The value of habit strength for mental health in the domain of physical activity behavior

The value of habit strength for mental health in the domain of physical activity behavior | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article The value of habit strength for mental health in the domain of physical activity behavior Ceren Gürdere, Ismail Hakki Bayer, Gioia Bottesi, Marta Ghisi, and 1 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6556764/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 13 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background: There is compelling evidence for the benefits of physical activity on mental health. The present study examines the mediating role of habit strength in the relationship between physical activity, psychological well-being, and transdiagnostic factors associated with anxiety-related disorders, including anxiety sensitivity, distress tolerance, and intolerance of uncertainty. Methods: A cross-sectional design was employed in the present study. Self-report scales of physical activity behavior, habit strength, psychological well-being, intolerance of uncertainty, distress tolerance, and anxiety sensitivity were employed with an online questionnaire. The sample consisted of 232 undergraduate and graduate university students. Results: Mediation analyses indicated that habit strength emerged as a significant mediator in the relation between physical activity and both well-being and transdiagnostic factors. Indirect effects through habit strength were significant across all models. However, physical activity alone was not significantly associated with psychological well-being or transdiagnostic factors. Conclusion: Our findings underscore the importance of consistent engagement in and habit strength of physical activity for reducing transdiagnostic risk factors and enhancing mental health. Building on present findings, future research should explore the mechanisms underlying the link between physical activity and mental health outcomes with longitudinal and experimental methods. Transdiagnostic Risk Factors Anxiety Sensitivity Distress Tolerance Intolerance of Uncertainty Physical Activity Habit Strength Figures Figure 1 BACKGROUND Physical activity has been investigated for its impacts on physical and mental health, promoting psychological well-being and reducing stress. A sedentary lifestyle, with a lack of physical activity, poses substantial health risks; whereas regular engagement in physical activity links to better physical and mental health outcomes. Physical activity enhances cardiorespiratory fitness – which is a crucial protective factor for cardiovascular diseases and overall mortality [ 1 , 2 ]. Consistent physical activity also improves muscle and skeletal health [ 3 ] and reduces the risk of obesity, diabetes, hypertension, and certain types of cancer [ 4 ]. The evidence for the benefits of regular physical activity on mental health has accumulated as well, including stress relief, mood enhancement, and antidepressant and anxiolytic effects [ 5 , 6 ]. It is argued that physical activity acts as a booster facilitating beneficial changes in neurobiological systems pertaining to mental health [ 7 ]. Across diverse populations ranging from community samples, school children, university students, high-risk groups (e.g., prison inmates) to clinical populations (e.g., individuals with major depressive disorder), findings corroborated that physical activity reduces perceived stress, negative affect, symptoms of depression and anxiety while improving mood, self-esteem, life satisfaction, and optimism [ 8 – 11 ]. With regard to subjective well-being, physical activity relates to positive affect and higher satisfaction with life across the lifespan [ 12 – 14 ]. Physically active individuals show propensity to experience more pleasant feelings, such as excitement and happiness, compared to less active counterparts [ 15 ]. While the effects of physical activity on mental health are well-documented, emerging research suggests it may also influence transdiagnostic risk factors—broad mechanisms underlying multiple psychological disorders [ 16 – 18 ]. Given the limitations of categorical classification in psychopathology and the high comorbidity rates among disorders, researchers have increasingly focused on transdiagnostic factors of psychopathology. Transdiagnostic factors are conceptualized as underlying mechanisms leading to diverse psychological disorders [ 19 – 22 ]. It is argued that these underlying emotional and cognitive mechanisms offer explanations for the onset and prognosis of, as well as alternatives for the treatment of disorders [ 23 ]. Investigating how physical activity interacts with these mechanisms may offer insights into prevention and intervention strategies. Transdiagnostic factors of anxiety sensitivity, distress tolerance, and intolerance of uncertainty have been consistently shown to be related to anxiety-related disorders [ 24 – 25 ]. However, the prospective beneficial effects of physical activity on these transdiagnostic factors, as well as the mechanisms through which these effects may be realized, remain to be explored. Anxiety Sensitivity Anxiety sensitivity refers to the fear of anxiety, believing that the physical, social, or psychological consequences of anxiety or anxiety-related sensations will be devastating [ 26 ]. Anxiety sensitivity has been shown to play a role especially in the onset and exacerbation of anxiety-related disorders [ 27 – 29 ]. As indicated by the research, the relation between physical activity and anxiety sensitivity is multifaceted. On one hand, the association between anxiety sensitivity and physical activity has been shown to be negative, i.e., high anxiety sensitivity is associated with lower physical activity levels [ 30 – 32 ]. Research bolds that high anxiety sensitivity may demotivate physical activity engagement due to heightened bodily sensations, e.g., increased heart rate or shortness of breath, paralleling with the sensations experienced during anxiety or panic attack [ 31 , 33 ]. On the other hand, engaging in regular physical activity may result in alterations in anxiety sensitivity. Physical activity interventions have been impactful in reducing anxiety sensitivity, too, subsequently associating with reductions in anxiety-related disorders [ 16 , 34 ]. Distress Tolerance Distress tolerance can be defined as one’s perceived ability to handle negative emotional states or the capacity to face adverse internal states, along with external events, aiding in managing challenges in life and coping with psychological distress positively [ 35 , 36 ]. Low distress tolerance generally presents itself along with impaired executive functioning and self-regulation, increasing the likelihood of developing anxiety-related disorders and depression [ 37 ]. Higher levels of distress tolerance correlate with lower perceived stress and may link to challenge appraisals— which reappraises the stressful event as a challenge to grow, rather than a threat to succumb to [ 38 – 40 ]. Although research that examines the relation between physical activity and distress tolerance is scarce, studies suggest that physical activity is positively associated with distress tolerance [ 41 ] and regular engagement may improve distress tolerance [ 18 ]. Consequently, integrating physical activity to enhance distress tolerance may offer a valuable approach for improving psychological resilience and reducing vulnerability to psychopathology. Intolerance of Uncertainty Intolerance of uncertainty is characterized by the propensity to deem uncertainty as a burden, aggravating and stressful [ 42 ]. It mainly involves negative beliefs about uncertainty, and behavioral and emotional reactions to uncertainty [ 43 ]. In non-clinical samples, it is associated with higher levels of anxiety [ 44 ]. Given its transdiagnostic role, intolerance of uncertainty is evident across mood disorders, associated with negative emotional states, e.g., fear and anxiety [ 45 – 46 ], especially in anxiety-related disorders [ 47 ]. Growing body of literature addresses the involvement of intolerance of uncertainty in the modulation, as well as expression of negative emotions in generalized anxiety disorder patients [ 48 – 49 ]. The role of intolerance of uncertainty in well-being becomes evident, as higher intolerance of uncertainty increases the likelihood of perceiving uncertain situations as threats against positive outcomes, predominantly dampens positive emotions and anticipation of rewards [ 50 – 52 ]. In the literature, studies on the relation between physical activity and intolerance of uncertainty are again scarce. It was indicated that single bout physical activity was not effective in reducing intolerance of uncertainty [ 53 ] but consistent physical activity engagement for four weeks improved intolerance of uncertainty significantly [ 17 ]. Nevertheless, given the prominent role of intolerance of uncertainty especially in anxiety-related disorders [ 48 – 52 ], the relation between physical activity and intolerance of uncertainty demands further exploration. Physical Activity Habit Research underscores that especially consistent physical activity significantly enhances psychological well-being. Regular and higher-intensity physical activity positively influences well-being dimensions such as optimism, self-actualization, enjoyment of social connections, life satisfaction, and positive affect [ 54 ]. Given the role of physical activity in increasing emotion regulation, regular physical activity can lead to better coping mechanisms and well-being [ 55 ]. These findings emphasize the importance of regular physical activity in well-being and mental health. Exploring the mechanisms that connect physical activity to mental health benefits remains a promising research direction. Our study focuses on the role of physical activity habit strength in this link, providing an intriguing lens through which to investigate the mental health advantages of physical activity. Physical activity habits, which are described as automated behavioral patterns formed by repetitive exercise in a stable context [ 56 – 57 ], encompass the characteristics of consistent engagement in physical activity. The automatic nature of habits implies that they are not dependent on effortful explicit self-regulation and available working memory resources, which makes the behavior more stable and more resistant to change. Automatic behaviors are fast, effortless, and triggered by environmental or internal cues instead of more slow and explicit processing. Automaticity [ 58 ] and habit strength [ 59 ] have been shown to predict physical activity behavior. These habits provide individuals with an organized, automatized manner of starting and maintaining physical activity, which may be essential for gaining psychological benefits [ 60 , 61 ]. Habits are especially highlighted in the prediction of maintenance of physical activity behaviors [ 62 ]. Autonomously motivated activities in the form of habits may help satisfy the need for competence, promoting self-esteem, self-worth, and well-being [ 63 ]. Habits may also contribute to a sense of control over one’s behavior, fostering feelings of safety, confidence, and well-being [ 64 , 65 ]. In the context of physical activity, developing such habits can enhance psychological resilience and emotional well-being by facilitating a sense of control, and providing a structured and reliable space for managing stress and improving mood stability [ 60 , 61 ]. Beyond the direct effects of consistent physical activity, habitual exercisers may develop greater sense of self-confidence, heightened sense of security, and autonomy compared to irregular exercisers, further enhancing mental health benefits [ 66 ]. The Present Study Although