Breaking the Glass Ceiling? A Gender Analysis of Employment Trends in Turkish Healthcare Sector

Breaking the Glass Ceiling? 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A Gender Analysis of Employment Trends in Turkish Healthcare Sector Betul Urhan, Nilay Etiler This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6050742/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Turkiye (Turkey) is experiencing a feminization of its healthcare sector, which is creating employment opportunities for women, but also revealing gendered patterns of employment. This study examines the working conditions of women in Turkiye’s healthcare sector through a gender lens, focusing on how employment growth affects these dynamics. To address these issues, multiple data analyses are used to examine the gender characteristics of women's employment in the health sector. The 2021 Household Labor Force Survey (HLFS) microdata set is used as the main dataset. This analysis focuses on employment in the health sector, coded as 86 in the Classification of Economic Activities (NACE 86), which includes human health services. In addition, we conducted secondary analyses using the aggregate data from Ministry of Health’s labor force statistics and higher education data. The health sector is an important source of employment for women, with 2.4% of men and 7.0% of women employed in the sector. Women constitute 57.8% of the health workforce, which is predominantly professional, and ‘technicians/associate professional’ roles. Despite its predominantly female composition, the health sector still faces a glass ceiling. They are predominantly clustered at the lower rungs of the occupational hierarchy, occupying lower paid and lower status roles. With regard to students in the health sciences, it appears that the feminization of the health sector will continue in the near future. As an important source of employment for women, the growing demand for health services will create new employment opportunities for women. Therefore, the jobs and occupations in which women's employment in the health sector is concentrated, the gender pay gap, and women's current working conditions in the public and private sectors should be monitored. This is essential for policies and interventions against the devaluation of health care work. Other Economics Gendered work occupational segregation healthcare sector health workforce feminization Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Background Turkiye (formerly Turkey) has experienced economic and social evolution over the past several decades, shifting from an agriculture-focused economy and employment landscape to one centered around the service sector and urban regions. Throughout this transition, women have increasingly joined the workforce, leading to an increase in the number of employed women. Turkiye, however, still has the lowest labor force participation rate for women among the countries in the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). In 2023, the employment rate in Turkiye for women was 31.3%, whereas it was 65.7% for men, whereas the average rates for OECD countries were 51.1% for women and 65.9% for men ( 1 ). There are supply-side and demand-side factors contributing to the low employment rates of women and their significant withdrawal from the workforce in Turkiye ( 2 , 3 ). One factor is the persistence of the gender-based division of labor within the household and public spheres, which is influenced by traditional conservative social norms and cultural values specific to Turkiye ( 2 , 4 , 5 ). These insufficient and low-cost interventions have functioned to maintain women’s traditional role in the household. Moreover, in this model, owing to the limited service provided by the public sector for care services for children, elderly individuals, disabled individuals ( 3 , 5 , 6 ), private day care facilities may be an alternative. Nevertheless, the cost of private sector services is frequently beyond the means of many, particularly low-wage women, restricting access to only a limited socioeconomic segment ( 4 , 7 , 8 ). This situation creates a necessity for women to balance domestic responsibilities with paid employment. As a result, women are often concentrated in roles deemed suitable within the labor market, frequently referred to as "women's jobs" ( 9 , 10 ). Consequently, gender-based occupational and sectoral segregation in the Turkish labor market remains both stable and rigid. Historically, the healthcare sector has been staffed predominantly by women ( 11 ). However, women in the healthcare sector tend to be concentrated in roles requiring physical and emotional labor, such as nursing, and in positions assisting mostly male physicians. This trend validates the perceptions that women are most suitable for roles associated with caregiving or nurturing responsibilities ( 12 , 13 ). As a result, women are afforded fewer opportunities that require considerations of knowledge and expertise, often finding themselves confined to roles dictated by traditional stereotypes rather than merit. These positions, which are held predominantly by women, are often labeled semiprofessional jobs ( 11 , 14 ). Turner argues that the dominance of women in nursing is another illustration of the use of female labor to minimize production costs within capitalist societies ( 13 ). The undervaluation of women's labor and the societal perception of their income as ‘secondary’, coupled with the persistence of their household responsibilities, often prompt women to readily accept flexible, low-paid jobs that align with these duties ( 9 , 12 ). The perception that women's labor is well suited for roles demanding patience and repetition, coupled with the belief that it is easily replaceable, renders female labor attractive to capital seeking cost-effective workforce solutions by employers ( 15 , 16 ). Although Turkish healthcare system historically had a predominantly public structure, However, since the 1990s, the integration of neoliberal policies into the health system has led to the privatization of public services, reducing public expenditures and fostering the emergence of new markets for capital ( 17 ). Neoliberal policies entail the adoption of a performance-based wage pay and fixed-term contract system for public employees, which involves more precarious working relationships and subcontracting instead of secure employment under civil servant status for the supply of healthcare personnel, alongside functional flexibility ( 18 – 20 ). This intermediate staff with a high share of women, comprising highly heterogeneous and nonprofessional health support workers, constitutes the largest and most invisible part of the health workforce in many countries. It is progressively expanding as an inexpensive method to address labor shortages, frequently within the healthcare sector ( 21 – 23 ). The proportion of women employed in Turkiye’s health sector is significant compared to the total number of women in the workforce. The sector's sustained importance as a source of employment for women reflects the growing demand for health services. However, few studies analyze employment in the health sector through a gender lens. This study aims to examine how employment growth in the health sector affects the occupational distribution of women and contributes to the feminization of employment. The primary hypothesis is that increased employment in health services leads to a feminized workforce, with most growth concentrated in low-skilled jobs, thereby reinforcing gender-based occupational segregation. Methods In this study, we analyzed multiple data points to explore the gender characteristics of women’s employment in the health sector. As the main dataset, the 2021 Household Labor Force Survey (HLFS) micro dataset is analyzed every year by Turkish Statistical Institute (TURKSTAT) to obtain nationwide information on the economically active population—the labor force—aged 15 and over. The HLFS is a cross-sectional study that uses a two-stage stratified cluster sampling method. The 2021 HLFS surveyed a total of 213,942 individuals, with the sample size equally distributed across the weeks to estimate data for the entire year. The micro dataset is officially requested and obtained from TURKSTAT ( 24 ). In this analysis, our focus is on the workforce in the health sector, coded as 86 in the Nomenclature of Economic Activities (NACE 86), which encompasses human health services. NACE 86 includes human health activities such as hospital, medical and dental, and other human health activities ( 25 ). We compare those employed in the health sector with those working across all sectors. Of the 213,942 participants of the 2021 HLFS, 8,325 people are under the NACE 86 code. Among the variables of the HLFS, those variables were included in the analyses: demographic variables such as gender, age, and marital status; employment characteristics such as sector of employment (public/private), employment status (paid, self-employed, employer), professional group (regarding International Standard Classification of Occupations (ISCO-08) classification), income from work in the last month (in Turkish Lira (TL)), weekly working hours (in hours), duration of employment in the sector (in years)), and type of employment (part-time/full-time, workplace size (based on number of employees)). Second, to investigate changes in the number of healthcare professionals over the years, data from 2001–2021 were retrieved from the TURKSTAT Health Statistics database. The data from 1999 were obtained from the 2000 Yearbook of the Ministry of Health (MoH). These data used the International Standard Profession Classification (USMS-88) for categorizing healthcare professionals. Doctors include general practitioners, medical residents, and specialized physicians. We did not use dentists or pharmacists from the analysis. Other healthcare personnel include a broad spectrum of health workers. MoH institutions mainly consist of primary health care units and state hospitals. Since the medical schools of state universities have their own hospitals, the university category represents public institutions. Third, to determine the trend of feminization in the health sector over time, we analyzed data on the number of students in health professions obtained from the Higher Education Board (HEB) ( 26 ). The number and rate of female students in the ‘health and welfare’ category were calculated from 2000–2022. However, the data on health profession and gender students were obtained from the 2013–2014 academic year to the 2021–2022 year because of a lack of qualified data before the 2013–2014 academic year. Descriptive statistics (percentages, means, and standard deviations) and comparisons of groups (chi-square tests) were used for data analysis. For further analysis utilizing the HLFS data, a logistic regression model is employed to compare the employment characteristics of women with those of men in the health sector. Results Structure of Employment in Health Services According to the 2021 HLFS microdata, individuals employed in health services account for 3.9% of the total employment of Turkiye. Specifically, 2.4% of men and 7.0% of women in the labor market are employed in health services (Table 1 ). Table 1 The shares of employment in all sectors and health services by gender (HLFS, Turkiye, 2021) Health services (NACE 86) Overall (all sectors) Employment rate in health services A B A / B (percent) Men 3,517 144,968 2.4% Women 4,808 68,974 7.0% Total 8,325 213,942 3.9% [Table 1 near here] From another perspective, women constitute approximately one-third of all sectors (from 30.9–31.9%), and more than half of the employees in health services (from 56.2–58.8%). Table 2 shows the women’s employment rates from 2018–2021. Table 2 The rates of women employment in all sectors and health services by years (Percent) (HLFS, Turkiye, 2018–2021) Women employment rate (Percent) 2018 2019 2020 2021 Health services (NACE 86) 58.7% 58.5% 56.2% 57.8% Overall (all sectors) 31.7% 31.9% 30.9% 31.2% [Table 2 near here] Table 3 shows healthcare personnel counts in Turkiye from 1999–2021. While the population grew by 1.3 times, the number of healthcare workers increased by 2.8 times, with the private sector seeing the largest growth (3.9 times). The greatest increase was in 'other health personnel', particularly in the private sector (15.6 times), followed by the MoH (3.9 times) and universities (6.8 times). The growth in doctors at MoH and universities lagged behind the increase in women-dominated healthcare roles, such as nurses and midwives. Table 3 Numbers and change rate of healthcare professionals according to the institutions by the years and professions in Turkiye from 1999 to 2021 1999 2002 2007 2012 2017 2021 Change rate (%) from 1999 to 2021 Turkiye’s population (million) 64,4 65,0 70,9 75,6 80,8 84,7 132% Total labor force in health services 272,852 294,587 372,934 488,782 581,698 770,611 282% Ministry of Health Total* 192,580 189,322 239,697 306,943 375,157 475,394 247% Doctors 55,231 57,406 62,231 73,663 90,264 107,248 194% Nurse-midwife 95,083 93,833 113,491 140,527 161,077 209,766 221% Other healthcare personnel 36,287 33,276 57,683 83,542 111,193 142,712 393% University hospitals Total 31,494 32,663 40,129 59,713 70,098 105,021 333% Doctors 15,428 20,099 23,029 26,997 30,235 39,692 257% Nurse-midwife 11,158 8,961 11,695 21,051 25,020 37,946 340% Other healthcare personnel 3,197 2,788 4,470 10,382 11,990 21,617 676% Private health facilities Total 48,778 72,602 93,108 122,126 136,443 190,196 390% Doctors 11,329 14,444 23,142 29,112 29,498 36,629 323% Nurse-midwife 5,300 11,078 16,650 26,794 33,786 42,638 804% Other healthcare personnel 3,548 14,042 17,288 28,739 32,234 55,301 1559% * This is the total number of health services including doctors, nurses, midwives, and other health workers as well as dentist and pharmacists. [Table 3 near here] The trend of feminization in healthcare An important indicator of feminization in Turkiye’s healthcare sector is the increasing percentage of female students in health and welfare programs. From 55.3% in the early 2000s, the proportion