Biochemical and histological changes in sesame roots associated with charcoal rot disease resistance and enhancing plant growth induced by gamma-irradiated seeds at low doses

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M. Ahmed, Moustafa H.A. Moharam, Ahmed Y. Mahdy This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-4284362/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Revision Version 1 posted 6 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract The current study aimed at irradiating sesame seeds with gamma radiation at 4.22, 8.45, 12.68, and 16.9 Gy and 2 and 4 cm to control charcoal rot disease caused by Macrophomina phaseolina ( Mp ) and also investigating their effects on some biochemical and histological changes in sesame roots associated with charcoal rot disease resistance with enhancing plant growth, seed yield, and oil content. In pot and field experiments under either artificial or natural soil infestation with the Mp inoculum, sowing of irradiated sesame seeds with gamma radiation at low doses significantly reduced the incidence of charcoal rot disease recorded based on root colonization by the Mp fungus and developed symptoms and enhanced plant growth measured by increasing plant height, number of capsules, and seed yield per plant, as well as percent of seed oil content compared with the control of non-irradiated seeds. The irradiation dose of 12.68 Gy was the most effective, followed by the 8.45 Gy dose. The biochemical study of sesame roots associated with charcoal rot disease resistance induced by gamma-irradiating seeds at 12.68 Gy at 2 cm showed a gradual increase in the total protein content, the activity of peroxidase and polyphenol oxidase, phenolic, and lignin contents in plant roots for up to 28 days compared to those originated from non-irradiated seeds. The histological study of the protected plant roots at 28 days old originating from seeds exposed to a 12.68 Gy dose showed a high thickening of the cuticle and epidermis cell walls and lignified cortical cells. Sesamum indicum L. seed irradiation charcoal rot induced resistance control Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Introduction Irradiating seed is an applied approach for inducing genetic variability, which could increase mutation frequency, promote gene recombination, and extend the plant mutation spectrum. In general, inducing plant mutations following radiation treatments has played a productive and protective role in sustainable agriculture as a supplementary crop improvement approach by increasing genetic variability and disease resistance in practical plant breeding applications. Gamma radiation and rapid neutrons are often utilized as mutagenesis agents in most crops to increase productivity and develop beneficial agronomic traits while minimizing viability loss (Ahloowalia et al., 2004 ). Gamma radiation, on the other hand, is less hazardous than rapid neutrons because the former creates point mutations or little deletions, whereas the latter causes massive deletions, chromosomal loss, and translocations, all of which are harmful in some situations (Gupta et al., 2019 ). Gamma radiation has been extensively used in biological research for decades, with low doses (5-100 Gy) for stimulation and large doses (> 100 Gy) for inhibition (Ribeiro & Machado, 2007 ). Previous studies on gamma radiation have found favorable benefits such as increased seed germination rate, enzymatic activity, cell division and development, stress tolerance, and plant mutation induction (Chakravarty & Sen, 2001 ). In this respect, applying gamma radiation was started as an eco-friendly technology in agriculture to improve seed germination and yields in various crops by influencing various physiological and biochemical processes in seed materials. Additionally, gamma radiation has been shown to enhance abiotic stress tolerance in many plants at low doses and is commonly utilized in mutation techniques to improve abiotic and biotic stress tolerance and resistance in many crop varieties. A more profound comprehension of the mechanisms associated with plant stress tolerance and resistance induced by gamma radiation will aid in raising crop productivity, especially in highly stressful environments and infectious diseases. Gamma radiation reacts with molecules to produce highly unstable and reactive free radicals in plant cells that can change essential components and peroxides of plant cells (Spencer-Lopes et al., 2018 ). Plant morphology, anatomy, biochemistry, and physiology have all been documented to be affected by the intensity of gamma irradiation. These impacts include changes in the plant's cellular structure and metabolism, such as thylakoid membrane expansion, photosynthetic modifications, antioxidative system regulation, and phenolic compound accumulation (Kim et al., 2004 ; Wi et al., 2005 ; Ikram et al., 2010 ). Recently, it has been reported that lower doses of gamma radiation effectively increase enzyme activity (Lopes et al., 2017 ) and seed germination rate (Ali et al., 2018 ). Some positive effects have also been reported on rapid germination, seed weight, protein, and total phenolic contents (Hanafy & Akladious, 2018 ). However, the possible mechanisms associated with this role are yet completely indistinct and are being understudied. Sesame ( Sesamum indicum L.) is the most common oil seed crop with high-quality edible oil and high amounts of calcium, zinc, iron, potassium, vitamins, and various antioxidants such as sesamin and sesamolin, which have anti-cancerous properties and are responsible for the long oil storage (Mak et al., 2011 ; Pusadkar et al., 2015 ). Unfortunately, sesame production faces problems in most cultivated areas where it is carried out traditionally, resulting in low crop seed production, seed oil content, and quality. Also, sesame plants are susceptible to various biotic and abiotic stresses during the growth stages, causing a significant decrease in seed yield and quality. Among the biotic stresses limiting sesame production in cultivated areas is charcoal rot disease caused by Macrophomina phaseolina (Tassi) Goid, severely decreasing plant stand and yield and affecting seed oil content and quality. Sesame yield losses due to charcoal rot infection reached 57% worldwide (Bashir et al., 2017 ), while Egypt lost 5% or more (Bedawy & Moharam, 2019). Overcoming charcoal rot disease by resistance sources of sesame genotypes is developed by mutagenesis. In previous studies, gamma-induced mutations in sesame by gamma radiation have produced several valuable mutants. Hence, sesame seeds are generally more radiation-tolerant than other crops (Cagiran, 2001). Consequently, the current study aimed to treat sesame seeds with gamma radiation at low doses and study the biochemical and histological changes in sesame roots associated with charcoal rot disease resistance and enhancing plant growth induced by gamma-irradiated seeds. Materials and methods Plant material and irradiation treatment Seeds of sesame cultivar Giza 32 used in this study were obtained from the Agricultural Research Center, Giza, Egypt. Healthy, uniform, and dry seed samples (each 58 g) were exposed to gamma radiation using a Co-60 (Cobalt 60) package irradiator system (Figure 1) with 1 and 4 cm of sample dimensions (Fig. 2 c) at a dose rate of 131 kBq/sec in the Nuclear Physics Department, Faculty of Science, Assiut University. Seed irradiation was performed in the stationary method of operation with varying dose rates of 4.22, 8.45, 12.68, and 16.9 Gy at room temperature and atmospheric pressure, depending on the position and the distance from the radiation source (Table 1). In radiation doses plan No. 1 (Fig. 2 a), four seed samples were sealed in a cylindrical block shield of lead and placed at a 2 cm applied distance, with the bottom of the medical rob at the axis of the cylindrical block shield. In the radiation doses plan No. 2 (Fig. 2 b), each one of the four seed samples was separately sealed in a cylindrical block shield to get radiation exposure from the radioactive source placed at a height of 4 cm. After every 12 h, one of the four seed samples of each radiation doses plan was removed from the radiation exposure system. Finally, all irradiated seed samples were carefully transferred to sterile containers and maintained at 5 °C until use. Pathogen source, material, and inoculation Virulent isolate No. 5 of the fungus M. phaseolina ( Mp ) used in this study was isolated from the root and stem of diseased sesame plants showing charcoal rot symptoms collected from various fields in Assiut Governorate, Egypt, where it was identified as the causal pathogen of charcoal rot disease when tested on sesame Giza 32 cultivar, according to the previous work published by Ahmed et al. (2023). For the preparation of Mp inoculum from the stuck culture, the fungus was cultured in 9 cm Petri dishes containing sterilized potato dextrose agar (PDA) medium supplemented with 50 mg streptomycin sulfate L -1 medium and incubated in the darkness at 28 °C for 7 days. After that, small portions of the Mp colony containing microsclerotia were suspended in 100 µl sterile distilled water to separate microsclerotia from mycelia. Microsclerotia were then cultivated into new PDA plates incubated at 28 °C. Finally, autoclave toothpicks were inserted into Mp colonies growing on the PDA plates for 7 days to harvest microsclerotia. The microsclerotia-containing toothpicks were then injected into micro-tubes and maintained at 4 °C (Edmunds, 1964). Then, 1 g weighted microsclerotia was immediately suspended in 300 ml of 0.01% agarose solution to get the freshly used fungal inoculum (Reyes Gaige et al., 2010) containing 7 × 10 4 sclerotia ml -1 determined using a hemocytometer. Greenhouse experiments Greenhouse experiments were conducted in the open greenhouse at the Experimental Farm, Arab Al-Awamer Agricultural Station, Assiut, during the 2022 growing season to evaluate the efficiency of irradiated sesame seeds against Mp causing charcoal rot disease of sesame. The sowing date in both experiments was the 21 st of April. Formalin sterilized pots (35 cm in diameter) containing sterilized loam soil were infested with 10 ml Mp inoculum, irrigated, and left for a week before planting. Each pot was then seeded with five irradiated seeds exposed at 2 and 4 cm of the sesame cultivar Giza 32. Twelve pots (replicates) were used for each treatment, and pots sowed with non-irradiated seeds served as a control. Pots were irrigated when necessary and checked daily. After 28 days of planting, 20 plant samples (2 from each pot) of each treatment were randomly selected to calculate charcoal rot incidence based on root colonization by Mp in sesame plant samples by cutting one-centimeter-long root pieces after washing in tap water were surface sterilized with 1% sodium hypochlorite (SH) solution and transferred onto the PDA plates supplemented with 50 mg streptomycin sulfate L -1 medium at 5 pieces per plate and then incubated in the darkness at 28 °C for 7 days as mentioned before. The number of growing Mp colonies in each plate was then recorded, and the percent of charcoal rot incidence of sesame based on root colonization by Mp of each replicate was calculated using the following formula. Charcoal rot incidence based on root colonization by Mp (%) = Number of pieces with fungal growth /Total number of pieces x 100 Moreover, the same selected plant samples were further used for sesame roots' biochemical and histological changes in response to infection with Mp concerning charcoal rot disease resistance. On the other hand, other left-potted plants were visually checked for the development of charcoal rot symptoms, and the incidence of charcoal rot disease was also determined after 90 days of planting using the following formula: Charcoal rot (% ) = Number of plants with charcoal rot symptoms/Total number of cultivated plants × 100 Field experiments Field trials were carried out at the Experimental Farm of Arab-El-Awamer Research Station, Assiut, Egypt, to evaluate the efficiency of gamma-irradiated sesame seeds against Mp , causing charcoal rot disease of sesame under natural infestation with Mp during the 2022 and 2023 growing seasons. The sowing date in both experiments was the 1 st of May. Irradiated sesame seeds were sown in rows in plots with 3.2 × 2.4 m, each having three rows and 60 cm apart between rows. Each row contained 15 hills spaced at 20 cm. Every hill was sown with five seeds, and non-irradiated sesame seeds were used as a control. A randomized complete block design of each trail with four replicates was adopted. Non-irradiated seeds served as a control. Sesame plants were then thinned to 2 plants per hill after 20 days from sowing. The cultural practices recommended for sesame production were adopted throughout the growth season. After three months, the growing sesame plants were checked for the development of charcoal rot symptoms, and the percentage of charcoal rot incidence in sesame was determined, as mentioned before. Ten days before harvesting, 10 plants were randomly selected from each plot to assess plant height (cm), number of capsules, and seed yield (g) per plant. Also, oil was extracted from the seeds by the cold extraction method. At room temperature, about 50 g of crumpled sesame seeds were shaken with petroleum ether (1:10 w/v) for 24 h. Then, the solvent was removed from the oil using a rotary evaporator. Lastly, the oil was placed in a glass vessel at ambient temperature to delete residual solvent. The oil was stored at 4 °C, and then seed oil content (%) was calculated according to Hassan et al. (2019). Biochemical and histological changes in roots of sesame plants originated from gamma-irradiated and non-irradiated seeds in response to the infection with Mp causing charcoal rot disease: A- Biochemical changes A-1- Total protein content The total protein contents of the randomly sampled sesame plant roots at 7, 14, 21, and 28 days old originating from gamma-irradiated and non-irradiated seeds were estimated following the method described by Bradford (1976) using crystalline bovine serum albumin (BSA) as a standard. The roots of plant samples from each treatment were collected at 28 days old, and then 1 g of each plant root was heated at 85 °C with 1 N NaOH. The hydrolyzed protein was then determined using Bio-Rad assay dye, and the developed color was measured at 595 nm. The total protein content in each tested sample was then calculated as mg g -1 fresh weight from the standard curve of BSA. A-2- The activity of oxidative enzymes peroxidase (PO) and polyphenol oxidase (PPO) Otherwise, the PO and PPO enzyme extraction was performed from the randomly sampled sesame plant roots at 7, 14, 21, and 28 days old, originating from gamma-irradiated and non-irradiated seeds according to the method described by Maxwell and Bateman (1967). Root tissue samples (1 g fresh weight) were ground in a sterile mortar with 10 ml of 0.1 M phosphate buffer (pH= 7) and strained through layers of disinfected muslin cloths. The root tissue extract of each sample was filtrated by centrifuging at 2500 g and 4 °C for 10 min, and the supernatant was then used as enzyme extract. A reaction mixture contained 0.5 ml of freshly dissolved 0.5% Catechol, 1 ml of 0.1 M phosphate buffer, 4.5 ml SDW, and 0.2 ml of enzyme extract. The activity of PO and PPO enzymes was determined by measuring the absorbance at 470 and 480 nm for PO and PPO, respectively, after 15 min. Then, the PO and PPO activity was expressed as absorbance g -1 fresh weight 15 min -1 . A-3- Total phenolic content To ascertain the total phenolic contents, fresh roots (1 g) of each tested root sample were extracted in 50% methanol (12 v:v) for 90 minutes at 80 °C from sesame plant roots that were randomly sampled at 7, 14, 21, and 28 days old and originated from gamma-irradiated and non-irradiated seeds. Following a 15-minute centrifugation at 14000 g, the extract was utilized to quantify the amount of free and cell wall-bound phenolic using the Folin-Ciocaleus (FC) reagent, following the protocol outlined by Kofalvi & Nassuth (1995). After neutralizing the pellet with 0.5 ml of 2 N HCl and saponifying it for 24 hours at room temperature to liberate the bound phenolic, the pellet was centrifuged at 14000 g for 15 minutes. Using an FC assay, the supernatant was utilized to bind the phenolic determination. The 100 μL of methanol and NaOH extracts were diluted to 1.0 ml with distilled water, then combined with 2.5 ml of 20% Na 2 CO 3 and 0.5 ml of 2 N FC reagent. After the combination was let to stand at room temperature in the dark for 20 minutes, each sample's absorbance was measured using a spectrophotometer set to measure wavelengths of 725 nm. The Gallic acid (1 mg ml -1 ) was dissolved in distilled water to create a stock solution. Then, different concentrations between 1 and 10 μg ml -1 were made. After adding 1.5 ml of FC reagent and waiting five minutes for each concentration to be used, 4 ml of 20% Na 2 CO 3 solution was added, and the mixture was finished with 10 ml of distilled water. After 20 minutes of storage, the mixture's absorbance at 725 nm was determined. The total phenolic content (μg ml -1 ) of the samples was calculated by extrapolating a standard curve made with Gallic acid as the standard. To calculate mg of total phenolic g -1 of fresh weight, the absorbance values were converted. A -4- Analysis of root lignin content Using a blade mill (Polymix PX-A10), root samples were frozen after 28 days following the procedure outlined by Fagerstedt et al. (2015). At 103 °C, the dry solids content of the ground root samples was ascertained. Using a Soxhlet apparatus, three-gram samples of air-dried root powders were extracted for six hours using acetone (KCL, 1982). The residues were dried at 103 °C, allowed to cool in a desiccator, and then weighed following the solvents' evaporation. The Klason method was used to calculate the quantity of acid-insoluble lignin (Dence, 1992). Three centiliters of 72% sulfuric acid were applied to the 300 mg of extracted root powder samples while they were under vacuum for an hour. After diluting the mixtures with around 82 cm3 of water, they were autoclaved for an hour at 125 °C. Using a 52 × 47 mm glass fiber filter, the precipitates were gathered using suction filtration and subsequently cleaned with water. The filters containing the Klason lignin, which is acid-insoluble, were dried at 103 °C, chilled in a desiccator, and then weighed. The amount of lignin that was soluble in acid was then measured by diluting the filtrate with water to a volume of 250 cm 3 . Using sulfuric acid with the