autism, including those related to attention, executive function, and sensory sensitivities.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR58 CR59\" citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e57\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e60\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e As such, educational settings that take a \u0026lsquo;one-size-fits-all\u0026rsquo; approach may be inappropriate not only for autistic people, but also for a wider group of learners.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eExisting qualitative research suggests that academic and non-academic supports are frequently desired but inconsistently available for autistic students.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR57 CR58 CR59 CR60 CR61 CR62\" citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e63\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Autistic university students report that social support,\u003csup\u003e51,53,60\u0026ndash;62\u003c/sup\u003e mentorship,\u003csup\u003e51,60\u003c/sup\u003e counseling,\u003csup\u003e51,60\u003c/sup\u003e housing accommodations,\u003csup\u003e51,60\u003c/sup\u003e tutoring,\u003csup\u003e51\u003c/sup\u003e extra time,\u003csup\u003e51\u003c/sup\u003e and copies of notes\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e may support attainment; they also highlighted that financial difficulties\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and lack of knowledge about autism from University faculty and students\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e60\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e can be barriers to attainment. Discrimination, stigma, and bullying\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e64\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e65\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e in schools may negatively impact attainment, school attendance, and quality of life for autistic students. As such, policymakers, educators, and autistic people must work collaboratively to adapt educational environments, provide relevant evidence-based reasonable adjustments, and to reduce the stigma and discrimination that autistic students face.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThere are several important limitations to keep in mind regarding this study. Both samples are unlikely to be representative of the UK population due to sampling biases from our convenience sampling design and advertisement to Channel4 audiences. Both samples include relatively higher proportions of young, female, and highly educated individuals. Over 60% of both our non-autistic and low AQ comparison groups reported tertiary qualifications whereas 2023 data from the OECD suggests that only 53% of individuals aged 25\u0026ndash;64 in the UK had these qualifications.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e66\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e In addition, our autistic group had a relatively lower mean AQ score than would be expected (4.94; SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.85), though this was still significantly higher than the mean score among our non-autistic comparison group. These biases may limit the generalizability of our results, particularly to older and male individuals. Additionally, the first sample has a relatively higher proportion of non-autistic individuals with depression than would be expected;\u003csup\u003e67\u0026ndash;69\u003c/sup\u003e as depression has been consistently linked to lower educational attainment on average.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e70\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe were unable to consider the influence of ethnicity or other important co-occurring conditions (e.g., dyslexia, anxiety, and PTSD among others), as this information was not collected in the original survey. As such, it is not possible to assess the impact of ethnicity or these conditions on educational attainment, or to determine how representative this sample is of the UK population regarding these factors. In addition, given the convenience sample nature of the study design linked to a TV programme it is possible that interested individuals with autism or high autistic traits from across the education spectrum are more likely to respond to the survey, whereas those without show the well known educational bias towards taking part in surveys .\u003csup\u003e71\u003c/sup\u003e Finally, this study can only provide quantitative information on the number of individuals who achieved particular levels of educational attainment and does not give further information about the individual trajectories of attempts at particular educational qualifications, or the factors that contributed to attainment (or lack thereof). Future research should aim to understand longitudinal trajectories and the efficacy of educational accommodations for autistic students.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study highlights the success of a subset of autistic and high AQ individuals who achieve high levels of educational attainment. However, it is not clear whether these individuals were able to achieve high levels of qualifications despite significant barriers to attainment, including the need for multiple attempts at a degree or relatively later attainment than peers.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e As such, future research should investigate the age of attainment, duration of degree, and number of attempts at each degree-level when assessing educational attainment among autistic learners. In addition, it should leverage qualitative methods to understand educational experiences and identify key factors that promote autistic flourishing in educational environments. Finally, to develop targeted policy recommendations, future research must probe whether educational supports, reasonable adjustments, or specific programs are integral to attainment for autistic students, or if understanding your own identity via diagnosis is critical to self-advocacy.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eAutistic people and non-autistic people with high autistic traits in the UK have lower educational attainment than age, gender, and region-matched peers. However, a similar proportion of autistic and non-autistic matched peers achieved \u0026lsquo;Postgraduate qualifications\u0026rsquo;, demonstrating a complex relationship between autism and autistic traits with educational attainment. This is the first study to assess the outcomes of individuals with high levels of autistic traits but without formal diagnoses. These findings may suggest that educational systems are failing to meet the needs of autistic students and a wider group of individuals (who lack or who do not qualify for autism diagnosis). As such, the findings likely suggest that adaptations are needed both to educational environments to improve accessibility and to diagnostic pathways for autism. Future research must consider the impact of diagnosis on educational attainment, the efficacy of the implementation of reasonable adjustments, and the ways in which educational systems can be adapted to meet the needs of all learners. As educational attainment is linked to life expectancy, mental health, employment, and financial independence, policymakers around the globe must address these inequalities for autistic people and those with high levels of autistic traits.