Private Supplementary Tutoring in Cambodia Educational System: What Matters for Policies?

Private Supplementary Tutoring in Cambodia Educational System: What Matters for Policies? | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Private Supplementary Tutoring in Cambodia Educational System: What Matters for Policies? Rany Sam This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-4465183/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract In Cambodia, as in many ASEAN countries, private supplementary tutoring, also known as 'shadow education,' is a significant component of the educational landscape. This chapter examines the root causes of shadow education in Cambodia, the challenges it poses, and the effectiveness of existing policies aimed at regulating this sector. Through semi-structured interviews with 21 principals and teachers, the study identifies key drivers of shadow education, including inadequate formal education, insufficient resources, regulatory gaps, and teachers’ low salaries. The findings indicate a widespread reliance on private tutoring to compensate for these deficiencies, which exacerbates educational inequalities. The chapter concludes with targeted recommendations for students, parents, educators, and policymakers, underscoring the critical need for robust and effective regulatory frameworks to address the challenges of shadow education and to enhance the quality and equity of Cambodia's educational system Educational Philosophy and Theory Shadow education private supplementary tutoring and coaching policy Cambodia 1. Introduction Cambodia has a total of 19,342 general education schools spread across 25 provinces and Phnom Penh. This includes 8,891 kindergartens (4,694 public, 3,290 community-based, and 907 private), 8,252 primary schools (of which 854 are private), 1,341 lower secondary schools (99 private), and 897 upper secondary schools (316 private). Notably, the enrollment rate in Cambodian primary schools has more than doubled from 2,477,800 in 2003 to 4,204,471 in the 2023–2024 academic year. Currently, there are 400,059 kindergarten students, 2,300,000 primary school students, 710,000 lower secondary school students, 430,000 upper secondary school students, and 3,512 students in general and technical high schools (MoEYS, 2023 ; Meas & Sok, 2023). Private supplementary tutoring (PST) has emerged as a prominent feature of Cambodia's education landscape, with a growing number of students seeking additional academic support outside formal schooling (Bray, 1990 ; Bray & Lykins, 2012 ; Brehm, et al. 2012 ; Sam, et al., 2012; Brehm & Silova, 2014 ; Bray, 2016 ; Brehm, 2016 ; Bray et al. 2019 ). Many students extend their learning beyond regular school hours, and shadow education or private tutoring is a longstanding practice. This phenomenon is particularly prevalent in East Asia, as noted by the OECD in 2014, and has become a norm in Cambodia, where it is referred to as "extra classes" in English and “ Rean Kour ” in Khmer (Brehm & Silova; UNDP, 2014 ). Typically, these classes occur outside official school hours. According to Brehm ( 2016 ), there is a prevailing belief in the Cambodian education system that attending these extra classes is essential for students to pass their monthly, semester, and national examinations. Brehm also observed that private tutoring began gaining momentum in Cambodia during the late 1980s or early 1990s. Bray et al. ( 2019 ), who conducted research in six Cambodian schools involving 48 student interviews, 24 teacher interviews, and questionnaires completed by 1,274 students and 72 teachers, discovered that a significant majority (81.9%) of students received private tutoring in at least one school subject. This tutoring is widely considered necessary to meet the demands of the government school curriculum. Research on shadow education, a global phenomenon, has been extensive. While many studies focus on issues such as corruption and unethical practices within Cambodia’s shadow education system (Bray et al., 2019 ; Brehm & Silova, 2014 ; Soeung, 2021a ), less attention has been paid to other aspects, such as the benefits and negative impacts of shadow education on students beyond financial considerations. Recognizing that shadow education has both positive and negative outcomes, a balanced understanding can help maximize its benefits and minimize its drawbacks. The current state of shadow education in Cambodia, much like in other parts of Asia, involves the widespread presence of private tutoring, coaching, and academic enrichment classes that function alongside the formal education system. These shadow education services cater to the desires of parents for their children to excel academically, often because they perceive that schools alone cannot provide sufficient support. This phenomenon creates a parallel education system that not only reflects but also exacerbates existing social class inequalities, as tutoring centers tend to serve those who can afford them, thus privileging certain groups over others. The strategies these centers use to gain public trust include showcasing their success in improving student performance and promoting a more personal and approachable teaching method compared to traditional schools. This situation has several implications for educational practices, including the perpetuation of social class disparities in accessing quality education and the potential demotivation of formal school teachers, who may feel their efforts are undervalued if students rely heavily on tutors. Consequently, the shadow education system is a crucial aspect of the educational landscape, with significant effects on educational inequality and inclusion. This paper aims to investigate the factors driving the demand for PST among Cambodian students and to provide insights for policymakers on effective strategies to address this phenomenon. 