Sustainable Removal and Reuse of Disperse Dyes from Wastewater Using Laponite® Nanoclay: A Circular Approach for Polyester Dyeing

Sustainable Removal and Reuse of Disperse Dyes from Wastewater Using Laponite® Nanoclay: A Circular Approach for Polyester Dyeing | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Sustainable Removal and Reuse of Disperse Dyes from Wastewater Using Laponite® Nanoclay: A Circular Approach for Polyester Dyeing Iria, Costa-Torrado, Bàrbara, Micó-Vicent, Jorge, Jordán-Núñez, and 1 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6799654/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This study investigates the removal of disperse dyes from textile wastewater using Laponite® nanoclay as a sustainable carrier, offering a dual environmental benefit: wastewater remediation and resource recovery. A hybrid dye-nanoclay material was developed and evaluated for its capacity to adsorb disperse dyes from aqueous solutions, with particular focus on optimizing removal efficiency and characterizing the adsorbent material. Beyond pollutant removal, the recovered hybrid was repurposed for direct application in polyester (PES) dyeing processes, providing an innovative circular approach within the textile industry. The dye-loaded Laponite® exhibited good affinity for polyester fibers, supporting its reuse potential and reducing the need for conventional, more polluting dyeing auxiliaries. This work highlights the feasibility of combining nanotechnology with sustainable wastewater management and resource reutilization strategies. The proposed method offers a cost-effective and environmentally sound alternative to current practices, contributing to reduced dye pollution and enhanced circularity in industrial dyeing operations. Disperse dyes Laponite® wastewater treatment dye adsorption dye desorption circular economy polyester dyeing environmental sustainability Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 1. INTRODUCTION The textile industry is one of the industries with the highest water consumption and which generates the most highly polluted wastewater (Martínez et al., 2014a ). The effluents generated are characterised by high chemical oxygen demand (COD), biological oxygen demand (BOD), total dissolved solids (TDS), pH and colour, the latter being one of the most prominent problems (Varadarajan and Venkatachalam, 2016a )(Ramasany, Ahmed and Karthik, 2012 )(Ntuli et al., 2009 ). Dyes used in the textile industry are designed to be highly resistant, even to microbial degradation, which makes their removal difficult (Martínez et al., 2014b ). Given this worrying scenario, it is imperative to explore alternatives that reduce the environmental impact of the textile industry. The adoption of sustainable practices and the development of innovative technologies are presented as key solutions to address this problem and promote more environmentally friendly textile production. For these reasons, the need has arisen to implement ecological textile dyeing processes that are viable for this industry. In the textile industry, a wide variety of colours is required to meet the growing demand for quality, fastness and shade variety. To achieve this, more than 10,000 different synthetic dyes and pigments are used (Ponnusami, Vikram and Srivastava, 2008 ). Among the various types of dyes used are sulphur, acid, basic, disperse, direct, reactive and vat dyes. Disperse dyes are widely used in the textile industry due to their ease of synthesis, bright colours and their application in polyester dyeing and printing (Al-Etaibi and El-Apasery, 2023 )(Al-Etaibi and El-Apasery, 2022b )(Al-Etaibi and El-Apasery, 2022a ). In this study, we will focus on the ecological aspects of dyeing with disperse dyes, considering their extensive use in the textile industry. Due to the high physicochemical stability of dyes used in the textile industry, it is difficult to remove or degrade them by simple and conventional chemical routes. Therefore, it is of great importance to find effective ways to remove these complex and non-biodegradable dyes from wastewater (Sarkar, Sahoo and Swain, 2020 ). To address this problem, various techniques have been developed, such as coagulation-flocculation (Moghaddam, Moghaddam and Arami, 2010 ), precipitation (Lee et al., 2011 ), ion exchange (Qin et al., 2014 ), membrane separation (Gopakumar et al., 2019 ), oxidation/ozonation (Kasiri, Modirshahla and Mansouri, 2013 ), biological degradation (Ali, 2010 ), photodegradation (Dammala et al., 2019 ) and adsorption (Yagub et al., 2014 ). Among these techniques, adsorption stands out as an effective solution due to its low cost and simplicity. In particular, nanoclays have proven to be excellent adsorbents for the removal of dyes from wastewater. These nanoclays are characterised by their high specific surface area and cation exchange capacity, which allows them to efficiently adsorb dyes present in water (Gahlot, Taki and Kumar, 2020 ). In addition, their low toxicity and wide availability make nanoclays a promising option for dye removal (Awasthi, Jadhao and Kumari, 2019 ). Compared to other techniques, such as activated carbon adsorption or photocatalysis, nano-clays offer significant advantages due to their high surface area and numerous active sites which facilitate interaction with contaminants. For instance, studies have shown that nano-clays like montmorillonite and bentonite modified with surfactants can remove up to 95% of dyes such as methylene blue and congo red in less than 30 minutes (Bárcenas-Grangeno et al., 2023 ). Additionally, the incorporation of metal oxide nanoparticles, such as titanium dioxide (TiO₂), into nano-clays has further improved adsorption efficiency, achieving complete removal of certain dyes in significantly reduced times (Casal, 2015 ). These results highlight the superiority of nano-clays over conventional techniques, positioning them as a promising solution for the remediation of contaminated waters. Laponite®, a synthetic nano-clay belonging to the smectite group, has shown promising results in the removal of contaminants from water. Due to its smaller particle size compared to other clays like bentonite, Laponite® exhibits a higher surface area and enhanced adsorption properties. Studies have demonstrated that Laponite® can effectively remove heavy metals and organic dyes from aqueous solutions. For instance, Laponite® has been used to adsorb contaminants such as cadmium and lead, achieving removal efficiencies of over 90% (Ochoa-Cornejo and Muñoz, 2017 ). When compared to other nano-clays like montmorillonite and bentonite, Laponite® often requires a smaller quantity to achieve similar or even superior adsorption results (Pardo Ojeda, 2020 ). This efficiency is attributed to its unique structure and high cation exchange capacity, which facilitate the binding of contaminants. These characteristics make Laponite® a highly effective and economical option for water remediation. In this study, Laponite® nanoclay has been used as an adsorbent material. Laponite® is a synthetic hectorite clay in the form of 2D sheets with nanoscale crystals (Huang et al., 2021 ). Its chemical composition is represented by Na 0.7 Si 8 Mg 5.5 Li 0.3 O 20 (OH) 4 , where tetrahedral SiO 2 sheets are intercalated with a sheet of Mg(Li) ions (Jatav and Joshi, 2014 ). This clay has a relatively small particle size, with a basic structure consisting of layered plates of hydrated magnesium silicate, with a diameter of about 25–30 nm and a thickness of about 1 nm (Hanley, Muzny and Butler, 1997 ). It also has a specific surface area of 470 m 2 /g (El Howayek, 2011 ). The main objective of this study is to take advantage of the properties of Laponite® nanoclay as an adsorbent material to trap dyes. The idea is to use the clay as a way to recover and recycle dyes, allowing their reuse in dyeing or printing processes, especially in polyester fibres (PES) due to the affinity of these dispersed dyes with this type of material. Previous studies have focused on the ability of nanoclays to adsorb dyes effectively, but this research goes further by combining dye recovery and reuse within the same process. This dual approach creates a self-sustaining system that reduces waste and improves the efficiency of textile dyeing. By uniting the typically separate steps of dye removal and recycling, this method not only addresses a major environmental challenge but also simplifies the process, making it more practical and impactful for industrial applications. 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS 2.1. Materials To carry out this experimental work, the non-ionic disperse dye Disperse Blue CI 183 was used as the study agent, whose molecular structure is shown in Fig. 1 . For adsorption, Laponite® Na 0.7 Si 8 Mg 5.5 Li 0.3 O 20 (OH) 4 nanoclay, purchased from Sigma Aldrich laboratory (UK), was selected. Laponite® has a cation exchange capacity (CEC) of approximately 50–70 milliequivalents per 100 grams (meq/100g). The polyester fabric, which served as the substrate for the dyeing process, was chosen because of its common use in textile applications due to its chemical structure and its affinity for disperse dyes. The fabric had a grammage of 250 g/m², which is an important factor as it influences the dye absorption and the interaction between the dye and the fabric. 2.2. Methods 2.2.1. Adsorption One of the main objectives of this study is to achieve the maximum adsorption efficiency of dyes by Laponite® nanoclay in order to purify water from pollutants. For this purpose, an experimental adsorption phase is carried out in which a 400 mL solution of water containing both the dye and the nanoclay is prepared. During this phase, the concentrations of both components are varied until the optimum conditions are reached, which, in this case, are 400 mL of water, 10 g of Laponite® and 0.5 g of dispersed dye. The adsorption process starts with intense stirring at 1600 rpm for one hour. This initial stirring provides a higher centrifugal force, which facilitates the penetration of the dye into the clay. Following this, the stirring speed is reduced to 500 rpm to ensure that the dye is not released from the clay again (Silva et al., 2012 ). 2.2.2. Filtering After the time described above has elapsed, the solution is filtered to separate and collect the clay from the aqueous solution. Filter paper is used for this purpose. After filtration, the filter is left to stand for 24 hours, allowing the water to separate from the clay naturally due to the force of gravity. In this way, complete separation of the clay from the liquid is achieved. The filtered water is then sampled, and a transmission spectrophotometer is used for precise measurement and quantitative data. The clay retained in the filter is collected and subjected to a freezing process at -18 ºC for 24 hours prior to drying. It is placed in an oven at 60 ºC for the time necessary for the clay to be completely dry. This step is important to ensure that the clay is ready for further use or analysis. 2.2.3. Dyeing Industrial textile wastewater typically contains dye concentrations ranging from 10 to 200 mg/L. These concentrations are influenced by factors such as dye type, production methods, and effluent treatment processes. Unlike industrial settings where multiple dyes may coexist, this study focused on a single dye Disperse Blue CI 183 at a concentration of 1250 mg/L (Yagub et al., 2014 )(Varadarajan and Venkatachalam, 2016b ). In the dyeing process, the hybrid of Laponite® clay (LAP3) and Disperse Blue 183 (DB183) obtained in the previous stage is used. This dyeing is carried out by means of an exhaustion process to dye the textile material, using a bath ratio (Rb) of 1/30. As the dye used is a disperse dye, the textile material to be dyed is 100% polyester (PES) due to its affinity with this type of dye. The dyeing process begins by preparing the baths with the compounds described in Table 1 , where the DB183 dye and the DB183LAP3 hybrid are used at different concentrations. The dyeing process of the DB183LAP3 fabric is carried out for 70 minutes at a specific temperature. During the first 20 minutes, the fabric is heated until it reaches 90 ºC. This temperature is thenmaintained for 50 minutes in the Testherm equipment type 9S of the manufacturer Talcatex SA, located in San Sebastián de los Reyes, Spain. This equipment is a closed dyeing system that is used to maintain the necessary high temperatures during the process, which guarantees a uniform and efficient dyeing of the fabric. Table 1 Dye baths. Sample O.W.F. (%) Colouring matter Ammonium sulphate(g/L) Carrier Texport FC (g/L) 1 0.5 dye 3 3 2 1 dye 3 3 3 0.5 dye 3 - 4 1 dye 3 - 5 1 Hybrid 3 3 6 2 Hybrid 3 3 7 3 Hybrid 3 3 8 1 Hybrid 3 - 9 2 Hybrid 3 - 10 3 Hybrid 3 - After completing the dyeing process described above, the clay that was in the baths is collected to evaluate the desorption it has undergone. To carry out this evaluation, the dye baths are separated from the solids and filtered again by gravity using filter paper, following the same procedure as above. Once the clay has been separated, an analysis is carried out to evaluate any changes in its colour and other characteristics that may have been altered as a result of the dyeing process. This analysis provides information on the capacity of the clay to retain the dye and any modifications it may have undergone during dyeing. 