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor Contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEW conceived the study. EW and FM developed the methodology. EW analyzed the data and wrote the manuscript. SW and FM provided support with statistical analysis. EW and TP had full access to the data and take responsibility for the integrity of the data. All authors provided critical feedback and revisions. All authors review and approved the final manuscript. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe are grateful to all our participants, as well as the Cambridge Autism Research Database for assisting with recruitment for our focus group. We also thank the members of our post-analysis focus group, including AR Lavender, Karen Henry, Ross Henley and all other focus group participants who preferred to remain anonymous. We thank Channel4 for sharing the anonymized data with us.\u003c/p\u003e\n\n\u003cp\u003eSBC received funding from the Wellcome Trust 214322\\Z\\18\\Z. For the purpose of Open Access, the author has applied a CC BY public copyright licence to any Author Accepted Manuscript version arising from this submission. EW and TP are funded by Autism Action. SBC also received funding from the Innovative Medicines Initiative 2 Joint Undertaking under grant agreement No 777394 for the project AIMS-2-TRIALS. This Joint Undertaking receives support from the European Union\u0026apos;s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme and EFPIA and AUTISM SPEAKS, Autistica, SFARI. The University of Cambridge Autism Research Centre received funding for this work from the Autism Research Trust (from a donation by the Queen Anne\u0026rsquo;s Gate Foundation), whose legacy work is now managed by Autism Action, in 2019, SFARI, the Templeton World Charitable Fund and the MRC. We are grateful to Cambridge University Development and Alumni Relations (CUDAR) for anonymous donations. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to publish the results. Any views expressed are those of the author(s) and not necessarily those of the funders (including IHI-JU2). \u003c/p\u003e\n\n\u003cp\u003eAll research at the Department of Psychiatry in the University of Cambridge is supported by the NIHR Cambridge Biomedical Research Centre (NIHR203312) and the NIHR Applied Research Collaboration East of England. The views expressed are those of the author(s) and not necessarily those of the NIHR or the Department of Health and Social Care.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflicts of Interest Disclosures\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNone\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Availability Statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eParticipants did not provide consent for their data to be publicly shared, even though the data is anonymized. As such, data will be made available to potential collaborators only if they submit a research proposal to the Autism Research Centre, University of Cambridge, UK and received ethical approval.\u003c/p\u003e\n\n"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRaghupathi V, Raghupathi W. The influence of education on health: an empirical assessment of OECD countries for the period 1995\u0026ndash;2015. \u003cem\u003eArch Public Health\u003c/em\u003e. 2020;78(1):20. doi:10.1186/s13690-020-00402-5\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSlominski L, Sameroff A, Rosenblum K, Kasser T. Longitudinal predictors of adult socioeconomic attainment: The roles of socioeconomic status, academic competence, and mental health. \u003cem\u003eDev Psychopathol\u003c/em\u003e. 2011;23(1):315-324. doi:10.1017/S0954579410000829\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZajacova A, Lawrence EM. 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Biases in health expectancies due to educational differences in survey participation. \u003cem\u003eEJPH.\u003c/em\u003e 2020;28(2):237\u0026ndash;242. doi:10.1007/s10198-019-01152-0\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7905433/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7905433/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eEducational attainment is a key social determinant of health; however, there is a paucity of research worldwide on the educational attainment of autistic people. Leveraging data from a large, anonymous online survey, the study matched 14,519 autistic adults and 37,458 non-autistic adults with high autistic traits (henceforth high AQ) 1:5 on age, gender, and UK region to non-autistic adults. Autistic and high AQ people had lower levels of educational attainment than others, on average; however, autistic people achieved postgraduate qualifications at similar levels to matched peers. This suggests that most autistic and high AQ people experience significant barriers to educational attainment, but some autistic people achieve advanced educational qualifications. In addition, it provides evidence that educational systems may fail to effectively support a wider range of learners than those with formally recognized special educational needs. As educational attainment predicts long-term health and financial stability, timely autism diagnosis and adaptations to national and international educational policies are urgently needed.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"The educational attainment of autistic individuals and individuals with high autistic traits: \nA study of 230,000 people in the United Kingdom","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-10-24 10:38:18","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7905433/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"21655665-61ca-464f-a5e3-9c00bf36d713","owner":[],"postedDate":"October 24th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":56786928,"name":"Health sciences/Risk factors"},{"id":56786929,"name":"Health sciences/Health care/Public health/Epidemiology"},{"id":56786930,"name":"Health sciences/Health care/Quality of life"},{"id":56786931,"name":"Health sciences/Health care/Health policy"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-10-26T01:10:19+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-10-24 10:38:18","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7905433","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7905433","identity":"rs-7905433","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}