of female students rose from 64.3% in 2017–2018 to 74.8% in 2022–2023 (Fig. 1 ). [Figure 1 here] In all health professional groups, female students make up over 50% of undergraduates. However, in nursing and patient care, the proportion slightly decreased by 0.9% from 2013–2014 to 2022–2023, with 76.3% of students still female. Although medical and dental fields, which have the fewest female students, have surpassed 50%, there has been a notable increase in female students in medical diagnostic and therapeutic technology (Table 4 ). Table 4 Percentages of female students in health professions in higher education (HEB, 2023) Percent of female student 2013–2014 2022–2023 Difference All healthcare professions 62.4% 65.4% + 3.0% Medicine 47.7% 51.2% + 3.5% Nursing and patient care 77.2% 76.3% − 0.9% Dentistry 57.3% 57.1% − 0.3% Medical diagnostic and treatment technology 42.6% 75.4% + 32.8% Therapy and rehabilitation 67.4% 78.3% + 10.9% Pharmacy 61.0% 66.8% + 5.8% Source: Created by the authors using data from Higher Education Statistics (HEB) (istatistik.yok.gov.tr). [Table 4 near here] Sectoral Breakdown and Status of Employment According to data from the HLFS microdata, in 2021, 18% of those employed in all sectors worked in the public sector, and 81.9% worked in the private sector. However, the opposite is the case in health services. As shown in Table 5 , 71.3% of those employed in health services are in the public sector, and 28.7% are in the private sector. A public‒private comparison by gender revealed that 76.8% of men and 67.2% of women are employed in the public sector in health services. In contrast, it is noteworthy that the situation is reversed in all sectors. In all sectors, men are more concentrated in the private sector, whereas in the health sector, they are more concentrated in the public sector. Table 5 Employment in the private and public sectors by gender of workers in all sectors and health services (HLFS, Turkiye, 2021) Health services All sectors Men N = 3,517 Women N = 4,808 Total N = 8,325 Men N = 144,968 Women N = 68,974 Total N = 213,942 Sectors Public 76.8% 67.2% 71.3% 17.5% 19.4% 18.1% Private 23.2% 32.8% 28.7% 82.5% 80.6% 81.9% P-value < 0.001 < 0.001 Employment status Paid worker 96.1% 98.1% 97.2% 65.9% 61.8% 60.3% Employer 2.5% 0.8% 1.5% 5.4% 1.7% 4.2% Self-employed 1.3% 1.0% 1.1% 23.8% 9.9% 19.3% Daily worker 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 4.9% 2.8% 4.2% Unpaid family worker - - - 4.9% 26.6% 11.9% P-value < 0.001 < 0.001 Percentages represent column values. [Table 5 near here] Gender-based job segregation Table 6 and Fig. 3 show gender-based job segregation in the health sector. While 49.8% of women and 35.6% of men are employed as professionals in health, the overall figures for all sectors are 9.0% and 17.2%, respectively. This means 65.7% of professionals in health services are women. Women also make up 61.5% of technicians and associate professionals in health. Women and men are similarly employed in clerical (50.7%), service and sales (47.5%), and elementary jobs (51.5%). However, women hold fewer managerial roles in health services (32.8%) compared to other sectors, where the proportion is higher (2.5% in all sectors vs. 0.9% in health). Table 6 Occupational distribution of female and male employment in health services by sector (HLFS 2021, Turkiye) All sectors Health Services Women Men Women Men Total* Total* Public Private Total* Public Private Total* Managers 2,5% 5.9% 0.5% 1.7% 0,9% 2.1% 3.7% 2,4% Professionals 17,2% 9.0% 60.9% 27.0% 49,8% 34.9% 38.2% 35,6% Technicians and Associate Professionals 4,8% 5.9% 20.5% 29.1% 23,3% 20.8% 17.3% 20,0% Clerical Support Workers 8,1% 5.2% 5.7% 12.8% 8,0% 10.9% 10.1% 10,7% Service and Sales Workers 18,8% 17.3% 4.9% 18.2% 9,3% 14.4% 12.4% 14,0% Elementary Occupations 20,8% 12.9% 7.4% 10.7% 8,5% 11.8% 8.1% 10,9% Others 27,9% 43.8% 0.1% 0.5% 0,2% 5.2% 10.3% 6,4% Total 100,0% 100.0% 100,0% 100,0% 100,0% 100,0% 100,0% 100,0% * Public and private sectors. [Figure 2 near here] [Table 6 near here] Conversely, the gender distribution of professionals in health services varies significantly between the public and private sectors. In the public sector, women are predominantly employed in professional groups, likely due to the high number of women in nursing, whereas in the private sector, they are mostly employed by technicians and associate professionals. However, men’s employment in the professionals category in the private sector is greater than that in other occupation categories. In contrast, women have higher rates of employment in managerial, service and sales, and clerical occupations in the private sector than in the public sector. Multivariate analysis of the HLFS Table 7 displays the results of the logistic regression analysis of the presence of women in the health sector. According to this analysis, women are more common than men in all age groups, although this prevalence decreases with age. Compared with those with 8 years of education or less, women are less common than men are at high school and equivalent levels, with no significant difference at the highest level of education. However, there is no discrepancy between men and women in terms of marital status when singles are taken as a reference. The proportion of women was greater among those working in the private sector and in informal employment. In professional groups, women are concentrated in all groups except ‘service and sales workers’ and ‘others’ when managers are taken as a reference. Furthermore, women are less likely to be employed for longer periods when the employment term is one year or less. Finally, compared with those with the highest income level, women are more inclined to be in lower income groups. Table 7 Multivariate analysis of the women’s employment in health services (HLFS, Turkiye, 2021) Variable OR (95%CI) p-value Age (years) 55+ (Ref) 1.00 < 25 8.61 (5.69–13.04) < .001 25–34 4.02 (2.88–5.62) < .001 35–44 2.89 (2.11–3.96) < .001 45–54 2.42 (1.75–3.61) < .001 Education 8 years and less (ref) 1.00 College level 0.66 (0.50–0.85) < 0.001 Bachelor and higher degree NS 0.701 Marital status Never married (Ref) 1.00 Married NS 0.169 Divorced / widowed 7.50 (5.01–11.20) < .001 Public/Private sector Public (Ref) 1.00 Private 1.83 (1.54–2.19) < .001 Registration in social security system Registered (Ref) 1.00 Not registered 8.03 (4.18–15.44 < .001 ISCO-08 major groups Managers (Ref) 1.00 Professionals 7.21 (4.20-12.37) < .001 Technicians and Associate Professionals 3.37 (1.95–5.82) < .001 Clerical Support Workers 2.30 (1.30–4.07) 0.004 Service and Sales Workers NS 0.165 Elementary Occupations 2.29 (1.58–4.18) 0.007 Others 0.09 (0.03–0.21) < .001 Employment term (Ref: 1 year and less) 1.00 2–5 years 0.65 (0.52–0.81) 5 years 0.72 (0.61–0.86) 10,000 TL) < 5,000 TL 8.14 (5.91–11.23) < .001 5,001–10,000 TL 4.74 (3.51–6.41) .05) Nagelkerke R2: 0.28 [Table 7 here] Discussion A key finding of this study, which analyses employment in health services in Turkiye through a gender lens, is the pronounced concentration of women in positions classified as associate professionals. Women in the healthcare industry work predominantly in the private sector, and they often pursue more flexibility, with shorter durations of employment. Even though women enter the workforce earlier than men do, they leave it earlier. A key strength of this research is the TURKSTAT microdata, which provides a nationally representative sample. However, the lack of occupational classifications for health workers in TURKSTAT data and the absence of gender differentiation in MoH statistics limited the ability to analyze by occupation. The healthcare industry offers potential opportunities for women’s employment in Turkiye, where women's presence in paid employment is low. Indeed, compared with trends in other subsectors of the service sector, the increase in the weight of female labor among health employees is called feminization of health services in Turkiye ( 19 , 27 , 28 ). Undoubtedly, there is an increase in the number of men employed in health services. However, considering the gender distribution of higher education students in health professions, which is skewed toward the female gender, it appears that the health sector in Turkiye will remain a female-dominated field. Despite privatization policies in Türkiye, health services are still largely provided by the public sector, making the state the main employer in the health sector( 20 ). Marketization of healthcare over the past thirty years has resulted in the expansion of the private sector ( 29 ). The growing number of private health institutions and hospital chains has increased labor demand in the private sector compared with the public sector. Our findings provide evidence that the rate of growth in employment in health services is greater in the private sector than in the public sector, leading to a distinct gender pattern of employees in both sectors. While women account for 54.4% of those employed in the public sector, this figure increases to 66% in the private sector. This shows that men are more likely to be located in the public sector, which mostly has civil servant status and relatively secure working relationships, whereas women are concentrated in the private sector, which has precarious and flexible working relations. This finding aligns with patterns observed in other countries ( 30 ). Therefore, the increase in employment in the private health sector is important in terms of both the feminization of employment and determining the working conditions in the health sector. The greater job security offered by the public sector in Türkiye appeals to newly graduated health professionals who seek employment within the public health sector. However, securing a state job necessitates passing the Public Personnel Selection Exam, a centralized national examination that serves as a mandatory requirement for employment in the public sector. ( 31 ). Physicians are exempt from this exam because of their compulsory service and are employed through direct appointments. As a result, healthcare professionals, excluding physicians, who need immediate employment seek opportunities in private healthcare sector hospitals. Often, nurses opt for employment in private health institutions temporarily during their preparation period for exams, aiming to earn wages and gain work experience ( 31 ). The clustering of women in certain job categories continues to be a persistent feature of the health sector, indicating horizontal segregation ( 12 ). At first glance, greater employment of women in the healthcare sector may be advantageous for women who seek jobs in the health sector. However, we should scrutinize whether there is gender-based job segregation and inequality in professional categories where women are concentrated ( 16 ). Since the ILO's international classification of occupations (ISCO) categorizes physicians, nurses, midwives and paramedics under the broader category of ‘professionals,’ we are unable to examine each job separately in our study. Although the majority of the physician workforce is male and the majority of the nursing and midwifery workforce is female, data indicate that the participation of men in the nursing profession is increasing and that the profession of medicine is feminizing, albeit at different levels on a global scale ( 14 , 23 , 30 , 32 , 33 ). Similarly, the share of women in the active physician labor force increased from 40% in 2000 to 41.6% in 2021 in Turkiye ( 23 ). Higher education statistics also indicate that the proportion of women in the active physician workforce will continue to rise in the near future. However, female physicians remain predominantly concentrated in certain medical specialties, while others are still male-dominated ( 34 ). This trend is evident in many countries ( 10 , 11 , 33 ). As of 1987, physicians’ selection of medical specialties is currently based on national board exams, preventing nepotism ( 35 ). In regard to choosing specializations, women frequently select fields that they or their household members perceive as conducive to balancing work and family life ( 36 ). In addition, it has been argued that challenging work environments and discriminatory, negative, and discouraging attitudes toward women by male physicians in certain specialties influence women's decisions about their chosen specialty ( 15 , 35 ). These mechanisms lead women physicians to prefer lower-income and less prestigious specialties that offer a better work-life by offering comparatively lighter workloads and fewer night shifts, avoiding urgent care due to uncertain working hours, and less competition with men colleagues ( 35 ). Nursing has been established and institutionalized as a predominantly female profession in Turkiye as well as worldwide. Furthermore, men were not allowed to enter the nursing profession until the Turkish regulations mandating that only women could practice nursing were amended in 2007 ( 37 ). An increasing number of male students have been choosing nursing schools due to high unemployment rates and the prevalence of low-paid and insecure jobs in the labor market ( 38 – 40 ). The numerical dominance of women in nursing and midwifery professions, however, still persists, reinforcing the perception that nursing is primarily a profession for women ( 37 , 38 ). Our findings indicate that women are most concentrated in the healthcare sector within the ‘professionals’ category, followed by ‘technicians and associate professionals.’ While our study does not allow us to examine the specific professions where the number of healthcare workers has increased the most over the years, higher education statistics reveal a rising percentage of female students in fields such as ‘medical diagnostic and treatment technology’ and ‘therapy and rehabilitation.’ This trend contributes to the feminization of the health sector, as the increase in female employment appears to occur primarily in nonprofessional occupations that provide assistance to main professionals, requiring lower vocational education and qualifications. In fact, this trend is not unique to Turkiye. Over the past 30 years, many countries have faced an increasing demand for care, resulting in a shortage of nursing professionals. This has led to a greater emphasis on intermediate manpower, with associate professional nurses playing a more prominent role ( 41 ). The strategy of providing health care services at low costs also accounts for a large share of this problem ( 22 ). As part of this strategy, many countries are adopting nursing care systems that incorporate individuals with varying qualifications, training, and experience durations. The primary goal is to enable health institutions to deliver healthcare services cost-effectively by supplementing the limited number of highly qualified and well-compensated nurses with lower-skilled, lower-paid staff ( 41 – 43 ). This scenario has led to the further devaluation of care work, typically associated with women, within the health sector. This devaluation and deskilling are evident in the increasing delegation of care duties to ‘nonprofessionals,’ such as health support assistants ( 44 ). This group, characterized by significant heterogeneity, represents the largest and most invisible segment of the health workforce in many countries. It is increasingly seen as a cost-effective solution to address workforce shortages ( 22 , 23 ). In 2014, Turkiye introduced a new regulatory framework that expanded the scope of non-professional healthcare roles. Previously unrecognized positions, such as midwife assistant, nurse assistant, and some specialized technicians, were now formally defined and included in the Turkish healthcare system ( 21 ). It is essential to investigate the impact of this recently implemented regulation on the feminization of employment and gender inequality in the health sector. Another aspect of job segregation is vertical segregation, also known as the glass ceiling ( 12 ). Our results show that while 17% of managerial positions are held by women, the vast majority—83%—are held by men. Across countries and sectors, men tend to be promoted more frequently and more easily than women do, leading to a widening gender pay gap that favors male employees ( 4 , 10 , 45 ). Women who manage to reach leadership positions are often concentrated at lower and middle levels. In the health sector, management positions are predominantly occupied by men; however, the proportion of women in managerial roles is higher than the national average in Turkiye. This may be partly due to the concentration of women in professional and technical positions within the sector. While it is crucial to comprehend the specific managerial levels where women are concentrated, our analysis did not yield sufficient data to draw such conclusions. A study by Aydınoglu and Vural (2023), which focused on hospitals in a large province, revealed that female representation in upper management positions across both public and private hospitals in the health sector is notably low, particularly in leadership roles such as chief physicians or chairpersons of the board of directors ( 46 ). Additionally, the study revealed a scarcity of female employees in deputy chief physician, general manager, and manager positions. Instead, the highest proportion of female managers was found in the health care services directorate, likely due to the predominance of women in these roles. Conversely, the research identified public hospitals as having the lowest proportion of female managers ( 46 ). The ministers, vice ministers, and department chairs are currently all men at the MoH. In addition, the chief doctors of public hospitals are overwhelmingly men, 85.2% are men in 2022, and 83.7% are men in 2020 ( 47 ). Conclusion Gender-based segregation in Turkiye’s health sector occurs both vertically and horizontally. Men dominate top management roles, whereas women are concentrated in lower-status, lower-paying positions. This occupational hierarchy allows men to control areas traditionally associated with women, perpetuating male dominance and slowing women's progress in leadership roles. Public institutions can play a key role in addressing these inequalities through targeted policies, aiming to eliminate gender disparities across all sectors, including healthcare. Achieving gender equality in the workplace requires addressing the root causes of discrimination through coordinated efforts between social and labor market institutions. Integrating and monitoring gender equality in policies, programs, and workplace cultures is crucial. Regular data collection is needed to track pay gaps, assess working conditions, and document inequalities, especially in female-dominated roles. Social policies must alleviate the burden of care on women by ensuring accessible care for children, elderly individuals, and people with disabilities. Changing gender norms requires measures such as equal parental leave and incentives for men’s involvement in caregiving. Affirmative action and quotas for women in leadership, along with policies that address the feminization of healthcare, promote gender equality across the health sector and society. Abbreviations HEB Higher Education Board HLFS Household Labor Force Survey HTP Health Transformation Program ISCO International Standard Classification of Occupations MoH Ministry of Health NACE Nomenclature of Economic Activities OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development TURKSTAT Turkish Statistical Institute USMS International Standard Profession Classification W/M Women/Men Declarations Ethics approval Not applicable, as this study involves a secondary analysis of anonymized microdata provided by the Turkish Statistical Institute (TurkStat), and no primary data collection from human subjects or tissue samples was conducted. Data availability The 2021 Household Labor Force Survey (HLFS) data is formally provided from Turkish Statistical Institute. For more detailed information regarding the HLFS Survey 2021and the microdata used in this study, please visit the following link: https://evam.tuik.gov.tr/dataset/detail/32 The Ministry of Health (MoH) aggregate data, from 1999 to 2021, was obtained from the MoH annual reports downloaded from the official MoH website, where it is publicly available. The aggregate data on health sciences education, from 2000 to 2022, was obtained from the official Higher Education Board website, where it is publicly available. Conflict of Interest / Competing Interests None of the authors have conflicts of interest and competing interest to disclose. Funding Information The authors did not receive any funds to conduct this study. Authors Contributions B.U.: Conceptualization; literature review: writing – original draft; writing – review and editing. N.E.: Conceptualization; methodology; formal analyses; writing – original draft; writing – review and editing. Acknowledgements We would like to thank Prof. Gulay Toksoz, Prof. Aziz Celik and Zeynep Altinay for their valuable and constructive comments and suggestions regarding this paper. References OECD. OECD.Stat. [cited 2023 Dec 3]. LFS by sex and age - indicators. Available from: https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=lfs_sexage_i_r Ilkkaracan I. Why so Few Women in the Labor Market in Turkey? Fem Econ. 2012 Jan;18(1):1–37. Akkan B, Bugra A, Knijn T. Gendered familialism in a Mediterranean context: women’s labor market participation and early childhood education and care in Turkey. New Perspect Turk. 2023 Nov;69:111–27. Gedikli C. Occupational Gender Segregation in Turkey: The Vertical and Horizontal Dimensions. J Fam Econ Issues. 2020 Mar;41(1):121–39. Toksoz G. Neoliberal Piyasa, Özel ve Kamusal Patriarka Çıkmazında Kadın Emeği (Women’s Labor in the Impasse of Neoliberal Market, Private and Public Patriarchy). İn: Dedeoğlu S, Elveren AY, editors. Türkiye’de Refah Devleti ve Kadın (Welfare State and Women in Turkey). Iletisim; 2012. p. 103–26. Ilkkaracan İ, Memiş E. Transformations in the Gender Gaps in Paid and Unpaid Work During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Findings from Turkey. Fem Econ. 2021 Apr 3;27(1–2):288–309. Dedeoglu S, Sahankaya Adar A. Caring Piously: New Institutionalisation of Childcare Services in Turkey. Soc Policy Soc. 2022 Nov 24;1–15. Toksoz G. İstihdamda Toplumsal Cinsiyet Eşitliği Haritalama ve İzleme Çalışması. [İnternet]. Ankara: CEİD Yayınları; 2020. Available from: Çalışması. Cinsiyet Eşitliği İzleme Derneği (CEİD) Yayınları 5: Ankara. https://dspace.ceid.org.tr/xmlui/ handle/1/978 Ecevit Y. Türkiye’de Ücretli Kadın Emeğinin Toplumsal Cinsiyet Temelinde Analizi (Analysis of Paid Women’s Labor in Turkey on the Basis of Gender). In: 75 Yılda Kadınlar ve Erkekler. Istanbul: Türk Tarih Vakfı Yayını.; 1998. WHO. Delivered by women, led by men: A gender and equity analysis of the global health and social workforce. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2019. (Human Resources for Health Observer Series No. 24). Adams TL. Gender and Feminization in Health Care Professions: Gender and Feminization in Health Care Professions. Sociol Compass. 2010 Jul;4(7):454–65. Guy ME, Newman MA. Women’s Jobs, Men’s Jobs: Sex Segregation and Emotional Labor. Public Adm Rev. 2004 May;64(3):289–98. Turner BS. Medical Power and Social Knowledge. 2nd ed. London: Sage; 1995. Shannon G, Minckas N, Tan D, Haghparast-Bidgoli H, Batura N, Mannell J. Feminisation of the health workforce and wage conditions of health professions: an exploratory analysis. Hum Resour Health. 2019 Oct 17;17(1):72. Toksoz G. The status of women employment in Turkey. Ankara: International Labour Office; 2007. Reskin B. Sex Segregation in the Workplace. Annu Rev Sociol. 1993 Aug;19(1):241–70. Navarro V. Neoliberalism as a class ideology; or, the political causes of the growth of inequalities. Int J Health Serv. 2007;37(1):47–62. Homedes N, Ugalde A. Human resources: the Cinderella of health sector reform in Latin America. Hum Resour Health. 2005 Jan 19;3(1):1. Sarıtas CT. Precarious Implications of Functional Flexibilisation in Labour Management: A Qualitative Analysis of Nurses’ Ward Transitions. J Health Manag. 2023 Dec;25(4):1009–17. Unluturk Ulutas C. Proleterleşme ve profesyonelleşme tartışmaları ışığında Türkiye’de sağlık emek sürecinin dönüşümü. (Transformation of the health labor process in Turkey in the light of proletarianization and professionalization debates). Notabene Yayinlari; 2011. Yavuz C. Sağlik emekçilerinin durumu üzerine (On the condition of healthcare employees). Mesleki Saglik Ve Guvenlik Derg. 2016;16(60–61):2–7. Saks M. The regulation of healthcare professions and support workers in international context. Hum Resour Health. 2021 Dec;19(1):74. OECD. Health at a Glance 2023: OECD Indicators [Internet]. Paris: OECD; 2023 [cited 2024 May 5]. (Health at a Glance). Available from: https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/social-issues-migration-health/health-at-a-glance-2023_7a7afb35-en TURKSTAT Micro Data [Internet]. 2021. Household Labor Force Survey. Available from: https://www.tuik.gov.tr/Kurumsal/Mikro_Veri NACE rev. 2. Revision 2, English edition. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities; 2008. Higher Education Information Management System [İnternet]. Turkish Higher Education Institution; 2021. Available from: www.istatistik.yok.gov.tr). Urhan B, Etiler N. Sağlık sektöründe kadın emeğinin toplumsal cinsiyet açısından analizi (Gender analysis of women’s labour in healthcare). Calisma Ve Toplum. 2011;2(29):191–216. Etiler N. Neoliberal Politikalar ve Sağlık Emekgücü Üzerindeki Etkileri (Neoliberal Policies and Their Effects on the Health Labor Force). Mesleki Saglik Ve Guvenlik Derg. 2011;11(42):2–11. Yilmaz V. The Politics of Healthcare Reform in Turkey [Internet]. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017 [cited 2024 May 5]. Available from: http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-319-53667-5 Boniol M, McIsaac M, Xu L, Wuliji T, Diallo K, Campbell J. Gender equity in the health workforce: analysis of 104 countries. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2019. ((WHO/HIS/HWF/Gender/WP1/2019.1)). Report No.: Working paper 1. Kose A. Sağlığın Dönüşümünde Hemşire İnsan Gücü. Gümüşhane Üniversitesi Sağlık Bilim Derg. 2020 Sep 30;9(3):300–6. Li M, Raven J, Liu X. Feminization of the health workforce in China: exploring gendered composition from 2002 to 2020. Hum Resour Health. 2024 Feb 19;22(1):15. Steiner-Hofbauer V, Katz HW, Grundnig JS, Holzinger A. Female participation or “feminization” of medicine. Wien Med Wochenschr. 2023 Apr;173(5–6):125–30. Yilmaz N, Alkan A, Ertümer AG, Kuh Z. Tıpta uzmanlık alanlarının toplumsal cinsiyet açısından değerlendirilmesi. Cukurova Med J. 2021 Sep 30;46(3):1257–66. Genc Kuzuca I. Türkiye`de tıpta uzmanlık ve akademisyenlik aşamalarında cinsiyetçi yaklaşımlar (Gender approaches in the field of medical speciality and academic life in Turkey). [Ankara]: Social Sciences Institute, Ankara University; 2007. Goktas Dortyol B, Yigiter Senol Y. A Qualitative and Quantitative Examination of Gender Role Attitudes of Residencies and their Exposure to Gender Discrimination. J Med Educ. 2019;18(4):201–10. Dikmen Ozarslan A. Hegemonik erkeklik bağlaminda erkek hemşireler (Male nurses in the context of hegemonic masculinity). Altern Polit. 7(1):118–42. Gönç T. Hemşireliğin geleceği mesleğin cinsiyetsizleşmesini vadediyor mu? Erkek ve kadın hemşirelik öğrencilerinin meslek ve toplumsal cinsiyeti ilişkilendirme eğilimlerinin sosyolojik analizi (Does the future of nursing promise a degenderizing of the occupation?: A sociological analysis of male and female nursing students’ tendencies to relate occupations to gender). Fe Dergi. 2016;8(1):144–67. Kahraman AB, Ozansoy Tunçdemir N, Özcan A. TOPLUMSAL CİNSİYET BAĞLAMINDA HEMŞİRELİK BÖLÜMÜNDE ÖĞRENİM GÖREN ERKEK ÖĞRENCİLERİN MESLEĞE YÖNELİK ALGILARI. Sosyol Araştırmaları Derg [Internet]. 