2. Literature Review This section reviews existing literature on PST, focusing on its prevalence, determinants, and effects on educational outcomes. We examine studies from Cambodia and other countries to identify common trends and factors shaping PST participation. Key themes include the role of socio-economic factors, school quality, exam pressure, and parental aspirations in driving demand for PST. We also discuss the potential consequences of PST on students' well-being and the broader education system. Stevenson and Baker (1992) defined shadow education as "a set of educational activities that occur outside formal schooling and are designed to enhance the student’s formal school career" (p. 1639). Similarly, Buchmann et al. ( 2010 ) described it as educational activities like tutoring and extra classes that occur outside of the formal educational system and are designed to improve a student’s chance of successfully navigating the allocation process (p. 284). Bray and Lykins ( 2012 ) defined shadow education as private supplementary tutoring that mirrors the mainstream school curriculum, often involving tutoring in academic subjects that take place outside regular school hours for a fee. In this chapter, the terms 'shadow education' and 'private tutoring' are used interchangeably. World Vision (2021) listed several reasons why education is important, including its role in developing communication skills, fostering critical thinking, building job qualifications, reducing child mortality, and promoting gender equality. Given the crucial role of education, it is unsurprising that many parents invest heavily in it for their children’s future. Bray and Lykins ( 2012 ) noted that the primary reason for private tutoring is the recognition of education’s importance and the substantial returns it can offer. The demand for supplementary tutoring also arises from the strong link between educational outcomes and opportunities in careers and social status (Stevenson & Baker, 1992). The well-known Cambodian saying "time is money" acknowledges the value of time, indicating that the investment of both time and money in education is a testament to its perceived value. In many educational systems, certain grades determine which schools’ students may attend. Bray and Lykins ( 2012 ) highlighted Singapore, where the stratified secondary education system bases future educational tracks largely on primary school grades, prompting many parents to invest in supplementary tutoring from an early age. In contrast, other systems emphasize the senior year as the critical decision-making point, given the limited availability of post-secondary places. As long as the post-secondary education remains stratified, with varying benefits, private tutoring will continue to be prevalent in secondary education (Bray & Lykins, 2012 ). In Cambodia, two national examinations at 9th and 12th grades serve as crucial educational transition points. Notably, the national examination process was marred by widespread cheating until educational reforms in 2014 made it stringent (Chhay, 2014; NBC News, 2014). Kem et al. (2012) found that 77.7% of candidates in the 2012 national exam reported being able to copy answers from each other, and 65.8% brought cheat notes into the exam rooms. The pass rate plummeted from around 80% in 2012–2013 to 26% in 2014 following the reforms (Maeda, 2021). These reforms forced students to rely heavily on studying to pass their exams (Retka, 2017 ). The adoption of online private tutoring surged post-reform, facilitated by affordable technology (Chhun, 2017 ). The pressure of the 12th-grade national exam, which influences high school graduation and university admission, often drives students to private tutoring, with top performers sometimes receiving scholarships (Maeda, 2021). Bray ( 2016 ) collected data from over 1,200 students and 70 teachers in six schools in Siem Reap province, Cambodia, and found that nearly 82% of the students surveyed engaged in private tutoring. This trend mirrors findings from Vietnam, where Dang ( 2007 ) observed that students nearing the end of their school level increasingly invested in private tutoring, particularly due to school-leaving examinations (Dang & Rogers, 2008 ). The COVID-19 pandemic exacerbated learning losses and heightened fear of national exams, further increasing the reliance on private tutoring (Bhatta et al., 2022). Ngay (2021) reported that a student from Bak Touk High School in Phnom Penh and her peers were intensively preparing for the 12th-grade national exam through private tutoring. This student attended six different classes to compensate for missed online lessons, a common practice among her peers, emphasizing the importance of extra classes during the pandemic-induced rise in remote learning (Ngay, 2021). Private supplementary tutoring (PST) has become a ubiquitous phenomenon in Cambodia's education system, attracting significant attention from researchers, policymakers, and practitioners. This literature review provides an overview of key studies examining the prevalence, determinants, effects, and policy implications of PST in Cambodia. Research indicates that PST is widespread across Cambodia, with a large proportion of students participating in private tutoring outside formal schooling hours (Buchmann et al., 2010 ; Chim, & Soeung, 2023 Jeffery & Tsuyoshi, 2019 ). Surveys conducted in urban and rural areas have consistently reported high rates of PST enrollment, suggesting its entrenched nature in Cambodian society. Several factors influence the demand for PST among Cambodian students. Socio-economic status plays a significant role, with households from higher income brackets more likely to afford private tutoring services. Parental education also emerges as a determinant, with better-educated parents often valuing education highly and investing in additional academic support for their children (Bray & Lykins, 2012 ; Brehm, et al. 2012 ). Additionally, perceived inadequacies in public school quality, including large class sizes and limited resources, drive parents