the evidence highlighting the association between physical activity and enhanced mental health and psychological well-being is scrutinized, the means by which physical activity elicits such results are yet to be revealed [ 67 , 68 ], along with scarcity that examines the relation between physical activity and specific transdiagnostic factors. Numerous findings underline the importance of habit strength as an invaluable variable to make sense of inconsistent findings on and to better understand the link between physical activity and mental health outcomes [ 69 ]. Hence, in the present study, we aimed to investigate the relation between the amount of physical activity, the physical activity habit strength, and psychological well-being, alongside key transdiagnostic factors for anxiety-related disorders —intolerance of uncertainty, distress tolerance, and anxiety sensitivity. It was hypothesized that habit strength would mediate the relation between physical activity behavior and transdiagnostic factors and well-being (see Fig. 1 ). METHODS Participants and Procedure Sample size estimation using a priori G power analysis [ 70 ] for correlational analyses, for which an effect size (r) of 0.288 [ 71 ], α = 0.05, and a power level of 0.80 were entered, indicated a minimum sample size 155. The sample size of the present study was 232 after excluding missing data from the initial dataset of 272 participants. Participants were undergraduate and graduate students. The mean age was 20.3 (SD = 1.72) with the range of 18–29. The sample consisted of 60.8% females and 37.1% males, while 2.2% reported as other or preferred not to state their sex. Participation was voluntary, with a course credit incentive. The study information and link were sent via email and also made available on a platform where students can view options for earning course credits. The online link presented the consent form first, followed by demographic questions on age and sex, and scales of habit strength, physical activity behavior, psychological well-being, intolerance of uncertainty, distress tolerance, and anxiety sensitivity in a randomized order. Measures The Self-Report Habit Index [ 72 ] captures habit strength of a behavior, which is physical activity in the present study. The index consists of twelve items, each of which is evaluated from completely disagree (1) to completely agree (5). An example item is as follows: “Physical activity is part of my weekly routine”. The scale scores are calculated by summing the responses for each item. The scale has been adapted to Turkish and shown to be reliable and valid [ 73 ] as the original scale [ 72 ]. The internal consistency coefficient was observed as .93 in the study sample. The International Physical Activity Questionnaire [ 74 ] assesses the time spent for different levels of physical activity intensity (light, moderate, vigorous) and sitting in minutes per week. Participants are asked to recall their past seven days and report their time spent physically active and sitting. The scale scores for physical activity are calculated by summing the amounts reported for light, moderate, and vigorous physical activity. These amounts are determined by multiplying the number of days per week engaged in each activity (e.g., moderate physical activity) by the average time spent on it in minutes. The scale is shown to be reliable and valid for individuals who are fifteen or older [ 74 ]. The original scale has been adapted to Turkish and reported to be reliable and valid [ 75 ]. The Anxiety Sensitivity Index-3 [ 76 ] is a self-report measure, which specifies different concerns individuals have for anxiety. The measure consists of eighteen items and three subscales, which are physical concerns, cognitive concerns, and social concerns. Each item is rated on a five-point likert scale from 0 (very little) to 4 (very much). “It is important to me not to appear nervous” is an example item from the scale. The scale scores are calculated by adding the responses for each item. Higher scores indicate higher anxiety sensitivity. The reliability and validity of the original scale was supported [ 76 ] and psychometric properties of the Turkish version were confirmed [ 77 ]. In the present sample, the internal consistency value was observed as .89. The Distress Tolerance Scale [ 36 ] is a self-report measure and assesses the emotional distress tolerance. The scale has fifteen items, each of which is rated on a five-point likert scale from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 5 (Strongly Agree) about distress. The scale scores are calculated by adding the responses for each item. Higher scores in the scale suggests higher tolerance for distress. An example item from the scale is as follows: “When I feel distressed or upset, all I can think about is how bad I feel”. The reliability and validity of the original scale [ 36 ] as well as the Turkish version [ 78 ] was supported. The observed internal consistency coefficient was .87. Short Version of Intolerance of Uncertainty Scale [ 79 ] has been developed to measure intolerance of uncertainty, and it assesses reactions to ambiguity, uncertainty, and future events. Each item is rated on a 5-point likert scale from 1 (not all characteristic of me) to 5 (entirely characteristic of me). The scale scores are calculated by adding the responses for each item. Higher scores in the scale indicate a higher intolerance of uncertainty. An example item from the scale is as follows: “Unforeseen events upset me greatly”. The reliability and validity of the scale have been demonstrated [ 79 ], proposing a parsimonious shrinkage from 27 items to 12 items. The Turkish version of the scale showed good psychometric properties as well [ 80 ]. The internal consistency was observed as .92 in the present sample. World Health Organisation Well-Being Index [ 81 ] is a self-report measure to assess psychological well-being. The items in the index are evaluated based on the past two weeks and each item is rated on a 6-point likert scale ranging from 0 (at no time) to 5 (almost all the time). Scores are calculated by the sum of each response. Higher scores represent higher well-being. One of the items from the scale is as follows: “Over the past 2 weeks, I have felt cheerful and in good spirits”. The reliability and validity of the original scale was supported [ 81 ] and the scale was found adequate in assessing clinical outcomes [ 82 ]. The reliability and validity of the Turkish version of the scale was also established [ 83 ]. In the present sample, the internal consistency coefficient of the scale was .79. Statistical Analysis Data analyses were carried out using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences version 29 [ 84 ] and PROCESS macro version 4.2 [ 85 ]. Firstly, scale scores were obtained. Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated to test the associations among study variables. Mediation models were tested with PROCESS macro model 4 where the a path (between the predictor and the mediator), b path (between the mediator and the outcome), and c’ path (between the predictor and the outcome while controlling for the mediator) were examined. RESULTS Descriptive Statistics and Associations To examine the relations among physical activity, habit strength, anxiety sensitivity, distress tolerance, intolerance of uncertainty, and psychological well-being, Correlation coefficients for physical activity, habit strength, anxiety sensitivity, distress tolerance, intolerance of uncertainty, and well-being are presented in Table 1 along with the means and standard deviations. Table 1 Descriptive statistics and correlations among study variables HS PA AS DT IU WB Habit strength (HS) - Physical activity (PA) .31 *** - Anxiety sensitivity (AS) − .17 * − .1 - Distress tolerance (DT) .17 * .12 − .43 *** - Intolerance of uncertainty (IU) − .17 * − .04 .48 *** − .39 *** - Psychological well-being (WB) .19 ** .06 − .24 *** .14 * − .23 ** - M 31.23 495.76 26.79 48.35 38.01 15.36 SD 12.65 410.96 13.69 10.66 10.81 4.71 Notes. * p < .05; ** p < .01; *** p < .001 Physical activity was not significantly correlated with psychological well-being or transdiagnostic factors. However, physical activity was significantly positively correlated with habit strength ( r = .31, p < .001) indicating a moderate effect size. Furthermore, as expected, habit strength was significantly positively associated with psychological well-being ( r = .19, p < .01) and DT ( r = .17, p < .05.), and significantly negatively correlated with anxiety sensitivity ( r = − .17, p < .05), and IU ( r = − .17, p < .05) reflecting small effect sizes. The correlations among well-being and transdiagnostic factors were all significant, with small to moderate effect sizes, and in the expected direction. Psychological well-being was positively correlated with distress tolerance ( r = .14, p < .05), and negatively with anxiety sensitivity ( r = − .24, p < .001) and IU ( r = − .23, p < .01). anxiety sensitivity and intolerance of uncertainty were positively associated ( r = .48, p < .001), and both were negatively associated with distress tolerance ( r = − .43, p < .001; r = − .39, p < .001) showing moderate effect sizes. Mediation Analyses Mediation models were tested to examine whether habit strength mediates the relation between physical activity and well-being and transdiagnostic factors, i.e., anxiety sensitivity, distress tolerance, and intolerance of uncertainty, respectively. Mediation Model 1: Outcome Variable Well-Being The first model examined whether habit strength (mediator) mediates the relation between physical activity (predictor) and well-being (outcome). The first step revealed that physical activity did not significantly predict well-being ( R ² = .04, F (2,229) = 4.38, p = .01), indicating that path c was non-significant ( b = .0001, t (230) = .07, p = .94). The second step showed that physical activity significantly predicted habit strength ( R ² = .09, F (1,230) = 24.16, p < .001), meaning path a was significant ( b = .01, t (230) = 4.92, p < .001). Finally, both physical activity and habit strength were entered into the regression model to predict well-being, which was significant ( R ² = .19, F (2,229) = 4.38, p = .01). Physical activity remained non-significant as a predictor of well-being ( b = .0001, t (229) = .07, p = .94), indicating path c' was non-significant. Controlling for physical activity, habit strength significantly predicted well-being ( b = .07, t (229) = 2.79, p = .01), indicating path b was significant. The indirect effect of physical activity on well-being through habit strength was significant (Effect = .0007, BootSE = .0003, 95% CI [.0002, .001]). These results suggest that habit strength positively mediates the relation between physical activity and well-being, even though the direct effect of physical activity on well-being was non-significant. Mediation Model 2: Outcome Variable Anxiety Sensitivity The second model examined whether habit strength (mediator) mediates the relation between PA (predictor) and anxiety sensitivity (outcome). In the first step, physical activity did not significantly predict anxiety sensitivity ( R ² = .03, F (2,229) = 3.52, p = .03), indicating that path c was non-significant ( b = -0.002, t (229) = -0.71, p = .48). In the second step, physical activity significantly predicted habit strength ( R ² = .10, F (1,230) = 24.16, p < .001), indicating that path a was significant ( b = 0.01, t (230) = 4.92, p < .001). In the third step, both physical activity and habit strength were included in the regression model predicting anxiety sensitivity, which was significant ( R ² = .17, F (2,229) = 3.52, p = .031). Physical activity remained a non-significant predictor of AS ( b = -0.002, t (229) = -0.71, p = .48), indicating that path c' was