Advancing sand concrete sustainability: transforming quarry waste into high-quality crushed sand for superior properties 

Advancing sand concrete sustainability: transforming quarry waste into high-quality crushed sand for superior properties | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Advancing sand concrete sustainability: transforming quarry waste into high-quality crushed sand for superior properties Oday Jaradat, Mahmoud Shakarna, Karima Gadri, Hisham Suleiman, and 3 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-4100383/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 12 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This research explores the potential of reusing quarry waste into limestone sand for the eco-friendly production of sand concrete, addressing environmental sustainability. The investigation comprised the preparation of five concrete mixtures with differing limestone sand ratios: 0%, 40%, 50%, 60%, and 70%. To evaluate the impact of limestone sand incorporation, we analysed physical and mechanical characteristics through tests such as density, compressive and flexural strength, Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity, Dynamic elastic modulus, and microstructure examination. Findings indicate substantial enhancements in sand concrete properties due to the integration of limestone sand, with the 60% ratio emerging as the most productive. The study underscores limestone sand's capability to not only improve sand concrete quality but also offer a sustainable method for quarry waste recycling. It demonstrates the beneficial impact of limestone sand used in sand concrete and advocates for its application as a sustainable quarry waste recycling strategy across the construction industry's various sectors. limestone sand microstructure quarry sand concrete sustainability waste recycle Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 1. Introduction In the rapidly evolving landscape of today's world, the importance of efficient waste management and minimising waste may not be overstated for the effort of sustainable development [1], [2], [3]. The environmental problem resulting from limestone mining waste poses a serious threat to both ecological harmony and societal well-being. Quarrying, a critical economic driver in numerous countries, including Palestine [4], generates an extensive volume of waste through stone production, which leads to pressing environmental consequences necessitating immediate action. The demand to find solutions that maintain environmental preservation while fostering sustainable growth is essential [5]. The waste that results from stone shaping processes is especially alarming [6], but there is a bright side: this waste is creatively recycled to be used in construction projects. This process produces environmentally friendly building materials while also paving the way for sustainable practices [7], [8]. Due to the sector's rapid expansion and the limited supply of natural river sand, a crucial ingredient in building activities, the construction industry has recently faced significant challenges [9]. River sand, predominantly silica (SiO 2 ) with a distinct grain shape and texture, is now in very limited supply, raising various environmental alarms [10]. The limited availability of river sand resources has triggered a quest for alternative materials capable of substituting natural sand in construction to some degree or entirely [11]. In response, the industry has examined numerous substitutes for natural sand in building applications [12]. One innovative alternative is utilising limestone, a residue of quarrying activities, as a practical substitute for river sand [13]. The environmental advantages of replacing traditional river sand with quarry waste are comprehensive, spanning from reducing landfill needs to protecting ecosystems and the health of surrounding communities [14]. The increasing concerns for environmental preservation and the necessity for sustainability underscore the importance of recycling solid waste without delay [15]. The study in [16], delves into exploring groundbreaking materials that could serve as alternatives to the traditional sand employed in construction, aiming to reduce the environmental impact. The cement-concrete composite stands as the dominant material in engineering worldwide, favoured for its superior qualities and cost efficiency [17], [18]. Despite its intricate multi-component nature, various processes, and detailed specifications, the production methodology for concrete is relatively straightforward, as documented in several references [19], [20], [21], [22], [23]. In concrete, aggregates—both fine and coarse—occupy a significant volume, ranging from 60–75%, playing a pivotal role in defining its physical and mechanical properties [24]. In particular, fine aggregates, which make up about 35–45% of the total aggregate volume, are needed to fill in the voids between coarse aggregate grains, making the bond in standard concrete denser and stronger [25]. Numerous studies have delved into the viability of utilising quarry waste materials in construction without affecting the integrity of the cement mixture [26]. Humayun et al. [27] found that incorporating quarry waste as a partial replacement for fine aggregate in concrete significantly enhances its compressive strength. Research consistently demonstrates that quarry waste, when used as a fine aggregate in concrete, can markedly improve various critical concrete properties [28], [29], [30], [31], [32], [33], [34], [35]. Such findings are crucial for the construction sector, offering a path towards environmental sustainability by recycling waste materials to enhance the strength, durability, and performance of concrete structures. The construction industry's recent growth has encouraged extensive research into the development of sand concrete (SC), spotlighting it as a vital material for incorporating quarry waste [36], [37]. Its composition benefits greatly from the inclusion of fine aggregates, facilitating the use of waste materials. Gadri and Guettala. [38] observed that sand concrete, when made with crushed limestone sand instead of traditional river sand, satisfies the necessary physical and mechanical standards. Furthermore, substituting limestone sand in sand concrete significantly improves its mechanical properties [39], [40]. Jaradat et al. [36] analysed the microstructure of sand concrete with limestone sand and discovered enhanced compactness in its composition, marking a pioneering step in sustainable construction practices within the sector by promoting the recycling of quarry waste. The mechanical properties of concrete, such as tensile strength, compressive strength, flexural strength, and modulus of elasticity, are essential metrics for evaluating its behaviour under various loads and environmental conditions [41], [42], [43], [44]. Tensile strength determines the concrete's capacity to resist tensile (stretching or pulling) forces, whereas compressive strength measures its ability to withstand compression. Flexural strength evaluates the concrete's resistance to bending or flexing stresses, playing a critical role in determining the material's overall structural performance. In addition, the modulus of elasticity, indicative of concrete's stiffness or flexibility, offers insights into its deformation response under stress and its ability to revert to its initial form upon stress removal. These mechanical characteristics are foundational in the architectural and analytical processes of concrete structures, aiding engineers and scholars in making well-informed choices about material utilisation, structural configuration, and performance evaluation. The physical attributes of aggregates, such as their form, size, and pre-mix treatments, are instrumental in defining the ultimate properties and efficacy of the concrete mix. Drawing from a considerable volume of research [45], [46], [47], [48], [49]. it is evident that aggregates significantly impact the concrete mix by imparting crucial qualities. The dimension and shape of aggregates critically affect the concrete's workability, durability, and reliability, underscoring their importance in the mix's composition and performance outcomes. This study aims to explore the reuse of quarry waste, specifically in the form of limestone sand, to enhance the attributes of sand concrete, thereby mitigating the environmental impact associated with quarry waste disposal. Through an extensive series of evaluations, this research will investigate the physical and mechanical behaviours of sand concrete as the limestone sand content varies from 0–70%. The assessments will encompass a variety of tests, such as density, compressive strength, flexural strength, ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV), dynamic elastic modulus, and microstructure examination, to comprehensively understand the implications of incorporating limestone sand into sand concrete. 2. Materials and methods This section outlines the materials used and the experimental approach to assess quarry waste as an alternative to conventional sand in concrete. It details the limestone sand specifications, sample preparation, and testing protocols for evaluating concrete's physical and mechanical properties, guaranteeing the reproducibility of the research and the accuracy of its findings. 2.1. Materials This subsection outlines the key components used in the concrete mix for the study, including two types of sand (crushed and river sands), Composite Portland Cement CPJ-CEM II/A 42.5, and purified water. It highlights the selection criteria based on physical and chemical properties to ensure the concrete's optimal performance. 2.1.1. Sand In this research, two types of sand were used as essential components of the concrete mixture: Crushed sand (CR), derived from quarry waste or the by-products of stone formation, is showcased in Fig. 1-a. River sand (RS), naturally deposited by river processes and commonly recognised as conventional sand, is shown in Fig. 1-b. Both sand varieties exhibit a similar particle size distribution, ranging from 0 to 5 mm. The physical properties of each sand type are carefully stated Table 1 . Additionally, grading curves, illustrated in Fig. 2, provide a visual representation of the particle size distribution, offering further insight into their granular structure. Table 1 Physical properties of crushed sand, and river sand. Crushed sand River sand Apparent density (kg/m 3 ) 1480 1610 Specific density (kg/m 3 ) 2600 2500 Compactness (%) 56.92 64.40 Fineness modulus 3.03 1.92 Piston sand equivalent (%) 97.63 78 2.1.2. Cement In this study, Composite Portland Cement CPJ-CEM II/A 42.5 was selected for the concrete mix. It has apparent and specific densities of 1205 kg/m³ and 3150 kg/m³, respectively, and a fineness of 370 m²/kg. The cement's chemical composition is detailed in Table 2 . Table 2 Chemical compositions of the cement Cement SiO 2 Al 2 O 3 Fe 2 O 3 CaO K 2 O SO 3 Cl − Na 2 O MgO LOI 21.13 5.21 3.35 62.92 0.58 2.42 0.031 0.19 1.44 1.21 2.1.3. Water The fact is that water plays an essential role in the concrete mixture by activating the cement's chemical reaction. The water used for this study was free from chlorides and sulphates, in accordance with the purity requirements for mixing and curing processes. Ordinary drinking water was used throughout the research, with its temperature controlled at 20 ± 1°C, complying with the NFP 18–404 standard specifications. 