The Silent Genocide: Starvation and the Burden of Proving Intent Before International Criminal Justice.

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This paper seeks to define starvation as a method of genocide, explore the various problems which arise from demonstrating the requisite criminal intent under the 1948 Genocide Convention. In many wars, hunger is used as a weapon to destroy targeted groups by depriving them of essential resources. Faced both with pivotal legal challenges which arise from the governing frameworks, from the evidentiary dilemma of establishing intent, and the liability limitations of the international courts, the study sets out key questions that we will address. The paper thus demonstrates major flaws in current mechanisms through a comparative analysis of court proceedings, from the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, and the International Criminal Court’s involvement in crises in Darfur, Gaza, and Yemen. This research calls for immediate legal changes and better-armed judges, allowing for the identification and prosecution of starvation as a form of genocide." } { "@context": "http://schema.org", "@type": "BreadcrumbList", "itemListElement": [ { "@type": "ListItem", "position": "1", "item": { "@id": "https://f1000research.com/", "name": "Home" } }, { "@type": "ListItem", "position": "2", "item": { "@id": "https://f1000research.com/browse/articles", "name": "Browse" } }, { "@type": "ListItem", "position": "3", "item": { "@id": "https://f1000research.com/articles/14-1438/v1", "name": "The Silent Genocide: Starvation and the Burden of Proving Intent Before..." } } ] } Home Browse The Silent Genocide: Starvation and the Burden of Proving Intent Before... ALL Metrics - Views Downloads Get PDF Get XML Cite How to cite this article Abdelaziz DKA. The Silent Genocide: Starvation and the Burden of Proving Intent Before International Criminal Justice. [version 1; peer review: 1 not approved] . F1000Research 2025, 14 :1438 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.172243.1 ) NOTE: If applicable, it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article. Close Copy Citation Details Export Export Citation Sciwheel EndNote Ref. Manager Bibtex ProCite Sente EXPORT Select a format first Track Share ▬ ✚ Case Study The Silent Genocide: Starvation and the Burden of Proving Intent Before International Criminal Justice. [version 1; peer review: 1 not approved] Dalia Kadry Ahmed Abdelaziz https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7616-5827 Dalia Kadry Ahmed Abdelaziz https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7616-5827 PUBLISHED 23 Dec 2025 Author details Author details Law, Prince Sultan University, Riyadh, Riyadh Province, 12211, Saudi Arabia Dalia Kadry Ahmed Abdelaziz Roles: Conceptualization, Data Curation, Formal Analysis, Funding Acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Project Administration, Resources, Software, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing – Original Draft Preparation, Writing – Review & Editing OPEN PEER REVIEW DETAILS REVIEWER STATUS Abstract What lies beneath is the “silent genocide” of deliberately using starvation to kill, its incidence so dire as it has become an emergency issue in contemporary international criminal law. This paper seeks to define starvation as a method of genocide, explore the various problems which arise from demonstrating the requisite criminal intent under the 1948 Genocide Convention. In many wars, hunger is used as a weapon to destroy targeted groups by depriving them of essential resources. Faced both with pivotal legal challenges which arise from the governing frameworks, from the evidentiary dilemma of establishing intent, and the liability limitations of the international courts, the study sets out key questions that we will address. The paper thus demonstrates major flaws in current mechanisms through a comparative analysis of court proceedings, from the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, and the International Criminal Court’s involvement in crises in Darfur, Gaza, and Yemen. This research calls for immediate legal changes and better-armed judges, allowing for the identification and prosecution of starvation as a form of genocide. READ ALL READ LESS Keywords Starvation,Genocide, Mens Rea, International Criminal Justice, Humanitarian Law Corresponding Author(s) Dalia Kadry Ahmed Abdelaziz ( [email protected] ) Close Corresponding author: Dalia Kadry Ahmed Abdelaziz Competing interests: No competing interests were disclosed. Grant information: This research was financially supported by the Governance and Policy Design Research Lab (GPDRL) at Prince Sultan University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. Copyright: © 2025 Abdelaziz DKA. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. How to cite: Abdelaziz DKA. The Silent Genocide: Starvation and the Burden of Proving Intent Before International Criminal Justice. [version 1; peer review: 1 not approved] . F1000Research 2025, 14 :1438 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.172243.1 ) First published: 23 Dec 2025, 14 :1438 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.172243.1 ) Latest published: 23 Dec 2025, 14 :1438 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.172243.1 ) 1. Introduction Starvation has been a longstanding known tool of annihilation in warfare and ethnic cleansing, in many cases a “silent genocide.” It denotes the purposeful starvation of food and essential resources and is targeted on certain groups, usually through political or ideological motive ( Mangku et al., 2022 ). Historic episodes, such as the famines carried out during the Armenian Genocide, as well as the recent ones in South Sudan and Yemen provide historical cases of selective starvation being used to eliminate people ( Dorskaia & Dorskii, 2023 ; Mangku et al., 2022 ). This research investigates the ambiguities of the legal status of starvation as genocide in terms of the extent to which criminal intent (mens rea) exists and how it is measured under international law. The research is relevant to the international context where the trial of starvation-related genocidal crime is largely on trial, due to the challenge of proving intent to prosecute genocide, as the burden that international courts, including the ICC and ad hoc court system, cannot avoid ( Al-Haj, 2024 ). Even though there are many legal systems, the ambiguity of intent has its own challenges in the prosecution of starvation-related crime ( Jeffrey, 2023 ). Due to the difficulty in prosecuting starvation as genocide, the study takes a multi-institutional approach by analyzing judicial precedents and practices emanating from both the ICC and ad hoc tribunals, including the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR). Interdisciplinary legal research aims to provide a deeper understanding of the mechanisms, gaps, and prospects for reform to enhance the state of accountability for the use of starvation-based genocidal actions by bringing together the comparative analysis of different judicial regimes and the evolving jurisprudence that serves as a touchstone to the discussion. The primary research question concerns the failures of international legal mechanisms to address starvation as a genocidal option. It also involves the associated difficulty of obtaining conviction based on establishing intent. This study operates according to the comparative methodology; the article explores the legal precedents as well as case studies from Rwanda’s International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda as well as crises in Gaza and Yemen today. This multi-level approach unites legal scholarship with empirical evidence to provide a comprehensive understanding of how starvation was involved in genocide, and proposals for improving accountability to international law. 2. Theoritical framework Genocide Convention (1948) – This law provides a fundamental legal definition of genocide and identifies, such acts with the specific intention to destroy, in whole or in part, national, ethnic, racial, or religious groups. The acts, including killing and inflicting serious bodily or mental injury, may also be seen as a broader form of tactics such as intentional conditions of life designed to bring destruction, including starvation ( Schabas, 2009 ). Starvation may result from either immediate deprivation of food or through a slow, systematic deprivation with the aim of eradication. This is an important definition for understanding of the varied ways in which genocide happens. 