2.2.4. Stamping The printing process begins with the preparation of a mixture consisting of a dye and clay hybrid, combined with the printing paste. In this case, the paste used is Magnaprint Aquaflex V2 Neutral, supplied by the company Inkemi3 Distribuciones S.L., located in Malaga, Spain. The printing is carried out on a fabric composed of 100% polyester (PES), meticulously following the specifications detailed in Table 2 . This process involves the careful application of the prepared mixture on the surface of the fabric, ensuring a uniform distribution of the mixture. Table 2 Printing concentrations. Sample Hybrid loading (g) Concentration (g/kg) A 2 40 B 3 60 C 4 80 D 5 100 Printing is carried out at four different concentrations in order to explore and evaluate the effects of variation in the amount of disperse dye applied to the fabric. Once the paste mixture and the hybrid have been applied by the printing process, the fabric is thermofixed to ensure optimum adhesion and long-lasting colour fixation on the fabric. For this purpose, the printed fabric is subjected to a heat-setting process at a temperature of 165 ºC for a period of 90 seconds. 2.3. Characterisation 2.3.1. UV-VIS spectrophotometer To measure the hybrid colour and total solar reflectance (TSR) of the samples, I used a Konica Minolta CM-36dG spectrophotometer. This device allows the measurement of light reflected or transmitted by the samples in a wavelength range between 360 nm and 740 nm, with a step of 10 nm, which is suitable for evaluating the colour characteristics and reflectance of materials. This spectrophotometer also uses a UV xenon light that emits a light that simulates natural daylight, which makes it easier to obtain realistic measurements of how materials behave under daylight-like conditions. In addition, to obtain accurate measurements of the gloss and hue of the surfaces, the 60° sensor integrated in the equipment was used to evaluate how light is reflected from different angles. This is particularly useful for materials with different finishes or textures. The measurements were carried out under controlled conditions of temperature and humidity. The spectra obtained were analysed to calculate total solar reflectance (TSR) values. The absorption coefficient (K/S) is a key parameter for evaluating the efficiency of dye uptake in textiles. It is calculated using the Kubelka-Munk theory, which relates reflectance to absorption and scattering coefficients (Kubelka, 1931 )(Kubelka, 1948 ). This is reflected in Eq. 1. $$\:\frac{K}{S}=\frac{{(1-{R}_{\infty\:})}^{2}}{2·{R}_{\infty\:}}$$ Equation 1. Equation Kubelka-Munk. 2.3.2. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) To carry out the topographical analysis of the samples, a high-tech scanning electron microscope (SEM) was used, specifically the PHENOM model manufactured by FEI Company, based in Eindhoven, The Netherlands. This instrument is renowned for its ability to provide detailed images of the surface of materials on a microscopic scale (Huang et al., 2011 ). The SEM was set to operate at an acceleration of 5 kV, which ensures optimal resolution and clear visualisation of sample features. To prepare the samples prior to analysis, a sputtering process was used using an EMITECH model SC7620 sputtering machine, manufactured by Quorum Technologies Ltd, based in East Sussex, UK. This preparation method involves the deposition of a thin layer of a palladium/gold alloy on the sample surface, which improves the electrical conductivity and provides a suitable contrast for observation under SEM. The combination of these advanced technologies and meticulous sample preparation ensures high quality images and accurate analysis of the topography of the samples under study. 2.3.3. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) To evaluate the thermal properties of the hybrids, a thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) was carried out to compare the variations in the degradation peaks of the dyes and the clay dye composites. A thermogravimetric TGA/SDTA analyser from Mettler Toledo Inc. based in Columbus, Ohio, USA (Juárez Varón et al., 2014 ) was used to carry out this characterisation. During the analysis, specific experimental conditions were set to obtain results. The temperature was increased at a constant rate of 5 ºC per minute within a study range from 20 to 900 ºC. In addition, an oxidation medium consisting of a mixture of nitrogen and oxygen (N2:O2) was used. This process allows changes in the mass of the sample as the temperature increases to be observed, which reveals crucial information about its thermal stability and degradation behaviour. 2.3.4. Infrared spectrophotometer (FTIR) For the characterisation of the hybrids, an infrared spectrophotometer was used to obtain the Fourier transform (FTIR) using a horizontal attenuated total reflection technique (FITR-ATR), which is based on the principle that when infrared light is incident on a sample, part of this light is absorbed and part is reflected. In this case, a ZnSe prism was used to facilitate total internal reflection in the sample. The analysis equipment used was a Jasco FTIR 4700 IRT 5200 spectrometer, equipped with a DTGS detector sensor. In addition, a pressure accessory was applied to ensure a uniform and equalised pressure on all samples analysed. During the acquisition of the spectra, a sweep of 64 scans with a resolution of 4 cm-1 was carried out. 2.3.5. X-ray diffraction (XRD) X-ray diffraction is a technique used to study the structure and shape of materials, in this case, clay (Pálková, Madejová, Zimowska, Bielańska, et al., 2010 )(Zhuo et al., 2020 ). To carry out this test, a Bruker D8-Advance XDR 224, manufactured by Bruker in Billerica, MA, USA, was used. This equipment has a Goebel mirror and a power of 3000W, a voltage of 20–60 kV and a current of 5–80 mA. Measurements were performed in an oxidising atmosphere, with an angular velocity of 1º/min and a step of 0.05º, covering an angular sweep from 2.5 o to 90 o . This analysis is crucial to analyse the basal space in the Laponite® structure, especially in relation to dye adsorption. The information obtained from this technique will provide a deeper understanding of the changes in the clay during the thermal transformation and rehydration stages, which will contribute significantly to the characterisation of its properties. 3. RESULTS 3.1. Hybrid colour measurements and TSR (%) The determination of total solar reflectance (TSR) is crucial to evaluate the behaviour of hybrid materials such as the dye-dispersed Laponite® nanoclay composite. This analysis provides crucial information on how the material interacts with incident solar radiation, directly influencing its ability to reflect or absorb thermal energy. The total solar reflectance (TSR) result of 38.3% for the DB183LAP3 coating indicates that this material reflects 38.3% of the solar radiation incident on its surface, this value varies according to the pigment composition and its molecular structure, affecting the amount of absorbed and reflected radiation. In this context, a TSR of 38.3% suggests that DB183LAP3 has a moderate solar reflective capacity, which could be suitable for applications where a balance between absorption and reflection of solar radiation is sought. Figure 2 presents the reflectance of the hybrid as a function of wavelength. The behaviour of the sample in the ultraviolet (UV) region is very similar to the visible spectrum between 400 and 700 nm. From these values onwards, a greater variation and difference with the previous values becomes apparent, as it can be affected by factors such as the structure of the dye and the perception of the colour. 3.2. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy FTIR-ATR analysis Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) is a technique used to analyse the chemical composition of a sample. In the case of a clay with a dye, FTIR results can provide information about the chemical bonds present in the clay and how they interact with the dye. In Fig. 3 , one of the observed wavelengths is 523 cm − 1 , which corresponds to the Mg-O bond vibration of the octahedral Laponite®sheets, which are connected by apical oxygen to the tetrahedral sheet (Zimowska et al., 2023 )(Pálková, Madejová, Zimowska and Serwicka, 2010 )(Zimowska et al., 2016 ). Another significant wavelength is 645 cm − 1 , associated with the stretching vibrations of the Mg-O bond (Narayanan et al., 2016 a). In addition, a wavelength of 973 cm − 1 is observed, which corresponds to the stretching vibrations of the Si-O and Si-O-Si bonds. These vibrations are indicative of the presence and configuration of silicon and oxygen bonds in the nanoclay (Ninciuleanu et al., 2021 ). The FTIR spectrum also reveals a wavelength of 1633 cm − 1 , which is attributed to the oscillated deformations of the adsorbed water (Goncharuk et al., 2020 ). Finally, a band at wavelength 3626 cm − 1 is identified, which is attributed to the stretching vibrations of Si-OH and Mg-OH bonds (Narayanan et al., 2016 b). The red line, which represents the FTIR analysis of the dispersed dye DB183, shows different peaks that provide crucial information about its molecular structure. The bands located between 670 and 870 cm − 1 indicate the presence of aromatic rings in the dye molecule. In the range of 1210 to 1320 cm − 1 , vibrations corresponding to C-O bonds are evident. On the other hand, the bands found in the 1575 to 1630 cm − 1 range are attributable to the vibrations of the azo (N = N) bonds. In addition, the band recorded at 2212 cm − 1 in the spectrum reveals the cleavage of the CN group. These results provide a more detailed understanding of the composition and chemical modifications undergone by the DB183 dye (Nazari and Kashi, 2023 )(Hanson, 2014 )(Holkar, Pandit and Pinjari, 2014 ). In the spectrum, the blue line presents the FTIR analysis of the hybrid formed by the dye and the clay. In this spectrum, several characteristic bands are identified which provide information about the composition of the resulting material. It is observed that the bands located at 647 cm − 1 and 1624 cm − 1 coincide with the characteristic frequencies of the Laponite® spectrum, suggesting the presence of this component in the hybrid. On the other hand, the bands recorded at 875 cm − 1 and 960 cm − 1 correspond to the specific vibrations of the DB183 dye. This coincidence indicates the simultaneous presence of both clay and dye in the hybrid, which confirms the formation of a combined structure between both components. 3.3 X-ray diffraction (XRD) X-ray diffraction (XRD) is a technique used to analyse the crystalline structure of materials. Figure 4 shows the XRD results obtained to compare the Laponite® (LAP) and the hybrid (DB183LAP3). By observing the graph, one can identify the diffraction peaks appearing at different angles, such as 19.6 o , 27.9 o , 35.1 o , 53.8 o , 60.8 o and 72.3 o . These angles correspond to the crystalline planes 110, 020, 004, 130, 200, 150, 240, 310, 060 and 330 respectively (Snigdha et al., 2021 )(Cunha et al., 2017 ). When analysing the results, it is worth highlighting that both the nanoclay and the hybrid present a crystalline form. However, in the spectrum shown for DB183LAP3, the line corresponding to the diffraction peaks has a lower intensity. When a layered nanoclay adsorbs organic compounds, modifications occur in its internal structure. In addition to shifts in the diffraction peaks due to interlayer expansion caused by the incorporation of organic molecules the intensity of the characteristic peaks is seen to decrease. This attenuation is partly explained by an increased amorphous fraction in the solid, as the organic intercalation disrupts the regular stacking of the layers, thereby reducing long-range order(Alexandre and Dubois, 2000 ; Sanchez et al., 2005 ) (Liu et al., 2006 ). In other words, the presence of the dye makes the crystal structure less ordered and more dispersed, which is reflected in the lower intensity of the diffraction peaks in the graph. 