to seek supplementary tutoring to ensure their children receive adequate academic support. While PST is often viewed as a means to enhance academic performance, its effects on students can be multifaceted. Some studies suggest that PST can contribute to improved exam scores and academic achievement (Brehm & Silova, 2014 ; Bray, 2016 ; Brehm, 2016 ; Bray et al. 2019 ). However, excessive reliance on tutoring may exacerbate educational inequalities, as disadvantaged students may lack access to such services (United Nations, 2019; OECD, 2014 ; OECD, 2017 ). Moreover, concerns have been raised about the potential negative consequences of PST, including increased stress, pressure, and dependency on external support. The proliferation of PST in Cambodia poses challenges for education policymakers seeking to promote equity and quality within the education system. Effective policy responses require a nuanced understanding of the drivers and dynamics of PST participation. Strategies to address this issue may include efforts to improve public school quality, enhance teacher training and support, regulate tutoring services, and provide targeted assistance to disadvantaged students; moreover, policymakers must consider the socio-economic context and cultural factors that shape attitudes towards education and tutoring in Cambodia. (Bray, 2016 ; Brehm, 2016 ; Bray et al. 2019 ; Soeung, 2021). 3. Problem Statement In Cambodia, the rise of private supplementary tutoring has become a prominent feature of the educational landscape, reflecting broader trends across Southeast Asia. This phenomenon, commonly referred to as 'shadow education', parallels the formal school system and offers additional teaching outside regular school hours. While it aims to enhance student learning and performance, the unchecked expansion of shadow education raises significant concerns regarding educational equity, quality, and the burden on students and families (Brehm, 2016 ; Bray et al. 2019 ). Despite its widespread adoption, there is a profound lack of comprehensive understanding and effective policy frameworks to regulate and integrate private supplementary tutoring within the national educational strategy (Ngel, 2022 ; Chim & Soeung, 2023 ). The absence of robust regulatory mechanisms leads to disparities in educational outcomes, where only students from better-off families can afford high-quality tutoring, thereby exacerbating socioeconomic inequalities. Moreover, there is a critical gap in policy-oriented research that scrutinizes the effectiveness of existing regulations and explores the potential for new policies to address these challenges holistically. Therefore, this study seeks to explore the multifaceted impact of private supplementary tutoring in Cambodia, focusing specifically on how it shapes educational outcomes and contributes to social disparities. The research will critically assess current policy measures, identify their shortcomings, and propose actionable solutions to optimize the regulation of shadow education. By doing so, it aims to contribute to a more equitable and effective educational system that aligns with the broader goals of national educational policy and social justice. 4. Objectives of the Study To investigate factors that cause shadow education in Cambodian educational system To explore the challenges associated with shadow education in Cambodia To investigate policies and regulations that contribute to solve the private supplementary tutoring in Cambodia Educational System 5. Research Questions What factors that cause shadow education in Cambodian educational system in the Cambodian educational system? What are challenges that associated with shadow education in Cambodia? Which existing policies and regulations have been effective in managing the issues of private supplementary tutoring in Cambodia, and what additional measures could be implemented to enhance their effectiveness? 6. Methodology 6.1. Study Design This research adopts a qualitative case study approach to explore the nature of turnaround leadership in high schools located in northwestern Cambodia. The case study method is chosen for its depth, detail, and ability to provide context-specific insights, making it particularly suitable for investigating the complex phenomenon of leadership in unique educational settings. 6.2. Participants The study will involve 21 high school principals from various high schools in northwestern Cambodia. These participants will be purposively selected based on specific criteria such as their schools' geographic location, performance metrics, and their recognized efforts in implementing turnaround strategies. The selection aims to ensure a diverse representation of experiences and contexts. Code Age Sex School Location Years of Experiences Educational Background P1 54 M Battambang 23 years MPA P2 52 M Battambang 20 years MBA P3 48 M Battambang 18 years B.Sc. P4 50 M Battambang 21 years MPA P5 45 M Banteay Meanchey 14 years BA P6 38 M Banteay Meanchey 11 years B.Sc. P7 35 M Banteay Meanchey 8 years B.Sc. P8 50 M Banteay Meanchey 18 years M.Sc. P9 54 M Pursat 22 years BA P10 56 M Pursat 24 years M. Ed. P11 42 M Pursat 15 years M.Bs. P12 48 M Pursat 18 years BA P13 36 M Oddor Meanchey 12 years BA P14 39 M Oddor Meanchey 14 years B.Sc. P15 45 M Oddor Meanchey 17 years MBA P16 46 M Siem Reap 11 years BA P17 53 M Siem Reap 19 years B.Sc. P18 49 M Siem Reap 16 years BA P19 52 M Siem Reap 13 years B.Sc. P20 43 M Pailin 12 years MBA P21 40 M Pailin 12 years MPA 6.3. Data Collection Data primarily collected through semi-structured interviews, which allow for in-depth exploration of the principals' experiences, perceptions, and leadership practices. The interview guide developed based on the research questions and literature review, covering topics such as leadership strategies, challenges faced, support systems, and perceived outcomes of turnaround efforts. Before conducting the interviews, a pilot performed with two school principals not included in the study to refine the interview questions and approach. Each interview is expected to last between 60 to 90 minutes and will be conducted in Khmer, the native language of the participants, to ensure comfort and clarity. All interviews will be audio-recorded with the participants' consent and later transcribed verbatim for analysis. Participants will be assured of their anonymity and the confidentiality of their responses. 