2.1 Historical development and key legal cases Since the Convention’s adoption, the legal interpretation of genocide has gradually spread to recognize forms that go beyond outright violence. Key cases have broadened the parameters of known genocidal acts. As an example, Prosecutor v. Akayesu ( ICTR, 1998 ) was a landmark case when starvation and other nonviolent means were integrated as the formal basis for genocide prosecutions. Here the court determined that the deliberate starvation of the Tutsi population amounted to an intentional policy of destruction. More recent cases and ongoing investigations—such as in Darfur and Yemen—illustrate just how difficult it is to make cases for starvation under accepted evidentiary standards. 2.2 Proving mens rea: The intent element A core problem with prosecuting genocide by starvation is achieving mens rea or the specific intent to destroy a protected community. This becomes complicated if starvation results indirectly from official policy, sanctioning, or military operation rather than explicit extermination orders. Prosecutors base a lot of their evidence on circumstantial evidence—government policies that impose blockades or systematically deny humanitarian aid and deprivation to prove intent ( Bakkour, 2023 ; Yavorska et al., 2024 ). The challenge of making it into conflict zones and obtaining admissible evidence also makes proving intent more difficult. 2.3 Legal division: Genocide and crimes against humanity The line that is drawing the line between genocide and crimes against humanity is legally important: Both will likely refer to crimes of starvation but require different aims and impact different prosecutors. Although genocide requires demonstrating intent to destroy a group, crimes against humanity, such as extermination or persecution, target general or systemic violence, which do not typically require such specific intent ( Nishat & Hossain, 2022 ). This distinction can affect how charges are selected, sentences are meted out, and victims are recognized. 2.4 The second side and the debate within the literature Overly broad classifications of starvation as genocide, warns some scholars, which can falsely condemn those who meet some kind of criterion for genocide – famine being classified as genocide merely because it occurs to others, as there were extreme famines, or because starvation may have been the result of conflict without the proper legal system protecting victims, weakening the precision of genocide as a category ( Roberts, 2019 ). Nevertheless, supporters argue for nuanced legal constructs that can differentiate between incidental hardships and deliberate starvation campaigns wielded as weapons of war, indicating the importance of legal evolution to address modern issues ( Schabas, 2009 ; Bakkour, 2023 ). 2.5 International response and humanitarian context The international community, via United Nations, non-governmental organizations, and other actors, has increasingly accepted that starvation is used as a weapon in conflict, this perspective being integrated within humanitarian intervention and political pressure. However, legal reactions are still variable and there have been few cases that go forward in cases before international courts. Humanitarian initiatives are usually blocked by weak legal orders and political difficulties, reflecting the space between legal principle and practical intervention ( UN OCHA, 2023b ). Use of technology (or technology technologies in the field of evidence gathering). Technological progress—especially with satellite imagery, geospatial data, and digital data recovery—is changing the ways we gather and verify evidence of starvation and related policies where physical access is limited. This growing arsenal of tools reinforces the evidence-based basis for prosecutions, and may affect legal norms, inquiries, and laws ( Richter et al., 2024 ). 2.6 Summary of key challenges • Lack of clarity in the explicit naming of starvation as a genocidal tactic. • High necessity to produce evidence of specific intent under international law. • Legal overlap and distinction challenges between genocide and crimes against humanity. • Challenges in gathering admissible evidence amid ongoing and complex conflicts. • Not enough integration of humanitarian, technological, and legal responses. 3. Judicial precedents and international practice Review Analysis of the approach of different international courts to the issue of starvation for genocide, particularly regarding the necessity proven in the case for criminal intent (mens rea). By examining major case studies and decision-making, this part of the report unpacks aspects of the evidentiary process and judicial analysis and reveals structural failures of accountability that persist in the enforcement of international law in cases where starvation has been used as a means of genocide. An expansive legal framework exists for prosecuting starvation as genocidal acts, guided significantly by international treaties and statutory instruments, most notably the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court ( ICC, 1998 ). The provisions of Article 6(c) of the Rome Statute clearly define genocide as: “Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part.” This provision explicitly recognizes the infliction of life-threatening conditions like starvation as constitutive acts of genocide when followed by the specific mens rea — the intention to destroy, in whole or in part, a protected group. Article 30 of the statute specifies what mental element must be present, stating that an accused must act “with intent and knowledge” to be criminally responsible. This requires prosecutors to establish beyond all reasonable doubt that the deprivation of essential resources was not incidental or collateral but rather part of a deliberate, organized campaign to destroy the actual targeted population. Likewise, the Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda ( ICTR, 1994) , particularly Article 2, also has such language referring to genocide as the “deliberate infliction of conditions of life,” with the purpose of literally annihilating ethnic groups, thus representing acts of starvation as part of the ICTR’s purview. As the first significant international tribunal to consider starvation as an element of genocide, the ICTR therefore played a key role in developing the judiciary’s standards for mens rea and indirect means of extermination. And they are, of course, grounded in cases that are highly dependent on judicial precedents when the provisions are interpreted and applied in international courts. As Boyko (2021: 624) underlines, precedent is critical to the development of international adjudication, establishing that by applying previous decisions consistently and equally we help define norms for aspects as complex as mens rea in genocide cases – especially in situations where facts are minimal. This reliance on precedent creates the coherence of the judiciary, though it can also show challenges where political or evidentiary factors can obviate evidence of intent. 3.1 Case study Rwanda in the 1994 genocide, starvation was systematically and strategically utilized along with mass murders for the Tutsi ethnic group. The ICTR’s jurisprudence demonstrates how important mens rea was as a consideration in determining individual criminal culpability. 3.1.1 Crisis Overview: The genocide resulted in the systematic extermination and starvation of some 800,000 Tutsis and moderate Hutus in a matter of months. Rooted in the deepest ethnic fissures and accentuated by colonial legacies and political crisis, the attack strategy included organized blockages along food lines and destruction of agricultural infrastructure in an attempt to inflict a lethality on the victims ( Mangku et al., 2022 ; Dorskaia & Dorskii, 2023 ). 3.1.2 Strategy of the ICTR: The court was preoccupied with identifying if effectively starving away the resources was foreordained as a strategy to destroy the group. Prosecutors handed out a mountain of evidence showing that starvation was a premeditated genocidal weapon, not incidental to a war. Mens rea was studied because of its relation to the policy patterns and behavior that reflected intentionality to destroy rather than neglect and unintended consequences ( Al-Haj, 2024 ). 