2.2. Methods This subsection provides a comprehensive overview of the experimental procedures used in this study. It begins with the formulation of sand concrete, detailing the mix design and the specific proportions of materials used. Following this, the preparation of specimen’s section describes the steps taken to create concrete samples for testing. The curing of concrete subsection outlines the methods and conditions under which the concrete specimens were maintained to achieve optimal hardening. Lastly, the experimental techniques subsection delves into the various tests conducted to evaluate the physical and mechanical properties of the concrete, including density, compressive strength, flexural strength, ultrasonic pulse velocity, dynamic modulus of elasticity, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis. This section is essential for understanding the empirical basis of the study's findings. 2.2.1. Sand concrete formulation The sand concrete formulation used in this study is based on techniques from earlier investigations; in particular, it refers to works in references[9], [50], [51], [52], [53], [54], which have established a trustworthy framework for sand concrete preparation. This approach centres on enhancing the granular compactness within the concrete mix, a key principle for achieving optimal mixture properties. Following established practices, the cement dosage was set at 350 kg/m3, aligning with the standard used across similar studies [51], [55]. In terms of sand selection, both river sand and crushed sand were incorporated into the mix. The compactness of the mixture, represented by the compactness coefficient (γ), plays a critical role in determining the sand quantity. Compactness coefficient (γ): is the ratio to 1000 litre of the absolute volume of solids [56]. This coefficient, set at 0.770 for mixtures with a maximum diameter of D max ≤ 5 mm and a plastic consistency under normal vibration, reflects the absolute volume of solids per 1000 litres. The value of the compactness coefficient varies based on the sand's granular shape, with crushed sand having a coefficient of 0.03 and river sand having a coefficient of 0.01. The value of the compactness coefficient varies based on the sand's granular shape, with crushed sand having a coefficient of 0.03 and river sand having a coefficient of 0.01. The dosage of the sand is determined according to the following formula: $$Vs+Vc= 1000 \gamma$$ 1 …………………………………………………. Vc and Vs represent the absolute volumes for cement and sand, respectively, contributing to the overall absolute volume (1000 γ). The quantities of water and superplasticizer were experimentally determined through a slump test, as outlined in NF EN 12350-2, to achieve a slump indicative of plastic concrete, thereby ensuring the desired workability. To determine the most effective sand concrete mixture, an initial selection of five mixtures varying in crushed sand (CS) and river sand (RS) proportions was made. The compositions of these sand concrete mixtures, according to their respective sand ratios, are detailed in Table 3 . Table 3 Compositions of sand concrete according to the proportions of sand Compositions CS (Kg/m 3 ) RS (Kg/m 3 ) Water (L/m 3 ) Cement (Kg/m 3 ) W / C 0% CS 0 1617.5 245 350 0.7 40% CS 652.08 970.5 245 350 0.7 50% CS 815.10 808.75 245 350 0.7 60% CS 978.12 647 245 350 0.7 70% CS 1141.14 485.25 245 350 0.7 2.2.2. Preparation of specimens An extremely organised procedure is followed to prepare the sand concrete specimens for the thorough testing; this guarantees the production of a homogeneous composite that complies with the requirements laid out in EN 196-1. Before starting the process of mixing, strict attention is given to the precise weighing of materials and the thorough cleaning of the mixer, moulds, and tools to maintain a hygienic environment. The mixing process unfolds in a series of steps, each carefully executed to achieve the desired homogeneity. The process begins with the initial dry mixture, which is mixed for a minimum duration of two minutes. Following this, water, as referenced by Bédérina et al. [57], is introduced and blended for an extensive five-minute period to attain a consistent paste. The process ensures that the mixture is thoroughly saturated with water, a critical element for the proper hydration of the cement and the subsequent development of concrete strength. After that, the moulds are filled to their centre capacity and subjected to mechanical vibration through the use of specialised equipment, typically executed with 15 strokes. This vibration process aids in the expulsion of air voids, enabling a denser and more compact concrete structure. The procedure is repeated for the second half of the moulds. 2.2.3. Curing of concrete Following the completion of the mixing and moulding processes, the samples are wrapped in plastic film and kept in a controlled environment for 24 hours, specifically at 20 ± 2°C. This curing process is crucial for the initial stages of concrete hardening, ensuring the development of its desired properties. Careful removal of the samples from the moulds follows the end of the curing period, marking a significant change in the preparation process. According to EN 196-1, the samples were kept in clean water at a temperature of 20 ± 2°C and a relative humidity of 50% until testing time. 2.2.4. Experimental techniques This subsection outlines tests conducted to assess sand concrete properties, including density, compressive and flexural strength, ultrasonic pulse velocity, dynamic modulus of elasticity, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis, providing insights into the material's quality, stiffness, and microstructure. 2.2.4.1. Density The samples were oven-dried at 60°C until they reached a stable weight. To calculate the dry density, the specimen's weight was divided by its volume, in accordance with the NF EN 18–459 standard. Each sample was measured by the following dimensions (4 cm×4 cm×16 cm). 2.2.4.2. Compressive strength Compressive strength in concrete signifies the peak resistance it exhibits under axial load. This property was determined by applying Eq. ( 2 ): $${f}_{s}= {F}_{max}/ S$$ 2 …………………………………………. Here, f s ​ represents the compressive strength, F max is the maximum load applied, and S is the cross-sectional area of the specimen. The maximum load ( F max ​) was applied using a hydraulic press with a capacity of 3000 KN, adhering to the NF EN 12390-3 standard. During the tests, the loading rate was consistently maintained at 0.5 MPa/s until rupture of the specimen. 2.2.4.3. Flexural strength This test determines the flexural strength of hardened concrete using a hydraulic press machine with a loading capacity of 3000 KN according to the standard NF EN 12390-6. The loading rate applied in the compressive strength tests was kept at 0.05 MPa/s until the rupture of the specimen, where the sample dimensions were (4 cm×4 cm×16 cm). Each concrete type's flexural strength was prepared using Eq. ( 3 ) as follows: $${R}_{t}= {(1.5\times l\times F}_{max})/ (b\times {d}^{2})$$ 3 ...……………………………….. Where Rt is the flexural strength; F max is the max load applied; l is the gap between the support rollers; and b , d is the lateral dimensions of the specimen. 2.2.4.4. Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV) is a non-destructive technique extensively applied to assess concrete quality. Conducted according to the NF EN 12504-4 standard, UPV testing measures the speed of sound waves transmitted through the concrete from one side of the specimen to the other. This process calculates the time it takes for the sound wave to traverse the material, with the specimens having dimensions of 4 cm by 4 cm by 16 cm. The pulse velocity ( v ) is determined using Eq. ( 4 ): $$v=l/s$$ 4 ………………………………………………… Where l is representing the path length through the specimen and s the transit time of the wave. 2.2.4.5. Dynamic modulus of elasticity The dynamic modulus of elasticity is calculated by measuring the Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV) within the composite materials. This value is derived using the expression outlined in reference [58], as shown in Eq. ( 5 ): $${E}_{d}= (\rho \times {v}^{2})/ (g\times 100)$$ 5 …..…………………………….. Where E d is the modulus of dynamic elasticity (GPa), v is the UPV (km/s), \(\rho\) is the density of the material (kg/m 3 ), and \(g\) is the gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/s 2 ). 2.2.4.6. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) analysis Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) analysis employs a concentrated electron beam to examine the surface of a specimen, as depicted in Fig. 3, to thoroughly analyse the microstructure of concrete. This examination seeks to reveal the size and distribution of voids and assess the bonding quality between different components. The specimens prepared for this analysis measured 2 cm in each dimension. For further details on the experimental setup, refer to Fig. 3. 3. Results and discussion This section presents the findings from the series of experiments conducted to evaluate the properties of the concrete mixtures. This section is structured to systematically review the outcomes and implications of each test, starting with the density measurements that provide insights into the concrete's compactness. Following this, the compressive strength results are discussed, highlighting the material's ability to withstand axial loads. The section then explores the flexural strength data, which sheds light on the concrete's resistance to bending forces. Ultrasonic pulse velocity findings are examined next, offering an assessment of the material's quality and homogeneity. The dynamic elastic modulus (Ed) results are discussed to understand the stiffness of the concrete, and then the microstructure analysis is presented to reveal the internal composition and integrity of the concrete. This comprehensive discussion aims to correlate the experimental data with the concrete's expected performance and sustainability features. 3.1. Density results The density results for different concrete mixtures at 14 and 28 days, as shown in Fig. 4 , suggest that concrete density increases with the level of river sand (RS) replaced by crushed sand (CS) aggregates. This trend is likely due to the higher density of CS aggregates noted in Table 1 . On day 7, density enhancements of 2%, 5%, 10%, and 11% were recorded for 40%, 50%, 60%, and 70% RS replacement with CS, respectively, with slightly reduced increases of 2%, 4%, 8%, and 9% on day 28. The rate of density increase is marginally higher at 7 days compared to 28 days. The concrete also generally displayed higher density at 28 days than at 7 days, with the most significant increase at a 70% CS substitution rate, aligning with Shaheen et al. [59], Those who observed similar density increases with more crushed sand waste. The density boost is attributed not just to the inherent density of the aggregates but also to the lower impurity levels in CS-aggregates, indicated by a higher sand equivalent value, resulting in a denser concrete microstructure compared to mixes with RS-aggregates. These findings support the idea that denser concrete has advantages in structural integrity, durability, and environmental resistance, providing a sustainable and efficient use of materials in construction. 