same concentration as a blank, the absorption of the acid solutions containing the dissolved lignin was measured at 203 nm. Using a spectrophotometer to measure absorbance, the total lignin content (Klason lignin plus acid-soluble lignin) of the unextracted roots was computed as follows: Klason lignin (%) = p (100 − u) / m, in which p = precipitate (g), u = extractives (%), and m = calculated dry weight of the extracted sample (g). Based on the absorption of carbohydrates, the acid-soluble lignin content was adjusted using a lignin absorptivity of 128 L g −1 cm −1 (KCL, 1982). The measured lignin content of the roots sample, expressed as mg g -1 fresh weight, was calculated by taking the mean of the duplicate measurements of each tested sample. B- Root histological features For investigating root anatomical structures, random root samples from the randomly sampled sesame plant roots at 28 days old originating from gamma-irradiated and non-irradiated seeds were taken from the top 4–6 cm (2 cm length) along the taproot and stored in formalin-alcohol-glacial acetic acid (90:5:5, v/v/v) for at least 24 h, according to the method described by Dossa et al. (2017). Dehydration was done by double-staining with safranin and light green, and then the transverse sections were processed using a microtome following the descriptions of Pandey & Chadha (1996). Images of the root sections were acquired with a Lecia microscope and photographed by its camera at (×20-40) magnifications. Statistical analysis Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was carried out using the Mstatc program. The least significant difference (L.S.D.) at P≤0.05 was applied to distinguish differences among treatments (Gomez & Gomez, 1984 ). Results Effect of gamma-irradiated sesame seeds on the incidence of charcoal rot disease in the greenhouse . Results in Table 2 and Fig. 3 show the influence of gamma-irradiated sesame seeds with low irradiation doses of 4.22, 8.45, 12.68, and 16.9 Gy at 2 and 4 cm on the incidence of charcoal rot disease based on root colonization by Mp fungus and the symptoms under greenhouse conditions. Results indicate that all gamma-irradiated sesame seeds at 2 and 4 cm significantly decreased charcoal rot disease of sesame caused by Mp fungus compared with the control of non-irradiated seeds. Gamma-irradiated seeds with 12.68 Gy dose at 2 and 4 cm were the best effective disease control where exhibited (15 and 13.33%) and (33.33 and 29.33%) based on root colonization by Mp fungus and charcoal rot symptoms when seeds exposed to gamma irradiation at 2 and 4 cm, respectively followed by 8.45 Gy dose compared with non-irradiated seeds (85 and 83.33%) and (83 and 80%), respectively. In contrast, irradiated seeds at 16.90 Gy dose exhibited the lowest disease control treatment where exhibited (20 and 33.33%) and (30 and 26.6%) of root colonization by Mp fungus and charcoal rot symptoms when seeds exposed to irradiation at 2 and 4 cm, respectively. On the other hand, irradiated seeds at 4.22 Gy dose recorded disease incidence reached (30 and 26.67%) and (43.67 and 40%), respectively. Moreover, gamma-irradiated seeds at 2 cm for all irradiation doses teased were better than 4 cm for controlling charcoal rot disease. Effect of gamma-irradiated sesame seeds on the incidence of charcoal rot disease under naturally infested field soil with Mp fungus Results in Table 3 show the effect of gamma-irradiated sesame seeds with low irradiation doses of 4.22, 8.45, 12.68, and 16.9 Gy at 2 cm on the incidence of charcoal rot disease based on root colonization by Mp fungus and the symptoms in the field. Results indicate that all gamma-irradiated sesame seeds at 4 cm significantly decreased charcoal rot disease of sesame caused by Mp fungus compared with the non-irradiated seeds. Gamma-irradiated seeds at 12.68 Gy dose and 2 cm was the best effective disease control with a mean of 4.64% of disease incidence, which exhibited disease incidence of 4.13 and 5.16% based on root colonization by Mp fungus and charcoal rot symptoms, respectively, followed by 8.45 Gy dose compared with non-irradiated seeds of 81.25 and 78.12%, respectively with mean 79.68% of disease incidence. In contrast, irradiated seeds at 16.90 Gy dose exhibited the lowest disease control treatment where it exhibited 8.64 and 7.33% of disease incidence based on root colonization by Mp fungus and charcoal rot symptoms, respectively, with a mean disease incidence of 7.98%. On the other hand, irradiated seeds at 4.22 Gy dose recorded disease incidence reached 7.14 and 6.52%, respectively, with a mean of 6.83%. Effect of gamma-irradiated sesame seeds at 4 cm on some plant growth measurements, seed yield, and oil percent under naturally infested field soil with Mp fungus . Results in Table 4 show the effect of gamma-irradiated sesame seeds at 4 cm from irradiation source on some plant growth measurements, seed yield, and oil percent under naturally infested field soil with Mp fungus. Results indicate that all gamma-irradiated sesame seeds at 2 cm significantly increased plant height, number of capsules, seeds per plant, and seed oil content compared with the control on non-irradiated seeds. Gamma-irradiated seeds at 12.68 Gy dose were the most effective and exhibited the highest plant height, number of capsules, seeds per plant, and seed oil content in both growing seasons 2021 and 2022, followed by 8.45 Gy dose. In contrast, irradiated seeds at a 16.90 Gy dose exhibited the lowest increase in plant height, number of capsules, seeds per plant, and seed oil content, followed by a 4.16 Gy dose. Biochemical and histological changes in roots of sesame plants originated from gamma-irradiated and non-irradiated seeds in response to the infection with Mp causing charcoal rot disease: A- Biochemical changes A-1- Total protein content Table 5 shows the effect of gamma-irradiated sesame seeds at 2 cm from an irradiation source on the total protein content of plant roots at 7, 14, 21, and 28 days old in naturally infested field soil with Mp fungus. Results indicate that all gamma-irradiated sesame seeds gradually increase the total protein content in plant roots for up to 28 days compared to the non-irradiated seeds of control. Gamma-irradiated seeds at 12.68 Gy dose were the most effective treatment, followed by 8.45 and 4.22 Gy doses, and it exhibited the highest increase in total protein content, which recorded 22.±1.5, 45.±1.0, 51.±1.5, and 62.±1.0 mg g -1 fresh weight at 7, 14, 21, and 28 days, respectively compared with the control of non-irradiated seeds. In contrast, gamma-irradiated seeds at 16.90 Gy dose caused the lowest increase in total protein content, which recorded 18.±1.0, 35.±1.5, 44.±1.0, and 55.±1.0 mg g -1 fresh weight at 7, 14, 21, and 28 days, respectively. A-2- The activity of oxidative enzymes PO and PPO Tables 6 and 7 show the effect of gamma-irradiated sesame seeds at 2 cm from an irradiation source on the activity of PO and PPO enzymes in plant roots at 7, 14, 21, and 28 days old in naturally infested field soil with Mp fungus. Results indicate that all gamma-irradiated sesame seeds gradually increase the activity of PO and PPO enzymes in plant roots for up to 28 days compared to the non-irradiated seeds of control. Gamma-irradiated seeds at a 12.68 Gy dose were the most effective treatment, followed by 8.45 and 4.22 Gy doses, and it exhibited the highest increase in PO and PPO activity, which recorded (0.521±0.002, 0.545±0.002, 0.551±0.002, and 0.562±0.002) and (0.323±0.001, 0.340±0.001, 0.356±0.001, and 0.367±0.001) absorbance g -1 fresh weight 15 min -1 at 7, 14, 21, and 28 days old, respectively. In contrast, gamma-irradiated seeds at 16.90 Gy dose caused the lowest increase in the activity of PO and PPO enzymes, which recorded (0.317±0.001, 0.235±0.001, 0.344±0.001, and 0.355±0.001) and (0.215±0.001, 0.231±0.001, 0.239±0.001, and 0.245±0.001) absorbance g -1 fresh weight 15 min -1 at 7, 14, 21, and 28 days old, respectively. A-3- Total phenolic content Table 8 shows the effect of gamma-irradiated sesame seeds at 2 cm from an irradiation source on the total phenolic content in plant roots at 7, 14, 21, and 28 days old in naturally infested field soil with Mp fungus. Results indicate that all gamma-irradiated sesame seeds gradually increase the total phenolic content in plant roots for up to 28 days compared to the non-irradiated seeds of control. Gamma-irradiated seeds at 12.68 Gy dose were the most effective treatment, followed by 8.45 and 4.22 Gy doses, and it exhibited the highest increase in total phenolic content, which recorded 37±1.5, 41±1.5, 47±1.5, and 56±1.5 mg g -1 fresh weight at 7, 14, 21, and 28 days, respectively compared with the control of non-irradiated seeds. In contrast, gamma-irradiated seeds at 16.90 Gy dose caused the lowest increase in total protein content, which recorded 21±1.5, 26±1.5, 33±1.0, and 39±1.0 mg g -1 fresh weight at 7, 14, 21, and 28 days, respectively. A -4- Root lignin content Table 9 shows the effect of gamma-irradiated sesame seeds at 2 cm from an irradiation source on the lignin content in plant roots at 28 days old in naturally infested field soil with Mp fungus. Results indicate that all gamma-irradiated sesame seeds increase the lignin content in plant roots at 28 days compared to the non-irradiated seeds of control. Gamma-irradiated seeds at 12.68 Gy dose were the most effective treatment, followed by 8.45 and 4.22 Gy doses. It exhibited the highest increase in lignin content, which recorded 45.5±2.5 mg g -1 fresh weight at 28 days, respectively, compared with the control of non-irradiated seeds (7.5±1.0). In contrast, gamma-irradiated seeds at 16.90 Gy dose caused the lowest increase in total lignin content, which recorded 15.5±1.5 mg g -1 fresh weight at 28 days. B- Root histological features Fig. 4 shows the transfer sections of the sesame plant root (28 days old) of the Giza 32 cultivar. The control root infected by Mp fungus showed a high lysis of the epidermis and cortical cells. However, the protected plant root from seeds exposed to 12.68 Gy of gamma radiation at 2 cm showed a high thickening of the cuticle (cutin) and epidermis cell walls and high lignified cortical cells. Discussion In this study, all gamma-irradiated sesame seeds at low doses from 4.22 to 16.9 Gy at 2 and 4 cm significantly decreased the incidence of sesame charcoal rot disease caused by Mp fungus and enhanced plant growth compared with the control of non-irradiated seeds. However, the irradiation dose of 12.68 Gy was the most effective in reducing charcoal rot disease and increased some plant growth parameters such as plant height, number of capsules, seed yield, and seed oil content. The results obtained are supported by Ikram et al. ( 2010 and 2011 ) and Hussein & Hamideldin ( 2016 ), who reported that root-infecting fungi ( Fusarium spp, Macrophomina phaseolina , and Rhizoctonia solani ) decreased significantly on sunflower, mung bean, and sesame roots due to seed exposure to gamma rays and a significant increase in some growth parameters like shoot length, shoot weight, root length, root weight, leaf area. The sesame plants originating from gamma-irradiated seeds at low doses recorded an increase in potassium uptake and efficiency and thus increased the productivity of sesame plants (Haikal & Moussa, 2023). The plant growth and development processes may be accelerated by low-dose gamma radiation exposure in the 1–20 Gy range, according to earlier studies with some supporting data. Onobrychis viciifolia (Charbaji & Nabulsi, 1999 ), Arabidopsis thaliana (Kim et al., 2004 ), Oryza sativa (Singh & Dutta, 2010), sunflower and mung bean (Ikram et al., 2010 and 2011 ), and Lactuca sativa (Marcu et al., 2013 ) have all been shown to exhibit enhanced germination percentage, root and shoot length, number of panicles and their length, number of seeds per panicle, and some phytochemical properties. Additionally, after applying 20 Gy of gamma radiation to Triticum aestivum , an increase of roughly 18–32% in root length and number has been noted (Melki & Marouani, 2010 ). The biochemical and histological changes in sesame plant roots associated with charcoal rot disease resistance induced by low doses of gamma-irradiated seeds were also investigated in this study. Results showed that all low doses of gamma-irradiated sesame seeds gradually increased the total protein content, PO and PPO activity, phenolic, and lignin contents in plant roots for up to 28 days compared to the non-irradiated seeds of control. Gamma-irradiated seeds at 12.68 Gy dose at 2 cm were the most effective. The histological study also showed a high epidermis and cortical cell lysis of the control root infected by Mp fungus. In contrast, the protected plant root from seeds exposed to 12.68 Gy of gamma radiation at 2 cm showed a high thickening of the cuticle (cutin) and epidermis cell walls and lignified cortical cells. Thicker cuticles and more sclerenchyma tissue could be the reason for inducing resistance to root-infecting fungi (Huber, 1980). It has been documented that, depending on the irradiation intensity, especially at low doses, it can alter the morphology, anatomy, biochemistry, and physiology of plants. According to Kim et al. ( 2004 ), Wi et al. ( 2005 ), Ikram et al. ( 2010 ), Lopes et al. ( 2017 ), these effects include modifications to the plant's cellular structure and metabolism, such as thylakoid membrane enlargement, changes in photosynthesis, modulation of the antioxidative system, increase in enzyme activity, and accumulation of phenolic compounds. According to recent researches, gamma radiation at lower doses can successfully increase the germination rate (Ali et al., 2018 ) and enzyme activity (Lopes et al., 2017 ; Rizki et al., 2019 ). Additionally, some beneficial impacts on total phenolic content, protein, seed weight, and germination have been documented (Hanafy & Akladious, 2018 ). Conversely, some studies have reported that low levels of gamma radiation increase crop yield, enzyme activity, and cell proliferation and growth. Low doses also improve plants' resistance to a variety of abiotic stresses, such as salinity, extremes in temperature, drought, and flooding (Moussa, 2011 ). Applying a low dosage of gamma radiation to plants increases their ability to withstand oxidative stress or modifies their hormone signaling system, which in turn triggers messages that encourage growth. Plant tissues can produce secondary biogenic radiation after being exposed to low-dose radiation, which is likely accomplished by activating different membrane receptors and causing dormant cells to proliferate (Smillie et al., 2012 ). Additionally, its management during the initial phases of seed germination initiates protein synthesis and RNA activation (Katiyar et al., 2022 ). The current study offers essential information about sesame roots' biochemical and histological changes associated with charcoal rot disease resistance and enhancing plant growth and root structure induced by low doses of gamma-irradiated seeds. However, the possible precise mechanisms associated with this vital role are indistinct and have to be further understudied. Declarations Acknowledgments The author is thankful to all Experimental Farm members of the Faculty of Agriculture, Sohag University, for supporting the research work. Declaration Conflict of interest The authors do not have any actual or potential conflict of interest. Ethical responsibility This manuscript is original research and has not been submitted in whole or in parts to another journal for publication. Informed consent The authors have reviewed the whole manuscript and approved the final version of the manuscript before submission. References Ahloowalia, B.S.; Maluszynski, M. & Nichterlein, K. (2004). Global impact of mutation-derived varieties. Euphytica , 135, 187-204. Ahmed, H.M. Ahmed; Amro, A.; Imara, Doaa A. & Mahdy, A.Y. (2023). Potential of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi against charcoal rot of sesame and optimized fertilization for enhancing growth, productivity, and nutrient uptake. Egyptian Journal of Phytopathology , 51(2), 76-93. Ali, H.; Muhammad, Z.; Ullah, R.; Majeed, A. & Inayat, N. (2018). Germination, growth and yield performance of flax ( Linum usitatissimum L.) under gamma irradiation stress. Cercetari Agronomice in Moldova , 51(2), 17-26. Bashir, M.R.; Mahmood, A.; Sajid, M.; Zeshan, M.A.; Mohsan, M.; Khan, Q.A.T. & Tahir, F.A. (2017). Exploitation of new chemistry fungicides against charcoal rot of sesame caused by Macrophomina phaseolina in Pakistan. Pak. J. Phytopathol ., 29(2), 257- 263. Bedawy, I.M.A. & Moharam, M.H.A. (2109). Reaction and performance of some sesame genotypes for resistance to Macrophomina phaseolina , the incitant of charcoal rot disease. Alexandria Science Exchange Journal , 40(1), 13-18. Bradford, M.M. (1976). A rapid and sensitive method for the quantification of microgram quantities of protein utilizing the principle of protein-dye binding. Anal. Biochem ., 72, 248-254. Cagirgan, M. (2001). Mutation techniques in sesame ( Sesamum indicum L.) for intensive management: Confirmed mutants (No. IAEATECDOC-1195). Chakravarty, B. & Sen, S. (2001). Enhancement of regeneration potential and variability by irradiation in cultured cells of Scilla indica . Biol. Plant , 44, 189-193. Charbaji, T. & Nabulsi, I. (1999). Effect of low doses of gamma irradiation on in vitro growth of grapevine. Plant Cell Tissue Organ Cult ., 57, 129-132. Dence, C.W. (1992). The determination of lignin. In methods in lignin chemistry; Lin, S.Y. & Dence, C.W., Eds.; Springer-Verlag: Heidelberg, Germany, 1992; pp. 33-61. Dossa, K., Li, D.; Wang, L. & et al. (2017). Transcriptomic, biochemical and physio-anatomical investigations shed more light on responses to drought stress in two contrasting sesame genotypes. Sci. Rep ., 7 , 8755. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-09397-6 Edmunds, L. (1964). Combined relation of plant maturity, temperature and soil moisture to charcoal stalk rot development in grain sorghum. Phytopathology , 54, 514-517. Fagerstedt, K.V.; Saranpää, P.; Tarja Tapanila T.; Immanen, J. ; Juan Antonio Alonso Serra, J.A. & Nieminen, K. (2015). Determining the Composition of Lignins in Different Tissues of Silver Birch. Plants , 4(2), 183-195. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants4020183 Gomez, K.A. & Gomez, A.A. (1984). Statistical procedures for agricultural research, 2 nd Ed. John Willey. New York, pp. 680. Gupta, S.; Schmitt, C.; Mahata, K.; Shrivastava, A.; Sugathan, P.; Jhingan, A. & Rani, K. (2019). Asymmetric fission around lead: the case of Po 198. Phys. Rev. , C 100, 064608. Hanafy, R.S. & Akladious, S.A. (2018).Physiological and molecular studies on the effect of gamma radiation in fenugreek ( Trigonella foenumgraecum L.) plants. Journal of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology , 16(2), 683-692. Hassan , A.B.; Mohamed Ahmed, I.A.; Sir Elkhatim, K.A.; Elagib, R.A.A.; Mahmoud, N.S. ; Mohamed , M.M.; Salih, A.M. & Fadimu, G.J. (2019). Controlling fungal growth in sesame ( Sesamum indicum L.) seeds with γ -irradiation: impacts on some properties of sesame oil. Grasas y Aceites , 70(2), 1-8. https://doi.org/10.3989/gya.0933182 Hekal, M.A. & Moussa, M.G. (2023). The role of gamma radiation on the productivity of sesame plants and potassium efficiency under different rates of potassium fertilization. Egyptian J. Soil Sci ., 63(3), 301-310. Huber, D.M. (1980).The role of mineral nutrition in defence. In: Plant pathology, an advance Treatise. (Horsfall, J.G. and Cowling, E.M.). Academic Press, New York, pp.381-406. Hussein, O. & Hamideldin, N. (2016). Influence of pre-sowing treatments by gamma rays on growth, yield and some chemical constituents of Sesamum indicum L. Grasas y Aceites, 67(1),111. Ikram, N.; Dawar, Shahnaz; Abbas, Z. & Zaki J.M. (2010). Effect of (60cobalt) gamma rays on growth and root rot diseases in Mungbean ( Vigna radiata L.). Pak. J. Bot ., 42(3), 2165-2170. Ikram, N.; Dawar, Shahnaz; Zaki, M.J.; Tariq, Marium & Abbas, Z. (2011). Combined use of (60cobalt) gamma irradiated seeds and nursery fertilizers in the control of root rot fungi of crop plants. Int. J. Biol. Biotech ., 8(4), 521-527. Katiyar, P.; Pandey, N. & Keshavkant, S. (2022). Gamma radiation: A potential tool for abiotic stress mitigation and management of agroecosystem. Plant Stress , 5, 100089. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.stress.2022.100089 KCL, M.J.P.K. (1982). Total lignin content of wood and pulp. In KCL (Finnish Pulp and Paper Research Institute) Reports; KCL: Espoo, Finland, 1982; Volume 115b, p. 3. Kim, J.H.; Baek, M.H.; Chung, B.Y.; Wi, S.G. & Kim, J.S. (2004). Alterations in the photosynthetic pigments and antioxidant machineries of red pepper ( Capsicum annuum L.) seedlings from gamma-irradiated seeds. J . Plant Biol ., 47, 314-321. Kofalvi, S. & Nassuth, A. (1995). Influence of wheat streak mosaic virus infection phenylpropanoid metabolism and the accumulation of phenolics and lignin in wheat. Physiol. Mol. Plant Pathol ., 47, 365-377. Lopes, A.M.; Bobrowski, V.L; Silva, S.D. & Deuner, S. (2017). Orphophysiological and biochemical alterations in Ricinus communis L. seeds submitted to cobalt60 gamma radiation. Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciências , 89(3), 1925-1933. Mak, D.H.; Chiu, P.Y. & Ko, K.M. (2011). Antioxidant and anticarcinogenic potentials of sesame lignans. Sesame: The genus Sesamum ,111-121. Marcu, D.; Cristea, V. & Daraban, L. (2013). Dose-dependent effects of gamma radiation on lettuce ( Lactuca sativa var. capitata ) seedlings. Int. J. Radiat. Biol ., 89, 219-223. Maxwell, D.P. & Bateman, D.F. (1967). Changes in the activity of some oxidases in extracts of Rhizoctonia infected bean hypocotyls in relation to lesion maturation. Phytopathology , 57, 132-136. Melki, M. & Marouani, A. (2010). Effects of gamma rays irradiation on seed germination and growth of hard wheat. Environ. Chem. Lett ., 84, 307-310. Moussa, H.R. (2011). Low dose of gamma irradiation enhanced drought tolerance in soybean. Acta Agron. Hung ., 59, 1-12. Pandey , S.N & Chadha, A. (1996). Plant anatomy and embryology. Vikas Publishing House PVT Limited, 474 pages. Pusadkar, P.; Kokiladevi, E.; Bonde, S. & Mohite, N. (2015). Sesame ( Sesamum indicum L.) importance and its high quality seed oil: A review. Trends Biosci ., 8(15), 3900-3906. Reyas Gaige, A.; Ayella, A. & Shuai, B. (2010). Methyl jasmonate and ethylene induce partial resistance in Medicago truncatula against the charcoal rot pathogen Macrophomina phaseolina . Physiological and Molecular Plant Pathology , 74, 412-418. Ribeiro, R.V. & Machado, E.C. (2007). Some aspects of citrus ecophysiology in subtropical climates: re-visiting photosynthesis under natural conditions. Braz. J. Plant Physiol ., 19, 393-411. Rizki, H.; Mouhib, M.; Nabloussi, A. & Latrache, H. (2019). Effect of different doses of gamma irradiation on biochemical and microbiological properties of sesame ( Sesamum indicum L.) seeds. Moroccan Journal of Chemistry , 7(3), 7-3. ‏ Singh, B. & Datta, P.S. (2010). Effect of low dose gamma irradiation on plant and grain nutrition of wheat. Radiat. Phys. Chem ., 79, 819–825. Smillie, I.R.A.; Pyke, K.A. & Murchie, E.H. (2012). Variation in vein density and mesophyll cell architecture in a rice deletion mutant population. J. Exp. Bot ., 63, 4563-4570. Spencer-Lopes, M.; Forster, B.P. & Jankuloski, L. (2018). Manual on mutation breeding: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Wi, S.G., Chung, B.Y.; Kim, J.H.; Baek, M.H.; Yang, D.H.; Lee, J.W & Kim, J.S. (2005). Ultrastructural changes of cell organelles in Arabidopsis stem after gamma irradiation. J. Plant Biol ., 48(2), 195-200. Tables Table 1 : Exposure time and dose of sesame seed samples to gamma-ray in the radiation doses plan No. 1 and 2 at 2 and 4 cm from the radiation source, respectively. Exposure time (hours) Dose (Gy) Radiation dose plan No. 1 Radiation dose plan No. 2 Exposure at 2 cm Exposure at 4 cm 12 4.22 5* 8 24 8.45 4 6 36 12.68 2 7 48 16.90 3 1 * Seeds sample No. (58 g of each). Table 2: Effect of gamma-irradiated sesame seeds exposed at 2 and 4 cm from irradiation source on the incidence of charcoal rot disease based on root colonization by Mp and the symptoms under greenhouse conditions. Gamma radiation dose (Gy ) Exposure at 2 cm Exposure at 4 cm Charcoal rot (%) based on root colonization by Mp Charcoal rot (%) based on symptoms Charcoal rot (%) based on root colonization by Mp Charcoal rot (%) based on symptoms 4.22 8.45 12.68 16.90 Control * 30.00 20.00 15.00 20.00 85.00 26.67 16.67 13.33 23.33 83.33 43.67 35.00 33.00 30.00 83.00 40.00 33.33 29.33 26.67 80.00 L.S.D. at 5% 5.63 1.13 1.93 3.66 * Non-irradiated seeds. Table 3 : Effect of gamma-irradiated sesame seeds at 2 cm from irradiation source on the incidence of charcoal rot disease under naturally infested field soil with Mp fungus. Gamma radiation dose (Gy ) Charcoal rot (%) Based on root colonization by Mp Based on symptoms Mean 4.22 7.14 * 6.52 6.83 8.45 5.33 5.53 5.43 12.68 4.13 5.16 4.64 16.90 8.64 7.33 7.98 Control ** 81.25 78.12 79.68 Mean 21.29 20.53 20.91 L.S.D. at 5% 0.15 0.16 0.15 * Values are the means over the two growing seasons, 2022 and 2023. ** Non-irradiated seeds. Table 4: Effect of gamma-irradiated sesame seeds 2 cm from irradiation source on some plant growth measurements, seed yield, and oil percent under naturally infested field soil with Mp fungus. Gamma radiation dose (Gy ) Plant height (cm) No. of capsules/plant Seed yield/plant (g) Oil content (%) 2022 2023 2022 2023 2022 2023 2022 2023 4.22 196.61 195.86 210.34 213.15 25.93 26.50 55.70 56.00 8.45 210.80 216.3 233.71 237.12 31.50 29.45 58.60 58.91 12.68 225.47 224.5 243.91 250.11 37.12 35.93 60.9 62.70 16.6 193.71 190.92 165.70 173.50 20.81 22.15 52.14 51.81 Control * 180.50 184.00 98.00 100.00 10.81 10.91 48.75 49.11 L.S.D. at 5% 4.12 4.38 2.13 2.37 1.72 1.18 2.75 1.73 * Non-irradiated seeds. Table 5 : Effect of gamma-irradiated sesame seeds at 2 cm from irradiation source on total protein content of plant roots at 7, 14, 21, and 28 days old in naturally infested field soil with Mp fungus. Gamma radiation dose (Gy ) Total protein content ( mg g -1 fresh weight)* of sesame roots at 7 days 14 days 21 days 28 days 4.22 19±1.5*** 39±1.0 45±1.0 57±1.5 8.45 20±1.5 38±1.5 47±1.5 59±1.5 12.68 22±1.5 45±1.0 51±1.5 62±1.0 16.90 18±1.0 35±1.5 44±1.0 55±1.0 Control ** 16±1.0 33±1.5 42±1.5 51±1.0 * Data are the means over the two growing seasons, 2022 and 2023. ** Non-irradiated seeds planted in the naturally infested field soil with Mp fungus. *** Values are the means (mg g -1 fresh weight ± standard deviation) over three replicates from the standard curve of BSA. Table 6: Effect of gamma-irradiated sesame seeds at 2 cm from the irradiation source on PO activity of plant roots at 7, 14, 21, and 28 days old in naturally infested field soil with Mp fungus. Gamma radiation dose (Gy ) PO activity* in sesame roots at 7 days 14 days 21 days 28 days 4.22 0.318±0.001*** 0.339±0.001 0.345±0.001 0.357±0.001 8.45 0.321±0.001 0.341±0.001 0.346±0.001 0.358±0.001 12.68 0.521±0.002 0.545±0.002 0.551±0.002 0.562±0.002 16.90 0.317±0.001 0.235±0.001 0.344±0.001 0.355±0.001 Control ** 0.226±0.001 0.237±0.001 0.249±0.001 0.254±0.001 * Data are the means over the two growing seasons, 2022 and 2023. ** Non-irradiated seeds planted in the naturally infested field soil with Mp fungus. *** Values are the means (absorbance ± standard deviation g -1 fresh weight 15 min -1 ) over three replicates Table 7: Effect of gamma-irradiated sesame seeds at 2 cm from irradiation source on PPO activity of plant roots at 7, 14, 21, and 28 days old in naturally infested field soil with Mp fungus. Gamma radiation dose (Gy ) PPO activity* in sesame roots at 7 days 14 days 21 days 28 days 4.22 0.219±0.001*** 0.234±0.001 0.247±0.001 0.259±0.001 8.45 0.224±0.001 0.244±0.001 0.246±0.001 0.256±0.001 12.68 0.323±0.001 0.340±0.001 0.356±0.001 0.367±0.001 16.90 0.215±0.001 0.231±0.001 0.239±0.001 0.245±0.001 Control ** 0.113±0.001 0.125±0.001 0.138±0.001 0.144±0.001 * Data are the means over the two growing seasons, 2022 and 2023. ** Non-irradiated seeds planted in the naturally infested field soil with Mp fungus. *** Values are the means (absorbance ± standard deviation g -1 fresh weight 15 min -1 ) over three replicates Table 8: Effect of gamma-irradiated sesame seeds at 2 cm from irradiation source on total phenolic content of plant roots at 7, 14, 21, and 28 days old in naturally infested field soil with Mp fungus. Gamma radiation dose (Gy ) Total phenolic content ( mg g -1 fresh weight)* in sesame roots at 7 days 14 days 21 days 28 days 4.22 27±1.0*** 33±1.5 38±1.0 42±1.5 8.45 31±1.5 36±1.0 40±1.5 47±1.0 12.68 37±1.5 41±1.5 47±1.5 56±1.5 16.90 21±1.5 26±1.5 33±1.0 39±1.0 Control ** 12±1.0 23±1.5 31±1.0 36±1.5 * Data are the means over the two growing seasons, 2022 and 2023. ** Non-irradiated seeds planted in the naturally infested field soil with Mp fungus *** Values are the means (mg g -1 fresh weight standard deviation) over three replicates from the standard curve of Gallic acid. Table 9 : Effect of gamma-irradiated sesame seeds at 2 cm from irradiation source on lignin content of plant roots at 28 days old in naturally infested field soil with Mp fungus. Gamma radiation dose (Gy ) Lignin content ( mg g -1 fresh weight)** 4.22 25.0±2.0 8.45 20.5±1.5 12.68 45.5±2.5 16.90 15.5±1.5 Control * 7.5±1.0 Mean 30.0 ±1.7 * Non-irradiated seeds planted in the naturally infested field soil with Mp fungus. ** Values are the means (mg g -1 fresh weight ± standard deviation) over the two growing seasons, 2022 and 2023. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Revision Version 1 posted Reviewers agreed at journal 03 Jun, 2024 Reviewers invited by journal 19 May, 2024 Editor invited by journal 01 May, 2024 Editor assigned by journal 30 Apr, 2024 First submitted to journal 28 Apr, 2024 Editorial decision: Major revisions 25 Apr, 2024 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-4284362","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":304320457,"identity":"09ddf58b-4512-4408-b5bc-3a1112a97379","order_by":0,"name":"Hoda A. M. Ahmed","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Plant Pathology Research Institute","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Hoda","middleName":"A. M.","lastName":"Ahmed","suffix":""},{"id":304320458,"identity":"b55c2239-237b-4815-8a9a-9315a4921d65","order_by":1,"name":"Moustafa H.A. Moharam","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8600-0076","institution":"Faculty of Agriculture, Sohag University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Moustafa","middleName":"H.A.","lastName":"Moharam","suffix":""},{"id":304320459,"identity":"e8674a75-8e27-40ee-88b4-69694ada3787","order_by":2,"name":"Ahmed Y. Mahdy","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Al-Azhar University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ahmed","middleName":"Y.","lastName":"Mahdy","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-04-18 01:05:32","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4284362/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4284362/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":57393868,"identity":"50b49052-4f51-4d9e-8677-d8a42838e4c6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-05-30 06:31:37","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":691818,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePackage of Co-60 (Cobalt 60) irradiator system.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4284362/v1/2e0d1a8d9f92f5f5a5becbe1.png"},{"id":57394248,"identity":"5bf3a61c-ddfa-4f1e-93a2-ba77b7fcead2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-05-30 06:39:37","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":483733,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eConfiguration of radiation dose plans.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4284362/v1/97b73ad240c7be6a59b0ba3a.png"},{"id":57393870,"identity":"5ea741d5-dc7d-4802-b565-22d2ba05758c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-05-30 06:31:37","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":921954,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eVegetative growth of sesame plants Giza 32 cultivar at 28 days old inoculated with Mp fungus causing charcoal rot disease; Plants originated from non-irradiated seeds (Control); Plants originated from gamma-irradiated seeds at 8.45 Gy dose (A) and 12.98 Gy dose (B) both at 2 cm from irradiation source\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4284362/v1/fd2fbe6e2fdf5c832e575a8f.png"},{"id":57393869,"identity":"dc3dbb1d-93c7-4e55-91b3-0e4589c2e8f7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-05-30 06:31:37","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1170889,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTransfer sections of sesame plant root (28 days old) of Giza 32 cultivar: Control root is infected by Mp fungus showing lysis of epidermis and cortical cells (left); the protected plant root originated from seeds exposed to 12.68 Gy of gamma radiation at 2 cm showing highly thickening of epidermis and lignified cortical cells (right). C: cuticle (chitin), Ep: epidermis and Co: cortex.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4284362/v1/641483d7190f91f98499cb87.png"},{"id":57394751,"identity":"b95c4ed0-2135-41fe-aa3e-583ba90b3781","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-05-30 06:47:39","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":4269444,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4284362/v1/0a2c30e7-bb2d-46e2-b66d-b3b39f3ea5a3.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"Biochemical and histological changes in sesame roots associated with charcoal rot disease resistance and enhancing plant growth induced by gamma-irradiated seeds at low doses","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eIrradiating seed is an applied approach for inducing genetic variability, which could increase mutation frequency, promote gene recombination, and extend the plant mutation spectrum. In general, inducing plant mutations following radiation treatments has played a productive and protective role in sustainable agriculture as a supplementary crop improvement approach by increasing genetic variability and disease resistance in practical plant breeding applications. Gamma radiation and rapid neutrons are often utilized as mutagenesis agents in most crops to increase productivity and develop beneficial agronomic traits while minimizing viability loss (Ahloowalia et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). Gamma radiation, on the other hand, is less hazardous than rapid neutrons because the former creates point mutations or little deletions, whereas the latter causes massive deletions, chromosomal loss, and translocations, all of which are harmful in some situations (Gupta et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Gamma radiation has been extensively used in biological research for decades, with low doses (5-100 Gy) for stimulation and large doses (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;100 Gy) for inhibition (Ribeiro \u0026amp; Machado, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). Previous studies on gamma radiation have found favorable benefits such as increased seed germination rate, enzymatic activity, cell division and development, stress tolerance, and plant mutation induction (Chakravarty \u0026amp; Sen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e). In this respect, applying gamma radiation was started as an eco-friendly technology in agriculture to improve seed germination and yields in various crops by influencing various physiological and biochemical processes in seed materials. Additionally, gamma radiation has been shown to enhance abiotic stress tolerance in many plants at low doses and is commonly utilized in mutation techniques to improve abiotic and biotic stress tolerance and resistance in many crop varieties. A more profound comprehension of the mechanisms associated with plant stress tolerance and resistance induced by gamma radiation will aid in raising crop productivity, especially in highly stressful environments and infectious diseases. Gamma radiation reacts with molecules to produce highly unstable and reactive free radicals in plant cells that can change essential components and peroxides of plant cells (Spencer-Lopes et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Plant morphology, anatomy, biochemistry, and physiology have all been documented to be affected by the intensity of gamma irradiation. These impacts include changes in the plant's cellular structure and metabolism, such as thylakoid membrane expansion, photosynthetic modifications, antioxidative system regulation, and phenolic compound accumulation (Kim et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; Wi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Ikram et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). Recently, it has been reported that lower doses of gamma radiation effectively increase enzyme activity (Lopes et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) and seed germination rate (Ali et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Some positive effects have also been reported on rapid germination, seed weight, protein, and total phenolic contents (Hanafy \u0026amp; Akladious, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). However, the possible mechanisms associated with this role are yet completely indistinct and are being understudied.