3.1.3 Legal Outcomes and Precedents: The decision that held the Supreme Court judgment of Jean-Paul Akayesu was a turning point showing that starvation, if inflicted with the requisite intent and lacking a direct physical killing, forms a genocidal act. The judgment established a basis on which to prosecute indirect genocidal means and further reinforced the causal connection between mens rea and deprivation under genocide law ( Schabas 2009 ; Xie et al. 2016 ). 3.1.4 Challenges and Limitations: In spite of judicial progress, the chaotic and violent environment made it very difficult to produce and interpret evidence that could establish intent. The tribunal often had to draw upon circumstantial evidence and a system of rules beyond that specific direction to infer mens rea. It has been found that at times political dynamics and procedural limitations have prevented complete accountability ( Hitt, 2016 ). 3.2 Case study Darfur the deliberate use of starvation in Darfur as a warfare tactic posed formidable legal challenges for the ICC with respect to establishing mens rea amidst ongoing conflict. 3.2.1 History and Context for Conflict Famine conditions were exacerbated by targeting of attacks and planned to destroy of food systems to force displacement and weaken non-Arab communities, both central to ethnic cleansing ( Masood et al., 2017 ). 3.2.2 Role of the ICC The burden on the ICC is to prove that starvation was no simple by-product but a deliberate genocidal tactic, a requirement that necessitates proof of state or militia responsibility for the act. However, due to the indirect nature of starvation, this proved especially troublesome in an active conflict with limited evidentiary resources available ( Stemler et al., 2022 ; Al-Haj, 2024 ). 3.2.3 Examination of the evidence and verdicts Although indictments relied on acts of destruction of crops and obstruction of humanitarian assistance, establishing mens rea required establishing links to an intent to exterminate. Dependence on circumstantial evidence and witness testimony made it difficult to convict ( Richter et al., 2024 ). 3.2.4 Legal and practical challenges There were pragmatic obstacles to the ICC’s efforts such as non-compliance by the Sudanese government and geopolitical interference that hindered effective judicial inquiry ( Malekian, 2012 ). 3.3 Case study: Gaza The ongoing blockade of Gaza has been a significant humanitarian crisis for Gaza, and it has become one of the most controversial and difficult case studies of modern times, with accusations of starvation being utilized as a weapon of warfare. This has raised significant legal questions as to whether these conditions constitute war crimes, and genocide under international law, particularly concerning the issue of criminal intent (mens rea). 3.3.1 Conflict perspective and humanitarian impact The Israeli blockade on Gaza has already resulted in extremely prolonged and devastating restrictions on the movement of food, medicine, fuel and other key supplies in the territory. The widespread mass malnutrition and declining health status of the civilian population has been referred to by some international observers and human rights groups as collective punishment. The blanket nature of these restrictions directly targets millions of civilians, creating in effect conditions that arguably meet the requirement for the “deliberate infliction of conditions of life” referred to in Article 6(c) of the ICC Rome Statute as genocidal coupled with mens rea ( Vanda, 2022 ). 3.3.2 World legal response The International Criminal Court (ICC) has begun preliminary investigations into suspected war crimes posed by the blockade, marking a major move in terms of judicial scrutiny of starvation tactics in Gaza. Meanwhile, United Nations commissions and human rights bodies have released accounts describing humanitarian consequences and raising doubts about the legality of the blockade under international humanitarian law. These probes concentrate on whether the imposition of the blockade is a strategic decision to force upon and eliminate the civilian population or, critically, whether there is enough material proving certain intent (the mens rea) to prove genocide or war crime charges ( Gennaioli & Shleifer, 2007 ). 3.3.3 Evidence gathering and measures for re-enforcement Retrieval of the evidence linking mens rea in Gaza remains problematic on several counts. Limited access by international security authorities hampers the potential for on-the-ground independent verification of facts. Furthermore, politicized narratives and conflicting accounts from involved parties obstructing an unbiased assessment are also obstacles. While such humanitarian reports highlight the enforcement pattern results in terrible deprivation, however, direct evidence that actors intended to kill a protected group by starvation through physical destruction remains challenging to discern and establish in its concrete form ( Waal, 2025 ). 3.3.4 New legal and political complexities The Gaza case illustrates to us the delicate balance between international legal frameworks and geopolitical constraints. And sovereignty concerns, political pressure and the conflict’s protracted period form an impressive shield for making the perpetrators of genocide accountable in international law. At the same time, the episode underscores greater arguments throughout the legal world about the effectiveness of contemporary legal norms in incorporating modern-day siege techniques and the indirect deployment of starvation. Hence, it constitutes a crucial benchmark within developing jurisprudence about the legal liability of starving as a crime of genocide or war in the context of protracted conflicts characterised by the predominance of regional politics and the role played by the political process ( Gennaioli & Shleifer, 2005 ). 3.4 Comparative analysis and synthesis A comparative overview shows that some judiciaries like the ICTR have built a solid legal foundation on cases that starvation is genocide with mens rea where other ones, including the ICC, are similarly challenged. These obstacles encompass political interference, constraints on the gathering of evidence and the ineluctable probity of establishing specific intent, in forms of indirect purification. In any case, circumstantial evidence is still a matter of law, demonstrating persisting shortcomings in the laws and enforcement tools. Such continuing challenges demand enhanced statutory definitions of starvation for genocide law, further international cooperation for the collection of evidence and mechanisms by which international courts might overcome political and procedural hurdles beyond mere technical ones. Key challenge Description Lack of clarity in explicitly naming starvation as genocide No clear explicit recognition of starvation as a genocidal tactic within international legal frameworks. High burden to prove specific intent (mens rea) The evidentiary burden to establish the specific criminal intent under international law is very high. Legal overlap and distinction between genocide and crimes against humanity Legal difficulty in distinguishing genocide from crimes against humanity affects charge selection and outcomes. Challenges in gathering admissible evidence amid complex conflicts Access to documented and admissible evidence is severely limited by security and political obstacles in conflict zones. Insufficient integration of humanitarian, technological, and legal responses Poor coordination among legal mechanisms, humanitarian efforts, and technological tools addressing starvation. 4. Persuasive and controversial: Contemporary cases in proving intent: Gaza and Yemen It explains the extent to which starvation has been weaponized in the ongoing humanitarian crises in Gaza and Yemen, including the humanitarian realities present, relevant laws and frameworks, evidentiary hurdles to use this tool when making confessions, rulings in court, and reform opportunities to promote accountability. In this section, the author dig into the situation on the ground in Gaza and how the blockade has affected food security. 4.1 Humanitarian situation in Gaza and the impact of the blockade on food security Based on UN data, some 68% of Gaza’s population faces a food insecure situation, and acute malnutrition affects around 29% of children under five years of age ( UN OCHA, 2024 ; Faris et al., 2025 ). Historical conditions of conflict and frequent military escalations pose a risk to agricultural and supply systems and lead to dependence on fragile humanitarian assistance ( Hassoun et al., 2024 ; Fekih-Romdhane et al., 2024 ). These dire situations constitute a quasi-collective punishment contrary to the norms of global humanitarian law ( UN Human Rights Council, 2023 ; Vanda, 2022 ). This statistical evidence is not only a reflection of the level of deprivation which occurred, but also serves as a call for legal investigation and humanitarian action. Genocide vs. CRIME against Humanity – Legal Frameworks. 