3.2. Compressive strength results The results showcased in Fig. 5 go into detail about the effects of varying crushed sand (CS) replacement levels on concrete's compressive strength. As the CS replacement percentage climbs, we generally see an upward trend in strength, suggesting that CS contributes positively to the concrete's structural integrity. However, this trend inverts slightly at the 70% CS replacement mark, implying an optimum threshold for CS usage that warrants further investigation. Over time, the compressive strength of concrete naturally increases, a reflection of the ongoing chemical reactions and solidification processes inherent in the material's curing phase, which are well documented in the literature[60]. The current research finds a 60% CS replacement as the ideal concentration for enhancing compressive strength, with substantial improvements noted at both 7 and 28 days post-mixing. This particular finding resonates with a substantial body of research, including insights from references[10], [34], [61], [62], [63], [64], [65], [66], [67]. The references cited, which support this finding, underscore the consistency and reliability. They likely reflect a substantial body of research that has explored the influence of different sand types and proportions on concrete performance. Collectively, this knowledge informs sand concrete practitioners and researchers about a well-established and effective strategy for enhancing the performance of concrete, which could include improving its strength, and desired properties. The 60% crushed sand replacement stands out as the most promising value for compressive strength improvement, especially when compared to the reference sample with 0% crushed sand replacement. The data shows significant improvements in compressive strength percentages after 7 and 28 days. After 7 days, there is a notable 67.70% increase in compressive strength, and after 28 days, this improvement further jumps to an impressive 82.33%. In summary, these results demonstrate the positive impact of crushed sand replacement on the compressive strength of concrete, but also underscore the importance of finding the right balance in the replacement proportion to maximize this effect. Additionally, it emphasizes the time-dependent nature of concrete strength development, with the 60% crushed sand replacement proving to be the most beneficial choice for enhancing compressive strength in this study. With this new knowledge, concrete mix designers and builders may be able to make better use of crushed sand in their mixes, leading to longer-lasting, more robust concrete structures. Bederina et al. [68] found that complete substitution of river sand by crushed limestone sand enhanced the compressive strength of mortar mixes. 3.3. Flexural strength results The flexural strength of sand concrete made with crushed sand is a critical aspect of concrete performance, and the results are presented in Fig. 6 . The study examines the flexural strength of sand concrete with varying percentages of crushed sand and includes a comparison with control beams at two different curing periods, 7 and 28 days. Additionally, the incorporation of iron powder is tested, revealing superior flexural strength in comparison to the control beam. The most significant findings revolve around the flexural strength improvements for the mixed designs after 28 days in comparison to the reference specimen with 0% crushed sand (CS). The results indicate substantial enhancements, with the 40% CS mix showing a 12.19% increase, the 50% CS mix demonstrating a remarkable 19.69% improvement, and the 60% CS mix yielding the highest enhancement at around 29.38%. Notably, the tests reveal a consistent increase in flexural strength as the content of crushed sand increases. The 60% CS mix particularly stands out with an impressive 29.38% increase in flexural strength. This substantial increase in flexural strength, especially in the 60% CS mix, demonstrates the positive impact of crushed sand on the concrete's ability to resist bending forces. This improvement may be attributed to the interlocking properties of crushed sand particles and their enhanced bond with the cement matrix. The study's findings are consistent with similar research by Shaheen et al. [59], which looked at using stone waste instead of natural sand in medium-grade concrete. Compared to concrete made with only natural sand, this other study found that the flexural strength was much higher, going up by up to 53% after 7 days and 32% after 28 days, respectively. This further substantiates the notion that alternative aggregates, such as crushed sand and stone waste, can substantially improve the flexural strength of concrete. In summary, the study's results underline the advantageous impact of crushed sand on the flexural strength of sand concrete, with the 60% CS mix showing the most notable increase. These findings have significant implications for concrete mix design and construction practices, emphasising the potential to produce more robust and durable concrete structures by incorporating alternative aggregates. The reference to the study by Shaheen et al. [59] underscores the broader applicability of these results across different aggregate alternatives and concrete grades. 3.4. Ultrasonic pulse velocity The results of ultrasonic velocity wave testing for all mixtures are shown in Fig. 7 . It can be seen that, as expected, the crushed sand content in sand concrete increases, the pulsation speed increases and thus, the concrete strength increases. Pulse velocity values ranged from 2985 m/s (0% CS) to 3466.7 m/s (60% CS). The observed increase in the properties of concrete with crushed sand added may be attributed to several factors, with the primary one being the compactness of the internal structure. The introduction of crushed sand into the concrete mix appears to contribute to a more densely packed internal structure. This can be explained by the unique shape and characteristics of the crushed sand particles. Unlike traditional rounded sand particles, crushed sand typically consists of angular or irregularly shaped particles. These irregular shapes, when incorporated into the concrete mix, tend to interlock with each other more effectively. As a result, this interlocking effect leads to a denser and more tightly bonded matrix within the concrete. The improved compactness of the internal structure is of paramount importance in concrete technology. It results in a reduction in the presence of air-filled defects or voids within the concrete. These voids can be detrimental to the structural integrity and longevity of concrete, as they create points of weakness and potential avenues for water ingress, which can lead to deterioration over time. By using crushed sand with its interlocking particle shapes, the concrete mix is more successful at minimizing these voids, thereby enhancing its overall density and reducing the risk of structural weaknesses. In a study conducted by Jaradat and colleagues [36], the authors investigated the effect of replacing crushed sand with sandy limestone on the ultrasonic pulse velocity of concrete. The ultrasonic pulse velocity is a crucial parameter used to assess the quality and integrity of concrete structures. Their findings revealed an interesting trend: as the replacement of crushed sand increased, the ultrasonic pulse velocity of the concrete also increased. When crushed sand was entirely replaced with sandy limestone (i.e., a 100% replacement), the concrete exhibited significantly improved pulse velocity results. These favourable results were observed at multiple time points, including 7, 28, and 90 days after the concrete had been cast [9]. The enhancement in ultrasonic pulse velocity is an important finding, as it indicates improved concrete quality and, by extension, structural performance. This suggests that sandy limestone, when used as a replacement for crushed sand, can positively influence the concrete's ability to transmit ultrasonic waves, which is often indicative of its strength and durability. The implications of these results could be significant for construction and civil engineering practices. The ability to achieve better pulse velocity results by using sandy limestone as a substitute for crushed sand could lead to more robust and durable concrete structures. This research underscores the importance of material selection and provides valuable insights for those involved in the construction industry, with the potential to influence concrete mix design and construction practices for enhanced structural performance. 3.5. Dynamic elastic modulus ( E d ) results The dynamic elastic modulus of concrete is integral to predicting its deformation under load, and Fig. 8 delineates its variations at 7 and 28-days post-casting. The results span a range from 15.18 to 28.91 GPa, showcasing how the introduction of crushed sand as a substitute for traditional sand influences the dynamic elastic modulus. This variance is crucial, as it reflects on the mechanical robustness of the concrete. Within this spectrum, a pattern appears where the dynamic elastic modulus increases with the rising percentage of crushed sand, peaking with a 60% replacement. Such an increment is pivotal, highlighting that incorporating quarry waste like crushed sand can enhance concrete's performance without compromising its inherent elasticity. The elastic properties of the individual materials influence these trends, which do not happen independently. Aggregates generally have a higher modulus than the cement paste, which results in a composite material whose overall modulus is a balance between its components. This balance is delicate, as the moduli of the aggregates can bolster the concrete's stiffness, but an excessive difference could lead to incompatibility strains. The findings presented in this study, aligning with those of existing literature [69], not only validate the use of crushed sand as a sustainable choice in concrete formulation but also reinforce our comprehension of concrete's mechanical interactions. It exemplifies how concrete's performance is tied to its ingredients' properties and that a judicious selection of these can enhance the dynamic elastic modulus, a desirable trait in concrete engineering. 3.6. Microstructure analysis The microstructural analysis of sand concrete, employing scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and optical microscopy, serves to confirm the interpretations derived from earlier mechanical tests and provides a granular view of the material's internal composition. Figures 9-a and 9-b showcase the microstructure at 28 days for traditional sand concrete (0% CS) and concrete with a 60% crushed sand (CS) replacement, respectively, revealing distinct microstructural characteristics attributed to the substitution. Detailed scrutiny of the SEM images reveals that the 60% CS incorporation significantly enhances the concrete's microstructural strength. The improved microstructural integrity of the 60% CS sample suggests a strong link to the mechanical strengths observed, which is coherent with the theoretical understanding that a concrete's mechanical resilience is deeply rooted in its microstructure. This encompasses the components' distribution, the degree of porosity, and the quality of the inter-particle bonding, all of which collectively dictate the material's cohesive strength. This SEM-based observation confirms that a 60% CS mixture not only yields a better-suited microstructure for mechanical strength but also corroborates the empirical test findings. It aligns with Yang et al. [70] research, which indicates that incorporating quarry waste in the cement matrix can densify the structure and fortify the interface between recycled aggregates and the cement paste. Such improvements in microstructure significantly contribute to the strength and longevity of the concrete. In summary, the 60% CS mix emerges as the most advantageous for microstructural strength, offering a substantial boost to the concrete's mechanical performance. This synergy between microstructural soundness and mechanical robustness reaffirms the value of crushed sand substitution in sand concrete, echoing broader research findings that advocate for the strategic use of alternative aggregates in enhancing concrete properties. 