non-significant. Controlling for physical activity, habit strength significantly predicted anxiety sensitivity ( b = -0.16, t (229) = -2.21, p = .03), indicating that path b was significant. The indirect effect of physical activity on AS through habit strength was significant (Effect = -0.002, BootSE = 0.001, 95% CI [-0.004, -0.0001]), confirming mediation. These findings suggest that the relation between physical activity and anxiety sensitivity is negatively mediated by habit strength, even though the direct effect of physical activity on anxiety sensitivity was non-significant. Mediation Model 3: Outcome Variable Distress Tolerance The third model examined whether habit strength (mediator) mediates the relation between physical activity (predictor) and distress tolerance (outcome). In the first step, physical activity did not significantly predict distress tolerance ( R ² = .03, F (2,229) = 3.91, p = .02), indicating that path c was non-significant ( b = .002, t (229) = 1.13, p = .26). In the second step, physical activity significantly predicted habit strength ( R ² = .10, F (1,230) = 24.16, p < .001), indicating that path a was significant ( b = .01, t (230) = 4.92, p < .001). In the third step, both physical activity and habit strength were entered into the regression model predicting distress tolerance, which was significant ( R ² = .18, F (2,229) = 3.91, p = .02). Physical activity remained a non-significant predictor of distress tolerance ( b = .002, t (229) = 1.13, p = .26), indicating that path c' was non-significant. Controlling for physical activity, habit strength significantly predicted distress tolerance ( b = .12, t (229) = 2.09, p = .04), indicating that path b was significant. The indirect effect of physical activity on distress tolerance through habit strength was significant (Effect = .001, BootSE = .0006, 95% CI [.0001, .003]), confirming mediation. These results suggest that the relation between physical activity and distress tolerance is positively mediated through habit strength, even though the direct effect of physical activity on distress tolerance was non-significant. Mediation Model 4: Outcome Variable Intolerance of Uncertainty The fourth model examined whether habit strength (mediator) mediates the relations between physical activity (predictor) and intolerance of uncertainty (outcome). In the first step, physical activity did not significantly predict intolerance of uncertainty ( R ² = .027, F (2,229) = 3.23, p = .042), indicating that path c was non-significant ( b = .0001, t (229) = 0.11, p = .92). In the second step, physical activity significantly predicted habit strength ( R ² = .09, F (1,230) = 24.16, p < .001), indicating that path a was significant ( b = .009, t (230) = 4.92, p < .001). In the third step, both physical activity and habit strength were entered into the regression model predicting intolerance of uncertainty, which was significant ( R ² = .17, F (2,229) = 3.23, p = .04). Physical activity remained a non-significant predictor of intolerance of uncertainty ( b = .0002, t (229) = 0.11, p = .92), indicating that path c' was non-significant. Controlling for physical activity, habit strength significantly predicted intolerance of uncertainty ( b = -0.14, t (229) = -2.45, p = .02), indicating that path b was significant. The indirect effect of physical activity on intolerance of uncertainty through habit strength was significant (Effect = -0.001, BootSE = 0.0007, 95% CI [-0.003, -0.0003]), confirming mediation. These results suggest that the relation between physical activity and intolerance of uncertainty is negatively mediated through habit strength, even though the direct effect of physical activity on intolerance of uncertainty was non-significant. DISCUSSION The present study adds to the current literature that examines the link between physical activity and mental health, underlining the role of habit strength as a mediator that facilitates the effects of physical activity on transdiagnostic factors and well-being, albeit having no direct effect of mere physical activity. This study also contributes to the scarce literature that examines the link between physical activity and transdiagnostic factors such as anxiety sensitivity, distress tolerance, and intolerance of uncertainty [ 17 , 18 , 30 – 32 , 41 , 53 ]. Our correlational analyses indicated no association between physical activity, well-being, and the transdiagnostic factors. These results align with the previous literature that underlines inconsistent links between physical activity and positive mental health outcomes [ 69 ]. Physical activity habit strength, however, significantly correlated with each of the transdiagnostic factors as well as well-being. As expected, the aforementioned associations promised a mediation of the effects of physical activity on transdiagnostic factors and well-being through habit strength. The results were consistent across the four mediation models; the indirect effect of physical activity on the dependent variable through habit strength was significant where the direct effect of physical activity on the dependent variable was not significant. Mediation analyses supported our case and revealed mediation via habit strength for each of the transdiagnostic factors and well-being. The results suggest that physical activity habit strength as a consistent and continuous engagement pattern, predicts the positive mental health outcomes and not the physical activity itself. Habit strength, hence, may act as a mechanism that explains how physical activity leads to improvement in well-being, also demonstrating the value of physical activity habit strength not only on well-being but also on transdiagnostic factors. Our findings overall suggest that as habits assist in organizing and automatizing a sustained and consistent physical activity behavior, particularly at higher intensities, which has been particularly shown to enhance well-being [ 54 , 60 , 61 ]. Researchers, in addition, imply that there might be more to what habit strength brings to the table besides the higher frequency, intensity, duration, and autonomy. Habits also contribute to long-term value formation and commitments, aiding in the fulfillment of competence needs and promoting self-esteem, self-efficacy, self-worth, and overall well-being [ 63 , 86 ]. Habit formation, not exclusive to physical activity, is considered to be pivotal for fostering positive lifestyle choices and better outcomes in health, academics, and well-being [ 87 – 90 ]. Limitations and Future Directions The path in which physical activity yields improvement in psychological well-being is yet not fully understood in regards to which factors yield mental health benefits and how. Cross-sectional design of the present study constitutes a limitation to exploring causal connections. Longitudinal studies would be valuable to examine how physical activity and habit strength evolve over time and how these changes impact long-term mental health outcomes. Future experimental research should also test the effect of habit formation on psychological well-being and mental health, and to further explore which transdiagnostic factors are malleable with habitual physical activity. Our sample consisted of only emerging adults which presents another limitation in terms of generalizability. Future research should investigate the effect of physical activity habits on different developmental stages e.g., childhood and adolescence. From a broader perspective, the interaction of neurobiological and psychological systems related to physical activity habits should be investigated in order to acquire a deeper understanding of the pathways that link physical activity to mental health. Conclusion Despite limitations, this study provides valuable insights into the role of habit strength in the relation between physical activity and transdiagnostic factors and psychological well-being. The findings suggest that transdiagnostic risk factors could be improved with habitual physical activity. Hence, increasing habitual physical activity may be an effective strategy for improving mental health outcomes, highlighting the importance of habit formation in promoting well-being. In light of our findings, physical activity habit could be considered as a transdiagnostic protective factor. In clinical practice, given the well-documented mental health benefits of habitual physical activity, clinicians are encouraged to support individuals in developing physical activity habits, especially in the prevention and treatment of anxiety-related disorders, where the transdiagnostic factors of anxiety sensitivity, distress tolerance, and intolerance of uncertainty hold a key role. Furthermore, the implementation of habit-strengthening interventions in clinical or public health settings could be pivotal in fostering long-term psychological well-being. Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate This research received approval from Bilkent University Research with Human Participants Ethics Committee and was conducted in compliance with the Declaration of Helsinki. The informed consent was obtained from all the participants. Clinical trial number: Not applicable. Consent for publication Not applicable. Availability of data and material The dataset of the current study is available from the corresponding author upon request. Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Funding Open access funding was provided by Medical School Hamburg. Authors' contributions The project was developed and executed by CG with GB, MG, and IP contributing to the study design. CG and IHB conducted the statistical analyses with the contribution of IP. All authors contributed to the writing of the manuscript. Acknowledgements Not applicable. References Ellison GM, Waring CD, Vicinanza C, Torella D. Physiological cardiac remodelling in response to endurance exercise training: cellular and molecular mechanisms. Heart. 2012;98(1):5-10. Wilson MG, Ellison GM, Cable NT. Basic science behind the cardiovascular benefits of exercise. Heart. 2015;101(10):758-65. Gunter KB, Almstedt HC, Janz KF. Physical activity in childhood may be the key to optimizing lifespan skeletal health. 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Psychology, Health & Medicine. 2022;27(5):1021-34. Jekauc D, Gürdere C, Englert C, Strobach T, Bottesi G, Bray S, Brown D, Fleig L, Ghisi M, Graham J, Martinasek M. The contribution and interplay of implicit and explicit processes on physical activity behavior: empirical testing of the physical activity adoption and maintenance (PAAM) model. BMC Public Health. 2024;24(1):1239. Hagger MS, Cameron LD, Hamilton K, Hankonen N, Lintunen T. Changing behavior: A theory-and evidence-based approach. Cambridge Handbooks in Psychology. 2020. Rebar AL, Dimmock JA, Jackson B, Rhodes RE, Kates A, Starling J, Vandelanotte C. A systematic review of the effects of non-conscious regulatory processes in physical activity. Health psychology review. 2016;10(4):395-407. Strobach T, Englert C, Jekauc D, Pfeffer I. Predicting adoption and maintenance of physical activity in the context of dual-process theories. Performance Enhancement & Health. 2020;8(1):100162. Ryan RM, Deci EL. Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American psychologist. 2000;55(1):68. Avni‐Babad D. Routine and feelings of safety, confidence, and well‐being. British journal of Psychology. 2011;102(2):223-44. Lally P, Gardner B. Promoting habit formation. Health psychology review. 2013;7(sup1):S137-58. Gardner B. Habit as automaticity, not frequency. European Health Psychologist. 2012;14(2):32-6. Kandola A, Ashdown-Franks G, Hendrikse J, Sabiston CM, Stubbs B. Physical activity and depression: Towards understanding the antidepressant mechanisms of physical activity. