Effectiveness of the super skills for life in reducing symptoms of depression of college students in China

Effectiveness of the super skills for life in reducing symptoms of depression of college students in China | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article Effectiveness of the super skills for life in reducing symptoms of depression of college students in China Yuanguang Ma, Panpan Zhou This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8013870/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This study explores the “Super Skills for Life (SSL)” program’s effect on reducing Chinese college students’ depressive symptoms and its applicability in school mental health education. Using a randomized controlled trial, 66 students were assigned to an experimental group (receiving SSL intervention) or a control group (conventional teaching). Assessments via Depression, Resilience, and Life Satisfaction Scales were conducted at pre-intervention, post-intervention, and 3-month follow-up. The analysis results showed that, Significant group × time interactions emerged: the experimental group showed lower depressive symptoms and higher life satisfaction at post-intervention and follow-up compared to baseline and the control group. Findings confirm SSL’s effectiveness in reducing depression, enhancing life satisfaction sustainably, supporting its feasibility in Chinese schools. Health sciences/Health care Humanities/Medical humanities Biological sciences/Psychology Social science/Psychology super skills for life college students depression intervention 1. Introduction Depression, a prevalent and debilitating mental health condition characterized primarily by persistent low mood, anhedonia (loss of interest in previously enjoyable activities), and disturbances in cognitive, emotional, and physical functioning, has emerged as one of the most pressing psychological challenges confronting modern societies. Among various populations, Chinese college students-who occupy a critical transitional stage between adolescence and adulthood, navigating academic pressures, social adaptation, and identity formation-are disproportionately affected by depressive symptoms (Ma 2022 ). The urgency of addressing this issue is underscored by a growing body of epidemiological evidence. A meta-analysis spanning the decade 2011–2020 estimated that the overall detection rate of depressive symptoms among Chinese college students reached 31.38% (Wang et al. 2020 ), a figure substantially higher than the global average for young adults (15–20%) reported by the WHO. More recent studies have painted an even more concerning picture: Chen ( 2023 ) found that the detection rate of depressive symptoms at or above the mild level among this group ranges from 21% to 52.37%, reflecting a clear upward trend in incidence over time. Beyond the immediate psychological distress it causes, depression in college students carries far-reaching long-term consequences. Prospective studies have identified depressive symptoms during the college years as a key high-risk factor for the subsequent onset of major depressive disorder (MDD)—a chronic condition associated with impaired academic achievement, reduced occupational productivity, and increased risk of self-harm or suicide (Kessler et al. 2005; Ma 2022 ). Given that college students represent the core of China’s future talent pool, their mental health is not merely an individual concern but a foundational pillar of national social and economic development. As the number of college students with depressive symptoms continues to rise, the need for scalable, evidence-based psychological interventions has become imperative. Among potential intervention modalities, group psychological counseling stands out: unlike individual counseling, which is resource-intensive and limited in reach, group counseling enables efficient, large-scale delivery—making it uniquely suited to address the mental health needs of large student populations (Liu, Song, & Wang 2021 ). This underscores the critical importance of researching group psychological counseling programs tailored to mitigate depression among college students. Group psychological counseling is defined as a collaborative helping process that leverages interpersonal interaction within a group setting to promote members’ self-awareness, behavioral adjustment, and the development of adaptive coping skills (Fan & He 2022 ). A robust body of research has demonstrated its efficacy in treating emotional disorders, including depression: Hu et al. ( 2017 ) conducted a meta-analysis of group training interventions for college students’ depressive emotions and found significant reductions in symptom severity across studies, while Ma et al. ( 2021 ) confirmed the long-term benefits of group counseling for freshmen at risk of depression. However, a notable gap persists in the literature: the vast majority of existing studies focus on therapeutic interventions—targeting individuals already experiencing clinical or subclinical emotional problems—while research on preventive interventions (designed to reduce the incidence of depressive symptoms in the general student population) remains relatively scarce. This imbalance has two critical implications: first, it limits the recognition of group counseling’s potential as a proactive tool for mental health promotion, rather than merely a reactive treatment; second, it leaves a void in scalable solutions for colleges seeking to prevent depression before it escalates. Exploring the application of group counseling in preventive contexts is therefore essential for advancing a comprehensive, public health-oriented approach to college mental health. Super Skills for Life (SSL), a group psychological counseling program rooted in Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT), addresses this gap by integrating preventive and therapeutic goals. CBT, a gold-standard approach for treating depression, operates on the premise that negative thought patterns (cognitions) and maladaptive behaviors contribute to the onset and maintenance of depressive symptoms; its core goal is to modify these cognitions and behaviors to reduce symptom frequency and intensity (Beck, 1979). Over the past three decades, CBT has demonstrated strong efficacy for adolescent and young adult populations: Essau, Conradt, Sasagawa, and Ollendick ( 2012 ) found that up to 65% of adolescents with emotional disorders (including depression) respond positively to CBT, and subsequent follow-up studies have confirmed the durability of these effects (Essau et al., 2019 ). Developed by Professor Essau’s team at the Center for Adolescent Mental Health, University of Roehampton (UK), SSL builds on CBT’s framework by incorporating two evidence-based components: behavioral activation (which encourages engagement in rewarding activities to counteract anhedonia) and social skills training (which enhances interpersonal competence, a key protective factor against depression). Designed specifically for adolescents and young adults, SSL aims to enhance psychological resilience (the ability to cope with stress and adversity) and alleviate depressive symptoms—serving as both a preventive tool for the general population and a supportive intervention for those at risk. The program’s structure is highly adaptable to educational settings: it consists of 8 weekly sessions (each 45-50minutes) covering core skills such as emotional literacy (understanding and labeling emotions), cognitive reappraisal (challenging negative thoughts), problem-solving, relaxation techniques, self-monitoring (tracking emotions and behaviors), and social skills (e.g., communication and conflict resolution; Essau et al., 2019 ). A key strength of SSL is its practical feasibility in school environments. Unlike specialized clinical interventions that require dedicated venues or highly trained psychologists, SSL can be delivered by general teachers or counselors who have completed brief program-specific training. This accessibility has facilitated its widespread adoption across diverse cultural contexts: rigorous evaluations in the UK, Spain, Germany, Canada, Japan, and Malaysia have consistently demonstrated its efficacy in reducing depressive symptoms and improving emotional well-being (Essau et al., 2019 ; Fernández-Martínez et al., 2019 ; Ramdhonee-Dowlot, Balloo, & Essau, 2021 ; Diego, Morales, & Orgilés, 2024 ). For example, Fernández-Martínez et al. ( 2019 ) found that Spanish children who participated in SSL showed significant reductions in depression and anxiety symptoms at post-intervention, with effects maintained at a 3-month follow-up; similarly, Ramdhonee-Dowlot et al. ( 2021 ) reported improved emotional well-being among children in residential care in Mauritius following SSL implementation. These cross-cultural findings confirm SSL’s status as a mature, internationally validated group counseling method. Despite its global success, SSL has not yet been adapted or evaluated for use in China-a critical oversight given the unique cultural and psychological context of Chinese college students. Cultural factors, such as collectivistic values (which emphasize interpersonal harmony and family expectations) and distinct stressors (e.g., intense academic competition, pressure to secure employment), may influence the presentation of depressive symptoms and the acceptability of intervention strategies. For instance, Western-based interventions often prioritize individualistic coping skills (e.g., assertiveness), while Chinese students may benefit more from strategies that align with collectivistic norms (e.g., family-inclusive