3.4. Thermogravimetry (TGA) The results obtained from the thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) are represented in Fig. 5 . This graph shows the mass loss percentage of each sample as the temperature increases. In addition, the lower part shows the d(LAP) and d(DB183) curves, which correspond to the derivatives of the upper curves, allowing a clearer visualisation of the specific degradation peaks. In the temperature range between 25 and 111.46 o C, the Laponite® samples experienced an approximate mass loss of 5.7364% due to the evaporation of adsorbed water and the dehydroxylation process (Dyab et al., 2014 ). In Fig. 5 the black dashed line corresponding to sponite, two stages of mass loss were observed. The first occurs at 53.51 o C and is associated with the evaporation of water adsorbed on the clay. The second stage occurs at 728.76 o C and is due to the dehydroxylation of the clay layers, i.e. their collapse under the effect of heating (Ebunang et al., 2022 ). In contrast, the Disperse Blue 183 dye exhibits a degradation profile characterised by the presence of two distinct peaks. The first of these peaks is observed at around 53 o C, marking the beginning of a decomposition process that, although subtle, is significant in terms of mass loss. However, the second peak, which emerges around 734 o C, suggests a considerable mass loss compared to the first one. In the case of the hybrid, a remarkable similarity with the degradation curve of Laponite® is evident. This correspondence is reflected in the overlapping of both curves in the thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). This finding suggests a similar influence of thermal decomposition processes in both materials, which could derive from shared characteristics in their chemical or structural composition. 3.5. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) Figure 6 and Table 3 present the binding energy values corresponding to several atoms, which is crucial to identify both the presence of Laponite® clay and the dispersed dye DB183. In both samples, the presence of carbon (C1s) is detected with peaks at 285 eV, which confirms the existence of Laponite® in the samples. Additionally, the presence of sulphur is evidenced with a peak at 103 eV, indicating the incorporation of this element. Interestingly, in the sample labelled DB183LAP3, a peak corresponding to Br3d5 is observed. This is due to the fact that the blue disperse dye contains bromine in its chemical structure, which is reflected in the photoelectron spectroscopy. In addition, the presence of nitrogen (N1s) is detected, which is also characteristic of sample DB183LAP3, since the disperse dye includes nitrogen atoms in its composition. Table 3 Lapponite and DB183LAP3 binding energy. C1s DB183LAP3 LAP B.E FWHM eV Area % B.E FWHM eV Area % 284.64 1.58 5036.29 4.04 284.57 1.6 6500.74 4.83 286.81 0.97 668.41 0.54 285.68 1.19 1720.02 1.28 285.72 1.39 2092.3 1.68 286.79 0.72 564.87 0.42 289.11 2.03 576.81 0.46 288.24 1.56 285.87 0.21 Al2p3 DB183LAP3 LAP B.E FWHM eV Area % B.E FWHM eV Area % - - - - 72.97 1.85 347.22 0.65 Si2p3 DB183LAP3 LAP B.E FWHM eV Area % B.E FWHM eV Area % - - - - 102.84 1.45 36790.79 46.45 Na1s DB183LAP3 LAP B.E FWHM eV Area % B.E FWHM eV Area % - - - - 1073.04 2.12 29577.07 4.89 Mg1s DB183LAP3 LAP B.E FWHM eV Area % B.E FWHM eV Area % - - - - 1303.99 1.49 179196.58 36.89 1305.07 1.5 21122.51 4.36 N1s DB183LAP3 LAP B.E FWHM eV Area % B.E FWHM eV Area % 398.2 1.79 0 0 - - - - 398.12 0.5 0 0 400.07 2 0 0 Br3d5 DB183LAP3 LAP B.E FWHM eV Area % B.E FWHM eV Area % 64.34 1.47 1001.98 0.43 - - - - O1s DB183LAP3 LAP B.E FWHM eV Area % B.E FWHM eV Area % 532.24 1.92 252038.85 79.26 - - - - 531.21 1.47 34907.21 10.97 533.88 1.98 8293.62 2.61 3.6 Measurement of printing and dyeing colour. The main objective of this study was to give colour to a textile material, in this case polyester (PES), using printing and dyeing techniques with the hybrid created to add the desired colour. Once both processes had been carried out, the result obtained on the textile was measured and evaluated. The data obtained included brightness (L*), red-green tone difference (a*), yellow-blue tone difference (b*), hue (h) and colour saturation (C*ab). The absorption coefficient (K/S) at a wavelength of 410 nm was also evaluated as part of the colour analysis of the treated textile material. The results obtained are shown in Table 4 and represented in the chromaticity diagram in Fig. 7 , achieving the main objective of this research. The elements identified by the letters A, B, C and D correspond to printing carried out on polyester. On the other hand, the items numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10 refer to dyeing also applied on the same textile material. The dyes show higher L* values, indicating that they have lighter shades of blue compared to the prints. The a* values in the dyes are mostly negative, indicating a slight tendency towards green. In addition, the b* values are less negative compared to the prints, confirming that the shades of blue are less intense. Importantly, no large colour variation is observed in the dyes when changing the weight clay fibre, suggesting that the Laponite® hybrid with the blue dispersed dye 183 does not release more dye even when increasing the weight clay fibre. This behaviour indicates a stability in dye release from the hybrid. In contrast, the prints show darker and deeper shades of blue, with lower L* values and higher absolute b* values, reflecting a higher colour intensity. Positive a* values in the prints suggest a slight red tilt, differentiating them from the dyes that tend towards green. These results demonstrate how the method of application significantly affects the colour properties of the treated fabric. 3.7 ANOVA of printing and dyeing colour results The colour differences observed in the CIELAB space could be statistically different due to the selected conditions. To be sure about the discussion we used ANOVA techniques. We used a significance level α of 0.05 for the means comparison. We decided to compare the printed and dyed samples separately as the processes are completely different. For the dyed samples, we compared the Carrier and the hybrid concentrations. Also compared were the weight of clay fibre effect. Only means plots with considerable differences are shown. The Carrier Texport FC concentrations affect significantly the colour properties of the samples. The p-Values were lower than the significance level when we compared the b* values, which affect the chroma and tone behaviour. With Carrier the b* values are lower than those obtained without the carrier presence. This indicates samples with bluish tones and also samples with more saturated colours. The lightness is lower which means more colour range with these conditions (Fig. 8 ). With Carrier k/s seems higher but the p_Values are more than 0.05 and more samples will be needed to back up this conclusion. The values of the coordinates a* and b* are significantly affected when the hybrid is used in the dyeing process compared to when the hybrid is used alone with the original dye. The presence of the nanoclay causes the a* values to decrease, resulting in more greenish samples. In addition, the b* values are higher, so the hybrids produce bluer samples. This explains why the differences in tones are significant, turning into shades closer to turquoise and why the colour saturation in these samples is greater. Also in this case, the differences between the K/S values are significant, giving higher values, which imply higher dyeing yields, for those samples in the presence of the hybrids (Fig. 9 ). With the fibre weight factor, no significant differences are found in any of the colour responses analysed, meaning the yields depend more on the use or not of carrier and the presence of the nanoclay. Similarly for the printed samples, no significant differences are found by ANOVA or simple regression when comparing the numerical values, meaning that for the moment only the observed trends can be compared, such as higher concentration (g/kg), higher a* values (redder samples, and higher b* values, more yellowish samples). The opposite is observed with L*, which logically decreases with the concentration of colouring matter, while the C* values remain almost constant. 4. CONCLUSIONS This study has developed and validated an innovative dyeing process for polyester fabrics based on the use of Laponite® as a carrier for disperse dyes, harnessing the potential to recover and recycle dyes from textile wastewater. Under optimal conditions, using 10 g of Laponite® per 400 mL of water and 0.5 g of Disperse Blue CI 183 dye, the adsorption of the dye was highly effective, with similar studies reporting removal rates of up to 95% in under 30 minutes. In our process, the adsorption phase was conducted by vigorous stirring at 1600 rpm for 60 minutes, followed by a reduced speed of 500 rpm for an additional 60 minutes, thereby promoting the penetration of the dye into the Laponite® layers. The resulting hybrid material demonstrated excellent performance during the dyeing process, providing a well-balanced combination of lightness and colour intensity. Colour measurements revealed L* values ranging between 31.88 and 40.66, and K/S coefficients at 410 nm which increased from 0.73 to 1.46, indicating a high efficiency in colour fixation. Additionally, the hybrid exhibited a moderate total solar reflectance (TSR) of 38.3%, which is pertinent for applications requiring a balanced management of solar radiation absorption and reflection. The key advantages of using Laponite® as a carrier include, the efficient adsorption and recovery. Laponite’s® high specific surface area (approximately 470 m²/g) and cation exchange capacity facilitate strong dye fixation, enabling the recovery and reuse of the dye residue from wastewater, thereby significantly contributing to a circular economy. In addition, the process reduced environmental impact. By utilising recovered dye, the process decreases the need for virgin dyes and reduces the consumption of chemicals in the dyeing process, minimising the generation of toxic waste. Another advantage is the Industrial applicability. The process, which integrates adsorption and subsequent dyeing in a closed system (using a bath ratio of 1:30 and a 70-minute cycle at 90°C), meets the stringent requirements of the textile industry, offering a practical, sustainable, and economically viable solution for the reuse of waste materials. Overall, the incorporation of Laponite® as a carrier in the dyeing process not only enhances the quality and stability of colour on polyester fabrics but also provides significant quantitative and environmental benefits, setting a new precedent for the implementation of sustainable practices within the textile industry. Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate: Not applicable Consent for publication: All authors consent to the publication of the submitted research. Availability of data and material: All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article [and its supplementary information files] Competing interests: The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Funding: The “Campus d’Alcoi” of the “Universitat Politècnica de València” provided the facilities for the study, and the university also financed the costs of the publication in open acces. Authors' contributions: I. C-T. carried out most of the experimental work, generating the data necessary for the study, and was a major contributor in writing the manuscript. B.M-V. planned the experiment and the objectives of the study, participated in the review and analysis of the results and was responsible for submitting the article for publication, as well as securing funding for the materials and equipment required for the work. J. J-N. supervised the results, assisted in the analysis of the results and participated in the drafting and revision of the full text, as well as securing the space for the work to be carried out. He was involved in the analysis of results and in obtaining funding for the work. D. L-R Participated in experimental planning, targeting and selection of the journal for open publication. Acknowledgements: To the Universitat politècnica de València for facilitating the negotiations and funding for the publication in open acces in this Editorial. Authors' information: Costa-Torrado, Iría: Graduate student; Bàrbara Micó-Vicent: Professor; Jordán-Núñez, Jorge: Professor and Daniel López-Rodríguez: Professor. References Al-Etaibi AM, El-Apasery MA (2022a) Facile synthesis of novel disperse dyes for dyeing polyester fabrics: Demonstrating their potential biological activities. 