2015 Oct 31 [cited 2024 May 6];18(2). Available from: http://dergipark.gov.tr/doi/10.18490/sad.58405 Yilmaz M, Karadag G. Erkek Öğrenci Hemşireler Hemşirelik Mesleğini Nasıl Algılıyor? (How do male student nurses perceive nursing profession?). Maltepe Üniversitesi Hemşire Bilim Ve Sanatı Derg. 2011;4(1):21–8. Francis B, Humphreys J. Enrolled nurses and the professionalisation of nursing: a comparison of nurse education and skill-mix in Australia and the UK. International journal of nursing studies. Int J Nurs Stud. 1999;36(2):127–35. Brannon RL. Restructuring Hospital Nursing: Reversing the Trend toward a Professional Work Force. Int J Health Serv. 1996 Oct;26(4):643–54. Heitlinger A. The Paradoxical Impact of Health Care Restructuring in Canada on Nursing as a Profession. Int J Health Serv. 2003 Jan;33(1):37–54. Bolton S, Muzio D. The paradoxical processes of feminization in the professions: the case of established, aspiring and semi-professions. Work Employ Soc. 2008 Jun;22(2):281–99. Knaul FM, Arreola-Ornelas H, Essue BM, Nargund RS, García P, Gómez USA, et al. The feminization of medicine in Latin America: ‘More-the-merrier’ will not beget gender equity or strengthen health systems. Lancet Reg Health - Am. 2022 Apr;8:100201. Aydınoglu N, Vural S. Saglik sektoru yonetiminde kadin temsili (Women’s representation in management in the health sector). Erciyes Akad. 2023 Mar 29;37(1):370–83. MFSS. Turkiye’de Kadin (Women in Turkiye) [İnternet]. Ankara: Ministry of Family and Social Services, Directorate of Women’s Status; 2023 Jan [cited 2024 May 4]. Available from: https://www.aile.gov.tr/media/130402/tu-rkiye-de-kadin-ocak-2023.docx Additional Declarations The authors declare no competing interests. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6050742","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":417111900,"identity":"e9b8c768-3fb1-4f19-964e-b825aa598ae0","order_by":0,"name":"Betul Urhan","email":"","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5354-6099","institution":"Kocaeli University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Betul","middleName":"","lastName":"Urhan","suffix":""},{"id":417111901,"identity":"cff769b4-b3d8-4657-afb2-df184b822366","order_by":1,"name":"Nilay Etiler","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAs0lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYJCCAw8YGOQgTDaiNDAzHEhgYDAmTQsDUEtiA9FazNn7Dx5IqLiXvuF27wOGD2WHCWux7DkMdNiZ4twNd44bMM44R4QWgxvJDAcS2xJyN9xIY2DmbSNGy/3HQC3/EtINQFr+EqXlBjDEEhsSEsBaGInScibZ4EDCsQTDmUAtB3vOpROh5fjBxx8+1CTI891IY3zwo8yasBYUcIBE9aNgFIyCUTAKcAEAuAw/Pza81HIAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5711-3733","institution":"University of Nevada Reno","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Nilay","middleName":"","lastName":"Etiler","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-02-17 20:21:16","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":{"humanSubjects":true,"vertebrateSubjects":false,"conflictsOfInterestStatement":false,"humanSubjectEthicalGuidelines":true,"humanSubjectConsent":true,"humanSubjectClinicalTrial":false,"humanSubjectCaseReport":false,"vertebrateSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false},"doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6050742/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6050742/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":76741058,"identity":"a6e1615f-e67a-42ca-bbc8-9c372d36f39e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-02-20 08:22:40","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":65265,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePercentage of female students among undergraduate students studying \"health and well-being\" in higher education (Higher Education Board, 2023)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSource: Created by the authors using data from Higher Education Statistics (HEB) (istatistik.yok.gov.tr).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6050742/v1/1d4f93428ed83e1281653520.png"},{"id":76742265,"identity":"f33f5bf3-7ac9-4f22-8865-b14232023ab7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-02-20 08:30:40","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":43822,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePercentage of female professionals in all sectors and health services (HLFS, Turkiye, 2021)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePercentages are calculated as the share of women in total employed in each job.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6050742/v1/d187d65bfb9381d8eba1845c.png"},{"id":76743032,"identity":"f2b497ba-b563-4f8f-8a52-e097d6fe73fc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-02-20 08:38:41","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1056468,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6050742/v1/e1472d7c-1261-433b-971f-c22b3beee4cb.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"The authors declare no competing interests.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBreaking the Glass Ceiling? A Gender Analysis of Employment Trends in Turkish Healthcare Sector\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"Background","content":"\u003cp\u003eTurkiye (formerly Turkey) has experienced economic and social evolution over the past several decades, shifting from an agriculture-focused economy and employment landscape to one centered around the service sector and urban regions. Throughout this transition, women have increasingly joined the workforce, leading to an increase in the number of employed women. Turkiye, however, still has the lowest labor force participation rate for women among the countries in the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). In 2023, the employment rate in Turkiye for women was 31.3%, whereas it was 65.7% for men, whereas the average rates for OECD countries were 51.1% for women and 65.9% for men (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThere are supply-side and demand-side factors contributing to the low employment rates of women and their significant withdrawal from the workforce in Turkiye (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). One factor is the persistence of the gender-based division of labor within the household and public spheres, which is influenced by traditional conservative social norms and cultural values specific to Turkiye (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). These insufficient and low-cost interventions have functioned to maintain women\u0026rsquo;s traditional role in the household. Moreover, in this model, owing to the limited service provided by the public sector for care services for children, elderly individuals, disabled individuals (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e), private day care facilities may be an alternative. Nevertheless, the cost of private sector services is frequently beyond the means of many, particularly low-wage women, restricting access to only a limited socioeconomic segment (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e). This situation creates a necessity for women to balance domestic responsibilities with paid employment. As a result, women are often concentrated in roles deemed suitable within the labor market, frequently referred to as \"women's jobs\" (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e). Consequently, gender-based occupational and sectoral segregation in the Turkish labor market remains both stable and rigid.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHistorically, the healthcare sector has been staffed predominantly by women (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e). However, women in the healthcare sector tend to be concentrated in roles requiring physical and emotional labor, such as nursing, and in positions assisting mostly male physicians. This trend validates the perceptions that women are most suitable for roles associated with caregiving or nurturing responsibilities (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e). As a result, women are afforded fewer opportunities that require considerations of knowledge and expertise, often finding themselves confined to roles dictated by traditional stereotypes rather than merit. These positions, which are held predominantly by women, are often labeled semiprofessional jobs (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTurner argues that the dominance of women in nursing is another illustration of the use of female labor to minimize production costs within capitalist societies (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e). The undervaluation of women's labor and the societal perception of their income as \u0026lsquo;secondary\u0026rsquo;, coupled with the persistence of their household responsibilities, often prompt women to readily accept flexible, low-paid jobs that align with these duties (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e). The perception that women's labor is well suited for roles demanding patience and repetition, coupled with the belief that it is easily replaceable, renders female labor attractive to capital seeking cost-effective workforce solutions by employers (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough Turkish healthcare system historically had a predominantly public structure, However, since the 1990s, the integration of neoliberal policies into the health system has led to the privatization of public services, reducing public expenditures and fostering the emergence of new markets for capital (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e). Neoliberal policies entail the adoption of a performance-based wage pay and fixed-term contract system for public employees, which involves more precarious working relationships and subcontracting instead of secure employment under civil servant status for the supply of healthcare personnel, alongside functional flexibility (\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR19\" citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e). This intermediate staff with a high share of women, comprising highly heterogeneous and nonprofessional health support workers, constitutes the largest and most invisible part of the health workforce in many countries. It is progressively expanding as an inexpensive method to address labor shortages, frequently within the healthcare sector (\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR22\" citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe proportion of women employed in Turkiye\u0026rsquo;s health sector is significant compared to the total number of women in the workforce. The sector's sustained importance as a source of employment for women reflects the growing demand for health services. However, few studies analyze employment in the health sector through a gender lens. This study aims to examine how employment growth in the health sector affects the occupational distribution of women and contributes to the feminization of employment. The primary hypothesis is that increased employment in health services leads to a feminized workforce, with most growth concentrated in low-skilled jobs, thereby reinforcing gender-based occupational segregation.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn this study, we analyzed multiple data points to explore the gender characteristics of women\u0026rsquo;s employment in the health sector.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs the main dataset, the 2021 Household Labor Force Survey (HLFS) micro dataset is analyzed every year by Turkish Statistical Institute (TURKSTAT) to obtain nationwide information on the economically active population\u0026mdash;the labor force\u0026mdash;aged 15 and over. The HLFS is a cross-sectional study that uses a two-stage stratified cluster sampling method. The 2021 HLFS surveyed a total of 213,942 individuals, with the sample size equally distributed across the weeks to estimate data for the entire year. The micro dataset is officially requested and obtained from TURKSTAT (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this analysis, our focus is on the workforce in the health sector, coded as 86 in the Nomenclature of Economic Activities (NACE 86), which encompasses human health services. NACE 86 includes human health activities such as hospital, medical and dental, and other human health activities (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe compare those employed in the health sector with those working across all sectors. Of the 213,942 participants of the 2021 HLFS, 8,325 people are under the NACE 86 code. Among the variables of the HLFS, those variables were included in the analyses: demographic variables such as gender, age, and marital status; employment characteristics such as sector of employment (public/private), employment status (paid, self-employed, employer), professional group (regarding International Standard Classification of Occupations (ISCO-08) classification), income from work in the last month (in Turkish Lira (TL)), weekly working hours (in hours), duration of employment in the sector (in years)), and type of employment (part-time/full-time, workplace size (based on number of employees)).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecond, to investigate changes in the number of healthcare professionals over the years, data from 2001\u0026ndash;2021 were retrieved from the TURKSTAT Health Statistics database. The data from 1999 were obtained from the 2000 Yearbook of the Ministry of Health (MoH). These data used the International Standard Profession Classification (USMS-88) for categorizing healthcare professionals. Doctors include general practitioners, medical residents, and specialized physicians. We did not use dentists or pharmacists from the analysis. Other healthcare personnel include a broad spectrum of health workers. MoH institutions mainly consist of primary health care units and state hospitals. Since the medical schools of state universities have their own hospitals, the university category represents public institutions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThird, to determine the trend of feminization in the health sector over time, we analyzed data on the number of students in health professions obtained from the Higher Education Board (HEB) (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e). The number and rate of female students in the \u0026lsquo;health and welfare\u0026rsquo; category were calculated from 2000\u0026ndash;2022. However, the data on health profession and gender students were obtained from the 2013\u0026ndash;2014 academic year to the 2021\u0026ndash;2022 year because of a lack of qualified data before the 2013\u0026ndash;2014 academic year.