problem-solving). Additionally, religious or culturally specific content in the original SSL curriculum (e.g., references to Western holidays like Christmas) may be incompatible with Chinese cultural norms and educational policies, requiring localization to ensure relevance and compliance. Against this backdrop, the present study aims to address three key objectives: (1) adapt the original SSL program to the Chinese cultural context and the psychological characteristics of Chinese college students, ensuring cultural appropriateness and practical feasibility; (2) evaluate the effectiveness of the localized SSL program in reducing depressive symptoms and improving life satisfaction among Chinese college students using a rigorous randomized controlled trial (RCT) design; and (3) assess the long-term sustainability of intervention effects at a 3-month follow-up. By achieving these objectives, the study seeks to fill a gap in the Chinese college mental health literature, provide educators and counselors with a scalable, evidence-based intervention tool, and contribute to the global body of research on cross-cultural adaptation of CBT-based programs. Ultimately, this work has the potential to strengthen college mental health education system and reduce the burden of depression among its future talent pool. 2. Methods 2.1. Participants To examine the effectiveness of group counseling via SSL in regular classes, two parallel classes were randomly selected from first-year students at a university as participants for group intervention. The sole inclusion criterion was that students voluntarily participated in the study after providing informed consent. A total of 69 participants were finally included, with a mean age of 18.91 years ( SD = 0.62), including 9 males and 60 females. They were randomly assigned to an experimental class (n = 35: 5 males, 30 females) and a control class (n = 34: 4 males, 30 females). 2.2. Research Procedures Prior to the intervention, the foreign SSL counseling curriculum was adapted into a culturally appropriate group psychological counseling program for the local context. The localization and adaptation of the SSL group counseling curriculum involved the following steps: First, curriculum translation: The English version of the curriculum was accurately translated into Chinese, ensuring that professional terminology and sentence structures conformed to Chinese linguistic conventions. Second, content adaptation: (1) Sinicization of names: All foreign names in the materials were replaced with Chinese names to align with Chinese participants’ cognitive habits. (2) Festival replacement: Western festivals incompatible with Chinese culture (e.g., Christmas) were uniformly replaced with traditional Chinese festivals (e.g., Spring Festival) to fit the Chinese cultural context. (3) Removal of religious content: Religious-related content was carefully screened and deleted to ensure the curriculum complied with Chinese cultural norms and educational policies. Third, revision based on student feedback: Ten Chinese college students were invited to independently read the translated curriculum, mark incomprehensible sentences, paragraphs, or concepts, and provide detailed feedback for further revisions. Fourth, expert evaluation: Three psychological experts were consulted to conduct a comprehensive assessment of the revised curriculum, offering professional advice on the accuracy of professional knowledge, logical coherence, and applicability to Chinese students, ensuring the curriculum met quality standards and effectively served the Chinese student population. The finalized psychological counseling program consisted of 8 sessions (Healthy life style, self-esteem, feelings and thoughts, thoughts-feelings-behaviour, managing stress, relationship & social skills, problem-solving steps, hopeful future), each lasting approximately 60 minutes. The experimental class received 8-week group psychological counseling, conducted for one hour every Monday evening. The control class received no psychological counseling during the experiment. All participants completed questionnaires within one week before the formal intervention. The intervention group was co-led by two experienced psychological counselors: one lead counselor facilitated large-group activities, while the other assistant counselor supported small-group activities. A second measurement was conducted one week after the intervention, and a third follow-up measurement was performed three months after the intervention. All participants signed informed consent forms, participated voluntarily, and could withdraw at any time. The study was approved by the Research Ethics Review Committee of . 2.3. Measurement Instruments 2.3.1. Self-rating Depression Scale (SDS) The Self-rating Depression Scale, developed by Zung and adapted into Chinese (Wang, Wang, Ma, 1999 ), was used to assess depressive symptoms among college students. The scale consists of 20 items, scored on a 4-point Likert scale (1 = “little or no time” to 4 = “most or all of the time”). The total score is the sum of all item scores, with higher scores indicating more severe depressive symptoms. In the current study, the Cronbach’s α coefficient was 0.809. 2.3.2. Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC) The CD-RISC, originally developed by Connor and Davidson and revised into a Chinese version by Yu and Zhang ( 2007 ), was used. The 10-item short form comprises three dimensions: tenacity, self-reliance, and optimism. Items are rated on a 5-point Likert scale (0 =“not at all true” to 4 = “completely true”), with total scores ranging from 0 to 40. Higher scores indicate higher levels of psychological resilience. In this study, the Cronbach’s α coefficient was 0.909. 2.3.3. Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) The SWLS, developed by Diener et al. ( 1985 ), consists of 5 items scored on a 7-point Likert scale (1 = “strongly disagree” to 7 = “strongly agree”). Higher total scores indicate higher life satisfaction. In the current study, the Cronbach’s α coefficient was 0.818. 2.4. Data Analysis In the first post-intervention measurement, 1 participant from the experimental class and 2 from the control class were lost to follow-up. Thus, data from 66 participants (34 in the experimental class and 32 in the control class) were included in the final analysis. Data were analyzed using SPSS 19.0. Independent samples t-tests were conducted to examine baseline differences in measurement indicators between the experimental and control groups. A 2 (group: experimental class vs. control class) × 3 (time: pre-test, post-test, follow-up) repeated-measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to evaluate the short-term and long-term effects of the intervention. 3. Results 3.1. Analysis of Pre-test Results in the Experimental Class and Control Class Independent samples t-tests were conducted to compare the baseline levels of each measurement indicator between the experimental class and the control class. The results showed that there were no significant differences in depression, psychological resilience, or life satisfaction between the two groups (all ps > 0.05). 3.2 Comparison of Measurement Indicators Before and After Intervention in the Experimental Class and Control Class Taking depression, psychological resilience, and life satisfaction as dependent variables respectively, a 2 (group: experimental class vs. control class) × 3 (time: pre-test, post-test, and three-month follow-up) repeated-measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed. The results are presented in Table 1 . Table 1 Results of two-way repeated measures analysis of variance ( M ± SD ) experimental class Control class Pre-test Post-test Three months Pre-test Post-test Three months F Depression 35.91 ± 6.96 31.50 ± 5.63 30.32 ± 6.12 36.47 ± 6.07 37.44 ± 8.89 35.16 ± 6.77 4.51** Psychological resilience 37.29 ± 6.84 39.59 ± 6.29 40.53 ± 4.10 36.56 ± 5.67 37.91 ± 6.01 38.03 ± 5.51 0.78 Life satisfaction 20.79 ± 5.82 23.09 ± 5.53 22.71 ± 5.06 19.63 ± 4.98 18.97 ± 5.15 20.78 ± 5.40 3.25* Note: *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01. The F value is an indicator of the interaction effect (group * time). As shown in Table 1 , the interaction effect between group and time was not significant for psychological resilience. However, significant interaction effects were observed for depression and life satisfaction. For depression, further simple effects analysis revealed that in the experimental class, pre-test scores were significantly higher than both post-test and three-month follow-up scores (all ps 0.05). In the control class, there were no significant differences among the three time points (all ps > 0.05). Additionally, at both post-test and three-month follow-up, depression scores in the experimental class were significantly lower than those in the control class (all ps < 0.01). For life satisfaction, simple effects analysis indicated that in the experimental class, pre-test scores were significantly lower than both post-test and three-month follow-up scores (all ps 0.05). In the control class, no significant differences were found among the three time points (all ps > 0.05). At post-test, life satisfaction scores in the experimental class were significantly higher than those in the control class ( p < 0.01). 