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSesame (\u003cem\u003eSesamum indicum\u003c/em\u003e L.) is the most common oil seed crop with high-quality edible oil and high amounts of calcium, zinc, iron, potassium, vitamins, and various antioxidants such as sesamin and sesamolin, which have anti-cancerous properties and are responsible for the long oil storage (Mak et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Pusadkar et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Unfortunately, sesame production faces problems in most cultivated areas where it is carried out traditionally, resulting in low crop seed production, seed oil content, and quality. Also, sesame plants are susceptible to various biotic and abiotic stresses during the growth stages, causing a significant decrease in seed yield and quality. Among the biotic stresses limiting sesame production in cultivated areas is charcoal rot disease caused by \u003cem\u003eMacrophomina phaseolina\u003c/em\u003e (Tassi) Goid, severely decreasing plant stand and yield and affecting seed oil content and quality. Sesame yield losses due to charcoal rot infection reached 57% worldwide (Bashir et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), while Egypt lost 5% or more (Bedawy \u0026amp; Moharam, 2019). Overcoming charcoal rot disease by resistance sources of sesame genotypes is developed by mutagenesis. In previous studies, gamma-induced mutations in sesame by gamma radiation have produced several valuable mutants. Hence, sesame seeds are generally more radiation-tolerant than other crops (Cagiran, 2001). Consequently, the current study aimed to treat sesame seeds with gamma radiation at low doses and study the biochemical and histological changes in sesame roots associated with charcoal rot disease resistance and enhancing plant growth induced by gamma-irradiated seeds.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials and methods","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePlant material and irradiation treatment\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSeeds of sesame cultivar Giza 32 used in this study were obtained from the Agricultural Research Center, Giza, Egypt. Healthy, uniform, and dry seed samples (each 58 g) were exposed to gamma radiation using a Co-60 (Cobalt 60) package irradiator system (Figure 1) \u0026nbsp;with 1 and 4 cm of sample dimensions (Fig. 2 c) at a dose rate of 131 kBq/sec in the Nuclear Physics Department, Faculty of Science, Assiut University. Seed irradiation was performed in the stationary method of operation with varying dose rates of 4.22, 8.45, 12.68, and 16.9 Gy\u0026nbsp;at room temperature and atmospheric pressure, depending on the position and the distance from the radiation source (Table 1). In radiation doses plan No. 1 (Fig. 2 a), four seed samples were sealed in a cylindrical block shield of lead and placed at a 2 cm applied distance, with the bottom of the medical rob at the axis of the cylindrical block shield. In the radiation doses plan No. 2 (Fig. 2 b), each one of the four seed samples was separately sealed in a cylindrical block shield to get radiation exposure from the radioactive source placed at a height of 4 cm. After every 12 h, one of the four seed samples of each radiation doses plan was removed from the radiation exposure system. Finally, all irradiated seed samples were carefully transferred to sterile containers and maintained at 5 \u0026deg;C until use.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePathogen source, material, and inoculation\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eVirulent isolate No. 5 of the fungus \u003cem\u003eM. phaseolina\u003c/em\u003e (\u003cem\u003eMp\u003c/em\u003e) used in this study was isolated from the root and stem of diseased sesame plants showing charcoal rot symptoms collected from various fields in Assiut Governorate, Egypt, where it was identified as the causal pathogen of charcoal rot disease when tested on sesame Giza 32 cultivar, according to the previous work published by\u0026nbsp;Ahmed et al. (2023). For the preparation of \u003cem\u003eMp\u003c/em\u003e inoculum from the stuck culture, the fungus was cultured in 9 cm Petri dishes containing sterilized potato dextrose agar (PDA) medium supplemented with 50 mg streptomycin sulfate L\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e medium and incubated in the darkness at 28 \u0026deg;C for 7 days. After that, small portions of the\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;Mp\u003c/em\u003e colony containing microsclerotia were suspended in 100 \u0026micro;l sterile distilled water to separate microsclerotia from mycelia. Microsclerotia were then cultivated into new PDA plates incubated at 28 \u0026deg;C. Finally, autoclave toothpicks were inserted into \u003cem\u003eMp\u003c/em\u003e colonies growing on the PDA plates for 7 days to harvest microsclerotia. The microsclerotia-containing toothpicks were then injected into micro-tubes and maintained at 4 \u0026deg;C (Edmunds, 1964). Then, 1 g weighted microsclerotia was immediately suspended in 300 ml of 0.01% agarose solution to get the freshly used fungal inoculum (Reyes Gaige et al., 2010) containing 7 \u0026times; 10\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e sclerotia ml\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e determined using a hemocytometer.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGreenhouse experiments\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGreenhouse experiments were conducted in the open greenhouse at the Experimental Farm, Arab Al-Awamer Agricultural Station, Assiut, during the 2022 growing season to evaluate the efficiency of irradiated sesame seeds against \u003cem\u003eMp\u003c/em\u003e causing charcoal rot disease of sesame.\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe sowing date in both experiments was the 21\u003csup\u003est\u003c/sup\u003e of April.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFormalin sterilized pots (35 cm in diameter) containing sterilized loam soil were infested with 10 ml \u003cem\u003eMp\u003c/em\u003e inoculum, irrigated, and left for a week before planting. Each pot was then seeded with five irradiated seeds exposed at 2 and 4 cm of the sesame cultivar Giza 32. Twelve pots (replicates) were used for each treatment, and pots sowed with non-irradiated seeds served as a control. Pots were irrigated when necessary and checked daily. After 28 days of planting, 20 plant samples (2 from each pot) of each treatment were randomly selected to calculate charcoal rot incidence based on root colonization by \u003cem\u003eMp\u003c/em\u003e in sesame plant samples by cutting one-centimeter-long root pieces after washing in tap water were surface sterilized with 1% sodium hypochlorite (SH) solution and transferred onto the PDA plates\u0026nbsp;supplemented with 50 mg streptomycin sulfate L\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e medium at 5 pieces per plate and then incubated in the darkness at 28 \u0026deg;C for 7 days as mentioned before.\u0026nbsp;The number of growing \u003cem\u003eMp\u003c/em\u003e colonies in each plate was then recorded, and the percent of charcoal rot incidence of sesame based on root colonization by \u003cem\u003eMp\u003c/em\u003e of each replicate was calculated using the following formula.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCharcoal rot incidence based on root colonization by \u003cem\u003eMp\u003c/em\u003e (%)\u003c/strong\u003e = Number of pieces with fungal growth /Total number of pieces x 100\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMoreover, the same selected plant samples were further used for sesame roots\u0026apos; biochemical and histological changes in response to infection with \u003cem\u003eMp\u003c/em\u003e concerning charcoal rot disease resistance. On the other hand, other left-potted plants were visually checked for the development of charcoal rot symptoms, and the incidence of charcoal rot disease was also determined after 90 days of planting using the following formula:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCharcoal rot (%\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e) =\u003c/strong\u003e Number of plants with charcoal rot symptoms/Total number of cultivated plants \u0026times; 100\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eField experiments\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eField trials were carried out at\u0026nbsp;the Experimental Farm of Arab-El-Awamer Research Station, Assiut, Egypt,\u0026nbsp;to evaluate the efficiency of gamma-irradiated sesame seeds against \u003cem\u003eMp\u003c/em\u003e, causing charcoal rot disease of sesame under natural infestation with \u003cem\u003eMp\u003c/em\u003e during the 2022 and 2023 growing seasons.\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe sowing date in both experiments was the 1\u003csup\u003est\u003c/sup\u003e of May.\u0026nbsp;Irradiated sesame seeds were sown in rows in plots with 3.2 \u0026times; 2.4 m, each having three rows and 60 cm apart between rows. Each row contained 15 hills spaced at 20 cm. Every hill was sown with five seeds, and\u0026nbsp;non-irradiated\u0026nbsp;sesame seeds were used as a control. A randomized complete block design of each trail with four replicates was adopted. Non-irradiated seeds served as a control. Sesame plants were then thinned to 2 plants per hill after 20 days from sowing. The cultural practices recommended for sesame production were adopted throughout the growth season.\u0026nbsp;After three months, the growing sesame plants were checked for the development of charcoal rot symptoms, and the percentage of charcoal rot incidence in sesame was determined,\u0026nbsp;as mentioned before. Ten days before harvesting, 10 plants were randomly selected from each plot to assess plant height (cm), number of capsules, and seed yield (g) per plant. Also,\u0026nbsp;oil was extracted from the seeds by the cold extraction method. At room temperature, about 50 g of crumpled sesame seeds were shaken with petroleum ether (1:10 w/v) for 24 h. Then, the solvent was removed from the oil using a rotary evaporator. Lastly, the oil was placed in a glass vessel at ambient temperature to delete residual solvent. The oil was stored at 4 \u0026deg;C, and then seed oil content (%) was calculated according to Hassan et al. (2019).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBiochemical and histological changes in roots of sesame plants originated from gamma-irradiated and non-irradiated seeds in response to the infection with \u003cem\u003eMp\u003c/em\u003e causing charcoal rot disease:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eA- Biochemical changes\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eA-1- Total protein content\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe total protein contents of the randomly sampled sesame plant roots at 7, 14, 21, and 28 days old originating from gamma-irradiated and non-irradiated seeds were estimated following the method described by Bradford (1976) using crystalline bovine serum albumin (BSA) as a standard. The roots of plant samples from each treatment were collected\u0026nbsp;at 28 days old, and then 1 g of each plant root was heated at 85 \u0026deg;C with 1 N NaOH. The hydrolyzed protein was then determined using Bio-Rad assay dye, and the developed color was measured at 595 nm. The total protein content in each tested sample was then calculated as mg g\u003csup\u003e-1\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003efresh weight from the standard curve of BSA.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eA-2- The activity of oxidative enzymes peroxidase (PO) and polyphenol oxidase (PPO)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOtherwise, the PO and PPO enzyme extraction was performed from the randomly sampled sesame plant roots at 7, 14, 21, and 28 days old, originating from gamma-irradiated and non-irradiated seeds according to the method described by Maxwell and Bateman (1967). Root tissue samples (1 g fresh weight) were ground in a sterile mortar with 10 ml of 0.1 M phosphate buffer (pH= 7) and strained through layers of disinfected muslin cloths. The root tissue extract of each sample was filtrated by centrifuging at 2500 g and 4 \u0026deg;C for 10 min, and the supernatant was then used as enzyme extract. A reaction mixture contained 0.5 ml of freshly dissolved 0.5% Catechol, 1 ml of 0.1 M phosphate buffer, 4.5 ml SDW, and 0.2 ml of enzyme extract. The activity of PO and PPO enzymes was determined by measuring the absorbance at 470 and 480 nm for PO and PPO, respectively, after 15 min. Then, the PO and PPO activity was expressed as absorbance g\u003cstrong\u003e\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e fresh weight 15 min\u003cstrong\u003e\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eA-3- Total phenolic content\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo ascertain the total phenolic contents, fresh roots (1 g) of each tested root sample were extracted in 50% methanol (12 v:v) for 90 minutes at 80 \u0026deg;C from sesame plant roots that were randomly sampled at 7, 14, 21, and 28 days old and originated from gamma-irradiated and non-irradiated seeds. Following a 15-minute centrifugation at 14000 g, the extract was utilized to quantify the amount of free and cell wall-bound phenolic using the Folin-Ciocaleus (FC) reagent, following the protocol outlined by Kofalvi \u0026amp; Nassuth (1995). After neutralizing the pellet with 0.5 ml of 2 N HCl and saponifying it for 24 hours at room temperature to liberate the bound phenolic, the pellet was centrifuged at 14000 g for 15 minutes. Using an FC assay, the supernatant was utilized to bind the phenolic determination. The 100 \u0026mu;L of methanol and NaOH extracts were diluted to 1.0 ml with distilled water, then combined with 2.5 ml of 20% Na\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e CO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e and 0.5 ml of 2 N FC reagent. After the combination was let to stand at room temperature in the dark for 20 minutes, each sample\u0026apos;s absorbance was measured using a spectrophotometer set to measure wavelengths of 725 nm. The Gallic acid (1 mg ml\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e) was dissolved in distilled water to create a stock solution. Then, different concentrations between 1 and 10 \u0026mu;g ml\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e were made. After adding 1.5 ml of FC reagent and waiting five minutes for each concentration to be used, 4 ml of 20% Na\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e CO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e solution was added, and the mixture was finished with 10 ml of distilled water. After 20 minutes of storage, the mixture\u0026apos;s absorbance at 725 nm was determined. The total phenolic content (\u0026mu;g ml\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e) of the samples was calculated by extrapolating a standard curve made with Gallic acid as the standard. To calculate mg of total phenolic g\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e of fresh weight, the absorbance values were converted.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eA\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e-4- Analysis of root lignin content\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUsing a blade mill (Polymix PX-A10), root samples were frozen after 28 days following the procedure outlined by Fagerstedt et al. (2015). At 103 \u0026deg;C, the dry solids content of the ground root samples was ascertained. Using a Soxhlet apparatus, three-gram samples of air-dried root powders were extracted for six hours using acetone (KCL, 1982). The residues were dried at 103 \u0026deg;C, allowed to cool in a desiccator, and then weighed following the solvents\u0026apos; evaporation. The Klason method was used to calculate the quantity of acid-insoluble lignin (Dence, 1992). Three centiliters of 72% sulfuric acid were applied to the 300 mg of extracted root powder samples while they were under vacuum for an hour. After diluting the mixtures with around 82 cm3 of water, they were autoclaved for an hour at 125 \u0026deg;C. Using a 52 \u0026times; 47 mm glass fiber filter, the precipitates were gathered using suction filtration and subsequently cleaned with water. The filters containing the Klason lignin, which is acid-insoluble, were dried at 103 \u0026deg;C, chilled in a desiccator, and then weighed. The amount of lignin that was soluble in acid was then measured by diluting the filtrate with water to a volume of 250 cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e. Using sulfuric acid with the same concentration as a blank, the absorption of the acid solutions containing the dissolved lignin was measured at 203 nm. Using a spectrophotometer to measure absorbance, the total lignin content (Klason lignin plus acid-soluble lignin) of the unextracted roots was computed as follows:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eKlason lignin (%)\u003c/strong\u003e = p (100 \u0026minus; u) / m, in which p = precipitate (g), u = extractives (%), and m = calculated dry weight of the extracted sample (g). Based on the absorption of carbohydrates, the acid-soluble lignin content was adjusted using a lignin absorptivity of 128 L g\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;1\u003c/sup\u003e cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;1\u003c/sup\u003e (KCL, 1982). The measured lignin content of the roots sample, expressed as mg g\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e fresh weight, was calculated by taking the mean of the duplicate measurements of each tested sample.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eB- Root histological features\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFor investigating root anatomical structures, random root samples from\u0026nbsp;the randomly sampled sesame plant roots at 28 days old originating from gamma-irradiated and non-irradiated seeds\u0026nbsp;were taken from the top 4\u0026ndash;6 cm (2 cm length) along the taproot and stored in formalin-alcohol-glacial acetic acid (90:5:5, v/v/v) for at least 24 h, according to the method described by Dossa et al. (2017). Dehydration was done by double-staining with safranin and light green, and then the transverse sections were processed using a microtome following the descriptions of Pandey\u0026nbsp;\u0026amp;\u0026nbsp;Chadha (1996). Images of the root sections were acquired with a Lecia microscope and photographed by its camera at (\u0026times;20-40) magnifications.