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews. 2019;107:525-39. Rebar AL, Taylor A. Physical activity and mental health; it is more than just a prescription. Mental Health and Physical Activity. 2017;13:77-82. Zhang Z, Wang T, Kuang J, Herold F, Ludyga S, Li J, Hall DL, Taylor A, Healy S, Yeung AS, Kramer AF. The roles of exercise tolerance and resilience in the effect of physical activity on emotional states among college students. International journal of clinical and health psychology. 2022;22(3):100312. Faul F, Erdfelder E, Buchner A, Lang AG. Statistical power analyses using G* Power 3.1: Tests for correlation and regression analyses. Behavior research methods. 2009;41(4):1149-60. Lin H, Zhu Y, Liu Q, Li S. The mediating effect of resilience between physical activity and mental health: a meta-analytic structural equation modeling approach. Frontiers in public health. 2024;12:1434624. Verplanken B, Orbell S. Reflections on past behavior: a self‐report index of habit strength 1. Journal of applied social psychology. 2003;33(6):1313-30. Gürdere C, Pfeffer I. The reliability and validity of the Turkish version of the Self-Report Habit Index: An examination of the Automaticity subscale. In preparation. Craig CL, Marshall AL, Sjöström M, Bauman AE, Booth ML, Ainsworth BE, Pratt M, Ekelund UL, Yngve A, Sallis JF, Oja P. International physical activity questionnaire: 12-country reliability and validity. Medicine and science in sports and exercise. 2003;35(8):1381-95. Saglam M, Arikan H, Savci S, Inal-Ince D, Bosnak-Guclu M, Karabulut E, Tokgozoglu L. International physical activity questionnaire: reliability and validity of the Turkish version. Perceptual and motor skills. 2010;111(1):278-84. Taylor S, Zvolensky MJ, Cox BJ, Deacon B, Heimberg RG, Ledley DR, Abramowitz JS, Holaway RM, Sandin B, Stewart SH, Coles M. Robust dimensions of anxiety sensitivity: development and initial validation of the Anxiety Sensitivity Index-3. Psychological assessment. 2007;19(2):176. Mantar A, Yemez B, Alkin T. The validity and reliability of the Turkish version of the anxiety sensitivity index-3. Turk Psikiyatri Dergisi. 2010;21(3):225-34. Akın A, Akça MŞ, Gülşen M. Turkish version of the distress tolerance scale: A study of validity and reliability. Kastamonu Education Journal. 2015;23(2):619-30. Carleton RN, Norton MP, Asmundson GJ. Fearing the unknown: A short version of the Intolerance of Uncertainty Scale. Journal of anxiety disorders. 2007;21(1):105-17. Sarıçam H, Erguvan FM, Akın A, Akça MŞ. The Turkish short version of the intolerance of uncertainty (IUS-12) scale: The study of validity and reliability. Route Educational and Social Science Journal. 2014;1(3):148-57. World Health Organization. Wellbeing measures in primary health care: The DepCare project. WHO Regional Office for Europe. 1998. Topp CW, Østergaard SD, Søndergaard S, Bech P. The WHO-5 Well-Being Index: a systematic review of the literature. Psychotherapy and psychosomatics. 2015;84(3):167-76. Eser E, Çevik C, Baydur H, Güneş S, Esgin TA, Öztekin ÇS, Eker E, Gümüşsoy U, Eser GB, Özyurt B. Reliability and validity of the Turkish version of the WHO-5, in adults and older adults for its use in primary care settings. Primary health care research & development. 2019;20:e100. IBM Corp. . IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows (Version 29.0) [Computer software]. IBM Corp. 2023. Hayes AF. Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis, third edition: A regression-based approach. Guilford Publications. 2022. Galla BM, Duckworth AL. More than resisting temptation: Beneficial habits mediate the relationship between self-control and positive life outcomes. Journal of personality and social psychology. 2015;109(3):508. Credé M, Kuncel NR. Study habits, skills, and attitudes: The third pillar supporting collegiate academic performance. Perspectives on psychological science. 2008;3(6):425-53. Fiorella L. The science of habit and its implications for student learning and well-being. Educational Psychology Review. 2020;32(3):603-25. Hallal PC, Andersen LB, Bull FC, Guthold R, Haskell W, Ekelund U. Global physical activity levels: surveillance progress, pitfalls, and prospects. The lancet. 2012;380(9838):247-57. Okano K, Kaczmarzyk JR, Dave N, Gabrieli JD, Grossman JC. Sleep quality, duration, and consistency are associated with better academic performance in college students. NPJ science of learning. 2019;4(1):16. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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A sedentary lifestyle, with a lack of physical activity, poses substantial health risks; whereas regular engagement in physical activity links to better physical and mental health outcomes. Physical activity enhances cardiorespiratory fitness \u0026ndash; which is a crucial protective factor for cardiovascular diseases and overall mortality [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. Consistent physical activity also improves muscle and skeletal health [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e] and reduces the risk of obesity, diabetes, hypertension, and certain types of cancer [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. The evidence for the benefits of regular physical activity on mental health has accumulated as well, including stress relief, mood enhancement, and antidepressant and anxiolytic effects [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. It is argued that physical activity acts as a booster facilitating beneficial changes in neurobiological systems pertaining to mental health [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. Across diverse populations ranging from community samples, school children, university students, high-risk groups (e.g., prison inmates) to clinical populations (e.g., individuals with major depressive disorder), findings corroborated that physical activity reduces perceived stress, negative affect, symptoms of depression and anxiety while improving mood, self-esteem, life satisfaction, and optimism [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR9 CR10\" citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. With regard to subjective well-being, physical activity relates to positive affect and higher satisfaction with life across the lifespan [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR13\" citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. Physically active individuals show propensity to experience more pleasant feelings, such as excitement and happiness, compared to less active counterparts [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhile the effects of physical activity on mental health are well-documented, emerging research suggests it may also influence transdiagnostic risk factors\u0026mdash;broad mechanisms underlying multiple psychological disorders [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR17\" citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e]. Given the limitations of categorical classification in psychopathology and the high comorbidity rates among disorders, researchers have increasingly focused on transdiagnostic factors of psychopathology. Transdiagnostic factors are conceptualized as underlying mechanisms leading to diverse psychological disorders [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR20 CR21\" citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. It is argued that these underlying emotional and cognitive mechanisms offer explanations for the onset and prognosis of, as well as alternatives for the treatment of disorders [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e]. Investigating how physical activity interacts with these mechanisms may offer insights into prevention and intervention strategies. Transdiagnostic factors of anxiety sensitivity, distress tolerance, and intolerance of uncertainty have been consistently shown to be related to anxiety-related disorders [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e]. However, the prospective beneficial effects of physical activity on these transdiagnostic factors, as well as the mechanisms through which these effects may be realized, remain to be explored.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eAnxiety Sensitivity\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAnxiety sensitivity refers to the fear of anxiety, believing that the physical, social, or psychological consequences of anxiety or anxiety-related sensations will be devastating [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e]. Anxiety sensitivity has been shown to play a role especially in the onset and exacerbation of anxiety-related disorders [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR28\" citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e]. As indicated by the research, the relation between physical activity and anxiety sensitivity is multifaceted. On one hand, the association between anxiety sensitivity and physical activity has been shown to be negative, i.e., high anxiety sensitivity is associated with lower physical activity levels [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR31\" citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e]. Research bolds that high anxiety sensitivity may demotivate physical activity engagement due to heightened bodily sensations, e.g., increased heart rate or shortness of breath, paralleling with the sensations experienced during anxiety or panic attack [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]. On the other hand, engaging in regular physical activity may result in alterations in anxiety sensitivity. Physical activity interventions have been impactful in reducing anxiety sensitivity, too, subsequently associating with reductions in anxiety-related disorders [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eDistress Tolerance\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eDistress tolerance can be defined as one\u0026rsquo;s perceived ability to handle negative emotional states or the capacity to face adverse internal states, along with external events, aiding in managing challenges in life and coping with psychological distress positively [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e]. Low distress tolerance generally presents itself along with impaired executive functioning and self-regulation, increasing the likelihood of developing anxiety-related disorders and depression [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e]. Higher levels of distress tolerance correlate with lower perceived stress and may link to challenge appraisals\u0026mdash; which reappraises the stressful event as a challenge to grow, rather than a threat to succumb to [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR39\" citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e]. Although research that examines the relation between physical activity and distress tolerance is scarce, studies suggest that physical activity is positively associated with distress tolerance [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e] and regular engagement may improve distress tolerance [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e]. Consequently, integrating physical activity to enhance distress tolerance may offer a valuable approach for improving psychological resilience and reducing vulnerability to psychopathology.