4. Discussion This study adopted a randomized controlled trial (RCT) design to investigate the efficacy of the SSL psychological intervention program in enhancing students’ psychological well-being, with specific focus on three key outcome variables: depression symptoms, psychological resilience, and life satisfaction. Prior to the implementation of the intervention, a baseline data analysis was conducted to assess the equivalence between the experimental group and the control group. Results indicated that there were no statistically significant differences between the two groups across the core assessment indicators, including the severity of depressive symptoms, levels of psychological resilience, and scores on life satisfaction scales. Such findings confirmed the homogeneity of the experimental and control groups at the pre-intervention stage, which constitutes a critical methodological prerequisite for ensuring the internal validity of subsequent evaluations of the intervention effects. With respect to intervention outcomes, repeated-measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to explore the dynamic changes in key variables across different time points and groups. Results confirmed statistically significant group-by-time interaction effects for both depression and life satisfaction, which aligns with the core logic of Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura 1986 )—this theory posits that structured intervention programs can shape individuals’ cognitive appraisals and behavioral coping strategies by providing targeted skill training and environmental support, thereby altering the trajectory of psychological outcomes over time. The significant interaction effects observed in this study thus reflect that the SSL intervention, as a structured psychological program, effectively modified the cognitive-behavioral mechanisms underlying depression and life satisfaction among participants, leading to differential change patterns between the experimental and control groups. Specifically, the experimental group demonstrated a clear and sustained positive trajectory: depressive symptoms showed a significant reduction after the intervention, and this improvement was maintained at the 3-month follow-up assessment; meanwhile, life satisfaction levels increased significantly post-intervention, with this positive effect also remaining stable during the follow-up period. From the perspective of Protective Factors Theory (Rutter 1987 ), the SSL intervention likely enhanced participants’ internal protective factors (e.g., adaptive coping skills) and external supportive resources (e.g., improved interpersonal interaction patterns), which not only alleviated depressive symptoms in the short term but also prevented symptom recurrence and sustained gains in life satisfaction over time. In sharp contrast, the control group, which did not receive such intervention, exhibited no statistically significant fluctuations in either depression or life satisfaction across the entire observation cycle—this further confirms that the positive changes in the experimental group were driven by the SSL intervention rather than extraneous factors (e.g., natural recovery, time effects). These findings are consistent with the conclusions of existing empirical studies on adolescent psychological interventions (Essau et al., 2019 ; Fernández-Martínez et al., 2019 ; Ramdhonee-Dowlot, Balloo, & Essau, 2021 ; Diego, Morales, & Orgilés, 2024 ), which have also validated the role of structured interventions in regulating emotional states through the lens of theories such as Social Cognitive Theory and Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan 2000 ). Notably, the present research extends this theoretical and empirical framework to a specific population—Chinese college students with non-clinical depressive symptoms. By verifying that the SSL intervention can effectively activate protective factors and optimize cognitive-behavioral processes in this group, the study not only provides empirical support for the cross-cultural applicability of these classic psychological theories but also offers a theoretical basis for the promotion of the SSL program in Chinese higher education settings for proactive mental health prevention. Notably, although psychological resilience in the experimental class showed a non-significant increase from pre-test to post-test, this finding is inconsistent with previous research (Liu, Song, & Wang 2021 ; Ban, Sun, & Kong 2022 ). For instance, Liu et al. ( 2021 ) found that cognitive-behavioral therapy could enhance psychological resilience in middle school students. Two potential explanations for this discrepancy are proposed: first, psychological resilience is considered a personality trait (Connor & Davidson 2003 ; Ma, Sang, & Hong 2008 ) characterized by stability and persistence. Personality traits are relatively stable and resistant to change, meaning the cultivation of psychological resilience requires long-term, systematic intervention strategies. For example, Liu et al. ( 2021 ) achieved effects with an intervention lasting an entire semester, whereas the shorter intervention period in this study may have been insufficient to produce profound, lasting changes in resilience. Second, age differences in participants: college students in this study, whose personalities are relatively stable and mature, are less amenable to change compared to children (mean age 14 years) in Ban et al.'s study and middle school students (mean age 16 years) in Liu et al.’s ( 2021 ) study, who are in a more malleable stage of personality development. Future research should consider extending intervention periods or designing age-specific modules. Despite its contributions, this study has some limitations. First, relying solely on self-report scales for outcome assessment may introduce biases such as social desirability and subjective reporting errors, affecting data objectivity. Future studies should adopt multi-source assessment methods, incorporating teacher ratings and peer reports to enhance measurement validity. Second, while the whole-class intervention design in a natural educational setting enhanced ecological validity, it inevitably introduced issues such as uncontrollable differences in classroom environments, participant interactions, and interference from irrelevant variables like teaching content, which may have compromised internal validity. Subsequent research should employ stricter designs, such as laboratory-based controlled experiments, to better control confounding variables. Finally, the relatively short follow-up period limits conclusions about long-term effects. Future studies should expand sample sizes, extend follow-up durations, and explore mediating and moderating factors influencing intervention effects. 5. Conclusion The SSL psychological intervention program used in this study effectively reduces college students’ depressive symptoms, with immediate and sustained effects on alleviating depressive emotions. These results confirm the feasibility and effectiveness of implementing this intervention in school settings, providing a useful tool for adolescent mental health work and holding important practical implications for school mental health education. Declarations Data Availability Statement The data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the corresponding author upon reasonable request. Acknowledgments The authors would like to express their special gratitude to Professor from the University of Roehampton for her assistance and support in implementing the tutorial courses for this research! Author Contributions : Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation, Data Curation, Formal analysis, Writing—Original Draft, Writing—Review and Editing, visualization. : Methodology, Investigation, Data Curation. Conflicts of Interest The authors declare no conflicts of interest. Funding This research was funded by Project of Provincial Social Science Planning Fund (No: 23CJYJ01). Ethical approval The study was conducted in line with the ethical principles of the Helsinki Declaration (World Medical Association, 2024). Ethical approval was obtained from the Ethics Committee of (No.202301) on Dec 30, 2023. The approval covered all study procedures involving human participants, including study design, recruitment, informed consent, data collection, and data analysis. Informed Consent Statement Written informed consent was obtained from all individual participants prior to their involvement in the study in March 2024. Participants were fully informed about the purpose of the study, the nature and scope of data collection, and the intended dissemination of the research findings. They were assured that their confidentiality would be strictly maintained and that the data collected would be used solely for research purposes and not disclosed to any third parties. Participation was entirely voluntary, and all participants were informed of their right to withdraw from the study at any time without penalty. Participants were also assured that no physical or psychological harm would result from their participation. References Ban YF, Sun J, Kong F Intervention study of supportive group counseling on psychological resilience and emotional-behavioral problems of street children. Chin J Clin Psychol, (2022), 30(4), 991–995 Bandura A (1986) Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ Chen HB The influence of college students' wisdom on depression: The chain mediating role of adversity evaluation and psychological resilience. Chin J Health Psychol, (2023), 31(4), 561–566 Connor KM, Davidson JRT (2003) Development of a new resilience scale: the Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC). Depress Anxiety 18(2):76–82 Deci EL, Ryan RM (2000) The what and why of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self - determination of behavior. Psychol