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UPB Sci Bull Ser B-Chem Mater Sci 83:43–58 Ntuli F, Ikhu-Omoregbe D, Kuipa PK, Muzenda E, Belaid M (2009) Characterization of effluent from textile wet finishing operations. in. World Congress on Engineering and Computer Science Ochoa-Cornejo F, Muñoz S (2017) ‘Laponita: una nanotecnología que retarda la licuefacción’. Obras y proyectos, (21), pp. 6–12 Overdahl KE, Gooden D, Bobay B, Getzinger GJ, Stapleton HM, Ferguson PL (2021) Characterizing azobenzene disperse dyes in commercial mixtures and children’s polyester clothing. Environ Pollut 287:117299 Pálková H, Madejová J, Zimowska M, Bielańska E, Olejniczak Z, Lityńska-Dobrzyńska L, Serwicka EM (2010) ‘Laponite-derived porous clay heterostructures: I. Synthesis and physicochemical characterization’, Microporous and Mesoporous Materials , 127(3), pp. 228–236. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micromeso.2009.07.019 Pálková H, Madejová J, Zimowska M, Serwicka EM (2010) Laponite-derived porous clay heterostructures: II. FTIR study of the structure evolution. Microporous Mesoporous Mater 127(3):237–244 Pardo Ojeda KI (2020) ‘Física/química/geotecnia de laponita: potenciales aplicaciones’ Ponnusami V, Vikram S, Srivastava SN (2008) Guava (Psidium guajava) leaf powder: novel adsorbent for removal of methylene blue from aqueous solutions. J Hazard Mater 152(1):276–286 Qin J-S, Zhang S-R, Du D-Y, Shen P, Bao S-J, Lan Y-Q, Su Z-M (2014) A microporous anionic metal–organic framework for sensing luminescence of lanthanide (III) ions and selective absorption of dyes by ionic exchange. Chemistry–A Eur J 20(19):5625–5630 Ramasany R, Ahmed HAM, Karthik SS (2012) Development of microbial consortium for the biodegradation and biodecolorization of textile effluents. J Urban Environ Eng 6(1):36–41 Sanchez C, Julián B, Belleville P, Popall M (2005) Applications of hybrid organic–inorganic nanocomposites. J Mater Chem 15(35–36):3559–3592 Sarkar N, Sahoo G, Swain SK (2020) ‘Nanoclay sandwiched reduced graphene oxide filled macroporous polyacrylamide-agar hybrid hydrogel as an adsorbent for dye decontamination’, Nano-structures & nano-objects , 23, p. 100507 Silva MMF, Oliveira MM, Avelino MCM, Fonseca MG, Almeida RKS, Filho ECS (2012) ‘Adsorption of an industrial anionic dye by modified-KSF-montmorillonite: Evaluation of the kinetic, thermodynamic and equilibrium data’, Chemical Engineering Journal , 203, pp. 259–268. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2012.07.009 Snigdha S et al (2021) ‘Laponite® nanoclay gel based microenvironment for plant probiotic rhizobacterial delivery’, Rhizosphere , 18, p. 100346 Varadarajan G, Venkatachalam P (2016a) Sustainable textile dyeing processes. Environ Chem Lett 14:113–122 Varadarajan G, Venkatachalam P (2016b) Sustainable textile dyeing processes. Environ Chem Lett 14:113–122 Yagub MT, Sen TK, Afroze S, Ang HM (2014) ‘Dye and its removal from aqueous solution by adsorption: A review’, Advances in Colloid and Interface Science , 209, pp. 172–184. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CIS.2014.04.002 Zhuo W, Ge J, Benson MT, Xie Y, Mariani RD, Zhang J (2020) XRD and SEM/EDS characterization of two quaternary fuel alloys (U-2.5 Mo-2.5 Ti-5.0 Zr and U-1.5 Mo-1.5 Ti-7.0 Zr in wt.%) for fast reactors. Mater Charact 170:110696 Zimowska M, Łątka K, Olejniczak Z, Socha RP, Lityńska L, Matachowski L (2016) Alteration of the structure and surface composition of crystalline-amorphous porous clay heterostructures upon iron doping from metal‐organic source. Surf Interface Anal 48(7):527–531 Zimowska M, Śliwa M, Pálková H, Gurgul J, Socha RP (2023) Microwave treatment effect on the enhanced basicity of porous clay heterostructured composites derived from Laponite. Appl Surf Sci 619:156768 Tables Table 4 is available in the Supplementary Files section. Additional Declarations The authors declare no competing interests. Supplementary Files Table4.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6799654","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":465055689,"identity":"08c4dc7f-792a-44b7-8191-a4d77ab88c7b","order_by":0,"name":"Iria, Costa-Torrado","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Universitat Politècnica de València","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Costa-Torrado","middleName":"","lastName":"Iria","suffix":""},{"id":465065611,"identity":"0f16de1a-1b78-4d9c-aa67-58614ac0d9de","order_by":1,"name":"Bàrbara, 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07:16:16","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":{"humanSubjects":false,"vertebrateSubjects":false,"conflictsOfInterestStatement":false,"humanSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false,"humanSubjectConsent":false,"humanSubjectClinicalTrial":false,"humanSubjectCaseReport":false,"vertebrateSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false},"doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6799654/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6799654/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":83835231,"identity":"f82b64c2-eeba-49bb-8068-0e7242fe9cf0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-03 12:54:14","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":8984,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMolecular structure of the Disperse Blue CI 183 dye\u003cem\u003e(Overdahl \u003c/em\u003eet al.\u003cem\u003e, 2021)\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6799654/v1/22a149de48654fa44eb3b887.png"},{"id":83835233,"identity":"6d3cd504-fa66-46aa-8e92-1a690dadf771","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-03 12:54:15","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":22830,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTSR (%) of the hybrid.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6799654/v1/1b0f9a93c296b2f372ecce27.png"},{"id":83835238,"identity":"c1fb3e41-e6da-4a60-bcd3-d77716856621","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-03 12:54:15","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":72794,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFTIR of LAP, DB183 and DB183LAP3.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6799654/v1/7645022e7fb096ef0d1a5047.png"},{"id":83836085,"identity":"e780aef6-3706-419d-affe-52af2834ff4e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-03 13:10:15","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":59147,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eXRD for Laponite® and DB183LAP3.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6799654/v1/290380ecffa7835c38afed88.png"},{"id":83836086,"identity":"e21e97c2-5e89-4f60-98bd-64d504cc4206","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-03 13:10:15","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":47943,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTGA and DTGA of for dye and Laponite®.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6799654/v1/81b278d418a63a7f2788a382.png"},{"id":83835491,"identity":"2b20a6ce-6689-49fc-9c21-1bc2bd5158f7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-03 13:02:15","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":54495,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eLaponite® and DB183LAP3 XPS.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6799654/v1/eaf1e995c1f5d7db8c26677c.png"},{"id":83835494,"identity":"8f30a0da-e15f-40d0-9216-07a00074de2b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-03 13:02:15","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":55099,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eRepresentation of the chromatic coordinates for each of the colour samples of the fabrics.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6799654/v1/00cbc162be768bed7f3fa3eb.png"},{"id":83835496,"identity":"2c967281-7516-4e24-8fd5-71f84f7f9f73","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-03 13:02:15","extension":"png","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":18314,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMeans plot for b*, Cab*, hab* and L* reponses with the Carrier Texport concentration factor.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6799654/v1/7b7df4da01788e626c8cfd74.png"},{"id":83835243,"identity":"7309128a-caa4-4d1f-af4d-4bdf9ef01a2d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-03 12:54:15","extension":"png","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":21923,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMeans plot for a*,b*, Cab*, hab*, L* and K/S(410 nm) reponses with the Carrier Texport concentration factor.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"9.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6799654/v1/0eb5ccea0af39d8ea0fc8338.png"},{"id":83836575,"identity":"c9abf847-77a9-43dc-83e3-9d50ea0a8f07","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-03 13:18:16","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1466278,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6799654/v1/21013671-c7ce-4884-9a57-3f58217aefbf.pdf"},{"id":83835232,"identity":"3f4b687c-c226-4fc7-acc0-0452d4a560a0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-03 12:54:15","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":759495,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Table4.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6799654/v1/06fb052ba018b3fe868ddd15.docx"}],"financialInterests":"The authors declare no competing interests.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSustainable Removal and Reuse of Disperse Dyes from Wastewater Using Laponite® Nanoclay: A Circular Approach for Polyester Dyeing\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"1. INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe textile industry is one of the industries with the highest water consumption and which generates the most highly polluted wastewater (Mart\u0026iacute;nez et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014a\u003c/span\u003e). The effluents generated are characterised by high chemical oxygen demand (COD), biological oxygen demand (BOD), total dissolved solids (TDS), pH and colour, the latter being one of the most prominent problems (Varadarajan and Venkatachalam, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016a\u003c/span\u003e)(Ramasany, Ahmed and Karthik, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e)(Ntuli et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Dyes used in the textile industry are designed to be highly resistant, even to microbial degradation, which makes their removal difficult (Mart\u0026iacute;nez et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014b\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGiven this worrying scenario, it is imperative to explore alternatives that reduce the environmental impact of the textile industry. The adoption of sustainable practices and the development of innovative technologies are presented as key solutions to address this problem and promote more environmentally friendly textile production. For these reasons, the need has arisen to implement ecological textile dyeing processes that are viable for this industry.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the textile industry, a wide variety of colours is required to meet the growing demand for quality, fastness and shade variety. To achieve this, more than 10,000 different synthetic dyes and pigments are used (Ponnusami, Vikram and Srivastava, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). Among the various types of dyes used are sulphur, acid, basic, disperse, direct, reactive and vat dyes. Disperse dyes are widely used in the textile industry due to their ease of synthesis, bright colours and their application in polyester dyeing and printing (Al-Etaibi and El-Apasery, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e)(Al-Etaibi and El-Apasery, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022b\u003c/span\u003e)(Al-Etaibi and El-Apasery, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022a\u003c/span\u003e). In this study, we will focus on the ecological aspects of dyeing with disperse dyes, considering their extensive use in the textile industry.