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStatistical analysis\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAnalysis of variance (ANOVA) was carried out using the Mstatc program. The least significant difference (L.S.D.) at P\u0026le;0.05 was applied to distinguish differences among treatments (Gomez\u0026nbsp;\u0026amp;\u0026nbsp;Gomez, 1984\u003cstrong\u003e).\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEffect of gamma-irradiated sesame seeds on the incidence of charcoal rot disease in the greenhouse\u003c/strong\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eResults in Table 2 and Fig. 3 show the influence\u0026nbsp;of gamma-irradiated sesame seeds with low irradiation doses of\u0026nbsp;4.22, 8.45, 12.68, and 16.9 Gy\u0026nbsp;at 2 and 4 cm on the incidence of charcoal rot disease based on root colonization by \u003cem\u003eMp\u003c/em\u003e fungus and the symptoms under greenhouse conditions. Results indicate that all gamma-irradiated sesame seeds at 2 and 4 cm significantly decreased charcoal rot disease of sesame caused by \u003cem\u003eMp\u003c/em\u003e fungus compared with the control of non-irradiated seeds. Gamma-irradiated seeds with 12.68 Gy dose at 2 and 4 cm were the best effective disease control where exhibited (15 and 13.33%) and \u0026nbsp;(33.33 and 29.33%) based on root colonization by \u003cem\u003eMp\u003c/em\u003e fungus and charcoal rot symptoms when seeds exposed to gamma irradiation at 2 and 4 cm, respectively followed by 8.45 Gy dose compared with non-irradiated seeds (85 and 83.33%) and (83 and 80%), respectively. In contrast, irradiated seeds at 16.90 Gy dose exhibited the lowest disease control treatment where exhibited (20 and 33.33%) and (30 and 26.6%) of root colonization by \u003cem\u003eMp\u003c/em\u003e fungus and charcoal rot symptoms when seeds exposed to irradiation at 2 and 4 cm, respectively. On the other hand, irradiated seeds at 4.22 Gy dose recorded disease incidence reached (30 and 26.67%) and (43.67 and 40%), respectively. Moreover, gamma-irradiated seeds at 2 cm for all irradiation doses teased were better than 4 cm for controlling charcoal rot disease.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEffect of gamma-irradiated sesame seeds on the incidence of charcoal rot disease under naturally\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003einfested field soil with \u003cem\u003eMp\u003c/em\u003e fungus\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eResults in Table 3 show the effect\u0026nbsp;of gamma-irradiated sesame seeds with low irradiation doses of\u0026nbsp;4.22, 8.45, 12.68, and 16.9 Gy\u0026nbsp;at 2 cm on the incidence of charcoal rot disease based on root colonization by \u003cem\u003eMp\u003c/em\u003e fungus and the symptoms in the field. Results indicate that all gamma-irradiated sesame seeds at 4 cm significantly decreased charcoal rot disease of sesame caused by \u003cem\u003eMp\u003c/em\u003e fungus compared with the non-irradiated seeds. Gamma-irradiated seeds at 12.68 Gy dose and 2 cm was the best effective disease control with a mean of 4.64% of disease incidence, which exhibited disease incidence of 4.13 and 5.16% based on root colonization by \u003cem\u003eMp\u003c/em\u003e fungus and charcoal rot symptoms, respectively, followed by 8.45 Gy dose compared with non-irradiated seeds of 81.25 and 78.12%, respectively with mean 79.68% of disease incidence. In contrast, irradiated seeds at 16.90 Gy dose exhibited the lowest disease control treatment where it exhibited 8.64 and 7.33% of disease incidence based on root colonization by \u003cem\u003eMp\u003c/em\u003e fungus and charcoal rot symptoms, respectively, with a mean disease incidence of 7.98%. On the other hand, irradiated seeds at 4.22 Gy dose recorded disease incidence reached 7.14 and 6.52%, respectively, with a mean of 6.83%.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEffect of gamma-irradiated sesame seeds\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eat 4 cm on\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;some plant growth measurements, seed yield, and oil percent under naturally infested field soil with \u003cem\u003eMp\u003c/em\u003e fungus\u003c/strong\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eResults in Table 4 show the\u0026nbsp;effect of gamma-irradiated sesame seeds at\u0026nbsp;4 cm\u0026nbsp;from irradiation\u0026nbsp;source\u0026nbsp;on some plant growth measurements, seed yield, and oil percent under naturally infested field soil with \u003cem\u003eMp\u003c/em\u003e fungus. Results indicate that\u0026nbsp;all gamma-irradiated sesame seeds at 2 cm significantly increased plant height, number of capsules, seeds per plant, and seed oil content compared with the control on non-irradiated seeds. Gamma-irradiated seeds at 12.68 Gy dose were the most effective and exhibited the highest plant height, number of capsules, seeds per plant, and seed oil content in both growing seasons 2021 and 2022, followed by 8.45 Gy dose. In contrast, irradiated seeds at a 16.90 Gy dose exhibited the lowest increase in plant height, number of capsules, seeds per plant, and seed oil content, followed by a 4.16 Gy dose.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBiochemical and histological changes in roots of sesame plants originated from gamma-irradiated and non-irradiated seeds in response to the infection with \u003cem\u003eMp\u003c/em\u003e causing charcoal rot disease:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eA- Biochemical changes\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eA-1- Total protein content\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 5 shows the effect of gamma-irradiated sesame seeds at 2 cm from an irradiation source on the total protein content of plant roots at 7, 14, 21, and 28 days old in naturally infested field soil with \u003cem\u003eMp\u003c/em\u003e fungus. Results indicate that all gamma-irradiated sesame seeds gradually increase the total protein content in plant roots for up to 28 days compared to the non-irradiated seeds of control. Gamma-irradiated seeds at 12.68 Gy dose were the most effective treatment, followed by 8.45 and 4.22 Gy doses, and it exhibited the highest increase in total protein content, which recorded 22.\u0026plusmn;1.5, 45.\u0026plusmn;1.0, 51.\u0026plusmn;1.5, and 62.\u0026plusmn;1.0 mg g\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e fresh weight at 7, 14, 21, and 28 days, respectively compared with the control of non-irradiated seeds. In contrast, gamma-irradiated seeds at 16.90 Gy dose caused the lowest increase in total protein content, which recorded 18.\u0026plusmn;1.0, 35.\u0026plusmn;1.5, 44.\u0026plusmn;1.0, and 55.\u0026plusmn;1.0 mg g\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e fresh weight at 7, 14, 21, and 28 days, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eA-2- The activity of oxidative enzymes PO and PPO\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTables 6 and 7 show the effect of gamma-irradiated sesame seeds at 2 cm from an irradiation source on the activity of PO and PPO enzymes in plant roots at 7, 14, 21, and 28 days old in naturally infested field soil with \u003cem\u003eMp\u003c/em\u003e fungus. Results indicate that all gamma-irradiated sesame seeds gradually increase the activity of PO and PPO enzymes in plant roots for up to 28 days compared to the non-irradiated seeds of control. Gamma-irradiated seeds at a 12.68 Gy dose were the most effective treatment, followed by 8.45 and 4.22 Gy doses, and it exhibited the highest increase in PO and PPO activity, which recorded (0.521\u0026plusmn;0.002, 0.545\u0026plusmn;0.002, 0.551\u0026plusmn;0.002, and 0.562\u0026plusmn;0.002) and (0.323\u0026plusmn;0.001, 0.340\u0026plusmn;0.001, 0.356\u0026plusmn;0.001, and 0.367\u0026plusmn;0.001)\u0026nbsp;absorbance g\u003csup\u003e-1\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003efresh weight 15 min\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e at 7, 14, 21, and 28 days old, respectively. In contrast, gamma-irradiated seeds at 16.90 Gy dose caused the lowest increase in the activity of PO and PPO enzymes, which recorded (0.317\u0026plusmn;0.001,\u0026nbsp;0.235\u0026plusmn;0.001,\u0026nbsp;0.344\u0026plusmn;0.001, and\u0026nbsp;0.355\u0026plusmn;0.001) and (0.215\u0026plusmn;0.001,\u0026nbsp;0.231\u0026plusmn;0.001,\u0026nbsp;0.239\u0026plusmn;0.001, and\u0026nbsp;0.245\u0026plusmn;0.001)\u0026nbsp;absorbance g\u003csup\u003e-1\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003efresh weight 15 min\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e at 7, 14, 21, and 28 days old, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eA-3- Total phenolic content\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 8 shows the effect of gamma-irradiated sesame seeds at 2 cm from an irradiation source on the total phenolic content in plant roots at 7, 14, 21, and 28 days old in naturally infested field soil with Mp fungus. Results indicate that all gamma-irradiated sesame seeds gradually increase the total phenolic content in plant roots for up to 28 days compared to the non-irradiated seeds of control. Gamma-irradiated seeds at 12.68 Gy dose were the most effective treatment, followed by 8.45 and 4.22 Gy doses, and it exhibited the highest increase in total phenolic content, which recorded\u0026nbsp;37\u0026plusmn;1.5,\u0026nbsp;41\u0026plusmn;1.5,\u0026nbsp;47\u0026plusmn;1.5, and\u0026nbsp;56\u0026plusmn;1.5\u0026nbsp;mg g\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e fresh weight at 7, 14, 21, and 28 days, respectively compared with the control of non-irradiated seeds. In contrast, gamma-irradiated seeds at 16.90 Gy dose caused the lowest increase in total protein content, which recorded\u0026nbsp;21\u0026plusmn;1.5,\u0026nbsp;26\u0026plusmn;1.5,\u0026nbsp;33\u0026plusmn;1.0, and\u0026nbsp;39\u0026plusmn;1.0\u0026nbsp;mg g\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e fresh weight at 7, 14, 21, and 28 days, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eA\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e-4- Root lignin content\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 9 shows the effect of gamma-irradiated sesame seeds at 2 cm from an irradiation source on the lignin content in plant roots at 28 days old in naturally infested field soil with \u003cem\u003eMp\u003c/em\u003e fungus. Results indicate that all gamma-irradiated sesame seeds increase the lignin content in plant roots at 28 days compared to the non-irradiated seeds of control. Gamma-irradiated seeds at 12.68 Gy dose were the most effective treatment, followed by 8.45 and 4.22 Gy doses. It exhibited the highest increase in lignin content, which recorded 45.5\u0026plusmn;2.5 mg g\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e fresh weight at 28 days, respectively, compared with the control of non-irradiated seeds (7.5\u0026plusmn;1.0). In contrast, gamma-irradiated seeds at 16.90 Gy dose caused the lowest increase in total lignin content, which recorded 15.5\u0026plusmn;1.5 mg g\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e fresh weight at 28 days.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eB- Root histological features\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFig. 4\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eshows the transfer sections of the sesame plant root (28 days old) of the Giza 32 cultivar. The control root infected by \u003cem\u003eMp\u003c/em\u003e fungus showed a high lysis of the epidermis and cortical cells. However, the protected plant root from seeds exposed to 12.68 Gy of gamma radiation at 2 cm showed a high thickening of the cuticle (cutin) and epidermis cell walls and high lignified cortical cells.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn this study, all gamma-irradiated sesame seeds at low doses from 4.22 to 16.9 Gy at 2 and 4 cm significantly decreased the incidence of sesame charcoal rot disease caused by \u003cem\u003eMp\u003c/em\u003e fungus and enhanced plant growth compared with the control of non-irradiated seeds. However, the irradiation dose of 12.68 Gy was the most effective in reducing charcoal rot disease and increased some plant growth parameters such as plant height, number of capsules, seed yield, and seed oil content. The results obtained are supported by Ikram et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e) and Hussein \u0026amp; Hamideldin (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), who reported that root-infecting fungi (\u003cem\u003eFusarium\u003c/em\u003e spp, \u003cem\u003eMacrophomina phaseolina\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eRhizoctonia solani\u003c/em\u003e) decreased significantly on sunflower, mung bean, and sesame roots due to seed exposure to gamma rays and a significant increase in some growth parameters like shoot length, shoot weight, root length, root weight, leaf area. The sesame plants originating from gamma-irradiated seeds at low doses recorded an increase in potassium uptake and efficiency and thus increased the productivity of sesame plants (Haikal \u0026amp; Moussa, 2023). The plant growth and development processes may be accelerated by low-dose gamma radiation exposure in the 1\u0026ndash;20 Gy range, according to earlier studies with some supporting data. \u003cem\u003eOnobrychis viciifolia\u003c/em\u003e (Charbaji \u0026amp; Nabulsi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e), \u003cem\u003eArabidopsis thaliana\u003c/em\u003e (Kim et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e), \u003cem\u003eOryza sativa\u003c/em\u003e (Singh \u0026amp; Dutta, 2010), sunflower and mung bean (Ikram et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e), and \u003cem\u003eLactuca sativa\u003c/em\u003e (Marcu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) have all been shown to exhibit enhanced germination percentage, root and shoot length, number of panicles and their length, number of seeds per panicle, and some phytochemical properties. Additionally, after applying 20 Gy of gamma radiation to \u003cem\u003eTriticum aestivum\u003c/em\u003e, an increase of roughly 18\u0026ndash;32% in root length and number has been noted (Melki \u0026amp; Marouani, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe biochemical and histological changes in sesame plant roots associated with charcoal rot disease resistance induced by low doses of gamma-irradiated seeds were also investigated in this study. Results showed that all low doses of gamma-irradiated sesame seeds gradually increased the total protein content, PO and PPO activity, phenolic, and lignin contents in plant roots for up to 28 days compared to the non-irradiated seeds of control. Gamma-irradiated seeds at 12.68 Gy dose at 2 cm were the most effective. The histological study also showed a high epidermis and cortical cell lysis of the control root infected by \u003cem\u003eMp\u003c/em\u003e fungus. In contrast, the protected plant root from seeds exposed to 12.68 Gy of gamma radiation at 2 cm showed a high thickening of the cuticle (cutin) and epidermis cell walls and lignified cortical cells. Thicker cuticles and more sclerenchyma tissue could be the reason for inducing resistance to root-infecting fungi (Huber, 1980). It has been documented that, depending on the irradiation intensity, especially at low doses, it can alter the morphology, anatomy, biochemistry, and physiology of plants. According to Kim et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e), Wi et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e), Ikram et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e), Lopes et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), these effects include modifications to the plant's cellular structure and metabolism, such as thylakoid membrane enlargement, changes in photosynthesis, modulation of the antioxidative system, increase in enzyme activity, and accumulation of phenolic compounds. According to recent researches, gamma radiation at lower doses can successfully increase the germination rate (Ali et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) and enzyme activity (Lopes et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Rizki et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, some beneficial impacts on total phenolic content, protein, seed weight, and germination have been documented (Hanafy \u0026amp; Akladious, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eConversely, some studies have reported that low levels of gamma radiation increase crop yield, enzyme activity, and cell proliferation and growth. Low doses also improve plants' resistance to a variety of abiotic stresses, such as salinity, extremes in temperature, drought, and flooding (Moussa, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Applying a low dosage of gamma radiation to plants increases their ability to withstand oxidative stress or modifies their hormone signaling system, which in turn triggers messages that encourage growth. Plant tissues can produce secondary biogenic radiation after being exposed to low-dose radiation, which is likely accomplished by activating different membrane receptors and causing dormant cells to proliferate (Smillie et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, its management during the initial phases of seed germination initiates protein synthesis and RNA activation (Katiyar et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). The current study offers essential information about sesame roots' biochemical and histological changes associated with charcoal rot disease resistance and enhancing plant growth and root structure induced by low doses of gamma-irradiated seeds. However, the possible precise mechanisms associated with this vital role are indistinct and have to be further understudied.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgments\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe author is thankful to all Experimental Farm members of the Faculty of Agriculture, Sohag University, for supporting the research work.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDeclaration Conflict of interest\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors do not have any actual or potential conflict of interest.