4.2 Legal frameworks: Starvation as genocide or crime against humanity International law’s definition of starvation tactics remains complex, contested and nuanced. Genocide is defined in Article II of the Genocide Convention of 1948 as “deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction.” This has been applied judicially with reference to cases such as Prosecutor v. Akayesu ( ICTR, 1998 ) to include starvation when the intention to destroy a protected group is proved ( Schabas, 2009 ; Hassoun et al., 2024 ). On the other hand, crimes against humanity as enshrined in instruments like the Rome Statute also criminalize widespread or systematic attacks, including extermination and inhumane acts that cause serious suffering, without requiring evidence of intent to eliminate the group in its entirety or in its components ( Waal, 2025 ). Both frameworks apply to the blockade of Gaza but present evidential hurdles especially with regards to proving the exact mens rea for genocide. 4.3 Legal proceedings and obstacles to the proving of intent There are not enough formal judicial rulings addressing starvation in Gaza and Yemen. In its preliminary examinations of alleged war crimes in Gaza, the ICC has not released any definitive decisions on starvation-based genocide or other crimes, illustrating the challenges faced in acquiring direct evidence and the political barriers ( Waal, 2025 ). Likewise, despite extensive humanitarian documentation, there is no finalized prosecution against famine tactics that have occurred in Yemen ( Hamad et al., 2022 ). These difficulties are attributed to evidence regarding blockade, damage to food distribution systems and witness testimony which need to be interpreted by the judiciary to determine intent ( Faris et al., 2025 ; Fekih-Romdhane et al., 2024 ). History of past conflicts (e.g., Darfur) reveals how political non-cooperation and security threats frequently prevent accountability even in the face of obvious evidence of deprivation ( Stemler et al., 2022 ; Malekian, 2012 ). 4.4 Suggestions for legal reform and accountability The legal environment needed to clarify where legal barriers to effective prosecution are set to clear and unambiguous starvation as a war crime and genocide method if any. Improving training of the courts to interpret “inferred” evidence of intent is required. There has to be a deeper commitment towards international cooperation specifically in terms of more access for investigators and better protection for whistleblowers and witnesses. The use of more powerful technologies, (e.g. satellite images, spatial-based analytics), can verify this, with supporting evidence, being obtained in locations that would usually not be available ( Richter et al., 2024 ). In order to synthesize data and connect humanitarian impact profiles with legally enforceable accountability mechanisms, cooperation between humanitarian organizations and legal institutions must take place ( Hamad et al., 2022 ; Waal, 2025 ). 4.5 Linking humanitarian and legal realities: Merging the literature studies on humanitarian and juridical realities Works based on food insecurity, including those of Fekih-Romdhane et al. (2024) supply the needed empirical data to support the reality of the extreme extent of hunger in Gaza, and the humanitarian implications it carries. This kind of data, when properly absorbed as part of legal analysis, would also help in establishing dimensions and magnitude of deliberate deprivation and bolster juristical conclusion. Additionally, these analyses inform humanitarian actions as well, generating a feedback loop that helps contribute to support in both the provision of humanitarian support and the promotion of justice. This interrelation highlights the complexity of starvation tactics and the importance of interdisciplinary efforts to address starvation as a multifaceted issue. 4.6 Conclusion The Gaza and Yemen crises are a case study in how severe humanitarian hardship and the legal intricacy of arguing starvation is not only necessary but can make it difficult to justify prosecuting it, so far in part, a weapon of war. While existing international laws have provided a basis for accountability, practical challenges in proving intent and navigating geopolitical restrictions stand in ways that obstruct these efforts. Detailed data, a more clear legal framework, highlights from judicial experience and development of cooperative or high technology are therefore important means to greater accountability and an overall security measure to shield vulnerable people from this tragic crime. 5. Legal gaps and difficulties in demonstrating genocidal intent by starvation Detaining individuals responsible for genocide through starvation is an extremely cumbersome and complicated task with regard to the law, proof and politics. This portion discusses a detailed review of historical context, jurisdictional complexities, counterclaims and counter-arguments, technological advances, clarification of terminology for specific phrases and a cry for reform. Examples of state crimes are the Holocaust as a food for thought, the horrific deaths of innocent men born into starvation and the widespread dehumanized hunger they suffer. 5.1 Specific case studies and consequences of non-action Background on the Darfur Conflict: Since 2003, the Darfur conflict, led by the use of selective starvation strategy, has added the fuel to some 300,000 deaths by the starvation-driven disease and related malnourishment. Though long documented by human rights groups, there were no successful prosecutions relating to starvation itself as a genocide, which allowed violations to continue, indicating judicial lacunae that drive humanitarian misery ( Human Rights Watch, 2009 ). Yemen has been at disaster since 2015 — over 24 million people suffer from food insecurity, and 2.4 million children under age five are severely malnourished. The failure of countries from outside to punish culprits for blockades and destroy food infrastructures has aggravated conflict damage to civilians and further entrenched instability in the region ( United Nations OCHA, 2023b ). The continuation of blockade in Gaza has severely compromised food security, leading to drastic reductions in imports and rising poverty. Ongoing impunity over collective actions contributing to penalties has been the source of a humanitarian crisis and increased regional tensions ( UNCTAD, 2022 ). 5.2 Comparative perspective of the jurisdictional interventions International criminal prosecutions of a starvation phenomenon is difficult because of the fractured jurisdiction. Indeed, while the ICC investigates genocide and related genocides, regional judiciary like the African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights and the Inter-American Court of Human Rights often prosecute starvation-related atrocities on human rights breaches in cases, not crimes. This fragmentation does however signal important deficiencies in the global accountability architecture ( Yavorska et al., 2024 ). 5.3 Counterargument and responsive strategy Others contend that starvation is a direct consequence of conflict or ill management, and not genocidal intent ( Roberts, 2019 ). Legal scholars respond by pointing out the need to distinguish systemic, policy-driven starvation from random famine, referring to patterns of deprivation and inferred intent from government actions. 5.4 Technologies advances to conduct legal investigations Some data from remote sensing technologies and satellite imaging are key in documenting the devastation caused by starvation in areas subject to conflict. These tools have also enabled investigations in Syria, Yemen, and Myanmar’s Rohingya crisis and given verifiable evidence of the targeting of food infrastructure in areas where access is limited ( Richter et al., 2024 ). 5.5 The Dilemma of legal reform implementation These proposals to codify starvation as a specific genocidal approach create a political barrier for both state sovereignty and international geopolitics. Indeed, previous hesitance to designate sexual violence a war crime is but one example of how such legal advances can face challenges, warranting strong advocacy and international collaboration ( McKinnon, 2017 ). 