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDescriptive statistics (percentages, means, and standard deviations) and comparisons of groups (chi-square tests) were used for data analysis. For further analysis utilizing the HLFS data, a logistic regression model is employed to compare the employment characteristics of women with those of men in the health sector.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStructure of Employment in Health Services\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccording to the 2021 HLFS microdata, individuals employed in health services account for 3.9% of the total employment of Turkiye. Specifically, 2.4% of men and 7.0% of women in the labor market are employed in health services (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe shares of employment in all sectors and health services by gender (HLFS, Turkiye, 2021)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHealth services\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e(NACE 86)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOverall\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e(all sectors)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEmployment rate in health services\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eA\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eB\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eA / B (percent)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMen\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3,517\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e144,968\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.4%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWomen\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4,808\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e68,974\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.0%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8,325\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e213,942\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.9%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e near here]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrom another perspective, women constitute approximately one-third of all sectors (from 30.9\u0026ndash;31.9%), and more than half of the employees in health services (from 56.2\u0026ndash;58.8%). Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e shows the women\u0026rsquo;s employment rates from 2018\u0026ndash;2021.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe rates of women employment in all sectors and health services by years (Percent) (HLFS, Turkiye, 2018\u0026ndash;2021)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eWomen employment rate (Percent)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e2018\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e2019\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e2020\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e2021\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHealth services (NACE 86)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58.7%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58.5%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e56.2%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e57.8%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverall (all sectors)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31.7%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31.9%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30.9%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31.2%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e near here]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e shows healthcare personnel counts in Turkiye from 1999\u0026ndash;2021. While the population grew by 1.3 times, the number of healthcare workers increased by 2.8 times, with the private sector seeing the largest growth (3.9 times). The greatest increase was in 'other health personnel', particularly in the private sector (15.6 times), followed by the MoH (3.9 times) and universities (6.8 times). The growth in doctors at MoH and universities lagged behind the increase in women-dominated healthcare roles, such as nurses and midwives.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumbers and change rate of healthcare professionals according to the institutions by the years and professions in Turkiye from 1999 to 2021\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e1999\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e2002\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e2007\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e2012\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e2017\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e2021\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eChange rate (%) from 1999 to 2021\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTurkiye\u0026rsquo;s population (million)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e64,4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e65,0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70,9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75,6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80,8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e84,7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e132%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal labor force in health services\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e272,852\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e294,587\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e372,934\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e488,782\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e581,698\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e770,611\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e282%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMinistry of Health\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e192,580\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e189,322\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e239,697\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e306,943\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e375,157\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e475,394\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e247%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDoctors\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55,231\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e57,406\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62,231\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e73,663\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90,264\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e107,248\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e194%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNurse-midwife\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95,083\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e93,833\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e113,491\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e140,527\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e161,077\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e209,766\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e221%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOther healthcare personnel\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36,287\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33,276\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e57,683\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e83,542\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e111,193\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e142,712\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e393%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eUniversity hospitals\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31,494\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32,663\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40,129\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e59,713\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70,098\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e105,021\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e333%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDoctors\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15,428\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20,099\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23,029\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26,997\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30,235\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39,692\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e257%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNurse-midwife\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11,158\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8,961\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11,695\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21,051\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25,020\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37,946\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e340%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOther healthcare personnel\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3,197\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2,788\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4,470\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10,382\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11,990\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21,617\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e676%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePrivate health facilities\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48,778\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e72,602\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e93,108\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e122,126\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e136,443\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e190,196\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e390%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDoctors\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11,329\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14,444\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23,142\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29,112\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29,498\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36,629\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e323%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNurse-midwife\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5,300\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11,078\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16,650\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26,794\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33,786\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42,638\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e804%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOther healthcare personnel\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3,548\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14,042\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17,288\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28,739\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32,234\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55,301\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1559%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"8\"\u003e* This is the total number of health services including doctors, nurses, midwives, and other health workers as well as dentist and pharmacists.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e near here]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eThe trend of feminization in healthcare\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAn important indicator of feminization in Turkiye\u0026rsquo;s healthcare sector is the increasing percentage of female students in health and welfare programs. From 55.3% in the early 2000s, the proportion of female students rose from 64.3% in 2017\u0026ndash;2018 to 74.8% in 2022\u0026ndash;2023 (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Figure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e here]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn all health professional groups, female students make up over 50% of undergraduates. However, in nursing and patient care, the proportion slightly decreased by 0.9% from 2013\u0026ndash;2014 to 2022\u0026ndash;2023, with 76.3% of students still female. Although medical and dental fields, which have the fewest female students, have surpassed 50%, there has been a notable increase in female students in medical diagnostic and therapeutic technology (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePercentages of female students in health professions in higher education (HEB, 2023)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePercent of female student\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e2013\u0026ndash;2014\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e2022\u0026ndash;2023\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDifference\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll healthcare professions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62.4%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e65.4%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u0026thinsp;3.0%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedicine\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e47.7%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51.2%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u0026thinsp;3.5%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNursing and patient care\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e77.2%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76.3%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.9%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDentistry\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e57.3%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e57.1%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.3%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedical diagnostic and treatment technology\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42.6%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75.4%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u0026thinsp;32.8%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTherapy and rehabilitation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e67.4%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e78.3%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u0026thinsp;10.9%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePharmacy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e61.0%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e66.8%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u0026thinsp;5.8%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"4\"\u003eSource: Created by the authors using data from Higher Education Statistics (HEB) (istatistik.yok.gov.tr).