Inq 11(4):227–268 Diener E, Emmons RA, Larsen RJ, Griffin S The satisfaction with life scale. J Pers Assess, (1985), 49(1), 71–75 Diego S, Morales A, Orgilés M Benefits of Super Skills for Life in a randomized controlled trial in clinical settings for Spanish children with comorbid conditions. Dev Psychopathol, (2024), 36(4), 1821–1830 Essau CA, Conradt J, Sasagawa S, Ollendick TM Prevention of anxiety symptoms in children: A universal school-based trial. Behav Ther, (2012), 43, 450–464 Essau CA, Sasagawa S, Jones G et al Evaluating the real-world effectiveness of a Cognitive Behavior Therapy-based transdiagnostic programme for emotional problems in children in a regular school setting. J Affect Disord, (2019), 253(15), 357–365 Fan FM, He J (2022) Group psychological counseling. East China Normal University Fernández-Martínez I, Morales A, Espada JP et al Effectiveness of the program Super Skills for Life in reducing symptoms of anxiety and depression in young Spanish children. Psicothema, (2019), 31(3), 298–304 Hu RY, Chen J, Wang YJ et al A meta-analysis of the intervention effect of group training on college students' depressive emotions. Chin J School Health, (2017), 38(5), 676–679 Ramdhonee-Dowlot K, Balloo K, Essau CA Effectiveness of the Super Skills for Life programme in enhancing children’s emotional well-being in residential care institutions in low- and middle-income country: A randomised waitlist-controlled trial. J Affect Disord, (2021), 278, 327–338 Liu S, Song LL, Wang Y (2021) Enhancing senior high school students' psychological resilience through cognitive-behavioral group counseling. Chinese Journal of Clinical Psychology, 2021, 29 (2), 419–423 + 442 Ma YG The influence of interpersonal relationships on depression: The chain mediating effect of life satisfaction and meaning in life. Chin J Health Psychol, (2022), 30(10), 1459–1463 Ma WN, Sang B, Hong LM (2008) A review of research on psychological resilience and its mechanism. J East China Normal Univ (Educational Sci Edition), (1), 89–96 Ma X, Liang SG, Tian YQ et al A randomized controlled trial of group intervention for improving depressive symptoms in freshmen. Chin Mental Health J, (2021), 35(8), 651–656 Rutter M (1987) Psychosocial resilience and protective mechanisms. Am J Orthopsychiatry 57(3):316–331. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939 – 0025.1987.tb03541.x Wang XD, Wang XL, Ma H (1999) Manual of mental health rating scales. Chinese Mental Health Journal, Beijing, pp 194–195 Wang MY, Liu J, Wu X, Li L, Hao XD, Shen Q, Sun RH A meta-analysis of the prevalence of depression among Chinese college students in the past decade. J Hainan Med Univ, (2020), 26(9), 686–693 Yu XN, Zhang JX Factor analysis and psychometric evaluation of the Connor-Davidson resilience scale (CD-RISC) in Chinese people. Social Behav Personality, (2007), 35(1), 19–30 Yu XN, Zhang JX (2007) Factor analysis and psychometric evaluation of the Connor-Davidson resilience scale (CD-RISC) in Chinese people. Social Behav Personality 35(1):19–30 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8013870","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":563574599,"identity":"fa3ef68c-369f-459f-98c4-962b534a01dc","order_by":0,"name":"Yuanguang Ma","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAsUlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYLCCBAMbBjbStDwoSCNRC+ODD4dJUK7bfsb4RYLBeXs+6eYHDD8qthHWYnYmx8wiweB2YpvMMQPGnjO3idByIMfMAKglgU0iwYCZsY0YLeffgLScs2eTSP9ApJYbOcYPEgwOMLZJ5BBry41nZcB4SU4Eaik4SJxfzidv/vjjj529/Iz0jQ9+VBChhYGBw0wCxjxAjHogYH/8gUiVo2AUjIJRMFIBAK3NPQaOG3/VAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"Shandong University of Aeronautics","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Yuanguang","middleName":"","lastName":"Ma","suffix":""},{"id":563574603,"identity":"c48c4b96-8f5a-4592-8e69-6cea447105e5","order_by":1,"name":"Panpan Zhou","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Shandong University of Aeronautics","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Panpan","middleName":"","lastName":"Zhou","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-11-03 02:08:15","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8013870/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8013870/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":98827174,"identity":"95e20ce0-2ee3-472b-8800-b72678b95f6e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-22 19:14:12","extension":"docx","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":49826,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Superskillsforlifeinreducingdepression.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8013870/v1/49866c99ce45804dfd211930.docx"},{"id":98827176,"identity":"9ac1e4e8-d186-457a-90b1-9055579e5f7a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-22 19:14:12","extension":"json","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":3868,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"58c8b3b283264d1682194c37fabae73c.json","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8013870/v1/af9bad29164ec60ae36fd9cd.json"},{"id":99307745,"identity":"a21f3650-332e-4eed-836e-c0c3f591f500","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-31 16:06:41","extension":"xml","order_by":2,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":64782,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"58c8b3b283264d1682194c37fabae73c1enriched.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8013870/v1/9a0a1302ec0c27aae142219d.xml"},{"id":98827178,"identity":"efd3ff97-9a72-4f0d-b3b2-d7739e59e8c4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-22 19:14:12","extension":"xml","order_by":3,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":62379,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"58c8b3b283264d1682194c37fabae73c1structuring.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8013870/v1/17bbdd33bdfc47cc9076f513.xml"},{"id":99307802,"identity":"b92a1c22-779d-4c5e-9ec6-76a69f784e50","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-31 16:06:47","extension":"html","order_by":4,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":68822,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8013870/v1/2072f7c60597f3bd8f7ae14f.html"},{"id":102297151,"identity":"c563de34-383c-47cf-ad3c-afe5be3c0688","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-10 10:26:08","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":587162,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8013870/v1/f0ee6f26-6924-49ed-95c1-b5235b92c3ca.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Effectiveness of the super skills for life in reducing symptoms of depression of college students in China","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eDepression, a prevalent and debilitating mental health condition characterized primarily by persistent low mood, anhedonia (loss of interest in previously enjoyable activities), and disturbances in cognitive, emotional, and physical functioning, has emerged as one of the most pressing psychological challenges confronting modern societies. Among various populations, Chinese college students-who occupy a critical transitional stage between adolescence and adulthood, navigating academic pressures, social adaptation, and identity formation-are disproportionately affected by depressive symptoms (Ma \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). The urgency of addressing this issue is underscored by a growing body of epidemiological evidence. A meta-analysis spanning the decade 2011\u0026ndash;2020 estimated that the overall detection rate of depressive symptoms among Chinese college students reached 31.38% (Wang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), a figure substantially higher than the global average for young adults (15\u0026ndash;20%) reported by the WHO. More recent studies have painted an even more concerning picture: Chen (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) found that the detection rate of depressive symptoms at or above the mild level among this group ranges from 21% to 52.37%, reflecting a clear upward trend in incidence over time.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBeyond the immediate psychological distress it causes, depression in college students carries far-reaching long-term consequences. Prospective studies have identified depressive symptoms during the college years as a key high-risk factor for the subsequent onset of major depressive disorder (MDD)\u0026mdash;a chronic condition associated with impaired academic achievement, reduced occupational productivity, and increased risk of self-harm or suicide (Kessler et al. 2005; Ma \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Given that college students represent the core of China\u0026rsquo;s future talent pool, their mental health is not merely an individual concern but a foundational pillar of national social and economic development. As the number of college students with depressive symptoms continues to rise, the need for scalable, evidence-based psychological interventions has become imperative. Among potential intervention modalities, group psychological counseling stands out: unlike individual counseling, which is resource-intensive and limited in reach, group counseling enables efficient, large-scale delivery\u0026mdash;making it uniquely suited to address the mental health needs of large student populations (Liu, Song, \u0026amp; Wang \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). This underscores the critical importance of researching group psychological counseling programs tailored to mitigate depression among college students.