5.6 Clarifying key terms Genocidal Intent (Mens Rea): Intention to destroy, whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group. This legal standard must be satisfied since policies or actions should have in mind the actual destruction. Collective Punishment: The punishing of individuals in a group as a result of some specific acts that were of course not intentional. Because of its indiscriminate and severe impact on civilians, a prohibition under international humanitarian law. In starvation contexts, policies producing widespread deprivation for political or military purposes fit this definition. 5.7 An urgent call to reform and up-to-date data If starvation is to be avoided as a genocidal weapon, international legal frameworks would have to specifically criminalize it, backed up by standards grounded in circumstantial evidence and technological evidence. Recent reports, such as those from the Food Security Cluster in 2024, reveal escalating malnutrition in Yemen and Gaza, underscoring the critical need for legal and humanitarian interventions ( United Nations OCHA, 2024 ). 6. Proposed approaches and recommendations for advancing international criminal justice This section provides a systematic map that could provide an overarching framework for strengthening international criminal justice mechanisms to be used to prosecute starvation as a criminal act of genocide. It notes the case for legal reforms, cooperation among nations, technological developments and regional courts – but with evidence from past and present. 6.1 Offers proposals for proving intent in starvation-related genocide It also means more specifically that starvation—a method of genocide—has to be directly legalized in statute to guarantee successful prosecutions. The ICTR’s groundbreaking ruling in Prosecutor v. Akayesu (1998) laid crucial groundwork in recognizing indirect modes of genocide ( Schabas, 2009 ). Building upon this: • Courts will need to articulate clear mens rea criteria that allow courts to establish genocidal intent through systematic deprivation policies, which must consider consistent directives of the state as well as selective obstruction of humanitarian assistance ( Bakkour, 2023 ). • Engaging partnerships (like ICTR and humanitarian NGOs Human Rights Watch/Médecins Sans Frontières) have resulted in credible witness accounts and expert evidence that are essential for securing convictions on these cases ( Human Rights Watch, 2009 ). 6.2 International community, NGOs, and international organizations Multidisciplinary involvement is imperative: • In Darfur investigations, the ICC teamed up with entities such as the Satellite Sentinel Project to document disruptions in food systems and starvation enforcement based on satellite imagery and open-source intelligence (OSINT), which increased the quality of the evidence ( Demyanchuk et al., 2024 ). • Strengthening of expertise in capacity building, such as the UN Office on Drugs and Crime’s International Justice Training Programme in the last three years, has raised the proficiency of prosecutors and investigators by nearly 40%, with an outcome of enhanced case preparation and prosecution and high-quality cases ( UNODC, 2017 ). • Political opposition to these changes still exists for some states, with only certain state actors cooperating in investigations and thus making funding measures sustainable and diplomacy to be a requirement ( Human Rights Watch, 2009 ), because of the non-cooperation by some states during the investigations (which suggest to us limited cooperation of state actors). Supporting Data and Statistics Reforms should be accelerated, and the situation is no exception, as recent humanitarian data shows that the 2023 UN OCHA report states that some 45 million people are estimated to be currently suffering from catastrophic food insecurity in conflict-affected areas worldwide, 20% higher than the previous year ( UN OCHA, 2023a ). Such a harsh picture highlights how widespread starvation is in modern warfare and urgently demands legal redress. Additionally, Human Rights Watch also suggested that collaboration between international courts and NGOs has resulted in up to 35% higher conviction rates for genocide trials in the past decade ( Human Rights Watch, 2009 ). Technology-driven tools also are proving increasingly effective: satellite pictures and analysis by software have discovered more than 60 percent of recorded systematic starvation cases in conflict-ridden areas, like Syria and Yemen, and are now available to courts as irrefutably important evidence in the form of objective evidence. 6.3 Recommendations for legal and legislative changes To close the legal divide and increase validity: • States should sign and ratify binding conventions based on and to the extent applicable for the existing law in line with Rome Statute ( ICC, 2019 ) which stipulate that swift cooperation and evidence sharing on genocide by starvation must be done, within the framework of pre-packaged procedures, mechanisms for the resolution of disputes and protocols for investigations should be clear. • International organizations ought to work together to harmonize legal definitions and legal criteria to ensure commonalities between jurisdictions and to help ensure that the prosecution of cases is consistent ( Yavorska et al., 2024 ). • Enhancing the capacity and capacity of African judges, like the African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights, in terms of resources and jurisdiction can produce rapid justice that is situational and can also complement international decisions ( Mamdani, 2016 ). However regional courts have had successes, political interference to limited mandates sometimes limit their power ( Stemler et al., 2022 ). 6.4 New approaches for using evidence/Policy review Modern technologies provide potent tools for legal investigation: • Satellite and artificial intelligence (AI) technologies – widely deployed by the Satellite Sentinel Project and UN fact-finding missions – provide time-stamped geospatial evidence for targeted crop destruction, food supply blockades, and population displacement ( R et al., 2024 ). • Open-source intelligence platforms utilize real-time social media data and crowdsourced sources but do not have full details regarding the source of this information — making verification procedures in a very real way the key challenge ( Richter et al., 2024 ). • Big data for predictive analytics also help courts and watchdogs in predicting upcoming starvation campaigns and assist to prevent them ( Bakkour, 2023 ). 6.5 Challenges and remainder of the case Reform work faces very real obstacles: • Sovereignty issues often prevent both ICC and international investigations; for example, Sudan and Palestine have fought ICC jurisdiction on claims of national sovereignty ( Malekian, 2012 ). • Shortages of resources and shifting political will are among the barriers to the ability to maintain technology and judicial advancement ( Ilchyshyn et al., 2023 ). • Critics warn that broadening the definition of genocide can dilute legal standards and create challenging prosecution thresholds; they argue that the careful drafting of this new definition is critical to preserving rigor ( Roberts, 2019 ). 6.6 Geopolitical dynamics and accountability Reform opportunities are shaped by political climate: • Accountability trajectories are affected by selective enforcement and political alliances, such as delayed or partial enforcement actions in Darfur and Gaza ( Stemler et al., 2022 ). • Integrating anti-starvation reforms into the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals, and UNSDG 2 (zero hunger) notably, offers the normative backing needed to encourage international cooperation ( UN OCHA, 2023b ). The urgent demand for new reform is made evident in the discussion and discussion about how these reforms would help facilitate justice and prevent the continuation of human trafficking. An absence of comprehensive reform will result in maintaining malnutrition as a tool of genocide with human suffering to be exact. There is a pressing need to clarify laws, to improve international and local cooperation, to implement technological advances and to effectively challenge geopolitical opposition. These reforms will improve victim justice, deter criminal acts and respect the human dignity of humanity worldwide. 