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical responsibility\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis manuscript is original research and has not been submitted in whole or in parts to another journal for publication.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInformed consent\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors have reviewed the whole manuscript and approved the final version of the manuscript before submission.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAhloowalia, B.S.; Maluszynski, M. \u0026amp; Nichterlein, K. 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Effect of (60cobalt) gamma rays on growth and root rot diseases in Mungbean (\u003cem\u003eVigna radiata\u003c/em\u003e L.). \u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003ePak. J. Bot\u003c/em\u003e., 42(3), 2165-2170.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eIkram, N.; Dawar, Shahnaz; Zaki, M.J.; Tariq, Marium \u0026amp; Abbas,\u0026nbsp;Z. (2011). Combined use of (60cobalt) gamma irradiated seeds and nursery fertilizers in the control of root rot fungi of crop plants.\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eInt. J. Biol. Biotech\u003c/em\u003e., 8(4), 521-527.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eKatiyar, P.; Pandey, N.\u0026nbsp;\u0026amp;\u0026nbsp;Keshavkant, S. (2022). Gamma radiation: A potential tool for abiotic stress mitigation and management of agroecosystem. \u003cem\u003ePlant Stress\u003c/em\u003e, 5, 100089. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.stress.2022.100089\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eKCL, M.J.P.K. (1982). Total lignin content of wood and pulp. In KCL (Finnish Pulp and Paper Research Institute) Reports; KCL: Espoo, Finland, 1982; Volume 115b, p. 3.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eKim, J.H.; Baek, M.H.; Chung, B.Y.; Wi, S.G.\u0026nbsp;\u0026amp;\u0026nbsp;Kim, J.S. (2004). Alterations in the photosynthetic pigments and antioxidant machineries of red pepper (\u003cem\u003eCapsicum annuum\u003c/em\u003e L.) seedlings from gamma-irradiated seeds. J\u003cem\u003e. Plant Biol\u003c/em\u003e., 47, 314-321.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eKofalvi, S.\u0026nbsp;\u0026amp;\u0026nbsp;Nassuth, A. (1995). Influence of wheat streak mosaic virus infection phenylpropanoid metabolism and the accumulation of phenolics and lignin in wheat. \u003cem\u003ePhysiol. Mol. Plant Pathol\u003c/em\u003e., 47, 365-377.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eLopes, A.M.; Bobrowski, V.L; Silva, S.D.\u0026nbsp;\u0026amp;\u0026nbsp;Deuner, S. (2017). Orphophysiological and biochemical alterations in \u003cem\u003eRicinus communis\u003c/em\u003e L. seeds submitted to cobalt60 gamma radiation. \u003cem\u003eAnais da Academia Brasileira de Ci\u0026ecirc;ncias\u003c/em\u003e, 89(3), 1925-1933.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eMak, D.H.; Chiu, P.Y.\u0026nbsp;\u0026amp;\u0026nbsp;Ko, K.M. (2011). Antioxidant and anticarcinogenic potentials of sesame lignans.\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eSesame: The genus Sesamum\u003c/em\u003e,111-121.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eMarcu, D.; Cristea, V.\u0026nbsp;\u0026amp;\u0026nbsp;Daraban, L. (2013). Dose-dependent effects of gamma radiation on lettuce (\u003cem\u003eLactuca sativa\u003c/em\u003e var. \u003cem\u003ecapitata\u003c/em\u003e) seedlings. \u003cem\u003eInt. J. Radiat. Biol\u003c/em\u003e., 89, 219-223.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eMaxwell, D.P.\u0026nbsp;\u0026amp;\u0026nbsp;Bateman, D.F. (1967). Changes in the activity of some oxidases in extracts of \u003cem\u003eRhizoctonia\u003c/em\u003e infected bean hypocotyls in relation to lesion maturation. \u003cem\u003ePhytopathology\u003c/em\u003e, 57, 132-136.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eMelki, M.\u0026nbsp;\u0026amp;\u0026nbsp;Marouani, A. (2010). Effects of gamma rays irradiation on seed germination and growth of hard wheat. Environ. \u003cem\u003eChem. Lett\u003c/em\u003e., 84, 307-310.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eMoussa, H.R. (2011). Low dose of gamma irradiation enhanced drought tolerance in soybean. \u003cem\u003eActa Agron. Hung\u003c/em\u003e., 59, 1-12.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://www.google.com.eg/search?tbo=p\u0026tbm=bks\u0026q=inauthor:%22S.+N.+Pandey%22\"\u003ePandey\u003c/a\u003e, S.N\u0026nbsp;\u0026amp;\u0026nbsp;Chadha, A. (1996). Plant anatomy and embryology. Vikas Publishing House PVT Limited, 474 pages.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003ePusadkar, P.; Kokiladevi, E.; Bonde, S.\u0026nbsp;\u0026amp;\u0026nbsp;Mohite, N. (2015). Sesame (\u003cem\u003eSesamum indicum\u003c/em\u003e L.) importance and its high quality seed oil: A review. \u003cem\u003eTrends Biosci\u003c/em\u003e.,\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e8(15), 3900-3906.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eReyas Gaige, A.; Ayella, A. \u0026amp; Shuai, B. (2010). Methyl jasmonate and ethylene induce partial resistance in \u003cem\u003eMedicago truncatula\u003c/em\u003e against the charcoal rot pathogen \u003cem\u003eMacrophomina phaseolina\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003ePhysiological and Molecular Plant Pathology\u003c/em\u003e, 74, 412-418.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eRibeiro, R.V.\u0026nbsp;\u0026amp;\u0026nbsp;Machado, E.C. (2007). Some aspects of citrus ecophysiology in subtropical climates: re-visiting photosynthesis under natural conditions. \u003cem\u003eBraz. J. Plant Physiol\u003c/em\u003e., 19, 393-411.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eRizki, H.; Mouhib, M.; Nabloussi, A.\u0026nbsp;\u0026amp;\u0026nbsp;Latrache, H. (2019). Effect of different doses of gamma irradiation on biochemical and microbiological properties of sesame (\u003cem\u003eSesamum indicum\u003c/em\u003e L.) seeds. \u003cem\u003eMoroccan Journal of Chemistry\u003c/em\u003e, 7(3), 7-3.\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026rlm;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSingh, B.\u0026nbsp;\u0026amp;\u0026nbsp;Datta, P.S. (2010). Effect of low dose gamma irradiation on plant and grain nutrition of wheat. \u003cem\u003eRadiat. Phys. Chem\u003c/em\u003e., 79, 819\u0026ndash;825.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSmillie, I.R.A.; Pyke, K.A.\u0026nbsp;\u0026amp;\u0026nbsp;Murchie, E.H. (2012).\u0026nbsp;Variation in vein density and mesophyll cell architecture in a rice deletion mutant population. \u003cem\u003eJ. Exp. Bot\u003c/em\u003e., 63, 4563-4570.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSpencer-Lopes, M.; Forster, B.P.\u0026nbsp;\u0026amp;\u0026nbsp;Jankuloski, L. (2018). Manual on mutation breeding: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO).\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eWi, S.G., Chung, B.Y.; Kim, J.H.; Baek, M.H.; Yang, D.H.; Lee, J.W\u0026nbsp;\u0026amp;\u0026nbsp;Kim, J.S. (2005). Ultrastructural changes of cell organelles in Arabidopsis stem after gamma irradiation. \u003cem\u003eJ. Plant Biol\u003c/em\u003e., 48(2), 195-200.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Tables","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 1\u003c/strong\u003e:\u0026nbsp;Exposure time and dose of sesame seed samples to gamma-ray in the radiation doses plan No. 1 and 2 at 2 and 4 cm from the radiation source, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"642\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"19.626168224299064%\" rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eExposure time\u0026nbsp;(hours)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.08411214953271%\" rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDose\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(Gy)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.64485981308411%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRadiation dose plan No. 1\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.64485981308411%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRadiation dose plan No. 2\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"50%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eExposure at 2 cm\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"50%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eExposure at 4 cm\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"19.626168224299064%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.08411214953271%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;4.22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.64485981308411%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; 5*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.64485981308411%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"19.626168224299064%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.08411214953271%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;8.45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.64485981308411%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.64485981308411%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"19.626168224299064%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e36\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.08411214953271%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.68\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.64485981308411%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.64485981308411%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"19.626168224299064%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e48\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.08411214953271%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.90\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.64485981308411%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.64485981308411%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e* Seeds sample No.\u0026nbsp;(58 g of each).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 2:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eEffect of gamma-irradiated sesame seeds exposed at 2 and 4 cm from irradiation source on the incidence of charcoal rot disease based on root colonization by \u003cem\u003eMp\u003c/em\u003e and the symptoms under greenhouse conditions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"650\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.53846153846154%\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGamma radiation dose\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(Gy\u003c/strong\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"40.61538461538461%\" colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eExposure at 2 cm\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"41.84615384615385%\" colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eExposure at 4 cm\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.746268656716417%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCharcoal rot (%) based on root colonization by \u003cem\u003eMp\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"23.507462686567163%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCharcoal rot (%) based on symptoms\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.746268656716417%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCharcoal rot (%) based on root colonization by \u003cem\u003eMp\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCharcoal rot (%) based on\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;symptoms\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.53846153846154%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.68\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.90\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eControl\u003cstrong\u003e*\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"21.23076923076923%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e85.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"19.384615384615383%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26.67\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.67\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23.33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e83.33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"21.23076923076923%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e43.67\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e35.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e83.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"20.615384615384617%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e40.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33.33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29.33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26.67\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.53846153846154%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eL.S.D.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eat\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e5%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"21.23076923076923%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e5.63\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"19.384615384615383%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1.13\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"21.23076923076923%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1.93\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"20.615384615384617%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.66\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e*\u003c/strong\u003eNon-irradiated seeds.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 3\u003c/strong\u003e:\u0026nbsp;Effect of gamma-irradiated sesame seeds at\u0026nbsp;2 cm\u0026nbsp;from irradiation\u0026nbsp;source\u0026nbsp;on the incidence of charcoal rot disease under naturally infested field soil with \u003cem\u003eMp\u003c/em\u003e fungus.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.871362940275652%\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGamma radiation dose (Gy\u003c/strong\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"72.12863705972435%\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCharcoal rot (%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"31.21019108280255%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBased on root colonization by \u003cem\u003eMp\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"35.031847133757964%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBased on symptoms\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.75796178343949%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMean\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.871362940275652%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.511485451761104%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; 7.14\u003cstrong\u003e*\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.267993874425727%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.52\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"24.34915773353752%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.83\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.871362940275652%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.511485451761104%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.267993874425727%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.53\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"24.34915773353752%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.43\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.871362940275652%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.68\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.511485451761104%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.267993874425727%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"24.34915773353752%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.64\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.871362940275652%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.90\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.511485451761104%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.64\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.267993874425727%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"24.34915773353752%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.98\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.871362940275652%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eControl\u003cstrong\u003e**\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.511485451761104%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e81.25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.267993874425727%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e78.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"24.34915773353752%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e79.68\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.871362940275652%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMean\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.511485451761104%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e21.29\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.267993874425727%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e20.53\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"24.34915773353752%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e20.91\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.871362940275652%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eL.S.D.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eat\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e5%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.511485451761104%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.15\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.267993874425727%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.16\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"24.34915773353752%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.15\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e*\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eValues are the means over the two growing seasons, 2022 and 2023.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e**\u003c/strong\u003e Non-irradiated seeds.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 4:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eEffect of gamma-irradiated sesame seeds\u0026nbsp;2 cm from irradiation source\u0026nbsp;on some plant growth measurements, seed yield, and oil percent under\u0026nbsp;naturally infested field soil with \u003cem\u003eMp\u003c/em\u003e fungus.