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGroup psychological counseling is defined as a collaborative helping process that leverages interpersonal interaction within a group setting to promote members\u0026rsquo; self-awareness, behavioral adjustment, and the development of adaptive coping skills (Fan \u0026amp; He \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). A robust body of research has demonstrated its efficacy in treating emotional disorders, including depression: Hu et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) conducted a meta-analysis of group training interventions for college students\u0026rsquo; depressive emotions and found significant reductions in symptom severity across studies, while Ma et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) confirmed the long-term benefits of group counseling for freshmen at risk of depression. However, a notable gap persists in the literature: the vast majority of existing studies focus on therapeutic interventions\u0026mdash;targeting individuals already experiencing clinical or subclinical emotional problems\u0026mdash;while research on preventive interventions (designed to reduce the incidence of depressive symptoms in the general student population) remains relatively scarce. This imbalance has two critical implications: first, it limits the recognition of group counseling\u0026rsquo;s potential as a proactive tool for mental health promotion, rather than merely a reactive treatment; second, it leaves a void in scalable solutions for colleges seeking to prevent depression before it escalates. Exploring the application of group counseling in preventive contexts is therefore essential for advancing a comprehensive, public health-oriented approach to college mental health.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSuper Skills for Life (SSL), a group psychological counseling program rooted in Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT), addresses this gap by integrating preventive and therapeutic goals. CBT, a gold-standard approach for treating depression, operates on the premise that negative thought patterns (cognitions) and maladaptive behaviors contribute to the onset and maintenance of depressive symptoms; its core goal is to modify these cognitions and behaviors to reduce symptom frequency and intensity (Beck, 1979). Over the past three decades, CBT has demonstrated strong efficacy for adolescent and young adult populations: Essau, Conradt, Sasagawa, and Ollendick (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e) found that up to 65% of adolescents with emotional disorders (including depression) respond positively to CBT, and subsequent follow-up studies have confirmed the durability of these effects (Essau et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDeveloped by Professor Essau\u0026rsquo;s team at the Center for Adolescent Mental Health, University of Roehampton (UK), SSL builds on CBT\u0026rsquo;s framework by incorporating two evidence-based components: behavioral activation (which encourages engagement in rewarding activities to counteract anhedonia) and social skills training (which enhances interpersonal competence, a key protective factor against depression). Designed specifically for adolescents and young adults, SSL aims to enhance psychological resilience (the ability to cope with stress and adversity) and alleviate depressive symptoms\u0026mdash;serving as both a preventive tool for the general population and a supportive intervention for those at risk. The program\u0026rsquo;s structure is highly adaptable to educational settings: it consists of 8 weekly sessions (each 45-50minutes) covering core skills such as emotional literacy (understanding and labeling emotions), cognitive reappraisal (challenging negative thoughts), problem-solving, relaxation techniques, self-monitoring (tracking emotions and behaviors), and social skills (e.g., communication and conflict resolution; Essau et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA key strength of SSL is its practical feasibility in school environments. Unlike specialized clinical interventions that require dedicated venues or highly trained psychologists, SSL can be delivered by general teachers or counselors who have completed brief program-specific training. This accessibility has facilitated its widespread adoption across diverse cultural contexts: rigorous evaluations in the UK, Spain, Germany, Canada, Japan, and Malaysia have consistently demonstrated its efficacy in reducing depressive symptoms and improving emotional well-being (Essau et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Fern\u0026aacute;ndez-Mart\u0026iacute;nez et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Ramdhonee-Dowlot, Balloo, \u0026amp; Essau, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Diego, Morales, \u0026amp; Orgil\u0026eacute;s, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). For example, Fern\u0026aacute;ndez-Mart\u0026iacute;nez et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) found that Spanish children who participated in SSL showed significant reductions in depression and anxiety symptoms at post-intervention, with effects maintained at a 3-month follow-up; similarly, Ramdhonee-Dowlot et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) reported improved emotional well-being among children in residential care in Mauritius following SSL implementation. These cross-cultural findings confirm SSL\u0026rsquo;s status as a mature, internationally validated group counseling method.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite its global success, SSL has not yet been adapted or evaluated for use in China-a critical oversight given the unique cultural and psychological context of Chinese college students. Cultural factors, such as collectivistic values (which emphasize interpersonal harmony and family expectations) and distinct stressors (e.g., intense academic competition, pressure to secure employment), may influence the presentation of depressive symptoms and the acceptability of intervention strategies. For instance, Western-based interventions often prioritize individualistic coping skills (e.g., assertiveness), while Chinese students may benefit more from strategies that align with collectivistic norms (e.g., family-inclusive problem-solving). Additionally, religious or culturally specific content in the original SSL curriculum (e.g., references to Western holidays like Christmas) may be incompatible with Chinese cultural norms and educational policies, requiring localization to ensure relevance and compliance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgainst this backdrop, the present study aims to address three key objectives: (1) adapt the original SSL program to the Chinese cultural context and the psychological characteristics of Chinese college students, ensuring cultural appropriateness and practical feasibility; (2) evaluate the effectiveness of the localized SSL program in reducing depressive symptoms and improving life satisfaction among Chinese college students using a rigorous randomized controlled trial (RCT) design; and (3) assess the long-term sustainability of intervention effects at a 3-month follow-up. By achieving these objectives, the study seeks to fill a gap in the Chinese college mental health literature, provide educators and counselors with a scalable, evidence-based intervention tool, and contribute to the global body of research on cross-cultural adaptation of CBT-based programs. Ultimately, this work has the potential to strengthen college mental health education system and reduce the burden of depression among its future talent pool.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1. Participants\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo examine the effectiveness of group counseling via SSL in regular classes, two parallel classes were randomly selected from first-year students at a university as participants for group intervention. The sole inclusion criterion was that students voluntarily participated in the study after providing informed consent. A total of 69 participants were finally included, with a mean age of 18.91 years (\u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.62), including 9 males and 60 females. They were randomly assigned to an experimental class (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;35: 5 males, 30 females) and a control class (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;34: 4 males, 30 females).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2. Research Procedures\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrior to the intervention, the foreign SSL counseling curriculum was adapted into a culturally appropriate group psychological counseling program for the local context. The localization and adaptation of the SSL group counseling curriculum involved the following steps:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFirst, curriculum translation: The English version of the curriculum was accurately translated into Chinese, ensuring that professional terminology and sentence structures conformed to Chinese linguistic conventions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecond, content adaptation: (1) Sinicization of names: All foreign names in the materials were replaced with Chinese names to align with Chinese participants\u0026rsquo; cognitive habits. (2) Festival replacement: Western festivals incompatible with Chinese culture (e.g., Christmas) were uniformly replaced with traditional Chinese festivals (e.g., Spring Festival) to fit the Chinese cultural context. (3) Removal of religious content: Religious-related content was carefully screened and deleted to ensure the curriculum complied with Chinese cultural norms and educational policies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThird, revision based on student feedback: Ten Chinese college students were invited to independently read the translated curriculum, mark incomprehensible sentences, paragraphs, or concepts, and provide detailed feedback for further revisions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFourth, expert evaluation: Three psychological experts were consulted to conduct a comprehensive assessment of the revised curriculum, offering professional advice on the accuracy of professional knowledge, logical coherence, and applicability to Chinese students, ensuring the curriculum met quality standards and effectively served the Chinese student population.