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDue to the high physicochemical stability of dyes used in the textile industry, it is difficult to remove or degrade them by simple and conventional chemical routes. Therefore, it is of great importance to find effective ways to remove these complex and non-biodegradable dyes from wastewater (Sarkar, Sahoo and Swain, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). To address this problem, various techniques have been developed, such as coagulation-flocculation (Moghaddam, Moghaddam and Arami, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e), precipitation (Lee et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e), ion exchange (Qin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e), membrane separation (Gopakumar et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), oxidation/ozonation (Kasiri, Modirshahla and Mansouri, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e), biological degradation (Ali, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e), photodegradation (Dammala et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) and adsorption (Yagub et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmong these techniques, adsorption stands out as an effective solution due to its low cost and simplicity. In particular, nanoclays have proven to be excellent adsorbents for the removal of dyes from wastewater. These nanoclays are characterised by their high specific surface area and cation exchange capacity, which allows them to efficiently adsorb dyes present in water (Gahlot, Taki and Kumar, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). In addition, their low toxicity and wide availability make nanoclays a promising option for dye removal (Awasthi, Jadhao and Kumari, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCompared to other techniques, such as activated carbon adsorption or photocatalysis, nano-clays offer significant advantages due to their high surface area and numerous active sites which facilitate interaction with contaminants. For instance, studies have shown that nano-clays like montmorillonite and bentonite modified with surfactants can remove up to 95% of dyes such as methylene blue and congo red in less than 30 minutes (B\u0026aacute;rcenas-Grangeno et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, the incorporation of metal oxide nanoparticles, such as titanium dioxide (TiO₂), into nano-clays has further improved adsorption efficiency, achieving complete removal of certain dyes in significantly reduced times (Casal, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). These results highlight the superiority of nano-clays over conventional techniques, positioning them as a promising solution for the remediation of contaminated waters.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLaponite\u0026reg;, a synthetic nano-clay belonging to the smectite group, has shown promising results in the removal of contaminants from water. Due to its smaller particle size compared to other clays like bentonite, Laponite\u0026reg; exhibits a higher surface area and enhanced adsorption properties. Studies have demonstrated that Laponite\u0026reg; can effectively remove heavy metals and organic dyes from aqueous solutions. For instance, Laponite\u0026reg; has been used to adsorb contaminants such as cadmium and lead, achieving removal efficiencies of over 90% (Ochoa-Cornejo and Mu\u0026ntilde;oz, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). When compared to other nano-clays like montmorillonite and bentonite, Laponite\u0026reg; often requires a smaller quantity to achieve similar or even superior adsorption results (Pardo Ojeda, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). This efficiency is attributed to its unique structure and high cation exchange capacity, which facilitate the binding of contaminants. These characteristics make Laponite\u0026reg; a highly effective and economical option for water remediation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this study, Laponite\u0026reg; nanoclay has been used as an adsorbent material. Laponite\u0026reg; is a synthetic hectorite clay in the form of 2D sheets with nanoscale crystals (Huang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Its chemical composition is represented by Na\u003csub\u003e0.7\u003c/sub\u003eSi\u003csub\u003e8\u003c/sub\u003eMg\u003csub\u003e5.5\u003c/sub\u003eLi\u003csub\u003e0.3\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e20\u003c/sub\u003e(OH)\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e, where tetrahedral SiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e sheets are intercalated with a sheet of Mg(Li) ions (Jatav and Joshi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). This clay has a relatively small particle size, with a basic structure consisting of layered plates of hydrated magnesium silicate, with a diameter of about 25\u0026ndash;30 nm and a thickness of about 1 nm (Hanley, Muzny and Butler, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e). It also has a specific surface area of 470 m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e/g (El Howayek, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe main objective of this study is to take advantage of the properties of Laponite\u0026reg; nanoclay as an adsorbent material to trap dyes. The idea is to use the clay as a way to recover and recycle dyes, allowing their reuse in dyeing or printing processes, especially in polyester fibres (PES) due to the affinity of these dispersed dyes with this type of material. Previous studies have focused on the ability of nanoclays to adsorb dyes effectively, but this research goes further by combining dye recovery and reuse within the same process. This dual approach creates a self-sustaining system that reduces waste and improves the efficiency of textile dyeing. By uniting the typically separate steps of dye removal and recycling, this method not only addresses a major environmental challenge but also simplifies the process, making it more practical and impactful for industrial applications.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. MATERIALS AND METHODS","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1. Materials\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo carry out this experimental work, the non-ionic disperse dye Disperse Blue CI 183 was used as the study agent, whose molecular structure is shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. For adsorption, Laponite\u0026reg; Na\u003csub\u003e0.7\u003c/sub\u003eSi\u003csub\u003e8\u003c/sub\u003eMg\u003csub\u003e5.5\u003c/sub\u003eLi\u003csub\u003e0.3\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e20\u003c/sub\u003e(OH)\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e nanoclay, purchased from Sigma Aldrich laboratory (UK), was selected. Laponite\u0026reg; has a cation exchange capacity (CEC) of approximately 50\u0026ndash;70 milliequivalents per 100 grams (meq/100g). The polyester fabric, which served as the substrate for the dyeing process, was chosen because of its common use in textile applications due to its chemical structure and its affinity for disperse dyes. The fabric had a grammage of 250 g/m\u0026sup2;, which is an important factor as it influences the dye absorption and the interaction between the dye and the fabric.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2. Methods\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.1. Adsorption\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOne of the main objectives of this study is to achieve the maximum adsorption efficiency of dyes by Laponite\u0026reg; nanoclay in order to purify water from pollutants. For this purpose, an experimental adsorption phase is carried out in which a 400 mL solution of water containing both the dye and the nanoclay is prepared. During this phase, the concentrations of both components are varied until the optimum conditions are reached, which, in this case, are 400 mL of water, 10 g of Laponite\u0026reg; and 0.5 g of dispersed dye.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe adsorption process starts with intense stirring at 1600 rpm for one hour. This initial stirring provides a higher centrifugal force, which facilitates the penetration of the dye into the clay. Following this, the stirring speed is reduced to 500 rpm to ensure that the dye is not released from the clay again (Silva et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.2. Filtering\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAfter the time described above has elapsed, the solution is filtered to separate and collect the clay from the aqueous solution. Filter paper is used for this purpose. After filtration, the filter is left to stand for 24 hours, allowing the water to separate from the clay naturally due to the force of gravity. In this way, complete separation of the clay from the liquid is achieved. The filtered water is then sampled, and a transmission spectrophotometer is used for precise measurement and quantitative data.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe clay retained in the filter is collected and subjected to a freezing process at -18 \u0026ordm;C for 24 hours prior to drying. It is placed in an oven at 60 \u0026ordm;C for the time necessary for the clay to be completely dry. This step is important to ensure that the clay is ready for further use or analysis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.3. Dyeing\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndustrial textile wastewater typically contains dye concentrations ranging from 10 to 200 mg/L. These concentrations are influenced by factors such as dye type, production methods, and effluent treatment processes. Unlike industrial settings where multiple dyes may coexist, this study focused on a single dye Disperse Blue CI 183 at a concentration of 1250 mg/L (Yagub et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e)(Varadarajan and Venkatachalam, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016b\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the dyeing process, the hybrid of Laponite\u0026reg; clay (LAP3) and Disperse Blue 183 (DB183) obtained in the previous stage is used. This dyeing is carried out by means of an exhaustion process to dye the textile material, using a bath ratio (Rb) of 1/30. As the dye used is a disperse dye, the textile material to be dyed is 100% polyester (PES) due to its affinity with this type of dye.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe dyeing process begins by preparing the baths with the compounds described in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, where the DB183 dye and the DB183LAP3 hybrid are used at different concentrations. The dyeing process of the DB183LAP3 fabric is carried out for 70 minutes at a specific temperature. During the first 20 minutes, the fabric is heated until it reaches 90 \u0026ordm;C. This temperature is thenmaintained for 50 minutes in the Testherm equipment type 9S of the manufacturer Talcatex SA, located in San Sebasti\u0026aacute;n de los Reyes, Spain. This equipment is a closed dyeing system that is used to maintain the necessary high temperatures during the process, which guarantees a uniform and efficient dyeing of the fabric.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDye baths.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eO.W.F. (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eColouring matter\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmmonium sulphate(g/L)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCarrier Texport FC (g/L)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003edye\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003edye\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003edye\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003edye\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHybrid\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHybrid\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHybrid\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHybrid\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHybrid\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHybrid\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAfter completing the dyeing process described above, the clay that was in the baths is collected to evaluate the desorption it has undergone. To carry out this evaluation, the dye baths are separated from the solids and filtered again by gravity using filter paper, following the same procedure as above.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOnce the clay has been separated, an analysis is carried out to evaluate any changes in its colour and other characteristics that may have been altered as a result of the dyeing process. This analysis provides information on the capacity of the clay to retain the dye and any modifications it may have undergone during dyeing.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.4. Stamping\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe printing process begins with the preparation of a mixture consisting of a dye and clay hybrid, combined with the printing paste. In this case, the paste used is Magnaprint Aquaflex V2 Neutral, supplied by the company Inkemi3 Distribuciones S.L., located in Malaga, Spain.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe printing is carried out on a fabric composed of 100% polyester (PES), meticulously following the specifications detailed in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. This process involves the careful application of the prepared mixture on the surface of the fabric, ensuring a uniform distribution of the mixture.