4. Conclusion This investigation delves into the sustainable use of quarry waste by transforming it into limestone sand for sand concrete production, simultaneously addressing pressing environmental concerns. Research methodology involved creating five distinct concrete mixtures with varying proportions of limestone sand (0%, 40%, 50%, 60%, and 70%) and evaluating their physical and mechanical characteristics through comprehensive testing, including density, compressive strength, flexural strength, ultrasonic pulse velocity, dynamic elastic modulus, and microstructure analysis. The key findings from the study are: Optimal Proportion of Crushed Quarry Waste Sand: The study highlights that a 60% inclusion of crushed quarry sand (CQS) strikes the perfect balance, significantly enhancing the concrete's structural integrity and microstructural properties. This optimal proportion establishes CQS as a critical component of sustainable building materials. Enhanced Mechanical Performance: The integration of CQS into concrete mixtures markedly boosts compressive strength and dynamic elastic modulus, heralding a new era in the development of more robust and long-lasting construction materials. Advancement in Sustainable Construction Practices: Emphasising CQS as a sustainable alternative to traditional river sand aligns with the urgent need for environmentally responsible resource use, substantially lowering the construction industry's ecological impact. Improved Microstructure Quality: SEM analyses confirm that concrete mixed with 60% CQS exhibits superior microstructural characteristics, which directly enhance its mechanical strength, indicating better material cohesion and durability. Future Directions: The positive outcomes of incorporating CQS in concrete mixes advocate for a paradigm shift in construction material formulation, promoting a more sustainable and efficient approach without compromising on performance. Overall, this study calls for the incorporation of crushed quarry sand in the fabrication of future construction materials, striking an optimal balance between environmental sustainability and enhanced mechanical properties. The implications of this research extend to influencing future building-related research, policy-making, and practice, marking a significant stride towards global sustainability in the construction sector. Declarations Author Contribution A.B. and C.D. conceptualized and designed the study. A.B. conducted data collection and analysis. C.D. provided critical feedback and supervision throughout the project. E. contributed to data interpretation and manuscript writing. G.H. performed statistical analysis and contributed to manuscript revisions. All authors reviewed and approved the final version of the manuscript. References A. Kaveh and A. Kaveh, “Cost and CO 2 emission optimization of reinforced concrete frames using enhanced colliding bodies optimization algorithm,” Appl. metaheuristic Optim. algorithms Civ. Eng. , pp. 319–350, 2017. A. Kaveh, L. Mottaghi, and R. A. Izadifard, “Sustainable design of reinforced concrete frames with non-prismatic beams,” Eng. 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concrete.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4100383/v1/8d4cb4bc5e53c85f086c3364.png"},{"id":52973738,"identity":"72b579ea-33ae-488e-93b3-9863dbf3cbe2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-03-19 08:51:59","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":36041,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffect of CS ratio on the RC of SC.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4100383/v1/1e43753af10d66e2f279122b.png"},{"id":52973731,"identity":"54354db0-8296-4d0f-832d-525602a0aaf9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-03-19 08:51:57","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":22709,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffect of CS ratio on the Rf of SC.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4100383/v1/598b0bf807c3ebd24b43a24f.png"},{"id":52973736,"identity":"a6029b77-25cc-4419-af40-3b31db1c8619","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-03-19 08:51:58","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":16408,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffect of CS ratio on the UPV of SC.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4100383/v1/b48be8d4aef4890b87693253.png"},{"id":52973740,"identity":"ca140cd2-01a0-4283-a98a-67bb64538a3c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-03-19 08:51:59","extension":"png","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":22245,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffect of CS ratio on the Ed of SC.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4100383/v1/60585cf68dab85b8816f721f.png"},{"id":52973732,"identity":"395873c6-d87f-4e78-b0cd-5a2cb660fb30","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-03-19 08:51:57","extension":"png","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":227217,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSEM images of the studied concrete matrix: \u003cstrong\u003ea.\u003c/strong\u003e 0% CS and \u003cstrong\u003eb. \u003c/strong\u003e60% CS\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"9.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4100383/v1/7be12bf1626c466f54359653.png"},{"id":52974495,"identity":"bc60972b-0485-492a-b3f4-5e01ff25f591","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-03-19 08:59:58","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1731262,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4100383/v1/51df9dfc-d243-4b0c-9bbf-b7751beabe5a.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Advancing sand concrete sustainability: transforming quarry waste into high-quality crushed sand for superior properties ","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn the rapidly evolving landscape of today's world, the importance of efficient waste management and minimising waste may not be overstated for the effort of sustainable development [1], [2], [3]. The environmental problem resulting from limestone mining waste poses a serious threat to both ecological harmony and societal well-being. Quarrying, a critical economic driver in numerous countries, including Palestine [4], generates an extensive volume of waste through stone production, which leads to pressing environmental consequences necessitating immediate action. The demand to find solutions that maintain environmental preservation while fostering sustainable growth is essential [5]. The waste that results from stone shaping processes is especially alarming [6], but there is a bright side: this waste is creatively recycled to be used in construction projects. This process produces environmentally friendly building materials while also paving the way for sustainable practices [7], [8]. Due to the sector's rapid expansion and the limited supply of natural river sand, a crucial ingredient in building activities, the construction industry has recently faced significant challenges [9]. River sand, predominantly silica (SiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e) with a distinct grain shape and texture, is now in very limited supply, raising various environmental alarms [10]. The limited availability of river sand resources has triggered a quest for alternative materials capable of substituting natural sand in construction to some degree or entirely [11]. In response, the industry has examined numerous substitutes for natural sand in building applications [12]. One innovative alternative is utilising limestone, a residue of quarrying activities, as a practical substitute for river sand [13]. The environmental advantages of replacing traditional river sand with quarry waste are comprehensive, spanning from reducing landfill needs to protecting ecosystems and the health of surrounding communities [14].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe increasing concerns for environmental preservation and the necessity for sustainability underscore the importance of recycling solid waste without delay [15]. The study in [16], delves into exploring groundbreaking materials that could serve as alternatives to the traditional sand employed in construction, aiming to reduce the environmental impact. The cement-concrete composite stands as the dominant material in engineering worldwide, favoured for its superior qualities and cost efficiency [17], [18]. Despite its intricate multi-component nature, various processes, and detailed specifications, the production methodology for concrete is relatively straightforward, as documented in several references [19], [20], [21], [22], [23]. In concrete, aggregates\u0026mdash;both fine and coarse\u0026mdash;occupy a significant volume, ranging from 60\u0026ndash;75%, playing a pivotal role in defining its physical and mechanical properties [24]. In particular, fine aggregates, which make up about 35\u0026ndash;45% of the total aggregate volume, are needed to fill in the voids between coarse aggregate grains, making the bond in standard concrete denser and stronger [25].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumerous studies have delved into the viability of utilising quarry waste materials in construction without affecting the integrity of the cement mixture [26]. Humayun et al. [27] found that incorporating quarry waste as a partial replacement for fine aggregate in concrete significantly enhances its compressive strength. Research consistently demonstrates that quarry waste, when used as a fine aggregate in concrete, can markedly improve various critical concrete properties [28], [29], [30], [31], [32], [33], [34], [35]. Such findings are crucial for the construction sector, offering a path towards environmental sustainability by recycling waste materials to enhance the strength, durability, and performance of concrete structures.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe construction industry's recent growth has encouraged extensive research into the development of sand concrete (SC), spotlighting it as a vital material for incorporating quarry waste [36], [37]. Its composition benefits greatly from the inclusion of fine aggregates, facilitating the use of waste materials. Gadri and Guettala. [38] observed that sand concrete, when made with crushed limestone sand instead of traditional river sand, satisfies the necessary physical and mechanical standards. Furthermore, substituting limestone sand in sand concrete significantly improves its mechanical properties [39], [40]. Jaradat et al. [36] analysed the microstructure of sand concrete with limestone sand and discovered enhanced compactness in its composition, marking a pioneering step in sustainable construction practices within the sector by promoting the recycling of quarry waste.