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe finalized psychological counseling program consisted of 8 sessions (Healthy life style, self-esteem, feelings and thoughts, thoughts-feelings-behaviour, managing stress, relationship \u0026amp; social skills, problem-solving steps, hopeful future), each lasting approximately 60 minutes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe experimental class received 8-week group psychological counseling, conducted for one hour every Monday evening. The control class received no psychological counseling during the experiment. All participants completed questionnaires within one week before the formal intervention. The intervention group was co-led by two experienced psychological counselors: one lead counselor facilitated large-group activities, while the other assistant counselor supported small-group activities. A second measurement was conducted one week after the intervention, and a third follow-up measurement was performed three months after the intervention. All participants signed informed consent forms, participated voluntarily, and could withdraw at any time. The study was approved by the Research Ethics Review Committee of .\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3. Measurement Instruments\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3.1. Self-rating Depression Scale (SDS)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Self-rating Depression Scale, developed by Zung and adapted into Chinese (Wang, Wang, Ma, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e), was used to assess depressive symptoms among college students. The scale consists of 20 items, scored on a 4-point Likert scale (1 = \u0026ldquo;little or no time\u0026rdquo; to 4 = \u0026ldquo;most or all of the time\u0026rdquo;). The total score is the sum of all item scores, with higher scores indicating more severe depressive symptoms. In the current study, the Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s α coefficient was 0.809.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3.2. Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe CD-RISC, originally developed by Connor and Davidson and revised into a Chinese version by Yu and Zhang (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e), was used. The 10-item short form comprises three dimensions: tenacity, self-reliance, and optimism. Items are rated on a 5-point Likert scale (0 =\u0026ldquo;not at all true\u0026rdquo; to 4 = \u0026ldquo;completely true\u0026rdquo;), with total scores ranging from 0 to 40. Higher scores indicate higher levels of psychological resilience. In this study, the Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s α coefficient was 0.909.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3.3. Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe SWLS, developed by Diener et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1985\u003c/span\u003e), consists of 5 items scored on a 7-point Likert scale (1 = \u0026ldquo;strongly disagree\u0026rdquo; to 7 = \u0026ldquo;strongly agree\u0026rdquo;). Higher total scores indicate higher life satisfaction. In the current study, the Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s α coefficient was 0.818.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4. Data Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the first post-intervention measurement, 1 participant from the experimental class and 2 from the control class were lost to follow-up. Thus, data from 66 participants (34 in the experimental class and 32 in the control class) were included in the final analysis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eData were analyzed using SPSS 19.0. Independent samples t-tests were conducted to examine baseline differences in measurement indicators between the experimental and control groups. A 2 (group: experimental class vs. control class) \u0026times; 3 (time: pre-test, post-test, follow-up) repeated-measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to evaluate the short-term and long-term effects of the intervention.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1. Analysis of Pre-test Results in the Experimental Class and Control Class\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndependent samples t-tests were conducted to compare the baseline levels of each measurement indicator between the experimental class and the control class. The results showed that there were no significant differences in depression, psychological resilience, or life satisfaction between the two groups (all \u003cem\u003eps\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2 Comparison of Measurement Indicators Before and After Intervention in the Experimental Class and Control Class\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTaking depression, psychological resilience, and life satisfaction as dependent variables respectively, a 2 (group: experimental class vs. control class) \u0026times; 3 (time: pre-test, post-test, and three-month follow-up) repeated-measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed. The results are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResults of two-way repeated measures analysis of variance (\u003cem\u003eM\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SD\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"10\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eexperimental class\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eControl class\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePre-test\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePost-test\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThree months\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePre-test\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePost-test\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThree months\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDepression\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.91\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.63\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30.32\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36.47\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37.44\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;8.89\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.16\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.77\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.51**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePsychological resilience\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37.29\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.84\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39.59\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40.53\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36.56\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37.91\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38.03\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLife satisfaction\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.79\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.82\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.09\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.71\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.63\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.97\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.78\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.25*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"10\"\u003eNote: *p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05, **p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01. The F value is an indicator of the interaction effect (group * time).\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, the interaction effect between group and time was not significant for psychological resilience. However, significant interaction effects were observed for depression and life satisfaction.