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"642\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.822429906542055%\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGamma radiation dose (Gy\u003c/strong\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"19.626168224299064%\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePlant height (cm)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"23.364485981308412%\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNo. of capsules/plant\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.429906542056074%\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSeed yield/plant (g)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.757009345794394%\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOil content (%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.359550561797754%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2022\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"11.235955056179776%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2023\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.48314606741573%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2022\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.606741573033707%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2023\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"11.985018726591761%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2022\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.9812734082397%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2023\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"10.112359550561798%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2022\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"11.235955056179776%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2023\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.822429906542055%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"10.280373831775702%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e196.61\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.345794392523365%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e195.86\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"11.214953271028037%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e210.34\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.149532710280374%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e213.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.968847352024921%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25.93\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.461059190031152%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26.50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.411214953271028%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e55.70\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.345794392523365%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e56.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.822429906542055%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"10.280373831775702%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e210.80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.345794392523365%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e216.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"11.214953271028037%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e233.71\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.149532710280374%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e237.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.968847352024921%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31.50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.461059190031152%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29.45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.411214953271028%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e58.60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.345794392523365%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e58.91\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.822429906542055%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.68\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"10.280373831775702%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e225.47\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.345794392523365%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e224.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"11.214953271028037%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e243.91\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.149532710280374%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e250.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.968847352024921%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e37.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.461059190031152%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e35.93\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.411214953271028%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e60.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.345794392523365%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e62.70\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.822429906542055%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"10.280373831775702%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e193.71\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.345794392523365%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e190.92\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"11.214953271028037%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e165.70\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.149532710280374%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e173.50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.968847352024921%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20.81\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.461059190031152%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.411214953271028%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e52.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.345794392523365%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e51.81\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.822429906542055%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eControl\u003cstrong\u003e*\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"10.280373831775702%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e180.50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.345794392523365%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e184.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"11.214953271028037%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e98.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.149532710280374%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.968847352024921%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.81\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.461059190031152%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.91\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.411214953271028%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e48.75\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.345794392523365%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e49.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.822429906542055%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eL.S.D.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eat\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e5%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"10.280373831775702%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4.12\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.345794392523365%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4.38\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"11.214953271028037%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.13\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.149532710280374%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.37\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.968847352024921%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1.72\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.461059190031152%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1.18\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.411214953271028%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.75\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.345794392523365%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1.73\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e*\u003c/strong\u003e Non-irradiated seeds.\u003c/p\u003e\n\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 5\u003c/strong\u003e: Effect of gamma-irradiated sesame seeds at\u0026nbsp;2 cm from irradiation source on total protein content of plant roots at 7, 14, 21, and 28 days old in naturally infested field soil with \u003cem\u003eMp\u003c/em\u003e fungus.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"642\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.102803738317757%\" rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGamma radiation\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003edose (Gy\u003c/strong\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"72.89719626168224%\" colspan=\"4\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTotal protein content\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;(\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003emg g\u003csup\u003e-1\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003efresh weight)* of sesame roots at\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"24.358974358974358%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e7 days\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"24.358974358974358%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e14 days\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.641025641025642%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e21 days\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.641025641025642%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e28 days\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.102803738317757%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.757009345794394%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; 19\u0026plusmn;1.5***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.757009345794394%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e39\u0026plusmn;1.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.69158878504673%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e45\u0026plusmn;1.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.69158878504673%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e57\u0026plusmn;1.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.102803738317757%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.757009345794394%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20\u0026plusmn;1.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.757009345794394%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38\u0026plusmn;1.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.69158878504673%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e47\u0026plusmn;1.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.69158878504673%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e59\u0026plusmn;1.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.102803738317757%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.68\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.757009345794394%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22\u0026plusmn;1.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.757009345794394%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e45\u0026plusmn;1.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.69158878504673%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e51\u0026plusmn;1.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.69158878504673%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e62\u0026plusmn;1.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.102803738317757%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.90\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.757009345794394%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18\u0026plusmn;1.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.757009345794394%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e35\u0026plusmn;1.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.69158878504673%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e44\u0026plusmn;1.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.69158878504673%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e55\u0026plusmn;1.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.102803738317757%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eControl\u003cstrong\u003e**\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.757009345794394%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16\u0026plusmn;1.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.757009345794394%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33\u0026plusmn;1.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.69158878504673%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e42\u0026plusmn;1.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.69158878504673%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e51\u0026plusmn;1.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e*\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eData are the means over the two growing seasons, 2022 and 2023.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e** Non-irradiated seeds planted in the naturally infested field soil with \u003cem\u003eMp\u003c/em\u003e fungus.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e*** Values are the means (mg g\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e fresh weight \u0026plusmn; standard deviation) over three replicates from the standard curve of BSA.\u003c/p\u003e\n\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 6:\u003c/strong\u003e Effect of gamma-irradiated sesame seeds at\u0026nbsp;2 cm from the irradiation source on PO activity of plant roots at 7, 14, 21, and 28 days old in naturally infested field soil with \u003cem\u003eMp\u003c/em\u003e fungus.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"642\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.102803738317757%\" rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGamma radiation\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003edose (Gy\u003c/strong\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"72.89719626168224%\" colspan=\"4\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePO activity* in sesame roots at\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"30.76923076923077%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e7 days\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"23.076923076923077%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e14 days\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"23.076923076923077%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e21 days\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"23.076923076923077%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e28 days\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.102803738317757%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.429906542056074%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;0.318\u0026plusmn;0.001***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.822429906542055%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.339\u0026plusmn;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.822429906542055%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.345\u0026plusmn;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.822429906542055%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.357\u0026plusmn;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.102803738317757%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.429906542056074%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.321\u0026plusmn;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.822429906542055%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.341\u0026plusmn;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.822429906542055%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.346\u0026plusmn;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.822429906542055%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.358\u0026plusmn;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.102803738317757%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.68\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.429906542056074%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.521\u0026plusmn;0.002\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.822429906542055%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.545\u0026plusmn;0.002\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.822429906542055%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.551\u0026plusmn;0.002\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.822429906542055%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.562\u0026plusmn;0.002\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.102803738317757%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.90\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.429906542056074%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.317\u0026plusmn;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.822429906542055%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.235\u0026plusmn;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.822429906542055%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.344\u0026plusmn;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.822429906542055%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.355\u0026plusmn;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.102803738317757%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eControl\u003cstrong\u003e**\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.429906542056074%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.226\u0026plusmn;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.822429906542055%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.237\u0026plusmn;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.822429906542055%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.249\u0026plusmn;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.822429906542055%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.254\u0026plusmn;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e*\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eData are the means over the two growing seasons, 2022 and 2023.