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe mechanical properties of concrete, such as tensile strength, compressive strength, flexural strength, and modulus of elasticity, are essential metrics for evaluating its behaviour under various loads and environmental conditions [41], [42], [43], [44]. Tensile strength determines the concrete's capacity to resist tensile (stretching or pulling) forces, whereas compressive strength measures its ability to withstand compression. Flexural strength evaluates the concrete's resistance to bending or flexing stresses, playing a critical role in determining the material's overall structural performance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition, the modulus of elasticity, indicative of concrete's stiffness or flexibility, offers insights into its deformation response under stress and its ability to revert to its initial form upon stress removal. These mechanical characteristics are foundational in the architectural and analytical processes of concrete structures, aiding engineers and scholars in making well-informed choices about material utilisation, structural configuration, and performance evaluation. The physical attributes of aggregates, such as their form, size, and pre-mix treatments, are instrumental in defining the ultimate properties and efficacy of the concrete mix. Drawing from a considerable volume of research [45], [46], [47], [48], [49]. it is evident that aggregates significantly impact the concrete mix by imparting crucial qualities. The dimension and shape of aggregates critically affect the concrete's workability, durability, and reliability, underscoring their importance in the mix's composition and performance outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study aims to explore the reuse of quarry waste, specifically in the form of limestone sand, to enhance the attributes of sand concrete, thereby mitigating the environmental impact associated with quarry waste disposal. Through an extensive series of evaluations, this research will investigate the physical and mechanical behaviours of sand concrete as the limestone sand content varies from 0\u0026ndash;70%. The assessments will encompass a variety of tests, such as density, compressive strength, flexural strength, ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV), dynamic elastic modulus, and microstructure examination, to comprehensively understand the implications of incorporating limestone sand into sand concrete.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Materials and methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis section outlines the materials used and the experimental approach to assess quarry waste as an alternative to conventional sand in concrete. It details the limestone sand specifications, sample preparation, and testing protocols for evaluating concrete's physical and mechanical properties, guaranteeing the reproducibility of the research and the accuracy of its findings.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1. Materials\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis subsection outlines the key components used in the concrete mix for the study, including two types of sand (crushed and river sands), Composite Portland Cement CPJ-CEM II/A 42.5, and purified water. It highlights the selection criteria based on physical and chemical properties to ensure the concrete's optimal performance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1.1. Sand\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this research, two types of sand were used as essential components of the concrete mixture:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrushed sand (CR), derived from quarry waste or the by-products of stone formation, is showcased in Fig.\u0026nbsp;1-a.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eRiver sand (RS), naturally deposited by river processes and commonly recognised as conventional sand, is shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;1-b.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoth sand varieties exhibit a similar particle size distribution, ranging from 0 to 5 mm. The physical properties of each sand type are carefully stated Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. Additionally, grading curves, illustrated in Fig.\u0026nbsp;2, provide a visual representation of the particle size distribution, offering further insight into their granular structure.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhysical properties of crushed sand, and river sand.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"1\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrushed sand\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRiver sand\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eApparent density (kg/m\u003c/b\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cb\u003e3\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cb\u003e)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1480\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1610\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSpecific density (kg/m\u003c/b\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cb\u003e3\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cb\u003e)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2600\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2500\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCompactness (%)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e56.92\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e64.40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFineness modulus\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.92\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePiston sand equivalent (%)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e97.63\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1.2. Cement\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this study, Composite Portland Cement CPJ-CEM II/A 42.5 was selected for the concrete mix. It has apparent and specific densities of 1205 kg/m\u0026sup3; and 3150 kg/m\u0026sup3;, respectively, and a fineness of 370 m\u0026sup2;/kg. The cement's chemical composition is detailed in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChemical compositions of the cement\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"11\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCement\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAl\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCaO\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eK\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCl\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNa\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMgO\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLOI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62.92\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.031\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1.3. Water\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe fact is that water plays an essential role in the concrete mixture by activating the cement's chemical reaction. The water used for this study was free from chlorides and sulphates, in accordance with the purity requirements for mixing and curing processes. Ordinary drinking water was used throughout the research, with its temperature controlled at 20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1\u0026deg;C, complying with the NFP 18\u0026ndash;404 standard specifications.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2. Methods\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis subsection provides a comprehensive overview of the experimental procedures used in this study. It begins with the formulation of sand concrete, detailing the mix design and the specific proportions of materials used. Following this, the preparation of specimen\u0026rsquo;s section describes the steps taken to create concrete samples for testing. The curing of concrete subsection outlines the methods and conditions under which the concrete specimens were maintained to achieve optimal hardening. Lastly, the experimental techniques subsection delves into the various tests conducted to evaluate the physical and mechanical properties of the concrete, including density, compressive strength, flexural strength, ultrasonic pulse velocity, dynamic modulus of elasticity, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis. This section is essential for understanding the empirical basis of the study's findings.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.1. Sand concrete formulation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe sand concrete formulation used in this study is based on techniques from earlier investigations; in particular, it refers to works in references[9], [50], [51], [52], [53], [54], which have established a trustworthy framework for sand concrete preparation. This approach centres on enhancing the granular compactness within the concrete mix, a key principle for achieving optimal mixture properties. Following established practices, the cement dosage was set at 350 kg/m3, aligning with the standard used across similar studies [51], [55].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn terms of sand selection, both river sand and crushed sand were incorporated into the mix. The compactness of the mixture, represented by the compactness coefficient (γ), plays a critical role in determining the sand quantity. Compactness coefficient (γ): is the ratio to 1000 litre of the absolute volume of solids [56]. This coefficient, set at 0.770 for mixtures with a maximum diameter of D\u003csub\u003emax\u003c/sub\u003e \u0026le; 5 mm and a plastic consistency under normal vibration, reflects the absolute volume of solids per 1000 litres. The value of the compactness coefficient varies based on the sand's granular shape, with crushed sand having a coefficient of 0.03 and river sand having a coefficient of 0.01. The value of the compactness coefficient varies based on the sand's granular shape, with crushed sand having a coefficient of 0.03 and river sand having a coefficient of 0.01.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe dosage of the sand is determined according to the following formula:\u003cdiv id=\"Equ1\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ1\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$Vs+Vc= 1000 \\gamma$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e1\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eVc and Vs represent the absolute volumes for cement and sand, respectively, contributing to the overall absolute volume (1000 γ).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe quantities of water and superplasticizer were experimentally determined through a slump test, as outlined in NF EN 12350-2, to achieve a slump indicative of plastic concrete, thereby ensuring the desired workability. To determine the most effective sand concrete mixture, an initial selection of five mixtures varying in crushed sand (CS) and river sand (RS) proportions was made. The compositions of these sand concrete mixtures, according to their respective sand ratios, are detailed in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCompositions of sand concrete according to the proportions of sand\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCompositions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCS (Kg/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRS (Kg/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWater (L/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCement (Kg/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW / C\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0% CS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1617.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e245\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e350\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e40% CS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e652.