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrinting concentrations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHybrid loading (g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConcentration (g/kg)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrinting is carried out at four different concentrations in order to explore and evaluate the effects of variation in the amount of disperse dye applied to the fabric. Once the paste mixture and the hybrid have been applied by the printing process, the fabric is thermofixed to ensure optimum adhesion and long-lasting colour fixation on the fabric. For this purpose, the printed fabric is subjected to a heat-setting process at a temperature of 165 \u0026ordm;C for a period of 90 seconds.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3. Characterisation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3.1. UV-VIS spectrophotometer\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo measure the hybrid colour and total solar reflectance (TSR) of the samples, I used a Konica Minolta CM-36dG spectrophotometer. This device allows the measurement of light reflected or transmitted by the samples in a wavelength range between 360 nm and 740 nm, with a step of 10 nm, which is suitable for evaluating the colour characteristics and reflectance of materials.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis spectrophotometer also uses a UV xenon light that emits a light that simulates natural daylight, which makes it easier to obtain realistic measurements of how materials behave under daylight-like conditions. In addition, to obtain accurate measurements of the gloss and hue of the surfaces, the 60\u0026deg; sensor integrated in the equipment was used to evaluate how light is reflected from different angles. This is particularly useful for materials with different finishes or textures.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe measurements were carried out under controlled conditions of temperature and humidity. The spectra obtained were analysed to calculate total solar reflectance (TSR) values.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe absorption coefficient (K/S) is a key parameter for evaluating the efficiency of dye uptake in textiles. It is calculated using the Kubelka-Munk theory, which relates reflectance to absorption and scattering coefficients (Kubelka, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1931\u003c/span\u003e)(Kubelka, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1948\u003c/span\u003e). This is reflected in Eq.\u0026nbsp;1.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Equa\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e \u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equa\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:\\frac{K}{S}=\\frac{{(1-{R}_{\\infty\\:})}^{2}}{2\u0026middot;{R}_{\\infty\\:}}$$\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eEquation 1. Equation Kubelka-Munk.\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3.2. Scanning electron microscope (SEM)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo carry out the topographical analysis of the samples, a high-tech scanning electron microscope (SEM) was used, specifically the PHENOM model manufactured by FEI Company, based in Eindhoven, The Netherlands. This instrument is renowned for its ability to provide detailed images of the surface of materials on a microscopic scale (Huang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe SEM was set to operate at an acceleration of 5 kV, which ensures optimal resolution and clear visualisation of sample features. To prepare the samples prior to analysis, a sputtering process was used using an EMITECH model SC7620 sputtering machine, manufactured by Quorum Technologies Ltd, based in East Sussex, UK.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis preparation method involves the deposition of a thin layer of a palladium/gold alloy on the sample surface, which improves the electrical conductivity and provides a suitable contrast for observation under SEM. The combination of these advanced technologies and meticulous sample preparation ensures high quality images and accurate analysis of the topography of the samples under study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3.3. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo evaluate the thermal properties of the hybrids, a thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) was carried out to compare the variations in the degradation peaks of the dyes and the clay dye composites. A thermogravimetric TGA/SDTA analyser from Mettler Toledo Inc. based in Columbus, Ohio, USA (Ju\u0026aacute;rez Var\u0026oacute;n et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) was used to carry out this characterisation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDuring the analysis, specific experimental conditions were set to obtain results. The temperature was increased at a constant rate of 5 \u0026ordm;C per minute within a study range from 20 to 900 \u0026ordm;C. In addition, an oxidation medium consisting of a mixture of nitrogen and oxygen (N2:O2) was used.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis process allows changes in the mass of the sample as the temperature increases to be observed, which reveals crucial information about its thermal stability and degradation behaviour.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3.4. Infrared spectrophotometer (FTIR)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor the characterisation of the hybrids, an infrared spectrophotometer was used to obtain the Fourier transform (FTIR) using a horizontal attenuated total reflection technique (FITR-ATR), which is based on the principle that when infrared light is incident on a sample, part of this light is absorbed and part is reflected. In this case, a ZnSe prism was used to facilitate total internal reflection in the sample.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe analysis equipment used was a Jasco FTIR 4700 IRT 5200 spectrometer, equipped with a DTGS detector sensor. In addition, a pressure accessory was applied to ensure a uniform and equalised pressure on all samples analysed.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDuring the acquisition of the spectra, a sweep of 64 scans with a resolution of 4 cm-1 was carried out.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3.5. X-ray diffraction (XRD)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eX-ray diffraction is a technique used to study the structure and shape of materials, in this case, clay (P\u0026aacute;lkov\u0026aacute;, Madejov\u0026aacute;, Zimowska, Bielańska, et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e)(Zhuo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). To carry out this test, a Bruker D8-Advance XDR 224, manufactured by Bruker in Billerica, MA, USA, was used. This equipment has a Goebel mirror and a power of 3000W, a voltage of 20\u0026ndash;60 kV and a current of 5\u0026ndash;80 mA. Measurements were performed in an oxidising atmosphere, with an angular velocity of 1\u0026ordm;/min and a step of 0.05\u0026ordm;, covering an angular sweep from 2.5\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003e to 90\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis analysis is crucial to analyse the basal space in the Laponite\u0026reg; structure, especially in relation to dye adsorption. The information obtained from this technique will provide a deeper understanding of the changes in the clay during the thermal transformation and rehydration stages, which will contribute significantly to the characterisation of its properties.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. RESULTS","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1. Hybrid colour measurements and TSR (%)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe determination of total solar reflectance (TSR) is crucial to evaluate the behaviour of hybrid materials such as the dye-dispersed Laponite\u0026reg; nanoclay composite. This analysis provides crucial information on how the material interacts with incident solar radiation, directly influencing its ability to reflect or absorb thermal energy.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe total solar reflectance (TSR) result of 38.3% for the DB183LAP3 coating indicates that this material reflects 38.3% of the solar radiation incident on its surface, this value varies according to the pigment composition and its molecular structure, affecting the amount of absorbed and reflected radiation. In this context, a TSR of 38.3% suggests that DB183LAP3 has a moderate solar reflective capacity, which could be suitable for applications where a balance between absorption and reflection of solar radiation is sought.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e presents the reflectance of the hybrid as a function of wavelength. The behaviour of the sample in the ultraviolet (UV) region is very similar to the visible spectrum between 400 and 700 nm. From these values onwards, a greater variation and difference with the previous values becomes apparent, as it can be affected by factors such as the structure of the dye and the perception of the colour.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy FTIR-ATR analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) is a technique used to analyse the chemical composition of a sample. In the case of a clay with a dye, FTIR results can provide information about the chemical bonds present in the clay and how they interact with the dye.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, one of the observed wavelengths is 523 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e, which corresponds to the Mg-O bond vibration of the octahedral Laponite\u0026reg;sheets, which are connected by apical oxygen to the tetrahedral sheet (Zimowska et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e)(P\u0026aacute;lkov\u0026aacute;, Madejov\u0026aacute;, Zimowska and Serwicka, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e)(Zimowska et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Another significant wavelength is 645 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e, associated with the stretching vibrations of the Mg-O bond (Narayanan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003ea). In addition, a wavelength of 973 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e is observed, which corresponds to the stretching vibrations of the Si-O and Si-O-Si bonds. These vibrations are indicative of the presence and configuration of silicon and oxygen bonds in the nanoclay (Ninciuleanu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The FTIR spectrum also reveals a wavelength of 1633 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e, which is attributed to the oscillated deformations of the adsorbed water (Goncharuk et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Finally, a band at wavelength 3626 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e is identified, which is attributed to the stretching vibrations of Si-OH and Mg-OH bonds (Narayanan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003eb).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe red line, which represents the FTIR analysis of the dispersed dye DB183, shows different peaks that provide crucial information about its molecular structure. The bands located between 670 and 870 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e indicate the presence of aromatic rings in the dye molecule. In the range of 1210 to 1320 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e, vibrations corresponding to C-O bonds are evident. On the other hand, the bands found in the 1575 to 1630 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e range are attributable to the vibrations of the azo (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;N) bonds. In addition, the band recorded at 2212 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e in the spectrum reveals the cleavage of the CN group. These results provide a more detailed understanding of the composition and chemical modifications undergone by the DB183 dye (Nazari and Kashi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e)(Hanson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e)(Holkar, Pandit and Pinjari, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the spectrum, the blue line presents the FTIR analysis of the hybrid formed by the dye and the clay. In this spectrum, several characteristic bands are identified which provide information about the composition of the resulting material. It is observed that the bands located at 647 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e and 1624 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e coincide with the characteristic frequencies of the Laponite\u0026reg; spectrum, suggesting the presence of this component in the hybrid. On the other hand, the bands recorded at 875 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e and 960 cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e correspond to the specific vibrations of the DB183 dye. This coincidence indicates the simultaneous presence of both clay and dye in the hybrid, which confirms the formation of a combined structure between both components.