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e** Non-irradiated seeds planted in the naturally infested field soil with \u003cem\u003eMp\u003c/em\u003e fungus.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e***\u0026nbsp;Values are\u0026nbsp;the means (absorbance\u0026nbsp;\u0026plusmn; standard deviation\u0026nbsp;g\u003csup\u003e-1\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003efresh weight 15 min\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e) over three replicates\u003c/p\u003e\n\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 7:\u003c/strong\u003e Effect of gamma-irradiated sesame seeds at\u0026nbsp;2 cm from irradiation source on PPO activity of plant roots at 7, 14, 21, and 28 days old in naturally infested field soil with \u003cem\u003eMp\u003c/em\u003e fungus.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"642\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.102803738317757%\" rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGamma radiation\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003edose (Gy\u003c/strong\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"72.89719626168224%\" colspan=\"4\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePPO activity* in sesame roots at\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"30.76923076923077%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e7 days\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"23.076923076923077%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e14 days\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"23.076923076923077%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e21 days\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"23.076923076923077%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e28 days\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.102803738317757%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.429906542056074%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;0.219\u0026plusmn;0.001***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.822429906542055%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.234\u0026plusmn;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.822429906542055%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.247\u0026plusmn;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.822429906542055%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.259\u0026plusmn;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.102803738317757%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.429906542056074%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.224\u0026plusmn;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.822429906542055%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.244\u0026plusmn;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.822429906542055%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.246\u0026plusmn;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.822429906542055%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.256\u0026plusmn;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.102803738317757%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.68\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.429906542056074%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.323\u0026plusmn;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.822429906542055%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.340\u0026plusmn;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.822429906542055%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.356\u0026plusmn;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.822429906542055%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.367\u0026plusmn;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.102803738317757%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.90\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.429906542056074%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.215\u0026plusmn;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.822429906542055%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.231\u0026plusmn;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.822429906542055%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.239\u0026plusmn;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.822429906542055%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.245\u0026plusmn;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.102803738317757%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eControl\u003cstrong\u003e**\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.429906542056074%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.113\u0026plusmn;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.822429906542055%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.125\u0026plusmn;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.822429906542055%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.138\u0026plusmn;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.822429906542055%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.144\u0026plusmn;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e*\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eData are the means over the two growing seasons, 2022 and 2023.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e** Non-irradiated seeds planted in the naturally infested field soil with \u003cem\u003eMp\u003c/em\u003e fungus.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e***\u0026nbsp;Values are\u0026nbsp;the means (absorbance\u0026nbsp;\u0026plusmn; standard deviation\u0026nbsp;g\u003csup\u003e-1\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003efresh weight 15 min\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e) over three replicates\u003c/p\u003e\n\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 8:\u003c/strong\u003e Effect of gamma-irradiated sesame seeds at\u0026nbsp;2 cm from irradiation source on total phenolic content of plant roots at 7, 14, 21, and 28 days old in naturally infested field soil with \u003cem\u003eMp\u003c/em\u003e fungus.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"642\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.102803738317757%\" rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGamma radiation\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003edose (Gy\u003c/strong\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"72.89719626168224%\" colspan=\"4\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTotal phenolic content\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;(\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003emg g\u003csup\u003e-1\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003efresh weight)* in sesame roots at\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"24.358974358974358%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e7 days\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"24.358974358974358%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e14 days\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.641025641025642%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e21 days\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.641025641025642%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e28 days\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.102803738317757%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.757009345794394%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; 27\u0026plusmn;1.0***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.757009345794394%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33\u0026plusmn;1.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.69158878504673%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38\u0026plusmn;1.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.69158878504673%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e42\u0026plusmn;1.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.102803738317757%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.757009345794394%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31\u0026plusmn;1.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.757009345794394%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e36\u0026plusmn;1.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.69158878504673%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e40\u0026plusmn;1.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.69158878504673%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e47\u0026plusmn;1.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.102803738317757%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.68\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.757009345794394%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e37\u0026plusmn;1.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.757009345794394%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e41\u0026plusmn;1.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.69158878504673%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e47\u0026plusmn;1.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.69158878504673%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e56\u0026plusmn;1.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.102803738317757%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.90\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.757009345794394%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21\u0026plusmn;1.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.757009345794394%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26\u0026plusmn;1.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.69158878504673%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33\u0026plusmn;1.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.69158878504673%\" valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e39\u0026plusmn;1.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.102803738317757%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eControl\u003cstrong\u003e**\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.757009345794394%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u0026plusmn;1.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.757009345794394%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23\u0026plusmn;1.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.69158878504673%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31\u0026plusmn;1.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.69158878504673%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e36\u0026plusmn;1.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e*\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eData are the means over the two growing seasons, 2022 and 2023.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e** Non-irradiated seeds planted in the naturally infested field soil with \u003cem\u003eMp\u003c/em\u003e fungus\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e*** Values are the means (mg g\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e fresh weight standard deviation) over three replicates from the standard curve of Gallic acid.\u003c/p\u003e\n\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 9\u003c/strong\u003e: Effect of gamma-irradiated sesame seeds at\u0026nbsp;2 cm from irradiation source on lignin content of plant roots at 28 days old in naturally infested field soil with \u003cem\u003eMp\u003c/em\u003e fungus.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"53.68098159509202%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGamma radiation dose (Gy\u003c/strong\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"46.31901840490798%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLignin content\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003emg g\u003csup\u003e-1\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003efresh weight)**\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"53.68098159509202%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"46.31901840490798%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;25.0\u0026plusmn;2.0\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"53.68098159509202%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"46.31901840490798%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20.5\u0026plusmn;1.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"53.68098159509202%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.68\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"46.31901840490798%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e45.5\u0026plusmn;2.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"53.68098159509202%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.90\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"46.31901840490798%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.5\u0026plusmn;1.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"53.68098159509202%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eControl\u003cstrong\u003e*\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"46.31901840490798%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;7.5\u0026plusmn;1.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"53.68098159509202%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMean\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"46.31901840490798%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e30.0\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026plusmn;1.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e* Non-irradiated seeds planted in the naturally infested field soil with \u003cem\u003eMp\u003c/em\u003e fungus.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e**\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eValues are the means (mg g\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e fresh weight \u0026plusmn; standard deviation) over the two growing seasons, 2022 and 2023.\u003c/p\u003e\n\n"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":true,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"european-journal-of-plant-pathology","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"ejpp","sideBox":"Learn more about [European Journal of Plant Pathology](http://link.springer.com/journal/10658)","snPcode":"10658","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/ejpp/default2.aspx","title":"European Journal of Plant Pathology","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Sesamum indicum L., seed irradiation, charcoal rot, induced resistance, control","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4284362/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4284362/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThe current study aimed at irradiating sesame seeds with gamma radiation at 4.22, 8.45, 12.68, and 16.9 Gy and 2 and 4 cm to control charcoal rot disease caused by \u003cem\u003eMacrophomina phaseolina\u003c/em\u003e (\u003cem\u003eMp\u003c/em\u003e) and also investigating their effects on some biochemical and histological changes in sesame roots associated with charcoal rot disease resistance with enhancing plant growth, seed yield, and oil content. In pot and field experiments under either artificial or natural soil infestation with the \u003cem\u003eMp\u003c/em\u003e inoculum, sowing of irradiated sesame seeds with gamma radiation at low doses significantly reduced the incidence of charcoal rot disease recorded based on root colonization by the \u003cem\u003eMp\u003c/em\u003e fungus and developed symptoms and enhanced plant growth measured by increasing plant height, number of capsules, and seed yield per plant, as well as percent of seed oil content compared with the control of non-irradiated seeds. The irradiation dose of 12.68 Gy was the most effective, followed by the 8.45 Gy dose. The biochemical study of sesame roots associated with charcoal rot disease resistance induced by gamma-irradiating seeds at 12.68 Gy at 2 cm showed a gradual increase in the total protein content, the activity of peroxidase and polyphenol oxidase, phenolic, and lignin contents in plant roots for up to 28 days compared to those originated from non-irradiated seeds. The histological study of the protected plant roots at 28 days old originating from seeds exposed to a 12.68 Gy dose showed a high thickening of the cuticle and epidermis cell walls and lignified cortical cells.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Biochemical and histological changes in sesame roots associated with charcoal rot disease resistance and enhancing plant growth induced by gamma-irradiated seeds at low doses","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-05-30 06:31:32","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4284362/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"","date":"2024-06-03T15:43:05+00:00","index":0,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2024-05-20T03:06:58+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"European Journal of Plant Pathology","date":"2024-05-01T08:25:28+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2024-04-30T14:50:08+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"European Journal of Plant Pathology","date":"2024-04-28T19:34:15+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"decision","content":"Major revisions","date":"2024-04-26T00:09:35+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"european-journal-of-plant-pathology","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"ejpp","sideBox":"Learn more about [European Journal of Plant Pathology](http://link.springer.com/journal/10658)","snPcode":"10658","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/ejpp/default2.aspx","title":"European Journal of Plant Pathology","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"53c83689-580c-401b-a6d6-c3274755e223","owner":[],"postedDate":"May 30th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"in-revision","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-10-20T15:25:39+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-05-30 06:31:32","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-4284362","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-4284362","identity":"rs-4284362","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}