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eIntolerance of Uncertainty\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIntolerance of uncertainty is characterized by the propensity to deem uncertainty as a burden, aggravating and stressful [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e]. It mainly involves negative beliefs about uncertainty, and behavioral and emotional reactions to uncertainty [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e]. In non-clinical samples, it is associated with higher levels of anxiety [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e]. Given its transdiagnostic role, intolerance of uncertainty is evident across mood disorders, associated with negative emotional states, e.g., fear and anxiety [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e], especially in anxiety-related disorders [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e]. Growing body of literature addresses the involvement of intolerance of uncertainty in the modulation, as well as expression of negative emotions in generalized anxiety disorder patients [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e]. The role of intolerance of uncertainty in well-being becomes evident, as higher intolerance of uncertainty increases the likelihood of perceiving uncertain situations as threats against positive outcomes, predominantly dampens positive emotions and anticipation of rewards [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR51\" citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e]. In the literature, studies on the relation between physical activity and intolerance of uncertainty are again scarce. It was indicated that single bout physical activity was not effective in reducing intolerance of uncertainty [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e] but consistent physical activity engagement for four weeks improved intolerance of uncertainty significantly [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]. Nevertheless, given the prominent role of intolerance of uncertainty especially in anxiety-related disorders [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR49 CR50 CR51\" citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e], the relation between physical activity and intolerance of uncertainty demands further exploration.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003ePhysical Activity Habit\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eResearch underscores that especially consistent physical activity significantly enhances psychological well-being. Regular and higher-intensity physical activity positively influences well-being dimensions such as optimism, self-actualization, enjoyment of social connections, life satisfaction, and positive affect [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e]. Given the role of physical activity in increasing emotion regulation, regular physical activity can lead to better coping mechanisms and well-being [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e]. These findings emphasize the importance of regular physical activity in well-being and mental health. Exploring the mechanisms that connect physical activity to mental health benefits remains a promising research direction. Our study focuses on the role of physical activity habit strength in this link, providing an intriguing lens through which to investigate the mental health advantages of physical activity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhysical activity habits, which are described as automated behavioral patterns formed by repetitive exercise in a stable context [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e57\u003c/span\u003e], encompass the characteristics of consistent engagement in physical activity. The automatic nature of habits implies that they are not dependent on effortful explicit self-regulation and available working memory resources, which makes the behavior more stable and more resistant to change. Automatic behaviors are fast, effortless, and triggered by environmental or internal cues instead of more slow and explicit processing. Automaticity [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e58\u003c/span\u003e] and habit strength [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e59\u003c/span\u003e] have been shown to predict physical activity behavior. These habits provide individuals with an organized, automatized manner of starting and maintaining physical activity, which may be essential for gaining psychological benefits [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e60\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e61\u003c/span\u003e]. Habits are especially highlighted in the prediction of maintenance of physical activity behaviors [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e62\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAutonomously motivated activities in the form of habits may help satisfy the need for competence, promoting self-esteem, self-worth, and well-being [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e63\u003c/span\u003e]. Habits may also contribute to a sense of control over one\u0026rsquo;s behavior, fostering feelings of safety, confidence, and well-being [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e64\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e65\u003c/span\u003e]. In the context of physical activity, developing such habits can enhance psychological resilience and emotional well-being by facilitating a sense of control, and providing a structured and reliable space for managing stress and improving mood stability [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e60\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e61\u003c/span\u003e]. Beyond the direct effects of consistent physical activity, habitual exercisers may develop greater sense of self-confidence, heightened sense of security, and autonomy compared to irregular exercisers, further enhancing mental health benefits [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e66\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eThe Present Study\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlthough the evidence highlighting the association between physical activity and enhanced mental health and psychological well-being is scrutinized, the means by which physical activity elicits such results are yet to be revealed [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e67\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e68\u003c/span\u003e], along with scarcity that examines the relation between physical activity and specific transdiagnostic factors. Numerous findings underline the importance of habit strength as an invaluable variable to make sense of inconsistent findings on and to better understand the link between physical activity and mental health outcomes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e69\u003c/span\u003e]. Hence, in the present study, we aimed to investigate the relation between the amount of physical activity, the physical activity habit strength, and psychological well-being, alongside key transdiagnostic factors for anxiety-related disorders \u0026mdash;intolerance of uncertainty, distress tolerance, and anxiety sensitivity. It was hypothesized that habit strength would mediate the relation between physical activity behavior and transdiagnostic factors and well-being (see Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"METHODS","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eParticipants and Procedure\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample size estimation using a priori G power analysis [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e70\u003c/span\u003e] for correlational analyses, for which an effect size (r) of 0.288 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e71\u003c/span\u003e], α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.05, and a power level of 0.80 were entered, indicated a minimum sample size 155. The sample size of the present study was 232 after excluding missing data from the initial dataset of 272 participants. Participants were undergraduate and graduate students. The mean age was 20.3 (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.72) with the range of 18\u0026ndash;29. The sample consisted of 60.8% females and 37.1% males, while 2.2% reported as other or preferred not to state their sex.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipation was voluntary, with a course credit incentive. The study information and link were sent via email and also made available on a platform where students can view options for earning course credits. The online link presented the consent form first, followed by demographic questions on age and sex, and scales of habit strength, physical activity behavior, psychological well-being, intolerance of uncertainty, distress tolerance, and anxiety sensitivity in a randomized order.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eMeasures\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eThe Self-Report Habit Index\u003c/b\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e72\u003c/span\u003e] captures habit strength of a behavior, which is physical activity in the present study. The index consists of twelve items, each of which is evaluated from completely disagree (1) to completely agree (5). An example item is as follows: \u0026ldquo;Physical activity is part of my weekly routine\u0026rdquo;. The scale scores are calculated by summing the responses for each item. The scale has been adapted to Turkish and shown to be reliable and valid [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e73\u003c/span\u003e] as the original scale [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e72\u003c/span\u003e]. The internal consistency coefficient was observed as .93 in the study sample.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eThe International Physical Activity Questionnaire\u003c/b\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e74\u003c/span\u003e] assesses the time spent for different levels of physical activity intensity (light, moderate, vigorous) and sitting in minutes per week. Participants are asked to recall their past seven days and report their time spent physically active and sitting. The scale scores for physical activity are calculated by summing the amounts reported for light, moderate, and vigorous physical activity. These amounts are determined by multiplying the number of days per week engaged in each activity (e.g., moderate physical activity) by the average time spent on it in minutes. The scale is shown to be reliable and valid for individuals who are fifteen or older [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e74\u003c/span\u003e]. The original scale has been adapted to Turkish and reported to be reliable and valid [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR75\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e75\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eThe Anxiety Sensitivity Index-3\u003c/b\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e76\u003c/span\u003e] is a self-report measure, which specifies different concerns individuals have for anxiety. The measure consists of eighteen items and three subscales, which are physical concerns, cognitive concerns, and social concerns. Each item is rated on a five-point likert scale from 0 (very little) to 4 (very much). \u0026ldquo;It is important to me not to appear nervous\u0026rdquo; is an example item from the scale. The scale scores are calculated by adding the responses for each item. Higher scores indicate higher anxiety sensitivity. The reliability and validity of the original scale was supported [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e76\u003c/span\u003e] and psychometric properties of the Turkish version were confirmed [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e77\u003c/span\u003e]. In the present sample, the internal consistency value was observed as .89.