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3 X-ray diffraction (XRD)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eX-ray diffraction (XRD) is a technique used to analyse the crystalline structure of materials. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e shows the XRD results obtained to compare the Laponite\u0026reg; (LAP) and the hybrid (DB183LAP3).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBy observing the graph, one can identify the diffraction peaks appearing at different angles, such as 19.6\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003e, 27.9\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003e, 35.1\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003e, 53.8 \u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003e, 60.8 \u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003e and 72.3 \u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003e. These angles correspond to the crystalline planes 110, 020, 004, 130, 200, 150, 240, 310, 060 and 330 respectively (Snigdha et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e)(Cunha et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhen analysing the results, it is worth highlighting that both the nanoclay and the hybrid present a crystalline form. However, in the spectrum shown for DB183LAP3, the line corresponding to the diffraction peaks has a lower intensity. When a layered nanoclay adsorbs organic compounds, modifications occur in its internal structure. In addition to shifts in the diffraction peaks due to interlayer expansion caused by the incorporation of organic molecules the intensity of the characteristic peaks is seen to decrease. This attenuation is partly explained by an increased amorphous fraction in the solid, as the organic intercalation disrupts the regular stacking of the layers, thereby reducing long-range order(Alexandre and Dubois, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e; Sanchez et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e) (Liu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). In other words, the presence of the dye makes the crystal structure less ordered and more dispersed, which is reflected in the lower intensity of the diffraction peaks in the graph.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4. Thermogravimetry (TGA)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results obtained from the thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) are represented in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e. This graph shows the mass loss percentage of each sample as the temperature increases. In addition, the lower part shows the d(LAP) and d(DB183) curves, which correspond to the derivatives of the upper curves, allowing a clearer visualisation of the specific degradation peaks.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the temperature range between 25 and 111.46 \u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC, the Laponite\u0026reg; samples experienced an approximate mass loss of 5.7364% due to the evaporation of adsorbed water and the dehydroxylation process (Dyab et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e the black dashed line corresponding to sponite, two stages of mass loss were observed. The first occurs at 53.51 \u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC and is associated with the evaporation of water adsorbed on the clay. The second stage occurs at 728.76 \u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC and is due to the dehydroxylation of the clay layers, i.e. their collapse under the effect of heating (Ebunang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn contrast, the Disperse Blue 183 dye exhibits a degradation profile characterised by the presence of two distinct peaks. The first of these peaks is observed at around 53 \u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC, marking the beginning of a decomposition process that, although subtle, is significant in terms of mass loss. However, the second peak, which emerges around 734 \u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC, suggests a considerable mass loss compared to the first one.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the case of the hybrid, a remarkable similarity with the degradation curve of Laponite\u0026reg; is evident. This correspondence is reflected in the overlapping of both curves in the thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). This finding suggests a similar influence of thermal decomposition processes in both materials, which could derive from shared characteristics in their chemical or structural composition.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.5. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e and Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e present the binding energy values corresponding to several atoms, which is crucial to identify both the presence of Laponite\u0026reg; clay and the dispersed dye DB183. In both samples, the presence of carbon (C1s) is detected with peaks at 285 eV, which confirms the existence of Laponite\u0026reg; in the samples. Additionally, the presence of sulphur is evidenced with a peak at 103 eV, indicating the incorporation of this element.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInterestingly, in the sample labelled DB183LAP3, a peak corresponding to Br3d5 is observed. This is due to the fact that the blue disperse dye contains bromine in its chemical structure, which is reflected in the photoelectron spectroscopy. In addition, the presence of nitrogen (N1s) is detected, which is also characteristic of sample DB183LAP3, since the disperse dye includes nitrogen atoms in its composition.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLapponite and DB183LAP3 binding energy.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC1s\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDB183LAP3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLAP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB.E\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFWHM eV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB.E\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFWHM eV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e284.64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5036.29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e284.57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6500.74\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.83\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e286.81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.97\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e668.41\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e285.68\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1720.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e285.72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2092.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.68\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e286.79\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e564.87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e289.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e576.81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e288.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e285.87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAl2p3\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDB183LAP3\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLAP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB.E\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFWHM eV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB.E\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFWHM eV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e72.97\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.85\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e347.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSi2p3\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDB183LAP3\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLAP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB.E\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFWHM eV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB.E\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFWHM eV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e102.84\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36790.79\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e46.45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNa1s\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDB183LAP3\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLAP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB.E\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFWHM eV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB.E\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFWHM eV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1073.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29577.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.89\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMg1s\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDB183LAP3\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLAP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB.E\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFWHM eV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB.E\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFWHM eV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1303.99\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e179196.58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36.89\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1305.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21122.51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eN1s\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDB183LAP3\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLAP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB.E\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFWHM eV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB.E\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFWHM eV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e398.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.79\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e398.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e400.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eBr3d5\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDB183LAP3\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLAP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB.E\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFWHM eV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB.E\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFWHM eV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e64.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1001.98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eO1s\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDB183LAP3\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLAP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB.E\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFWHM eV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB.E\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFWHM eV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e532.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.92\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e252038.85\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e79.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e531.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34907.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.97\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e533.88\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8293.62\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.6 Measurement of printing and dyeing colour.