\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e near here]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSectoral Breakdown and Status of Employment\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAccording to data from the HLFS microdata, in 2021, 18% of those employed in all sectors worked in the public sector, and 81.9% worked in the private sector. However, the opposite is the case in health services. As shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, 71.3% of those employed in health services are in the public sector, and 28.7% are in the private sector. A public‒private comparison by gender revealed that 76.8% of men and 67.2% of women are employed in the public sector in health services. In contrast, it is noteworthy that the situation is reversed in all sectors. In all sectors, men are more concentrated in the private sector, whereas in the health sector, they are more concentrated in the public sector.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmployment in the private and public sectors by gender of workers in all sectors and health services (HLFS, Turkiye, 2021)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"9\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHealth services\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAll sectors\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMen\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eN\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3,517\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eWomen\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eN\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4,808\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTotal\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eN\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;8,325\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMen\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eN\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;144,968\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eWomen\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eN\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;68,974\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTotal\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eN\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;213,942\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSectors\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePublic\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76.8%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e67.2%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e71.3%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.5%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.4%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.1%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrivate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.2%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.8%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.7%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e82.5%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80.6%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e81.9%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP-value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmployment status\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePaid worker\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e96.1%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e98.1%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e97.2%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e65.9%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e61.8%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60.3%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmployer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.5%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.8%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.5%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.4%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.7%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.2%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSelf-employed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.3%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.0%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.1%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.8%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.9%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.3%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDaily worker\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.9%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.8%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.2%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnpaid family worker\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.9%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.6%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.9%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP-value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"9\"\u003ePercentages represent column values.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e near here]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eGender-based job segregation\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e and Fig.\u0026nbsp;3 show gender-based job segregation in the health sector. While 49.8% of women and 35.6% of men are employed as professionals in health, the overall figures for all sectors are 9.0% and 17.2%, respectively. This means 65.7% of professionals in health services are women. Women also make up 61.5% of technicians and associate professionals in health. Women and men are similarly employed in clerical (50.7%), service and sales (47.5%), and elementary jobs (51.5%). However, women hold fewer managerial roles in health services (32.8%) compared to other sectors, where the proportion is higher (2.5% in all sectors vs. 0.9% in health).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 6\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOccupational distribution of female and male employment in health services by sector (HLFS 2021, Turkiye)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"10\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll sectors\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"7\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHealth Services\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWomen\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMen\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWomen\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMen\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePublic\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrivate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePublic\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrivate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eManagers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2,5%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.9%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.5%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.7%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0,9%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.1%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.7%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2,4%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProfessionals\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17,2%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.0%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60.9%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.0%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e49,8%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34.9%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38.2%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35,6%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTechnicians and Associate Professionals\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4,8%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.9%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.5%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29.1%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23,3%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.8%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.3%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20,0%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClerical Support Workers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8,1%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.7%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.8%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8,0%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.9%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.1%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10,7%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eService and Sales Workers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18,8%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.3%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.9%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.2%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9,3%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.4%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.4%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14,0%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eElementary Occupations\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20,8%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.9%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.4%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.7%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8,5%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.8%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.1%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10,9%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOthers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27,9%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43.8%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.5%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0,2%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.3%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6,4%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100,0%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100.0%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100,0%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100,0%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100,0%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100,0%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100,0%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100,0%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"10\"\u003e* Public and private sectors.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Figure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e near here]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e near here]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eConversely, the gender distribution of professionals in health services varies significantly between the public and private sectors. In the public sector, women are predominantly employed in professional groups, likely due to the high number of women in nursing, whereas in the private sector, they are mostly employed by technicians and associate professionals. However, men\u0026rsquo;s employment in the professionals category in the private sector is greater than that in other occupation categories. In contrast, women have higher rates of employment in managerial, service and sales, and clerical occupations in the private sector than in the public sector.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMultivariate analysis of the HLFS\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e displays the results of the logistic regression analysis of the presence of women in the health sector. According to this analysis, women are more common than men in all age groups, although this prevalence decreases with age. Compared with those with 8 years of education or less, women are less common than men are at high school and equivalent levels, with no significant difference at the highest level of education. However, there is no discrepancy between men and women in terms of marital status when singles are taken as a reference. The proportion of women was greater among those working in the private sector and in informal employment. In professional groups, women are concentrated in all groups except \u0026lsquo;service and sales workers\u0026rsquo; and \u0026lsquo;others\u0026rsquo; when managers are taken as a reference. Furthermore, women are less likely to be employed for longer periods when the employment term is one year or less. Finally, compared with those with the highest income level, women are more inclined to be in lower income groups.