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e970.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e245\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e350\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e50% CS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e815.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e808.75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e245\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e350\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e60% CS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e978.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e647\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e245\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e350\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e70% CS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1141.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e485.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e245\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e350\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.2. Preparation of specimens\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAn extremely organised procedure is followed to prepare the sand concrete specimens for the thorough testing; this guarantees the production of a homogeneous composite that complies with the requirements laid out in EN 196-1. Before starting the process of mixing, strict attention is given to the precise weighing of materials and the thorough cleaning of the mixer, moulds, and tools to maintain a hygienic environment. The mixing process unfolds in a series of steps, each carefully executed to achieve the desired homogeneity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe process begins with the initial dry mixture, which is mixed for a minimum duration of two minutes. Following this, water, as referenced by B\u0026eacute;d\u0026eacute;rina et al. [57], is introduced and blended for an extensive five-minute period to attain a consistent paste. The process ensures that the mixture is thoroughly saturated with water, a critical element for the proper hydration of the cement and the subsequent development of concrete strength.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAfter that, the moulds are filled to their centre capacity and subjected to mechanical vibration through the use of specialised equipment, typically executed with 15 strokes. This vibration process aids in the expulsion of air voids, enabling a denser and more compact concrete structure. The procedure is repeated for the second half of the moulds.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.3. Curing of concrete\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFollowing the completion of the mixing and moulding processes, the samples are wrapped in plastic film and kept in a controlled environment for 24 hours, specifically at 20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2\u0026deg;C. This curing process is crucial for the initial stages of concrete hardening, ensuring the development of its desired properties. Careful removal of the samples from the moulds follows the end of the curing period, marking a significant change in the preparation process.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccording to EN 196-1, the samples were kept in clean water at a temperature of 20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2\u0026deg;C and a relative humidity of 50% until testing time.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.4. Experimental techniques\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis subsection outlines tests conducted to assess sand concrete properties, including density, compressive and flexural strength, ultrasonic pulse velocity, dynamic modulus of elasticity, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis, providing insights into the material's quality, stiffness, and microstructure.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section4\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.4.1. Density\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe samples were oven-dried at 60\u0026deg;C until they reached a stable weight. To calculate the dry density, the specimen's weight was divided by its volume, in accordance with the NF EN 18\u0026ndash;459 standard. Each sample was measured by the following dimensions (4 cm\u0026times;4 cm\u0026times;16 cm).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section4\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.4.2. Compressive strength\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eCompressive strength in concrete signifies the peak resistance it exhibits under axial load. This property was determined by applying Eq.\u0026nbsp;(\u003cspan refid=\"Equ2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e):\u003cdiv id=\"Equ2\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ2\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$${f}_{s}= {F}_{max}/ S$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e2\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHere, \u003cem\u003ef\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003es\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e ​ represents the compressive strength, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003emax\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e is the maximum load applied, and S is the cross-sectional area of the specimen. The maximum load (\u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003emax\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e ​) was applied using a hydraulic press with a capacity of 3000 KN, adhering to the NF EN 12390-3 standard. During the tests, the loading rate was consistently maintained at 0.5 MPa/s until rupture of the specimen.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section4\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.4.3. Flexural strength\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis test determines the flexural strength of hardened concrete using a hydraulic press machine with a loading capacity of 3000 KN according to the standard NF EN 12390-6. The loading rate applied in the compressive strength tests was kept at 0.05 MPa/s until the rupture of the specimen, where the sample dimensions were (4 cm\u0026times;4 cm\u0026times;16 cm).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEach concrete type's flexural strength was prepared using Eq.\u0026nbsp;(\u003cspan refid=\"Equ3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e) as follows:\u003cdiv id=\"Equ3\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ3\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$${R}_{t}= {(1.5\\times l\\times F}_{max})/ (b\\times {d}^{2})$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e3\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e...\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;..\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhere \u003cem\u003eRt\u003c/em\u003e is the flexural strength; \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003emax\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e is the max load applied; \u003cem\u003el\u003c/em\u003e is the gap between the support rollers; and \u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003ed\u003c/em\u003e is the lateral dimensions of the specimen.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section4\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.4.4. Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eUltrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV) is a non-destructive technique extensively applied to assess concrete quality. Conducted according to the NF EN 12504-4 standard, UPV testing measures the speed of sound waves transmitted through the concrete from one side of the specimen to the other. This process calculates the time it takes for the sound wave to traverse the material, with the specimens having dimensions of 4 cm by 4 cm by 16 cm. The pulse velocity (\u003cem\u003ev\u003c/em\u003e) is determined using Eq.\u0026nbsp;(\u003cspan refid=\"Equ4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e):\u003cdiv id=\"Equ4\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ4\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$v=l/s$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e4\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhere \u003cem\u003el\u003c/em\u003e is representing the path length through the specimen and \u003cem\u003es\u003c/em\u003e the transit time of the wave.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section4\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.4.5. Dynamic modulus of elasticity\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe dynamic modulus of elasticity is calculated by measuring the Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV) within the composite materials. This value is derived using the expression outlined in reference [58], as shown in Eq.\u0026nbsp;(\u003cspan refid=\"Equ5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e):\u003cdiv id=\"Equ5\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ5\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$${E}_{d}= (\\rho \\times {v}^{2})/ (g\\times 100)$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e5\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u0026hellip;..\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;..\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhere \u003cem\u003eE\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003ed\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e is the modulus of dynamic elasticity (GPa), \u003cem\u003ev\u003c/em\u003e is the UPV (km/s), \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\rho\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e is the density of the material (kg/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e), and \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(g\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e is the gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/s\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section4\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.4.6. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eScanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) analysis employs a concentrated electron beam to examine the surface of a specimen, as depicted in Fig.\u0026nbsp;3, to thoroughly analyse the microstructure of concrete. This examination seeks to reveal the size and distribution of voids and assess the bonding quality between different components. The specimens prepared for this analysis measured 2 cm in each dimension. For further details on the experimental setup, refer to Fig.\u0026nbsp;3.\u003c/p\u003e "},{"header":"3. Results and discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis section presents the findings from the series of experiments conducted to evaluate the properties of the concrete mixtures. This section is structured to systematically review the outcomes and implications of each test, starting with the density measurements that provide insights into the concrete's compactness. Following this, the compressive strength results are discussed, highlighting the material's ability to withstand axial loads. The section then explores the flexural strength data, which sheds light on the concrete's resistance to bending forces. Ultrasonic pulse velocity findings are examined next, offering an assessment of the material's quality and homogeneity. The dynamic elastic modulus (Ed) results are discussed to understand the stiffness of the concrete, and then the microstructure analysis is presented to reveal the internal composition and integrity of the concrete. This comprehensive discussion aims to correlate the experimental data with the concrete's expected performance and sustainability features.