\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe main objective of this study was to give colour to a textile material, in this case polyester (PES), using printing and dyeing techniques with the hybrid created to add the desired colour. Once both processes had been carried out, the result obtained on the textile was measured and evaluated. The data obtained included brightness (L*), red-green tone difference (a*), yellow-blue tone difference (b*), hue (h) and colour saturation (C*ab). The absorption coefficient (K/S) at a wavelength of 410 nm was also evaluated as part of the colour analysis of the treated textile material. The results obtained are shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e and represented in the chromaticity diagram in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e, achieving the main objective of this research. The elements identified by the letters A, B, C and D correspond to printing carried out on polyester. On the other hand, the items numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10 refer to dyeing also applied on the same textile material.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe dyes show higher L* values, indicating that they have lighter shades of blue compared to the prints. The a* values in the dyes are mostly negative, indicating a slight tendency towards green. In addition, the b* values are less negative compared to the prints, confirming that the shades of blue are less intense. Importantly, no large colour variation is observed in the dyes when changing the weight clay fibre, suggesting that the Laponite\u0026reg; hybrid with the blue dispersed dye 183 does not release more dye even when increasing the weight clay fibre. This behaviour indicates a stability in dye release from the hybrid. In contrast, the prints show darker and deeper shades of blue, with lower L* values and higher absolute b* values, reflecting a higher colour intensity. Positive a* values in the prints suggest a slight red tilt, differentiating them from the dyes that tend towards green. These results demonstrate how the method of application significantly affects the colour properties of the treated fabric.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.7 ANOVA of printing and dyeing colour results\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe colour differences observed in the CIELAB space could be statistically different due to the selected conditions. To be sure about the discussion we used ANOVA techniques. We used a significance level α of 0.05 for the means comparison. We decided to compare the printed and dyed samples separately as the processes are completely different. For the dyed samples, we compared the Carrier and the hybrid concentrations. Also compared were the weight of clay fibre effect. Only means plots with considerable differences are shown.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Carrier Texport FC concentrations affect significantly the colour properties of the samples. The p-Values were lower than the significance level when we compared the b* values, which affect the chroma and tone behaviour. With Carrier the b* values are lower than those obtained without the carrier presence. This indicates samples with bluish tones and also samples with more saturated colours. The lightness is lower which means more colour range with these conditions (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e). With Carrier k/s seems higher but the p_Values are more than 0.05 and more samples will be needed to back up this conclusion.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe values of the coordinates a* and b* are significantly affected when the hybrid is used in the dyeing process compared to when the hybrid is used alone with the original dye. The presence of the nanoclay causes the a* values to decrease, resulting in more greenish samples. In addition, the b* values are higher, so the hybrids produce bluer samples. This explains why the differences in tones are significant, turning into shades closer to turquoise and why the colour saturation in these samples is greater. Also in this case, the differences between the K/S values are significant, giving higher values, which imply higher dyeing yields, for those samples in the presence of the hybrids (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWith the fibre weight factor, no significant differences are found in any of the colour responses analysed, meaning the yields depend more on the use or not of carrier and the presence of the nanoclay. Similarly for the printed samples, no significant differences are found by ANOVA or simple regression when comparing the numerical values, meaning that for the moment only the observed trends can be compared, such as higher concentration (g/kg), higher a* values (redder samples, and higher b* values, more yellowish samples). The opposite is observed with L*, which logically decreases with the concentration of colouring matter, while the C* values remain almost constant.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. CONCLUSIONS","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study has developed and validated an innovative dyeing process for polyester fabrics based on the use of Laponite\u0026reg; as a carrier for disperse dyes, harnessing the potential to recover and recycle dyes from textile wastewater. Under optimal conditions, using 10 g of Laponite\u0026reg; per 400 mL of water and 0.5 g of Disperse Blue CI 183 dye, the adsorption of the dye was highly effective, with similar studies reporting removal rates of up to 95% in under 30 minutes. In our process, the adsorption phase was conducted by vigorous stirring at 1600 rpm for 60 minutes, followed by a reduced speed of 500 rpm for an additional 60 minutes, thereby promoting the penetration of the dye into the Laponite\u0026reg; layers.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe resulting hybrid material demonstrated excellent performance during the dyeing process, providing a well-balanced combination of lightness and colour intensity. Colour measurements revealed L* values ranging between 31.88 and 40.66, and K/S coefficients at 410 nm which increased from 0.73 to 1.46, indicating a high efficiency in colour fixation. Additionally, the hybrid exhibited a moderate total solar reflectance (TSR) of 38.3%, which is pertinent for applications requiring a balanced management of solar radiation absorption and reflection.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe key advantages of using Laponite\u0026reg; as a carrier include, the efficient adsorption and recovery. Laponite\u0026rsquo;s\u0026reg; high specific surface area (approximately 470 m\u0026sup2;/g) and cation exchange capacity facilitate strong dye fixation, enabling the recovery and reuse of the dye residue from wastewater, thereby significantly contributing to a circular economy. In addition, the process reduced environmental impact. By utilising recovered dye, the process decreases the need for virgin dyes and reduces the consumption of chemicals in the dyeing process, minimising the generation of toxic waste. Another advantage is the Industrial applicability. The process, which integrates adsorption and subsequent dyeing in a closed system (using a bath ratio of 1:30 and a 70-minute cycle at 90\u0026deg;C), meets the stringent requirements of the textile industry, offering a practical, sustainable, and economically viable solution for the reuse of waste materials.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverall, the incorporation of Laponite\u0026reg; as a carrier in the dyeing process not only enhances the quality and stability of colour on polyester fabrics but also provides significant quantitative and environmental benefits, setting a new precedent for the implementation of sustainable practices within the textile industry.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eAll authors consent to the publication of the submitted research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and material:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eAll data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article [and its supplementary information files]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe authors declare that they have no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe \u0026ldquo;Campus d\u0026rsquo;Alcoi\u0026rdquo; of the \u0026ldquo;Universitat Polit\u0026egrave;cnica de Val\u0026egrave;ncia\u0026rdquo; provided the facilities for the study, and the university also financed the costs of the publication in open acces.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors\u0026apos; contributions:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eI. C-T.\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003ecarried out most of the experimental work, generating the data necessary for the study, and was a major contributor in writing the manuscript. B.M-V. planned the experiment and the objectives of the study, participated in the review and analysis of the results and was responsible for submitting the article for publication, as well as securing funding for the materials and equipment required for the work. J. J-N. supervised the results, assisted in the analysis of the results and participated in the drafting and revision of the full text, as well as securing the space for the work to be carried out. He was involved in the analysis of results and in obtaining funding for the work. D. L-R Participated in experimental planning, targeting and selection of the journal for open publication.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eTo the Universitat polit\u0026egrave;cnica de Val\u0026egrave;ncia for facilitating the negotiations and funding for the publication in open acces in this Editorial.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors\u0026apos; information:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eCosta-Torrado, Ir\u0026iacute;a: Graduate student; B\u0026agrave;rbara Mic\u0026oacute;-Vicent: Professor; Jord\u0026aacute;n-N\u0026uacute;\u0026ntilde;ez, Jorge: Professor and Daniel L\u0026oacute;pez-Rodr\u0026iacute;guez: Professor.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAl-Etaibi AM, El-Apasery MA (2022a) Facile synthesis of novel disperse dyes for dyeing polyester fabrics: Demonstrating their potential biological activities. 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Appl Surf Sci 619:156768\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Tables","content":"\u003cp\u003eTable 4 is available in the Supplementary Files section.\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"Universitat Politècnica de València","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Disperse dyes, Laponite®, wastewater treatment, dye adsorption, dye desorption, circular economy, polyester dyeing, environmental sustainability","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6799654/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6799654/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study investigates the removal of disperse dyes from textile wastewater using Laponite\u0026reg; nanoclay as a sustainable carrier, offering a dual environmental benefit: wastewater remediation and resource recovery. A hybrid dye-nanoclay material was developed and evaluated for its capacity to adsorb disperse dyes from aqueous solutions, with particular focus on optimizing removal efficiency and characterizing the adsorbent material. Beyond pollutant removal, the recovered hybrid was repurposed for direct application in polyester (PES) dyeing processes, providing an innovative circular approach within the textile industry. The dye-loaded Laponite\u0026reg; exhibited good affinity for polyester fibers, supporting its reuse potential and reducing the need for conventional, more polluting dyeing auxiliaries. This work highlights the feasibility of combining nanotechnology with sustainable wastewater management and resource reutilization strategies. The proposed method offers a cost-effective and environmentally sound alternative to current practices, contributing to reduced dye pollution and enhanced circularity in industrial dyeing operations.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Sustainable Removal and Reuse of Disperse Dyes from Wastewater Using Laponite® Nanoclay: A Circular Approach for Polyester Dyeing","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-06-03 12:54:10","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6799654/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"896c3b97-ac95-4221-86e8-cae6a6ef4207","owner":[],"postedDate":"June 3rd, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-06-03T12:54:10+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-06-03 12:54:10","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6799654","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6799654","identity":"rs-6799654","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}