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab7\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 7\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMultivariate analysis of the women\u0026rsquo;s employment in health services (HLFS, Turkiye, 2021)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOR (95%CI)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ep-value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge (years)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55+ (Ref)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.61 (5.69\u0026ndash;13.04)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u0026ndash;34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.02 (2.88\u0026ndash;5.62)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35\u0026ndash;44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.89 (2.11\u0026ndash;3.96)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45\u0026ndash;54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.42 (1.75\u0026ndash;3.61)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEducation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8 years and less\u0026nbsp;(ref)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCollege level\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.66 (0.50\u0026ndash;0.85)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBachelor and higher degree\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.701\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMarital status\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNever married (Ref)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMarried\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.169\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDivorced / widowed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.50 (5.01\u0026ndash;11.20)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePublic/Private sector\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePublic (Ref)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrivate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.83 (1.54\u0026ndash;2.19)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegistration in social security\u0026nbsp;system\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegistered (Ref)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot registered\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.03 (4.18\u0026ndash;15.44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eISCO-08 major groups\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eManagers (Ref)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProfessionals\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.21 (4.20-12.37)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTechnicians and Associate Professionals\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.37 (1.95\u0026ndash;5.82)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClerical Support Workers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.30 (1.30\u0026ndash;4.07)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.004\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eService and Sales Workers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.165\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eElementary Occupations\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.29 (1.58\u0026ndash;4.18)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.007\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOthers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.09 (0.03\u0026ndash;0.21)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmployment term (Ref: 1 year and less)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u0026ndash;5 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.65 (0.52\u0026ndash;0.81)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;5 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.72 (0.61\u0026ndash;0.86)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIncome (Ref:\u0026gt;10,000 TL)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;5,000 TL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.14 (5.91\u0026ndash;11.23)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5,001\u0026ndash;10,000 TL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.74 (3.51\u0026ndash;6.41)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"3\"\u003eWorkplace size, employment type (full time-part time), working hours in a week are not significant (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;.05)\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"3\"\u003eNagelkerke R2: 0.28\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e here]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eA key finding of this study, which analyses employment in health services in Turkiye through a gender lens, is the pronounced concentration of women in positions classified as associate professionals. Women in the healthcare industry work predominantly in the private sector, and they often pursue more flexibility, with shorter durations of employment. Even though women enter the workforce earlier than men do, they leave it earlier.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA key strength of this research is the TURKSTAT microdata, which provides a nationally representative sample. However, the lack of occupational classifications for health workers in TURKSTAT data and the absence of gender differentiation in MoH statistics limited the ability to analyze by occupation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe healthcare industry offers potential opportunities for women\u0026rsquo;s employment in Turkiye, where women's presence in paid employment is low. Indeed, compared with trends in other subsectors of the service sector, the increase in the weight of female labor among health employees is called feminization of health services in Turkiye (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e). Undoubtedly, there is an increase in the number of men employed in health services. However, considering the gender distribution of higher education students in health professions, which is skewed toward the female gender, it appears that the health sector in Turkiye will remain a female-dominated field.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite privatization policies in T\u0026uuml;rkiye, health services are still largely provided by the public sector, making the state the main employer in the health sector(\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e). Marketization of healthcare over the past thirty years has resulted in the expansion of the private sector (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e). The growing number of private health institutions and hospital chains has increased labor demand in the private sector compared with the public sector.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur findings provide evidence that the rate of growth in employment in health services is greater in the private sector than in the public sector, leading to a distinct gender pattern of employees in both sectors. While women account for 54.4% of those employed in the public sector, this figure increases to 66% in the private sector. This shows that men are more likely to be located in the public sector, which mostly has civil servant status and relatively secure working relationships, whereas women are concentrated in the private sector, which has precarious and flexible working relations. This finding aligns with patterns observed in other countries (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, the increase in employment in the private health sector is important in terms of both the feminization of employment and determining the working conditions in the health sector. The greater job security offered by the public sector in T\u0026uuml;rkiye appeals to newly graduated health professionals who seek employment within the public health sector. However, securing a state job necessitates passing the Public Personnel Selection Exam, a centralized national examination that serves as a mandatory requirement for employment in the public sector. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e). Physicians are exempt from this exam because of their compulsory service and are employed through direct appointments. As a result, healthcare professionals, excluding physicians, who need immediate employment seek opportunities in private healthcare sector hospitals.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOften, nurses opt for employment in private health institutions temporarily during their preparation period for exams, aiming to earn wages and gain work experience (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe clustering of women in certain job categories continues to be a persistent feature of the health sector, indicating horizontal segregation (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e). At first glance, greater employment of women in the healthcare sector may be advantageous for women who seek jobs in the health sector. However, we should scrutinize whether there is gender-based job segregation and inequality in professional categories where women are concentrated (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e). Since the ILO's international classification of occupations (ISCO) categorizes physicians, nurses, midwives and paramedics under the broader category of \u0026lsquo;professionals,\u0026rsquo; we are unable to examine each job separately in our study. Although the majority of the physician workforce is male and the majority of the nursing and midwifery workforce is female, data indicate that the participation of men in the nursing profession is increasing and that the profession of medicine is feminizing, albeit at different levels on a global scale (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e). Similarly, the share of women in the active physician labor force increased from 40% in 2000 to 41.6% in 2021 in Turkiye (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e). Higher education statistics also indicate that the proportion of women in the active physician workforce will continue to rise in the near future. However, female physicians remain predominantly concentrated in certain medical specialties, while others are still male-dominated (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e). This trend is evident in many countries (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs of 1987, physicians\u0026rsquo; selection of medical specialties is currently based on national board exams, preventing nepotism (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e). In regard to choosing specializations, women frequently select fields that they or their household members perceive as conducive to balancing work and family life (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e). In addition, it has been argued that challenging work environments and discriminatory, negative, and discouraging attitudes toward women by male physicians in certain specialties influence women's decisions about their chosen specialty (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e). These mechanisms lead women physicians to prefer lower-income and less prestigious specialties that offer a better work-life by offering comparatively lighter workloads and fewer night shifts, avoiding urgent care due to uncertain working hours, and less competition with men colleagues (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNursing has been established and institutionalized as a predominantly female profession in Turkiye as well as worldwide. Furthermore, men were not allowed to enter the nursing profession until the Turkish regulations mandating that only women could practice nursing were amended in 2007 (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e). An increasing number of male students have been choosing nursing schools due to high unemployment rates and the prevalence of low-paid and insecure jobs in the labor market (\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR39\" citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e). The numerical dominance of women in nursing and midwifery professions, however, still persists, reinforcing the perception that nursing is primarily a profession for women (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur findings indicate that women are most concentrated in the healthcare sector within the \u0026lsquo;professionals\u0026rsquo; category, followed by \u0026lsquo;technicians and associate professionals.\u0026rsquo; While our study does not allow us to examine the specific professions where the number of healthcare workers has increased the most over the years, higher education statistics reveal a rising percentage of female students in fields such as \u0026lsquo;medical diagnostic and treatment technology\u0026rsquo; and \u0026lsquo;therapy and rehabilitation.\u0026rsquo; This trend contributes to the feminization of the health sector, as the increase in female employment appears to occur primarily in nonprofessional occupations that provide assistance to main professionals, requiring lower vocational education and qualifications.