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1. Density results\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe density results for different concrete mixtures at 14 and 28 days, as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, suggest that concrete density increases with the level of river sand (RS) replaced by crushed sand (CS) aggregates. This trend is likely due to the higher density of CS aggregates noted in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. On day 7, density enhancements of 2%, 5%, 10%, and 11% were recorded for 40%, 50%, 60%, and 70% RS replacement with CS, respectively, with slightly reduced increases of 2%, 4%, 8%, and 9% on day 28. The rate of density increase is marginally higher at 7 days compared to 28 days. The concrete also generally displayed higher density at 28 days than at 7 days, with the most significant increase at a 70% CS substitution rate, aligning with Shaheen et al. [59], Those who observed similar density increases with more crushed sand waste. The density boost is attributed not just to the inherent density of the aggregates but also to the lower impurity levels in CS-aggregates, indicated by a higher sand equivalent value, resulting in a denser concrete microstructure compared to mixes with RS-aggregates. These findings support the idea that denser concrete has advantages in structural integrity, durability, and environmental resistance, providing a sustainable and efficient use of materials in construction.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2. Compressive strength results\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results showcased in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e go into detail about the effects of varying crushed sand (CS) replacement levels on concrete's compressive strength. As the CS replacement percentage climbs, we generally see an upward trend in strength, suggesting that CS contributes positively to the concrete's structural integrity. However, this trend inverts slightly at the 70% CS replacement mark, implying an optimum threshold for CS usage that warrants further investigation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOver time, the compressive strength of concrete naturally increases, a reflection of the ongoing chemical reactions and solidification processes inherent in the material's curing phase, which are well documented in the literature[60]. The current research finds a 60% CS replacement as the ideal concentration for enhancing compressive strength, with substantial improvements noted at both 7 and 28 days post-mixing. This particular finding resonates with a substantial body of research, including insights from references[10], [34], [61], [62], [63], [64], [65], [66], [67]. The references cited, which support this finding, underscore the consistency and reliability. They likely reflect a substantial body of research that has explored the influence of different sand types and proportions on concrete performance. Collectively, this knowledge informs sand concrete practitioners and researchers about a well-established and effective strategy for enhancing the performance of concrete, which could include improving its strength, and desired properties.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe 60% crushed sand replacement stands out as the most promising value for compressive strength improvement, especially when compared to the reference sample with 0% crushed sand replacement. The data shows significant improvements in compressive strength percentages after 7 and 28 days. After 7 days, there is a notable 67.70% increase in compressive strength, and after 28 days, this improvement further jumps to an impressive 82.33%. In summary, these results demonstrate the positive impact of crushed sand replacement on the compressive strength of concrete, but also underscore the importance of finding the right balance in the replacement proportion to maximize this effect. Additionally, it emphasizes the time-dependent nature of concrete strength development, with the 60% crushed sand replacement proving to be the most beneficial choice for enhancing compressive strength in this study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWith this new knowledge, concrete mix designers and builders may be able to make better use of crushed sand in their mixes, leading to longer-lasting, more robust concrete structures. Bederina et al. [68] found that complete substitution of river sand by crushed limestone sand enhanced the compressive strength of mortar mixes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3. Flexural strength results\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe flexural strength of sand concrete made with crushed sand is a critical aspect of concrete performance, and the results are presented in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e. The study examines the flexural strength of sand concrete with varying percentages of crushed sand and includes a comparison with control beams at two different curing periods, 7 and 28 days. Additionally, the incorporation of iron powder is tested, revealing superior flexural strength in comparison to the control beam. The most significant findings revolve around the flexural strength improvements for the mixed designs after 28 days in comparison to the reference specimen with 0% crushed sand (CS). The results indicate substantial enhancements, with the 40% CS mix showing a 12.19% increase, the 50% CS mix demonstrating a remarkable 19.69% improvement, and the 60% CS mix yielding the highest enhancement at around 29.38%. Notably, the tests reveal a consistent increase in flexural strength as the content of crushed sand increases.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe 60% CS mix particularly stands out with an impressive 29.38% increase in flexural strength. This substantial increase in flexural strength, especially in the 60% CS mix, demonstrates the positive impact of crushed sand on the concrete's ability to resist bending forces. This improvement may be attributed to the interlocking properties of crushed sand particles and their enhanced bond with the cement matrix. The study's findings are consistent with similar research by Shaheen et al. [59], which looked at using stone waste instead of natural sand in medium-grade concrete. Compared to concrete made with only natural sand, this other study found that the flexural strength was much higher, going up by up to 53% after 7 days and 32% after 28 days, respectively. This further substantiates the notion that alternative aggregates, such as crushed sand and stone waste, can substantially improve the flexural strength of concrete.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn summary, the study's results underline the advantageous impact of crushed sand on the flexural strength of sand concrete, with the 60% CS mix showing the most notable increase. These findings have significant implications for concrete mix design and construction practices, emphasising the potential to produce more robust and durable concrete structures by incorporating alternative aggregates. The reference to the study by Shaheen et al. [59] underscores the broader applicability of these results across different aggregate alternatives and concrete grades.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4. Ultrasonic pulse velocity\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results of ultrasonic velocity wave testing for all mixtures are shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e. It can be seen that, as expected, the crushed sand content in sand concrete increases, the pulsation speed increases and thus, the concrete strength increases. Pulse velocity values ranged from 2985 m/s (0% CS) to 3466.7 m/s (60% CS). The observed increase in the properties of concrete with crushed sand added may be attributed to several factors, with the primary one being the compactness of the internal structure. The introduction of crushed sand into the concrete mix appears to contribute to a more densely packed internal structure. This can be explained by the unique shape and characteristics of the crushed sand particles. Unlike traditional rounded sand particles, crushed sand typically consists of angular or irregularly shaped particles. These irregular shapes, when incorporated into the concrete mix, tend to interlock with each other more effectively. As a result, this interlocking effect leads to a denser and more tightly bonded matrix within the concrete. The improved compactness of the internal structure is of paramount importance in concrete technology. It results in a reduction in the presence of air-filled defects or voids within the concrete. These voids can be detrimental to the structural integrity and longevity of concrete, as they create points of weakness and potential avenues for water ingress, which can lead to deterioration over time. By using crushed sand with its interlocking particle shapes, the concrete mix is more successful at minimizing these voids, thereby enhancing its overall density and reducing the risk of structural weaknesses. In a study conducted by Jaradat and colleagues [36], the authors investigated the effect of replacing crushed sand with sandy limestone on the ultrasonic pulse velocity of concrete. The ultrasonic pulse velocity is a crucial parameter used to assess the quality and integrity of concrete structures. Their findings revealed an interesting trend: as the replacement of crushed sand increased, the ultrasonic pulse velocity of the concrete also increased. When crushed sand was entirely replaced with sandy limestone (i.e., a 100% replacement), the concrete exhibited significantly improved pulse velocity results. These favourable results were observed at multiple time points, including 7, 28, and 90 days after the concrete had been cast [9].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe enhancement in ultrasonic pulse velocity is an important finding, as it indicates improved concrete quality and, by extension, structural performance. This suggests that sandy limestone, when used as a replacement for crushed sand, can positively influence the concrete's ability to transmit ultrasonic waves, which is often indicative of its strength and durability. The implications of these results could be significant for construction and civil engineering practices. The ability to achieve better pulse velocity results by using sandy limestone as a substitute for crushed sand could lead to more robust and durable concrete structures.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis research underscores the importance of material selection and provides valuable insights for those involved in the construction industry, with the potential to influence concrete mix design and construction practices for enhanced structural performance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec23\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.5. Dynamic elastic modulus (\u003cem\u003eE\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003ed\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e) results\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe dynamic elastic modulus of concrete is integral to predicting its deformation under load, and Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e delineates its variations at 7 and 28-days post-casting. The results span a range from 15.18 to 28.91 GPa, showcasing how the introduction of crushed sand as a substitute for traditional sand influences the dynamic elastic modulus. This variance is crucial, as it reflects on the mechanical robustness of the concrete.