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor depression, further simple effects analysis revealed that in the experimental class, pre-test scores were significantly higher than both post-test and three-month follow-up scores (all \u003cem\u003eps\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01), while no significant difference was found between post-test and three-month follow-up scores (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). In the control class, there were no significant differences among the three time points (all \u003cem\u003eps\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). Additionally, at both post-test and three-month follow-up, depression scores in the experimental class were significantly lower than those in the control class (all \u003cem\u003eps\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor life satisfaction, simple effects analysis indicated that in the experimental class, pre-test scores were significantly lower than both post-test and three-month follow-up scores (all \u003cem\u003eps\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01), with no significant difference between post-test and three-month follow-up scores (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). In the control class, no significant differences were found among the three time points (all \u003cem\u003eps\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). At post-test, life satisfaction scores in the experimental class were significantly higher than those in the control class (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study adopted a randomized controlled trial (RCT) design to investigate the efficacy of the SSL psychological intervention program in enhancing students\u0026rsquo; psychological well-being, with specific focus on three key outcome variables: depression symptoms, psychological resilience, and life satisfaction. Prior to the implementation of the intervention, a baseline data analysis was conducted to assess the equivalence between the experimental group and the control group. Results indicated that there were no statistically significant differences between the two groups across the core assessment indicators, including the severity of depressive symptoms, levels of psychological resilience, and scores on life satisfaction scales. Such findings confirmed the homogeneity of the experimental and control groups at the pre-intervention stage, which constitutes a critical methodological prerequisite for ensuring the internal validity of subsequent evaluations of the intervention effects.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWith respect to intervention outcomes, repeated-measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to explore the dynamic changes in key variables across different time points and groups. Results confirmed statistically significant group-by-time interaction effects for both depression and life satisfaction, which aligns with the core logic of Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e)\u0026mdash;this theory posits that structured intervention programs can shape individuals\u0026rsquo; cognitive appraisals and behavioral coping strategies by providing targeted skill training and environmental support, thereby altering the trajectory of psychological outcomes over time. The significant interaction effects observed in this study thus reflect that the SSL intervention, as a structured psychological program, effectively modified the cognitive-behavioral mechanisms underlying depression and life satisfaction among participants, leading to differential change patterns between the experimental and control groups.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecifically, the experimental group demonstrated a clear and sustained positive trajectory: depressive symptoms showed a significant reduction after the intervention, and this improvement was maintained at the 3-month follow-up assessment; meanwhile, life satisfaction levels increased significantly post-intervention, with this positive effect also remaining stable during the follow-up period. From the perspective of Protective Factors Theory (Rutter \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1987\u003c/span\u003e), the SSL intervention likely enhanced participants\u0026rsquo; internal protective factors (e.g., adaptive coping skills) and external supportive resources (e.g., improved interpersonal interaction patterns), which not only alleviated depressive symptoms in the short term but also prevented symptom recurrence and sustained gains in life satisfaction over time. In sharp contrast, the control group, which did not receive such intervention, exhibited no statistically significant fluctuations in either depression or life satisfaction across the entire observation cycle\u0026mdash;this further confirms that the positive changes in the experimental group were driven by the SSL intervention rather than extraneous factors (e.g., natural recovery, time effects).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese findings are consistent with the conclusions of existing empirical studies on adolescent psychological interventions (Essau et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Fern\u0026aacute;ndez-Mart\u0026iacute;nez et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Ramdhonee-Dowlot, Balloo, \u0026amp; Essau, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Diego, Morales, \u0026amp; Orgil\u0026eacute;s, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), which have also validated the role of structured interventions in regulating emotional states through the lens of theories such as Social Cognitive Theory and Self-Determination Theory (Deci \u0026amp; Ryan \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e). Notably, the present research extends this theoretical and empirical framework to a specific population\u0026mdash;Chinese college students with non-clinical depressive symptoms. By verifying that the SSL intervention can effectively activate protective factors and optimize cognitive-behavioral processes in this group, the study not only provides empirical support for the cross-cultural applicability of these classic psychological theories but also offers a theoretical basis for the promotion of the SSL program in Chinese higher education settings for proactive mental health prevention.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNotably, although psychological resilience in the experimental class showed a non-significant increase from pre-test to post-test, this finding is inconsistent with previous research (Liu, Song, \u0026amp; Wang \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Ban, Sun, \u0026amp; Kong \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). For instance, Liu et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) found that cognitive-behavioral therapy could enhance psychological resilience in middle school students. Two potential explanations for this discrepancy are proposed: first, psychological resilience is considered a personality trait (Connor \u0026amp; Davidson \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e; Ma, Sang, \u0026amp; Hong \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e) characterized by stability and persistence. Personality traits are relatively stable and resistant to change, meaning the cultivation of psychological resilience requires long-term, systematic intervention strategies. For example, Liu et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) achieved effects with an intervention lasting an entire semester, whereas the shorter intervention period in this study may have been insufficient to produce profound, lasting changes in resilience. Second, age differences in participants: college students in this study, whose personalities are relatively stable and mature, are less amenable to change compared to children (mean age 14 years) in Ban et al.'s study and middle school students (mean age 16 years) in Liu et al.\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) study, who are in a more malleable stage of personality development. Future research should consider extending intervention periods or designing age-specific modules.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite its contributions, this study has some limitations. First, relying solely on self-report scales for outcome assessment may introduce biases such as social desirability and subjective reporting errors, affecting data objectivity. Future studies should adopt multi-source assessment methods, incorporating teacher ratings and peer reports to enhance measurement validity. Second, while the whole-class intervention design in a natural educational setting enhanced ecological validity, it inevitably introduced issues such as uncontrollable differences in classroom environments, participant interactions, and interference from irrelevant variables like teaching content, which may have compromised internal validity. Subsequent research should employ stricter designs, such as laboratory-based controlled experiments, to better control confounding variables. Finally, the relatively short follow-up period limits conclusions about long-term effects. Future studies should expand sample sizes, extend follow-up durations, and explore mediating and moderating factors influencing intervention effects.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe SSL psychological intervention program used in this study effectively reduces college students\u0026rsquo; depressive symptoms, with immediate and sustained effects on alleviating depressive emotions. These results confirm the feasibility and effectiveness of implementing this intervention in school settings, providing a useful tool for adolescent mental health work and holding important practical implications for school mental health education.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Availability Statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the corresponding author upon reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgments\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors would like to express their special gratitude to Professor \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;from the University of Roehampton for her assistance and support in implementing the tutorial courses for this research!