OphthaBERT: Automated Glaucoma Diagnosis from Clinical Notes

Abstract Glaucoma is a leading cause of irreversible blindness worldwide, with early intervention often being crucial. Research into the underpinnings of glaucoma often relies on electronic health records (EHRs) to identify patients with glaucoma and their subtypes. However, current methods for identifying glaucoma patients from EHRs are often inaccurate or infeasible at scale, relying on International Classification of Diseases (ICD) codes or manual chart reviews. To address this limitation, we introduce (1) OphthaBERT, a powerful general clinical ophthalmology language model trained on over 2 million diverse clinical notes, and (2) a fine-tuned variant of OphthaBERT that automatically extracts binary and subtype glaucoma diagnoses from clinical notes. The base OphthaBERT model is a robust encoder, outperforming state-of-the-art clinical encoders in masked token prediction on out-of-distribution ophthalmology clinical notes and binary glaucoma classification with limited data. We report significant binary classification performance improvements in low-data regimes (p < 0.001, Bonferroni corrected). OphthaBERT is also able to achieve superior classification performance for both binary and subtype diagnosis, outperforming even fine-tuned large decoder-only language models at a fraction of the computational cost. We demonstrate a 0.23-point increase in macro-F1 for subtype diagnosis over ICD codes and strong binary classification performance when externally validated at Wilmer Eye Institute. OphthaBERT provides an interpretable, equitable framework for general ophthalmology language modeling and automated glaucoma diagnosis. Competing Interest Statement N.Z. receives consulting fees from Sanofi. Funding Statement This research was supported by NIH grant R01 EY036518. Author Declarations I confirm all relevant ethical guidelines have been followed, and any necessary IRB and/or ethics committee approvals have been obtained. Yes The details of the IRB/oversight body that provided approval or exemption for the research described are given below: Ethical approval for this work was obtained from the Mass General Brigham Institutional Review Board (IRB) for Massachusetts Eye and Ear, and from the Johns Hopkins Medicine IRB for Johns Hopkins University. I confirm that all necessary patient/participant consent has been obtained and the appropriate institutional forms have been archived, and that any patient/participant/sample identifiers included were not known to anyone (e.g., hospital staff, patients or participants themselves) outside the research group so cannot be used to identify individuals. Yes I understand that all clinical trials and any other prospective interventional studies must be registered with an ICMJE-approved registry, such as ClinicalTrials.gov. I confirm that any such study reported in the manuscript has been registered and the trial registration ID is provided (note: if posting a prospective study registered retrospectively, please provide a statement in the trial ID field explaining why the study was not registered in advance). Yes I have followed all appropriate research reporting guidelines, such as any relevant EQUATOR Network research reporting checklist(s) and other pertinent material, if applicable. Yes 6. Data Availability In accordance with the policies of Massachusetts Eye and Ear, the data from this study cannot be publicly disclosed.