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eThe Distress Tolerance Scale\u003c/b\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e] is a self-report measure and assesses the emotional distress tolerance. The scale has fifteen items, each of which is rated on a five-point likert scale from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 5 (Strongly Agree) about distress. The scale scores are calculated by adding the responses for each item. Higher scores in the scale suggests higher tolerance for distress. An example item from the scale is as follows: \u0026ldquo;When I feel distressed or upset, all I can think about is how bad I feel\u0026rdquo;. The reliability and validity of the original scale [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e] as well as the Turkish version [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e78\u003c/span\u003e] was supported. The observed internal consistency coefficient was .87.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eShort Version of Intolerance of Uncertainty Scale\u003c/b\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR79\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e79\u003c/span\u003e] has been developed to measure intolerance of uncertainty, and it assesses reactions to ambiguity, uncertainty, and future events. Each item is rated on a 5-point likert scale from 1 (not all characteristic of me) to 5 (entirely characteristic of me). The scale scores are calculated by adding the responses for each item. Higher scores in the scale indicate a higher intolerance of uncertainty. An example item from the scale is as follows: \u0026ldquo;Unforeseen events upset me greatly\u0026rdquo;. The reliability and validity of the scale have been demonstrated [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR79\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e79\u003c/span\u003e], proposing a parsimonious shrinkage from 27 items to 12 items. The Turkish version of the scale showed good psychometric properties as well [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR80\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e80\u003c/span\u003e]. The internal consistency was observed as .92 in the present sample.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eWorld Health Organisation Well-Being Index\u003c/b\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR81\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e81\u003c/span\u003e] is a self-report measure to assess psychological well-being. The items in the index are evaluated based on the past two weeks and each item is rated on a 6-point likert scale ranging from 0 (at no time) to 5 (almost all the time). Scores are calculated by the sum of each response. Higher scores represent higher well-being. One of the items from the scale is as follows: \u0026ldquo;Over the past 2 weeks, I have felt cheerful and in good spirits\u0026rdquo;. The reliability and validity of the original scale was supported [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR81\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e81\u003c/span\u003e] and the scale was found adequate in assessing clinical outcomes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR82\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e82\u003c/span\u003e]. The reliability and validity of the Turkish version of the scale was also established [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR83\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e83\u003c/span\u003e]. In the present sample, the internal consistency coefficient of the scale was .79.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStatistical Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eData analyses were carried out using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences version 29 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR84\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e84\u003c/span\u003e] and PROCESS macro version 4.2 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR85\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e85\u003c/span\u003e]. Firstly, scale scores were obtained. Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated to test the associations among study variables. Mediation models were tested with PROCESS macro model 4 where the a path (between the predictor and the mediator), b path (between the mediator and the outcome), and c\u0026rsquo; path (between the predictor and the outcome while controlling for the mediator) were examined.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"RESULTS","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eDescriptive Statistics and Associations\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo examine the relations among physical activity, habit strength, anxiety sensitivity, distress tolerance, intolerance of uncertainty, and psychological well-being, Correlation coefficients for physical activity, habit strength, anxiety sensitivity, distress tolerance, intolerance of uncertainty, and well-being are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e along with the means and standard deviations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDescriptive statistics and correlations among study variables\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIU\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWB\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHabit strength (HS)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhysical activity (PA)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.31\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnxiety sensitivity (AS)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.17\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDistress tolerance (DT)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.17\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.43\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIntolerance of uncertainty (IU)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.17\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.48\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.39\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePsychological well-being (WB)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.19\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.24\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.14\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.23\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31.23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e495.76\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.79\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48.35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e410.96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.66\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.71\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"7\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNotes.\u003c/em\u003e \u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003ep\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.05; \u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003ep\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01; \u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003ep\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhysical activity was not significantly correlated with psychological well-being or transdiagnostic factors. However, physical activity was significantly positively correlated with habit strength (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.31, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001) indicating a moderate effect size. Furthermore, as expected, habit strength was significantly positively associated with psychological well-being (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.19, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01) and DT (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.17, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.05.), and significantly negatively correlated with anxiety sensitivity (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.17, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.05), and IU (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.17, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.05) reflecting small effect sizes. The correlations among well-being and transdiagnostic factors were all significant, with small to moderate effect sizes, and in the expected direction. Psychological well-being was positively correlated with distress tolerance (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.14, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.05), and negatively with anxiety sensitivity (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.24, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001) and IU (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.23, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01). anxiety sensitivity and intolerance of uncertainty were positively associated (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.48, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001), and both were negatively associated with distress tolerance (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.43, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001; \u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.39, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001) showing moderate effect sizes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMediation Analyses\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMediation models were tested to examine whether habit strength mediates the relation between physical activity and well-being and transdiagnostic factors, i.e., anxiety sensitivity, distress tolerance, and intolerance of uncertainty, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMediation Model 1: Outcome Variable Well-Being\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe first model examined whether habit strength (mediator) mediates the relation between physical activity (predictor) and well-being (outcome). The first step revealed that physical activity did not significantly predict well-being (\u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u0026sup2; = .04, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(2,229)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.38, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.01), indicating that path c was non-significant (\u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.0001, \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e(230)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.07, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.94). The second step showed that physical activity significantly predicted habit strength (\u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u0026sup2; = .09, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(1,230)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;24.16, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001), meaning path a was significant (\u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.01, \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e(230)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.92, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinally, both physical activity and habit strength were entered into the regression model to predict well-being, which was significant (\u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u0026sup2; = .19, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(2,229)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.38, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.01). Physical activity remained non-significant as a predictor of well-being (\u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.0001, \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e(229)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.07, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.94), indicating path c' was non-significant. Controlling for physical activity, habit strength significantly predicted well-being (\u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.07, \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e(229)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.79, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.01), indicating path b was significant.