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWithin this spectrum, a pattern appears where the dynamic elastic modulus increases with the rising percentage of crushed sand, peaking with a 60% replacement. Such an increment is pivotal, highlighting that incorporating quarry waste like crushed sand can enhance concrete's performance without compromising its inherent elasticity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe elastic properties of the individual materials influence these trends, which do not happen independently. Aggregates generally have a higher modulus than the cement paste, which results in a composite material whose overall modulus is a balance between its components. This balance is delicate, as the moduli of the aggregates can bolster the concrete's stiffness, but an excessive difference could lead to incompatibility strains.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings presented in this study, aligning with those of existing literature [69], not only validate the use of crushed sand as a sustainable choice in concrete formulation but also reinforce our comprehension of concrete's mechanical interactions. It exemplifies how concrete's performance is tied to its ingredients' properties and that a judicious selection of these can enhance the dynamic elastic modulus, a desirable trait in concrete engineering.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec24\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.6. Microstructure analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe microstructural analysis of sand concrete, employing scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and optical microscopy, serves to confirm the interpretations derived from earlier mechanical tests and provides a granular view of the material's internal composition. Figures\u0026nbsp;9-a and 9-b showcase the microstructure at 28 days for traditional sand concrete (0% CS) and concrete with a 60% crushed sand (CS) replacement, respectively, revealing distinct microstructural characteristics attributed to the substitution.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDetailed scrutiny of the SEM images reveals that the 60% CS incorporation significantly enhances the concrete's microstructural strength. The improved microstructural integrity of the 60% CS sample suggests a strong link to the mechanical strengths observed, which is coherent with the theoretical understanding that a concrete's mechanical resilience is deeply rooted in its microstructure. This encompasses the components' distribution, the degree of porosity, and the quality of the inter-particle bonding, all of which collectively dictate the material's cohesive strength.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis SEM-based observation confirms that a 60% CS mixture not only yields a better-suited microstructure for mechanical strength but also corroborates the empirical test findings. It aligns with Yang et al. [70] research, which indicates that incorporating quarry waste in the cement matrix can densify the structure and fortify the interface between recycled aggregates and the cement paste. Such improvements in microstructure significantly contribute to the strength and longevity of the concrete.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn summary, the 60% CS mix emerges as the most advantageous for microstructural strength, offering a substantial boost to the concrete's mechanical performance. This synergy between microstructural soundness and mechanical robustness reaffirms the value of crushed sand substitution in sand concrete, echoing broader research findings that advocate for the strategic use of alternative aggregates in enhancing concrete properties.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis investigation delves into the sustainable use of quarry waste by transforming it into limestone sand for sand concrete production, simultaneously addressing pressing environmental concerns. Research methodology involved creating five distinct concrete mixtures with varying proportions of limestone sand (0%, 40%, 50%, 60%, and 70%) and evaluating their physical and mechanical characteristics through comprehensive testing, including density, compressive strength, flexural strength, ultrasonic pulse velocity, dynamic elastic modulus, and microstructure analysis. The key findings from the study are:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eOptimal Proportion of Crushed Quarry Waste Sand: The study highlights that a 60% inclusion of crushed quarry sand (CQS) strikes the perfect balance, significantly enhancing the concrete's structural integrity and microstructural properties. This optimal proportion establishes CQS as a critical component of sustainable building materials.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnhanced Mechanical Performance: The integration of CQS into concrete mixtures markedly boosts compressive strength and dynamic elastic modulus, heralding a new era in the development of more robust and long-lasting construction materials.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdvancement in Sustainable Construction Practices: Emphasising CQS as a sustainable alternative to traditional river sand aligns with the urgent need for environmentally responsible resource use, substantially lowering the construction industry's ecological impact.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eImproved Microstructure Quality: SEM analyses confirm that concrete mixed with 60% CQS exhibits superior microstructural characteristics, which directly enhance its mechanical strength, indicating better material cohesion and durability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eFuture Directions: The positive outcomes of incorporating CQS in concrete mixes advocate for a paradigm shift in construction material formulation, promoting a more sustainable and efficient approach without compromising on performance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverall, this study calls for the incorporation of crushed quarry sand in the fabrication of future construction materials, striking an optimal balance between environmental sustainability and enhanced mechanical properties. The implications of this research extend to influencing future building-related research, policy-making, and practice, marking a significant stride towards global sustainability in the construction sector.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eA.B. and C.D. conceptualized and designed the study. A.B. conducted data collection and analysis. C.D. provided critical feedback and supervision throughout the project. E. contributed to data interpretation and manuscript writing. G.H. performed statistical analysis and contributed to manuscript revisions. All authors reviewed and approved the final version of the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eA. Kaveh and A. 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Mater.\u003c/em\u003e, vol. 188, pp. 1045\u0026ndash;1049, 2018, doi: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.08.147.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"asian-journal-of-civil-engineering","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"Learn more about [Asian Journal of Civil Engineering](https://www.springer.com/journal/42107)","snPcode":"42107","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/42107/3","title":"Asian Journal of Civil Engineering","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"limestone sand, microstructure, quarry, sand concrete, sustainability, waste recycle","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4100383/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4100383/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis research explores the potential of reusing quarry waste into limestone sand for the eco-friendly production of sand concrete, addressing environmental sustainability. The investigation comprised the preparation of five concrete mixtures with differing limestone sand ratios: 0%, 40%, 50%, 60%, and 70%. To evaluate the impact of limestone sand incorporation, we analysed physical and mechanical characteristics through tests such as density, compressive and flexural strength, Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity, Dynamic elastic modulus, and microstructure examination. Findings indicate substantial enhancements in sand concrete properties due to the integration of limestone sand, with the 60% ratio emerging as the most productive. The study underscores limestone sand's capability to not only improve sand concrete quality but also offer a sustainable method for quarry waste recycling. It demonstrates the beneficial impact of limestone sand used in sand concrete and advocates for its application as a sustainable quarry waste recycling strategy across the construction industry's various sectors.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Advancing sand concrete sustainability: transforming quarry waste into high-quality crushed sand for superior properties ","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-03-19 08:51:51","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4100383/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2024-05-29T18:38:52+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2024-05-16T10:56:24+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2024-05-14T21:02:21+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2024-04-27T06:14:37+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"dc41aac5-3ed6-49ae-9ea0-9bacae2f1baf","date":"2024-04-23T17:30:40+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"2f657d42-cf8d-4790-98dd-9229e3ec6d9e_SNPRID","date":"2024-04-23T10:43:07+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"de786d01-a934-4594-b9e2-678e90302f20","date":"2024-04-23T08:42:37+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"e5ebf31f-bfff-4c49-8d51-413be699336a","date":"2024-04-23T08:30:57+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2024-04-23T08:19:43+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2024-03-15T14:32:12+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2024-03-15T08:46:15+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Asian Journal of Civil Engineering","date":"2024-03-14T11:41:03+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"asian-journal-of-civil-engineering","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"Learn more about [Asian Journal of Civil Engineering](https://www.springer.com/journal/42107)","snPcode":"42107","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/42107/3","title":"Asian Journal of Civil Engineering","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"ee28fecd-e2e6-49ee-9dec-8df8cfe3a29c","owner":[],"postedDate":"March 19th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-07-18T17:53:20+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-03-19 08:51:51","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-4100383","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-4100383","identity":"rs-4100383","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}