\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor Contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation, Data Curation, Formal analysis, Writing—Original Draft, Writing—Review and Editing, visualization. \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; : Methodology, Investigation, Data Curation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflicts of Interest\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no conflicts of interest.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research was funded by Project of \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Provincial Social Science Planning Fund (No: 23CJYJ01).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical approval\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study was conducted in line with the ethical principles of the Helsinki Declaration (World Medical Association, 2024). Ethical approval was obtained from the Ethics Committee of \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;(No.202301) on Dec 30, 2023. The approval covered all study procedures involving human participants, including study design, recruitment, informed consent, data collection, and data analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInformed Consent Statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWritten informed consent was obtained from all individual participants prior to their involvement in the study in March 2024. Participants were fully informed about the purpose of the study, the nature and scope of data collection, and the intended dissemination of the research findings. They were assured that their confidentiality would be strictly maintained and that the data collected would be used solely for research purposes and not disclosed to any third parties. Participation was entirely voluntary, and all participants were informed of their right to withdraw from the study at any time without penalty. Participants were also assured that no physical or psychological harm would result from their participation.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBan YF, Sun J, Kong F Intervention study of supportive group counseling on psychological resilience and emotional-behavioral problems of street children. Chin J Clin Psychol, (2022), 30(4), 991\u0026ndash;995\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBandura A (1986) Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eChen HB The influence of college students' wisdom on depression: The chain mediating role of adversity evaluation and psychological resilience. Chin J Health Psychol, (2023), 31(4), 561\u0026ndash;566\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eConnor KM, Davidson JRT (2003) Development of a new resilience scale: the Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC). Depress Anxiety 18(2):76\u0026ndash;82\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDeci EL, Ryan RM (2000) The what and why of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self - determination of behavior. Psychol Inq 11(4):227\u0026ndash;268\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDiener E, Emmons RA, Larsen RJ, Griffin S The satisfaction with life scale. J Pers Assess, (1985), 49(1), 71\u0026ndash;75\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDiego S, Morales A, Orgil\u0026eacute;s M Benefits of Super Skills for Life in a randomized controlled trial in clinical settings for Spanish children with comorbid conditions. Dev Psychopathol, (2024), 36(4), 1821\u0026ndash;1830\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eEssau CA, Conradt J, Sasagawa S, Ollendick TM Prevention of anxiety symptoms in children: A universal school-based trial. Behav Ther, (2012), 43, 450\u0026ndash;464\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eEssau CA, Sasagawa S, Jones G et al Evaluating the real-world effectiveness of a Cognitive Behavior Therapy-based transdiagnostic programme for emotional problems in children in a regular school setting. J Affect Disord, (2019), 253(15), 357\u0026ndash;365\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFan FM, He J (2022) Group psychological counseling. East China Normal University\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFern\u0026aacute;ndez-Mart\u0026iacute;nez I, Morales A, Espada JP et al Effectiveness of the program Super Skills for Life in reducing symptoms of anxiety and depression in young Spanish children. Psicothema, (2019), 31(3), 298\u0026ndash;304\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHu RY, Chen J, Wang YJ et al A meta-analysis of the intervention effect of group training on college students' depressive emotions. Chin J School Health, (2017), 38(5), 676\u0026ndash;679\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRamdhonee-Dowlot K, Balloo K, Essau CA Effectiveness of the Super Skills for Life programme in enhancing children\u0026rsquo;s emotional well-being in residential care institutions in low- and middle-income country: A randomised waitlist-controlled trial. J Affect Disord, (2021), 278, 327\u0026ndash;338\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLiu S, Song LL, Wang Y (2021) Enhancing senior high school students' psychological resilience through cognitive-behavioral group counseling. \u003cem\u003eChinese Journal of Clinical Psychology, 2021, 29\u003c/em\u003e(2), 419\u0026ndash;423\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;442\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMa YG The influence of interpersonal relationships on depression: The chain mediating effect of life satisfaction and meaning in life. Chin J Health Psychol, (2022), 30(10), 1459\u0026ndash;1463\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMa WN, Sang B, Hong LM (2008) A review of research on psychological resilience and its mechanism. J East China Normal Univ (Educational Sci Edition), (1), 89\u0026ndash;96\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMa X, Liang SG, Tian YQ et al A randomized controlled trial of group intervention for improving depressive symptoms in freshmen. Chin Mental Health J, (2021), 35(8), 651\u0026ndash;656\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRutter M (1987) Psychosocial resilience and protective mechanisms. Am J Orthopsychiatry 57(3):316\u0026ndash;331. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1111/j.1939\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u0026thinsp;0025.1987.tb03541.x\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWang XD, Wang XL, Ma H (1999) Manual of mental health rating scales. Chinese Mental Health Journal, Beijing, pp 194\u0026ndash;195\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWang MY, Liu J, Wu X, Li L, Hao XD, Shen Q, Sun RH A meta-analysis of the prevalence of depression among Chinese college students in the past decade. J Hainan Med Univ, (2020), 26(9), 686\u0026ndash;693\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eYu XN, Zhang JX Factor analysis and psychometric evaluation of the Connor-Davidson resilience scale (CD-RISC) in Chinese people. Social Behav Personality, (2007), 35(1), 19\u0026ndash;30\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eYu XN, Zhang JX (2007) Factor analysis and psychometric evaluation of the Connor-Davidson resilience scale (CD-RISC) in Chinese people. Social Behav Personality 35(1):19\u0026ndash;30\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"super skills for life, college students, depression, intervention","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8013870/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8013870/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study explores the \u0026ldquo;Super Skills for Life (SSL)\u0026rdquo; program\u0026rsquo;s effect on reducing Chinese college students\u0026rsquo; depressive symptoms and its applicability in school mental health education. Using a randomized controlled trial, 66 students were assigned to an experimental group (receiving SSL intervention) or a control group (conventional teaching). Assessments via Depression, Resilience, and Life Satisfaction Scales were conducted at pre-intervention, post-intervention, and 3-month follow-up. The analysis results showed that, Significant group \u0026times; time interactions emerged: the experimental group showed lower depressive symptoms and higher life satisfaction at post-intervention and follow-up compared to baseline and the control group. Findings confirm SSL\u0026rsquo;s effectiveness in reducing depression, enhancing life satisfaction sustainably, supporting its feasibility in Chinese schools.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Effectiveness of the super skills for life in reducing symptoms of depression of college students in China","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-12-22 19:14:08","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8013870/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"9ed17a71-b5ec-492a-b0d5-9f8139f21e90","owner":[],"postedDate":"December 22nd, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":60013638,"name":"Health sciences/Health care"},{"id":60013639,"name":"Humanities/Medical humanities"},{"id":60013640,"name":"Biological sciences/Psychology"},{"id":60013641,"name":"Social science/Psychology"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-02-08T20:23:52+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-12-22 19:14:08","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8013870","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8013870","identity":"rs-8013870","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}