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe indirect effect of physical activity on well-being through habit strength was significant (Effect\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.0007, BootSE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.0003, 95% CI [.0002, .001]). These results suggest that habit strength positively mediates the relation between physical activity and well-being, even though the direct effect of physical activity on well-being was non-significant.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMediation Model 2: Outcome Variable Anxiety Sensitivity\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe second model examined whether habit strength (mediator) mediates the relation between PA (predictor) and anxiety sensitivity (outcome). In the first step, physical activity did not significantly predict anxiety sensitivity (\u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u0026sup2; = .03, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(2,229)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.52, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.03), indicating that path c was non-significant (\u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e = -0.002, \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e(229) = -0.71, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.48). In the second step, physical activity significantly predicted habit strength (\u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u0026sup2; = .10, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(1,230)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;24.16, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001), indicating that path a was significant (\u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.01, \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e(230)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.92, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the third step, both physical activity and habit strength were included in the regression model predicting anxiety sensitivity, which was significant (\u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u0026sup2; = .17, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(2,229)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.52, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.031). Physical activity remained a non-significant predictor of AS (\u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e = -0.002, \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e(229) = -0.71, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.48), indicating that path c' was non-significant. Controlling for physical activity, habit strength significantly predicted anxiety sensitivity (\u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e = -0.16, \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e(229) = -2.21, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.03), indicating that path b was significant.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe indirect effect of physical activity on AS through habit strength was significant (Effect = -0.002, BootSE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.001, 95% CI [-0.004, -0.0001]), confirming mediation. These findings suggest that the relation between physical activity and anxiety sensitivity is negatively mediated by habit strength, even though the direct effect of physical activity on anxiety sensitivity was non-significant.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMediation Model 3: Outcome Variable Distress Tolerance\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe third model examined whether habit strength (mediator) mediates the relation between physical activity (predictor) and distress tolerance (outcome). In the first step, physical activity did not significantly predict distress tolerance (\u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u0026sup2; = .03, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(2,229)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.91, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.02), indicating that path c was non-significant (\u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.002, \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e(229)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.13, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.26). In the second step, physical activity significantly predicted habit strength (\u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u0026sup2; = .10, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(1,230)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;24.16, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001), indicating that path a was significant (\u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.01, \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e(230)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.92, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the third step, both physical activity and habit strength were entered into the regression model predicting distress tolerance, which was significant (\u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u0026sup2; = .18, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(2,229)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.91, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.02). Physical activity remained a non-significant predictor of distress tolerance (\u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.002, \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e(229)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.13, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.26), indicating that path c' was non-significant. Controlling for physical activity, habit strength significantly predicted distress tolerance (\u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.12, \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e(229)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.09, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.04), indicating that path b was significant.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe indirect effect of physical activity on distress tolerance through habit strength was significant (Effect\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.001, BootSE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.0006, 95% CI [.0001, .003]), confirming mediation. These results suggest that the relation between physical activity and distress tolerance is positively mediated through habit strength, even though the direct effect of physical activity on distress tolerance was non-significant.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMediation Model 4: Outcome Variable Intolerance of Uncertainty\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe fourth model examined whether habit strength (mediator) mediates the relations between physical activity (predictor) and intolerance of uncertainty (outcome). In the first step, physical activity did not significantly predict intolerance of uncertainty (\u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u0026sup2; = .027, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(2,229)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.23, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.042), indicating that path c was non-significant (\u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.0001, \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e(229)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.11, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.92). In the second step, physical activity significantly predicted habit strength (\u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u0026sup2; = .09, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(1,230)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;24.16, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001), indicating that path a was significant (\u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.009, \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e(230)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.92, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the third step, both physical activity and habit strength were entered into the regression model predicting intolerance of uncertainty, which was significant (\u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u0026sup2; = .17, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(2,229)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.23, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.04). Physical activity remained a non-significant predictor of intolerance of uncertainty (\u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.0002, \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e(229)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.11, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.92), indicating that path c' was non-significant. Controlling for physical activity, habit strength significantly predicted intolerance of uncertainty (\u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e = -0.14, \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e(229) = -2.45, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.02), indicating that path b was significant.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe indirect effect of physical activity on intolerance of uncertainty through habit strength was significant (Effect = -0.001, BootSE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.0007, 95% CI [-0.003, -0.0003]), confirming mediation. These results suggest that the relation between physical activity and intolerance of uncertainty is negatively mediated through habit strength, even though the direct effect of physical activity on intolerance of uncertainty was non-significant.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe present study adds to the current literature that examines the link between physical activity and mental health, underlining the role of habit strength as a mediator that facilitates the effects of physical activity on transdiagnostic factors and well-being, albeit having no direct effect of mere physical activity. This study also contributes to the scarce literature that examines the link between physical activity and transdiagnostic factors such as anxiety sensitivity, distress tolerance, and intolerance of uncertainty [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR31\" citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur correlational analyses indicated no association between physical activity, well-being, and the transdiagnostic factors. These results align with the previous literature that underlines inconsistent links between physical activity and positive mental health outcomes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e69\u003c/span\u003e]. Physical activity habit strength, however, significantly correlated with each of the transdiagnostic factors as well as well-being. As expected, the aforementioned associations promised a mediation of the effects of physical activity on transdiagnostic factors and well-being through habit strength. The results were consistent across the four mediation models; the indirect effect of physical activity on the dependent variable through habit strength was significant where the direct effect of physical activity on the dependent variable was not significant. Mediation analyses supported our case and revealed mediation via habit strength for each of the transdiagnostic factors and well-being. The results suggest that physical activity habit strength as a consistent and continuous engagement pattern, predicts the positive mental health outcomes and not the physical activity itself. Habit strength, hence, may act as a mechanism that explains how physical activity leads to improvement in well-being, also demonstrating the value of physical activity habit strength not only on well-being but also on transdiagnostic factors.