Computational Framework for Microstructure Identification and Hardness Prediction in Ultrahigh-Strength Steel Components Fabricated by Wire-Arc Directed Energy Deposition

Computational Framework for Microstructure Identification and Hardness Prediction in Ultrahigh-Strength Steel Components Fabricated by Wire-Arc Directed Energy Deposition | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Computational Framework for Microstructure Identification and Hardness Prediction in Ultrahigh-Strength Steel Components Fabricated by Wire-Arc Directed Energy Deposition N. Max Vega Michalak, Yuxiang Luo, Mason Pacenta, Philip Flater, and 1 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-9086969/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 5 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This work demonstrates the application of an FEA-based modeling framework for identifying the microstructure and hardness of an ultrahigh-strength steel component fabricated by wire-arc directed energy deposition. The framework adapts an FEA process model using a new, calibrated dual double ellipsoid Gaussian heat source with microstructure identification and hardness prediction approaches used in previous temper bead welding research. The microstructure identification relied on predicted peak temperature sequences of supercritical, intercritical, and subcritical or tempering reheats. Microstructure-specific tempering response relationships derived from the modified Grange-Baughman approach predicted hardness. The framework was validated against metallurgical characterization and hardness measurements along the build height of a 64-layer, single bead per layer WA-DED wall. The calibrated DDEG heat source demonstrated reliable predictions of the multi-reheat thermal cycling, with average peak temperature differences of 3°C to 21°C when comparing 9 sequential predicted and in-situ measured reheat cycles. The microstructure identification procedure correctly identified three distinct regions along the build height: the as-solidified fresh martensite, super- and intercritically reheated fresh martensite heat affected zones, and tempered martensite heat affected zones. Combining the identified microstructures with previously developed tempering response relationships predicted the cyclic hardness variations in the tempered regions with 94.5% overlap between the 99% confidence interval of predicted hardness and the measured hardness range. The validated framework provides a basis for component property optimization by controlling local microstructures and tempering through WA-DED process parameters. Metal Additive Manufacturing Ultrahigh Strength Steel Wire-Arc Directed Energy Deposition Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing Finite Element Analysis Full Text Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Reviewers agreed at journal 17 Mar, 2026 Reviewers invited by journal 13 Mar, 2026 Editor invited by journal 13 Mar, 2026 Editor assigned by journal 12 Mar, 2026 First submitted to journal 11 Mar, 2026 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-9086969","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":605506968,"identity":"6cf401ed-1325-4682-9b4d-ae94c5fb1266","order_by":0,"name":"N. 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The framework adapts an FEA process model using a new, calibrated dual double ellipsoid Gaussian heat source with microstructure identification and hardness prediction approaches used in previous temper bead welding research. The microstructure identification relied on predicted peak temperature sequences of supercritical, intercritical, and subcritical or tempering reheats. Microstructure-specific tempering response relationships derived from the modified Grange-Baughman approach predicted hardness. The framework was validated against metallurgical characterization and hardness measurements along the build height of a 64-layer, single bead per layer WA-DED wall. The calibrated DDEG heat source demonstrated reliable predictions of the multi-reheat thermal cycling, with average peak temperature differences of 3\u0026deg;C to 21\u0026deg;C when comparing 9 sequential predicted and in-situ measured reheat cycles. The microstructure identification procedure correctly identified three distinct regions along the build height: the as-solidified fresh martensite, super- and intercritically reheated fresh martensite heat affected zones, and tempered martensite heat affected zones. Combining the identified microstructures with previously developed tempering response relationships predicted the cyclic hardness variations in the tempered regions with 94.5% overlap between the 99% confidence interval of predicted hardness and the measured hardness range. 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