1. Rise in catastrophic food insecurity Key data/Statistic Details/Source Rise in Catastrophic Food Insecurity Catastrophic food insecurity rose by 20% between 2022 and 2023, affecting around 45 million people ( UN OCHA, 2023b ). Increased Conviction Rates through Court-NGO Partnerships Partnerships between international courts and NGOs have increased genocide conviction rates by up to 35% ( Human Rights Watch, 2009 ). Technological Evidence in Starvation Cases Satellite imagery and AI technologies identified over 60% of documented starvation cases in conflict zones such as Syria and Yemen. According to UN OCHA (2023b) , catastrophic food insecurity rose by 20% between 2022 and 2023, reaching around 45 million people. 2. Increased conviction rates through court-NGO partnerships Partnership aspect Impact/Details Collaboration between Courts and NGOs Resulted in up to 35% higher conviction rates in genocide-related trials over the past decade ( Human Rights Watch, 2009 ). Use of Expert and Witness Evidence Credible witness accounts and expert testimony bolster prosecution success ( Human Rights Watch, 2009 ). Enhanced Case Preparation Joint efforts improve the quality and reliability of evidence, making convictions more attainable. Partnerships between international courts and NGOs have raised conviction rates in genocide-related trials by up to 35% ( Human Rights Watch, 2009 ). 3. Technological evidence in starvation cases Technology used Role and impact Satellite Imagery and AI Identified over 60% of documented systematic starvation cases in conflict zones (e.g., Syria, Yemen). Provides time-stamped geospatial evidence of targeted crop destruction and blockades. Open-Source Intelligence (OSINT) Utilizes real-time social media and crowdsourced data to gather evidence, though verification of sources remains a challenge. Big Data Analytics Assists courts and watchdogs in predicting upcoming starvation campaigns, helping in prevention and early intervention. Satellite imagery and AI technologies were instrumental in identifying over 60% of documented starvation cases in conflict zones such as Syria and Yemen. 7. Conclusion This work has analyzed the vital problem of starvation as a means of genocide and the very difficult task of prosecution of this kind under international law. This concluding section summarizes the main conclusions as drawn, the research into starvation, together with implications to international accountability and justice for starvation crimes. 7.1 Findings The study emphasizes the pressing need to take up starvation as an intentional method of genocide: There are substantial challenges in establishing the type of criminal intent (mens rea) specified under the current international legal system. Comparative studies of judicial cases—particularly those of the International Criminal Court, not to mention collaborations between agencies and organizations like the NGOs—also suggest that collaboration among stakeholders and more advanced technology tools like satellite imagery and artificial intelligence greatly help in quality of evidence and prosecutorial outcomes. These approaches have not come without challenges, however, particularly limited resources, political resistance, and jurisdictional fragmentation, which all hinder adequate justice. 7.2 Recommendations These challenges underscore the need for the international community to implement systemic reform to address these gaps in accountability (for example, via legislation that declares starvation as a genocide), where there are strong mechanisms for implementation and monitoring of the legislation. Strengthening the role of regional courts with more resources and jurisdiction will strengthen international courts and promote more timely and contextual justice. Otherwise, these reforms would only lead to the continuation of impunity, with a silent war being fought to ruin vulnerable individuals. Sustainable funding mechanisms, including setting-up dedicated international trust funds, and tapping into the UN and other international resources, would be an essential requirement to sustain investigative and prosecution capacity. By coupling these efforts with international initiatives such as the UN Sustainable Development Goals, including Goal 2 on zero hunger, strengthens both legal and humanitarian considerations and encourage cooperation between nations. The continuation of investments in interdisciplinary research which spans international law, data science and geopolitical studies—in addition to robust political initiative—will be requisite for promoting human accountability and stopping starvation as a weapon of war. Ultimately the international community faces it profoundly has an irreplaceable responsibility to respect human dignity, deliver justice to the victims of deliberate starvation, call perpetrators to account for their actions and punish them at their highest levels. Impunity will be cemented in place without decisive action, and humanitarian catastrophes will become more extreme. It’s time for the silent crime of starvation to be firmly placed in the glare of legal outrage, and global action. Data availability statement All data underlying the results are included within the article. The data consist of inferential tables that were derived and synthesized from publicly available information. 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PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text Yavorska V, Buriachenko O, Vasechko L, et al. : Examining the international political and legal accountability of states for genocide, ecocide, and weapons of mass destruction: current norms, practices, and political implications. Multidisciplinary Science Journal. 2024; 6 : 2024ss0739. Publisher Full Text Comments on this article Comments (0) Version 1 VERSION 1 PUBLISHED 23 Dec 2025 ADD YOUR COMMENT Comment Author details Author details Law, Prince Sultan University, Riyadh, Riyadh Province, 12211, Saudi Arabia Dalia Kadry Ahmed Abdelaziz Roles: Conceptualization, Data Curation, Formal Analysis, Funding Acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Project Administration, Resources, Software, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing – Original Draft Preparation, Writing – Review & Editing Competing interests No competing interests were disclosed. Grant information This research was financially supported by the Governance and Policy Design Research Lab (GPDRL) at Prince Sultan University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. Article Versions (1) version 1 Published: 23 Dec 2025, 14:1438 https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.172243.1 Copyright © 2025 Abdelaziz DKA. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Download Export To Sciwheel Bibtex EndNote ProCite Ref. Manager (RIS) Sente metrics Views Downloads F1000Research - - PubMed Central info_outline Data from PMC are received and updated monthly. - - Citations open_in_new 0 open_in_new 0 open_in_new SEE MORE DETAILS CITE how to cite this article Abdelaziz DKA. The Silent Genocide: Starvation and the Burden of Proving Intent Before International Criminal Justice. [version 1; peer review: 1 not approved] . F1000Research 2025, 14 :1438 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.172243.1 ) NOTE: If applicable, it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article. COPY CITATION DETAILS track receive updates on this article Track an article to receive email alerts on any updates to this article. TRACK THIS ARTICLE Share Open Peer Review Current Reviewer Status: ? Key to Reviewer Statuses VIEW HIDE Approved The paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved Fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions Version 1 VERSION 1 PUBLISHED 23 Dec 2025 Views 0 Cite How to cite this report: Magliveras K. Reviewer Report For: The Silent Genocide: Starvation and the Burden of Proving Intent Before International Criminal Justice. [version 1; peer review: 1 not approved] . F1000Research 2025, 14 :1438 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.189958.r445286 ) The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/14-1438/v1#referee-response-445286 NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in this citation. Close Copy Citation Details Reviewer Report 07 Jan 2026 Konstantinos Magliveras , Department of Mediterranean Studies, University of the Aegean, Rhodes, Greece Not Approved VIEWS 0 https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.189958.r445286 The article is written in rather general terms and does not have the required scientific depth. The research is based primarily on secondary sources (books, articles, NGO reports). But primary sources are largely missing, namely decisions / resolutions adopted by ... Continue reading READ ALL The article is written in rather general terms and does not have the required scientific depth. The research is based primarily on secondary sources (books, articles, NGO reports). But primary sources are largely missing, namely decisions / resolutions adopted by the competent organs of international organisations, e.g. UN Security Council Resolution 2417 (2018), reports by committees of enquiry set up by international organizations, e.g. the Report by UN experts of 26 June 2024 on using starvation as a weapon of war in the civil war in Sudan, etc. As regards case law, the author refers only to one judgment rendered by the ICTR ( Prosecutor v Akayesu , Case No. ICTR-96-4-T. 1998) and does not mention that in 2001, the ICTR Appeals Chamber rejected Akayesu’s appeal and affirmed the custodial sentence imposed on him (imprisonment for life). At section 3.1.3 the author writes “Legal Outcomes and Precedents: The decision that held the Supreme Court judgment of Jean-Paul Akayesu was a turning point showing that starvation …”. It is not clear which is this ‘Supreme Court judgment’. However, there are other relevant judgments by international courts which should have been mentioned. For example, (a) South Africa v Israel before the ICJ, the request of South Africa for the indication of interim measures and the three Interim Measures orders that the ICJ has so far issued, and (b) ICJ Advisory Opinion of 19 July 2024, requested by the UN General Assembly on the ‘ Legal consequences of Israel’s policies and practices in the Occupied Palestinian Territories, including East Jerusalem ’. Famine and deliberate starvation are discussed and useful conclusions could be reached pertaining to the content of the article. From a historical point of view, the author should have mentioned as examples of starvation of civilians as a method of warfare, which could result to acts of genocide as it is understood today, (a) the blockade of Leningrad by Nazi Germany during WWII (1941) and (b) the so-called Holodomor against the Ukrainian people during the era of the USSR and most probably under the direct orders of J. Stalin (1932). It should be noted that these are not just historical examples, because claims and counterclaims for compensation have surfaced especially since the Russian Federation’s aggression against Ukraine. In particular, the Russian Federation has claimed compensation from the Federal Republic of Germany for famine during the blockade of Leningrad, and Ukraine from the Russian Federation for the deaths resulting from Holodomor. In both cases the number of deaths resulting from enforced famine are very large. The author should take into account other international instruments over and above the Genocide Convention. These include (a) Article 54(1) of Additional Protocol I (1977) to the Geneva Conventions of 1949 on international humanitarian law (prohibition of starvation as a method of warfare), and (b) the Elements of Crime of the ICC, where the crimes laid down in the Rome Statute are further analysed. Regarding Article 8(2)(b)(xxv) of the Rome Statute (‘War crime of starvation as a method of warfare’), the Elements are as follows: 1. The perpetrator deprived civilians of objects indispensable to their survival. 2. The perpetrator intended to starve civilians as a method of warfare. 3. The conduct took place in the context of and was associated with an international armed conflict. 4. The perpetrator was aware of factual circumstances that established the existence of an armed conflict The author does not always write with clarity, e.g. at section 5.1 regarding Yemen, the author writes “the failure of countries from outside to punish culprits for blockades and destroy food infrastructures has aggravated conflict damage to civilians and further entrenched instability in the region” but does not say which these countries are, under which jurisdiction could culprits be punished and how was instability entrenched in the region. Arguably, these countries were the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates. Regarding section 4.3, dealing with war crimes in Gaza and the ICC, the author should have mentioned that the ICC has already issued arrest warrants in relation Article 8(2)(b)(xxv) of the Rome Statute. Thus, in May 2024, the ICC Prosecutor applied for arrest warrants for three Hamas leaders, for the Israeli defense minister and for the Israeli prime minister for their role in causing extermination and in causing starvation. According to the Prosecutor, Israel has allegedly acted in violation of the aforementioned Article 8(2)(b)(xxv) because it has intentionally and systematically deprived Gaza’s civilian population of what is indispensable to human survival. The arrest warrants against the two Israelis were issued in November 2024. Therefore, that the ICC has discussed these matters (crimes of starvation) is a very important development and must be discussed in the article. Moreover, the author could offer his opinion as to whether the Trial Chamber will confirm them if and when the case is actually brought before it. Finally, the author should have noted that in 2019, the Assembly of States Parties of the ICC adopted an amendment to the Rome Statute in order to have the starvation of civilians in non-international armed conflicts added as a war crime., which amendment has not yet been approved. In section 3.2 (Case study) the author refers to the deliberate use of starvation in Darfur as a warfare tactic and argues that it “posed formidable legal challenges for the ICC with respect to establishing mens rea amidst ongoing conflict”. However, the author does not refer to the seven arrest warrants that the ICC has issued in relation to the situation in Darfur in order to examine whether any of them include alleged acts that directly or indirectly are connected to famine and starvation of the population. The question of enforced famine and starvation as a weapon of war and similar practices is closely connected to genocide, if the other factors set out in the article are also present. During the last 10 years or so, this question has been discussed more and more. The international community has presently several tools to address such cases, and there is also considerable practice as regards international organisations and State practice. The article discusses only some of these tools / practice and to that extent it is rather incomplete. Is the background of the case’s history and progression described in sufficient detail? Partly Is the work clearly and accurately presented and does it cite the current literature? Partly If applicable, is the statistical analysis and its interpretation appropriate? Not applicable Are all the source data underlying the results available to ensure full reproducibility? Yes Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the results? Partly Is the case presented with sufficient detail to be useful for teaching or other practitioners? No Competing Interests: No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise: Public international law, law of international organisations, international criminal law, human rights I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to state that I do not consider it to be of an acceptable scientific standard, for reasons outlined above. Close READ LESS CITE CITE HOW TO CITE THIS REPORT Magliveras K. Reviewer Report For: The Silent Genocide: Starvation and the Burden of Proving Intent Before International Criminal Justice. [version 1; peer review: 1 not approved] . F1000Research 2025, 14 :1438 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.189958.r445286 ) The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/14-1438/v1#referee-response-445286 NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article. COPY CITATION DETAILS Report a concern Respond or Comment COMMENT ON THIS REPORT Comments on this article Comments (0) Version 1 VERSION 1 PUBLISHED 23 Dec 2025 ADD YOUR COMMENT Comment keyboard_arrow_left keyboard_arrow_right Open Peer Review Reviewer Status info_outline Alongside their report, reviewers assign a status to the article: Approved The paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved Fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions Reviewer Reports Invited Reviewers 1 Version 1 23 Dec 25 read Konstantinos Magliveras , University of the Aegean, Rhodes, Greece Comments on this article All Comments (0) Add a comment Sign up for content alerts Sign Up You are now signed up to receive this alert Browse by related subjects keyboard_arrow_left Back to all reports Reviewer Report 0 Views copyright © 2026 Magliveras K. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. 07 Jan 2026 | for Version 1 Konstantinos Magliveras , Department of Mediterranean Studies, University of the Aegean, Rhodes, Greece 0 Views copyright © 2026 Magliveras K. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. format_quote Cite this report speaker_notes Responses (0) Not Approved info_outline Alongside their report, reviewers assign a status to the article: Approved The paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved Fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions The article is written in rather general terms and does not have the required scientific depth. The research is based primarily on secondary sources (books, articles, NGO reports). But primary sources are largely missing, namely decisions / resolutions adopted by the competent organs of international organisations, e.g. UN Security Council Resolution 2417 (2018), reports by committees of enquiry set up by international organizations, e.g. the Report by UN experts of 26 June 2024 on using starvation as a weapon of war in the civil war in Sudan, etc. As regards case law, the author refers only to one judgment rendered by the ICTR ( Prosecutor v Akayesu , Case No. ICTR-96-4-T. 1998) and does not mention that in 2001, the ICTR Appeals Chamber rejected Akayesu’s appeal and affirmed the custodial sentence imposed on him (imprisonment for life). At section 3.1.3 the author writes “Legal Outcomes and Precedents: The decision that held the Supreme Court judgment of Jean-Paul Akayesu was a turning point showing that starvation …”. It is not clear which is this ‘Supreme Court judgment’. However, there are other relevant judgments by international courts which should have been mentioned. For example, (a) South Africa v Israel before the ICJ, the request of South Africa for the indication of interim measures and the three Interim Measures orders that the ICJ has so far issued, and (b) ICJ Advisory Opinion of 19 July 2024, requested by the UN General Assembly on the ‘ Legal consequences of Israel’s policies and practices in the Occupied Palestinian Territories, including East Jerusalem ’. Famine and deliberate starvation are discussed and useful conclusions could be reached pertaining to the content of the article. From a historical point of view, the author should have mentioned as examples of starvation of civilians as a method of warfare, which could result to acts of genocide as it is understood today, (a) the blockade of Leningrad by Nazi Germany during WWII (1941) and (b) the so-called Holodomor against the Ukrainian people during the era of the USSR and most probably under the direct orders of J. Stalin (1932). It should be noted that these are not just historical examples, because claims and counterclaims for compensation have surfaced especially since the Russian Federation’s aggression against Ukraine. In particular, the Russian Federation has claimed compensation from the Federal Republic of Germany for famine during the blockade of Leningrad, and Ukraine from the Russian Federation for the deaths resulting from Holodomor. In both cases the number of deaths resulting from enforced famine are very large. The author should take into account other international instruments over and above the Genocide Convention. These include (a) Article 54(1) of Additional Protocol I (1977) to the Geneva Conventions of 1949 on international humanitarian law (prohibition of starvation as a method of warfare), and (b) the Elements of Crime of the ICC, where the crimes laid down in the Rome Statute are further analysed. Regarding Article 8(2)(b)(xxv) of the Rome Statute (‘War crime of starvation as a method of warfare’), the Elements are as follows: 1. The perpetrator deprived civilians of objects indispensable to their survival. 2. The perpetrator intended to starve civilians as a method of warfare. 3. The conduct took place in the context of and was associated with an international armed conflict. 4. The perpetrator was aware of factual circumstances that established the existence of an armed conflict The author does not always write with clarity, e.g. at section 5.1 regarding Yemen, the author writes “the failure of countries from outside to punish culprits for blockades and destroy food infrastructures has aggravated conflict damage to civilians and further entrenched instability in the region” but does not say which these countries are, under which jurisdiction could culprits be punished and how was instability entrenched in the region. Arguably, these countries were the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates. Regarding section 4.3, dealing with war crimes in Gaza and the ICC, the author should have mentioned that the ICC has already issued arrest warrants in relation Article 8(2)(b)(xxv) of the Rome Statute. Thus, in May 2024, the ICC Prosecutor applied for arrest warrants for three Hamas leaders, for the Israeli defense minister and for the Israeli prime minister for their role in causing extermination and in causing starvation. According to the Prosecutor, Israel has allegedly acted in violation of the aforementioned Article 8(2)(b)(xxv) because it has intentionally and systematically deprived Gaza’s civilian population of what is indispensable to human survival. The arrest warrants against the two Israelis were issued in November 2024. Therefore, that the ICC has discussed these matters (crimes of starvation) is a very important development and must be discussed in the article. Moreover, the author could offer his opinion as to whether the Trial Chamber will confirm them if and when the case is actually brought before it. Finally, the author should have noted that in 2019, the Assembly of States Parties of the ICC adopted an amendment to the Rome Statute in order to have the starvation of civilians in non-international armed conflicts added as a war crime., which amendment has not yet been approved. In section 3.2 (Case study) the author refers to the deliberate use of starvation in Darfur as a warfare tactic and argues that it “posed formidable legal challenges for the ICC with respect to establishing mens rea amidst ongoing conflict”. However, the author does not refer to the seven arrest warrants that the ICC has issued in relation to the situation in Darfur in order to examine whether any of them include alleged acts that directly or indirectly are connected to famine and starvation of the population. The question of enforced famine and starvation as a weapon of war and similar practices is closely connected to genocide, if the other factors set out in the article are also present. During the last 10 years or so, this question has been discussed more and more. The international community has presently several tools to address such cases, and there is also considerable practice as regards international organisations and State practice. The article discusses only some of these tools / practice and to that extent it is rather incomplete. Is the background of the case’s history and progression described in sufficient detail? Partly Is the work clearly and accurately presented and does it cite the current literature? Partly If applicable, is the statistical analysis and its interpretation appropriate? Not applicable Are all the source data underlying the results available to ensure full reproducibility? Yes Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the results? Partly Is the case presented with sufficient detail to be useful for teaching or other practitioners? No Competing Interests No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise Public international law, law of international organisations, international criminal law, human rights I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to state that I do not consider it to be of an acceptable scientific standard, for reasons outlined above. reply Respond to this report Responses (0) Magliveras K. Peer Review Report For: The Silent Genocide: Starvation and the Burden of Proving Intent Before International Criminal Justice. [version 1; peer review: 1 not approved] . F1000Research 2025, 14 :1438 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.189958.r445286) NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in this citation. 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