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn fact, this trend is not unique to Turkiye. Over the past 30 years, many countries have faced an increasing demand for care, resulting in a shortage of nursing professionals. This has led to a greater emphasis on intermediate manpower, with associate professional nurses playing a more prominent role (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e). The strategy of providing health care services at low costs also accounts for a large share of this problem (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e). As part of this strategy, many countries are adopting nursing care systems that incorporate individuals with varying qualifications, training, and experience durations. The primary goal is to enable health institutions to deliver healthcare services cost-effectively by supplementing the limited number of highly qualified and well-compensated nurses with lower-skilled, lower-paid staff (\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR42\" citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e). This scenario has led to the further devaluation of care work, typically associated with women, within the health sector. This devaluation and deskilling are evident in the increasing delegation of care duties to \u0026lsquo;nonprofessionals,\u0026rsquo; such as health support assistants (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e). This group, characterized by significant heterogeneity, represents the largest and most invisible segment of the health workforce in many countries. It is increasingly seen as a cost-effective solution to address workforce shortages (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn 2014, Turkiye introduced a new regulatory framework that expanded the scope of non-professional healthcare roles. Previously unrecognized positions, such as midwife assistant, nurse assistant, and some specialized technicians, were now formally defined and included in the Turkish healthcare system (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e). It is essential to investigate the impact of this recently implemented regulation on the feminization of employment and gender inequality in the health sector.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnother aspect of job segregation is vertical segregation, also known as the glass ceiling (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e). Our results show that while 17% of managerial positions are held by women, the vast majority\u0026mdash;83%\u0026mdash;are held by men. Across countries and sectors, men tend to be promoted more frequently and more easily than women do, leading to a widening gender pay gap that favors male employees (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e). Women who manage to reach leadership positions are often concentrated at lower and middle levels.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the health sector, management positions are predominantly occupied by men; however, the proportion of women in managerial roles is higher than the national average in Turkiye. This may be partly due to the concentration of women in professional and technical positions within the sector. While it is crucial to comprehend the specific managerial levels where women are concentrated, our analysis did not yield sufficient data to draw such conclusions. A study by Aydınoglu and Vural (2023), which focused on hospitals in a large province, revealed that female representation in upper management positions across both public and private hospitals in the health sector is notably low, particularly in leadership roles such as chief physicians or chairpersons of the board of directors (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, the study revealed a scarcity of female employees in deputy chief physician, general manager, and manager positions. Instead, the highest proportion of female managers was found in the health care services directorate, likely due to the predominance of women in these roles. Conversely, the research identified public hospitals as having the lowest proportion of female managers (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e). The ministers, vice ministers, and department chairs are currently all men at the MoH. In addition, the chief doctors of public hospitals are overwhelmingly men, 85.2% are men in 2022, and 83.7% are men in 2020 (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eGender-based segregation in Turkiye\u0026rsquo;s health sector occurs both vertically and horizontally. Men dominate top management roles, whereas women are concentrated in lower-status, lower-paying positions. This occupational hierarchy allows men to control areas traditionally associated with women, perpetuating male dominance and slowing women's progress in leadership roles. Public institutions can play a key role in addressing these inequalities through targeted policies, aiming to eliminate gender disparities across all sectors, including healthcare.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAchieving gender equality in the workplace requires addressing the root causes of discrimination through coordinated efforts between social and labor market institutions. Integrating and monitoring gender equality in policies, programs, and workplace cultures is crucial. Regular data collection is needed to track pay gaps, assess working conditions, and document inequalities, especially in female-dominated roles.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSocial policies must alleviate the burden of care on women by ensuring accessible care for children, elderly individuals, and people with disabilities. Changing gender norms requires measures such as equal parental leave and incentives for men\u0026rsquo;s involvement in caregiving. Affirmative action and quotas for women in leadership, along with policies that address the feminization of healthcare, promote gender equality across the health sector and society.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionList\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eHEB\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigher Education Board\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eHLFS\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHousehold Labor Force Survey\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eHTP\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHealth Transformation Program\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eISCO\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInternational Standard Classification of Occupations\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eMoH\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMinistry of Health\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eNACE\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNomenclature of Economic Activities\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eOECD\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrganization for Economic Co-operation and Development\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eTURKSTAT\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTurkish Statistical Institute\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eUSMS\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInternational Standard Profession Classification\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eW/M\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWomen/Men\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEthics approval\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable, as this study involves a secondary analysis of anonymized microdata provided by the Turkish Statistical Institute (TurkStat), and no primary data collection from human subjects or tissue samples was conducted.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eData availability\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe 2021 Household Labor Force Survey (HLFS) data is formally provided from Turkish Statistical Institute. For more detailed information regarding the HLFS Survey 2021and the microdata used in this study, please visit the following link: https://evam.tuik.gov.tr/dataset/detail/32\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Ministry of Health (MoH) aggregate data, from 1999 to 2021, was obtained from the MoH annual reports downloaded from the official MoH website, where it is publicly available. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe aggregate data on health sciences education, from 2000 to 2022, was obtained from the official Higher Education Board website, where it is publicly available. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eConflict of Interest / Competing Interests\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNone of the authors have conflicts of interest and competing interest to disclose.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eFunding Information\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors did not receive any funds to conduct this study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAuthors Contributions\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eB.U.: Conceptualization; literature review: writing – original draft; writing – review and editing.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eN.E.: Conceptualization; methodology; formal analyses; writing – original draft; writing – review and editing.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe would like to thank Prof.\u0026nbsp;Gulay\u0026nbsp;Toksoz, Prof. Aziz Celik and Zeynep\u0026nbsp;Altinay\u0026nbsp;for their valuable and constructive comments and suggestions regarding this paper.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eOECD. 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Int J Nurs Stud. 1999;36(2):127\u0026ndash;35.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBrannon RL. Restructuring Hospital Nursing: Reversing the Trend toward a Professional Work Force. Int J Health Serv. 1996 Oct;26(4):643\u0026ndash;54.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eHeitlinger A. The Paradoxical Impact of Health Care Restructuring in Canada on Nursing as a Profession. Int J Health Serv. 2003 Jan;33(1):37\u0026ndash;54.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBolton S, Muzio D. The paradoxical processes of feminization in the professions: the case of established, aspiring and semi-professions. Work Employ Soc. 2008 Jun;22(2):281\u0026ndash;99.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eKnaul FM, Arreola-Ornelas H, Essue BM, Nargund RS, Garc\u0026iacute;a P, G\u0026oacute;mez USA, et al. The feminization of medicine in Latin America: \u0026lsquo;More-the-merrier\u0026rsquo; will not beget gender equity or strengthen health systems. Lancet Reg Health - Am. 2022 Apr;8:100201.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAydınoglu N, Vural S. Saglik sektoru yonetiminde kadin temsili (Women\u0026rsquo;s representation in management in the health sector). Erciyes Akad. 2023 Mar 29;37(1):370\u0026ndash;83.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eMFSS. Turkiye\u0026rsquo;de Kadin (Women in Turkiye) [İnternet]. Ankara: Ministry of Family and Social Services, Directorate of Women\u0026rsquo;s Status; 2023 Jan [cited 2024 May 4]. Available from: https://www.aile.gov.tr/media/130402/tu-rkiye-de-kadin-ocak-2023.docx\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":true,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Gendered work, occupational segregation, healthcare sector, health workforce, feminization","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6050742/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6050742/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eTurkiye (Turkey) is experiencing a feminization of its healthcare sector, which is creating employment opportunities for women, but also revealing gendered patterns of employment. This study examines the working conditions of women in Turkiye\u0026rsquo;s healthcare sector through a gender lens, focusing on how employment growth affects these dynamics.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo address these issues, multiple data analyses are used to examine the gender characteristics of women's employment in the health sector. The 2021 Household Labor Force Survey (HLFS) microdata set is used as the main dataset. This analysis focuses on employment in the health sector, coded as 86 in the Classification of Economic Activities (NACE 86), which includes human health services. In addition, we conducted secondary analyses using the aggregate data from Ministry of Health\u0026rsquo;s labor force statistics and higher education data.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe health sector is an important source of employment for women, with 2.4% of men and 7.0% of women employed in the sector. Women constitute 57.8% of the health workforce, which is predominantly professional, and \u0026lsquo;technicians/associate professional\u0026rsquo; roles. Despite its predominantly female composition, the health sector still faces a glass ceiling. They are predominantly clustered at the lower rungs of the occupational hierarchy, occupying lower paid and lower status roles. With regard to students in the health sciences, it appears that the feminization of the health sector will continue in the near future.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs an important source of employment for women, the growing demand for health services will create new employment opportunities for women. Therefore, the jobs and occupations in which women's employment in the health sector is concentrated, the gender pay gap, and women's current working conditions in the public and private sectors should be monitored. This is essential for policies and interventions against the devaluation of health care work.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Breaking the Glass Ceiling? A Gender Analysis of Employment Trends in Turkish Healthcare Sector","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-02-20 08:22:36","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6050742/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"acb09e6e-fa9a-4f36-8510-8cb18e48a5e7","owner":[],"postedDate":"February 20th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":44470976,"name":"Other Economics"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-02-20T08:22:36+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-02-20 08:22:36","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6050742","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6050742","identity":"rs-6050742","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}