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur findings overall suggest that as habits assist in organizing and automatizing a sustained and consistent physical activity behavior, particularly at higher intensities, which has been particularly shown to enhance well-being [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e60\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e61\u003c/span\u003e]. Researchers, in addition, imply that there might be more to what habit strength brings to the table besides the higher frequency, intensity, duration, and autonomy. Habits also contribute to long-term value formation and commitments, aiding in the fulfillment of competence needs and promoting self-esteem, self-efficacy, self-worth, and overall well-being [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e63\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR86\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e86\u003c/span\u003e]. Habit formation, not exclusive to physical activity, is considered to be pivotal for fostering positive lifestyle choices and better outcomes in health, academics, and well-being [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR88 CR89\" citationid=\"CR87\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e87\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR90\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e90\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eLimitations and Future Directions\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe path in which physical activity yields improvement in psychological well-being is yet not fully understood in regards to which factors yield mental health benefits and how. Cross-sectional design of the present study constitutes a limitation to exploring causal connections. Longitudinal studies would be valuable to examine how physical activity and habit strength evolve over time and how these changes impact long-term mental health outcomes. Future experimental research should also test the effect of habit formation on psychological well-being and mental health, and to further explore which transdiagnostic factors are malleable with habitual physical activity. Our sample consisted of only emerging adults which presents another limitation in terms of generalizability. Future research should investigate the effect of physical activity habits on different developmental stages e.g., childhood and adolescence. From a broader perspective, the interaction of neurobiological and psychological systems related to physical activity habits should be investigated in order to acquire a deeper understanding of the pathways that link physical activity to mental health.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eDespite limitations, this study provides valuable insights into the role of habit strength in the relation between physical activity and transdiagnostic factors and psychological well-being. The findings suggest that transdiagnostic risk factors could be improved with habitual physical activity. Hence, increasing habitual physical activity may be an effective strategy for improving mental health outcomes, highlighting the importance of habit formation in promoting well-being. In light of our findings, physical activity habit could be considered as a transdiagnostic protective factor. In clinical practice, given the well-documented mental health benefits of habitual physical activity, clinicians are encouraged to support individuals in developing physical activity habits, especially in the prevention and treatment of anxiety-related disorders, where the transdiagnostic factors of anxiety sensitivity, distress tolerance, and intolerance of uncertainty hold a key role. Furthermore, the implementation of habit-strengthening interventions in clinical or public health settings could be pivotal in fostering long-term psychological well-being.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research received approval from Bilkent University Research with Human Participants Ethics Committee\u0026nbsp;and was conducted in compliance with the Declaration of Helsinki.\u0026nbsp;The informed consent was obtained from all the participants.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eClinical trial number: Not applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and material\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe dataset of the current study is available from the corresponding author upon request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOpen access funding was provided by Medical School Hamburg.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors' contributions\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe project was developed and executed by CG with GB, MG, and IP contributing to the study design. CG and IHB conducted the statistical analyses with the contribution of IP. All authors contributed to the writing of the manuscript. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eEllison GM, Waring CD, Vicinanza C, Torella D. Physiological cardiac remodelling in response to endurance exercise training: cellular and molecular mechanisms. Heart. 2012;98(1):5-10.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWilson MG, Ellison GM, Cable NT. Basic science behind the cardiovascular benefits of exercise. Heart. 2015;101(10):758-65.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGunter KB, Almstedt HC, Janz KF. Physical activity in childhood may be the key to optimizing lifespan skeletal health. Exercise and sport sciences reviews. 2012;40(1):13-21.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLewis SF, Hennekens CH. Regular physical activity: forgotten benefits. 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Reliability and validity of the Turkish version of the WHO-5, in adults and older adults for its use in primary care settings. Primary health care research \u0026amp; development. 2019;20:e100.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eIBM Corp. . IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows (Version 29.0) [Computer software]. IBM Corp. 2023.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHayes AF. Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis, third edition: A regression-based approach. Guilford Publications. 2022.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGalla BM, Duckworth AL. More than resisting temptation: Beneficial habits mediate the relationship between self-control and positive life outcomes. Journal of personality and social psychology. 2015;109(3):508.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCred\u0026eacute; M, Kuncel NR. Study habits, skills, and attitudes: The third pillar supporting collegiate academic performance. 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NPJ science of learning. 2019;4(1):16.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-psychology","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"psyo","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Psychology](http://bmcpsychology.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"BMC Psychology","twitterHandle":"BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Transdiagnostic Risk Factors, Anxiety Sensitivity, Distress Tolerance, Intolerance of Uncertainty, Physical Activity, Habit Strength","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6556764/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6556764/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBackground: \u003c/strong\u003eThere is compelling evidence for the benefits of physical activity on mental health. The present study examines the mediating role of habit strength in the relationship between physical activity, psychological well-being, and transdiagnostic factors associated with anxiety-related disorders, including anxiety sensitivity, distress tolerance, and intolerance of uncertainty.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMethods: \u003c/strong\u003eA cross-sectional design was employed in the present study. Self-report scales of physical activity behavior, habit strength, psychological well-being, intolerance of uncertainty, distress tolerance, and anxiety sensitivity were employed with an online questionnaire. The sample consisted of 232 undergraduate and graduate university students.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResults: \u003c/strong\u003eMediation analyses indicated that habit strength emerged as a significant mediator in the relation between physical activity and both well-being and transdiagnostic factors. Indirect effects through habit strength were significant across all models. However, physical activity alone was not significantly associated with psychological well-being or transdiagnostic factors.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConclusion: \u003c/strong\u003eOur findings underscore the importance of consistent engagement in and habit strength of physical activity for reducing transdiagnostic risk factors and enhancing mental health. Building on present findings, future research should explore the mechanisms underlying the link between physical activity and mental health outcomes with longitudinal and experimental methods.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"The value of habit strength for mental health in the domain of physical activity behavior","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-05-16 14:41:18","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6556764/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-04-10T08:19:56+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-09-14T16:22:40+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-09-12T01:46:18+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"65424829013556286355154359714355966559","date":"2025-09-04T13:45:10+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"98751238399349867381895718203241293687","date":"2025-09-03T02:11:20+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"297102990455831651661399917107681742733","date":"2025-05-20T13:12:30+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-05-15T08:09:29+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"302269860449834999036598479126684908641","date":"2025-05-15T01:41:28+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-05-14T13:18:43+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-05-07T08:00:08+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2025-05-07T07:43:55+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-05-07T07:34:19+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"BMC Psychology","date":"2025-05-07T07:33:10+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-psychology","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"psyo","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Psychology](http://bmcpsychology.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"BMC Psychology","twitterHandle":"BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"c279792e-3e21-49d0-8ec5-5b8c7e1c2ec9","owner":[],"postedDate":"May 16th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-07T08:55:47+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-05-16 14:41:18","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6556764","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6556764","identity":"rs-6556764","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}