6.4. Data Analysis The research adopted a qualitative approach, utilizing thematic analysis to delve into the complexities of turnaround leadership in Cambodian high schools. As prescribed by Braun & Clarke ( 2006 ), thematic analysis is particularly effective in psychometric research for the systematic identification and interpretation of key themes within data sets. In this study, the technique was pivotal in unraveling the nuanced facets of leadership dynamics. The data analysis unfolded in meticulously defined phases. Initially, the research team immersed themselves in the data, repeatedly reviewing the interview transcripts to ensure a comprehensive understanding. This first step was crucial for grounding subsequent analysis in the authentic voices and experiences of the participants. Following this, the team generated initial codes, labeling the data with keywords or short phrases that captured the essence of responses. The third and fourth steps involved an iterative process of searching for and reviewing themes, where initial codes were amalgamated into broader themes reflective of overarching patterns in the data. This phase was particularly critical as it transformed raw data into structured insights relevant to turnaround leadership. Subsequently, the team undertook the task of defining and naming the themes, ensuring each was distinct and clearly encapsulated a specific aspect of leadership. The culmination of this process was the production of a detailed report, presenting the findings in a coherent and accessible manner. 6.5. Ethical Considerations Ethical approval for this study obtained from the relevant institutional review board. Informed consent sought from all participants, ensuring they understand the study's purpose, their right to withdraw at any time, and how their data used and protected. The confidentiality of participants and their schools maintained throughout the study, with pseudonyms used in all disseminated findings. 6.6. Limitations The study acknowledges potential limitations, including the subjective nature of qualitative data, the reliance on self-reported data from 21 principals in Northwestern Cambodia, and the contextual specificity of the findings which may limit generalizability. However, these limitations are mitigated through careful study design. 7. Results and Discussion 7.1. Results 7.1.1. Research Question One: what factors that cause shadow education in Cambodian educational system in the Cambodian educational system? The investigation revealed that most participants identified five primary factors contributing to the prevalence of shadow education in the Cambodian educational system. These include inadequate formal education, insufficient resources, high parental expectations, regulatory gaps, and low teacher salaries. One respondent shared his experience, noting that: "I have personally observed several critical issues within the Cambodian public education system, including underqualified teachers, large class sizes, and insufficient resources. Due to shortages of teachers and inadequate infrastructure, many public schools in Cambodia operate only half-day sessions, either in the morning or the afternoon. This leads to overcrowded classrooms, making it challenging for students to achieve significant academic progress with just a few hours of instruction each day. Consequently, these deficiencies can compromise the quality of education, forcing parents to turn to private tutoring to enhance their children’s learning. Lacking confidence in the educational services provided by public schools, some parents opt to hire teachers for home instruction, while others send their children to private tutorial schools, often taught by the same teachers who work in the public system." (P6). The primary finding of the research highlights the role of Cambodian parents' expectations and cultural values, which emphasize academic excellence for their children. This cultural pressure often leads parents to enroll their children in supplementary tutoring to enhance their chances of success in a highly competitive educational environment. Education is highly valued in Cambodian culture as a means of achieving upward mobility. This emphasis encourages families to seek any educational advantage, including private tutoring, which is viewed as an investment in a child’s future and reflects a deep-seated belief in the transformative power of education. Students in urban areas, particularly in cities like Battambang, Pursat, and Banteay Meanchey, have greater access to high-quality private tutoring services than those in rural or remote areas. The disparity in access is partly due to the concentration of tutoring centers in urban areas, where there is both a higher demand and greater financial capability to afford such services. One respondent noted that: "Cambodian families with higher incomes are more likely to invest in private supplementary tutoring for their children. This investment stems from the belief that such 'shadow education' provides a competitive advantage in national examinations, which are key to gaining admission to prestigious schools and universities. The ability to afford these services deepens educational inequalities by favoring students from wealthier families who can access extensive tutoring. In contrast, poorer students struggle to afford these supplementary classes and must rely on the limited offerings of public schools." (P 18). In addition, the Cambodian educational system is based on an examination-driven curriculum that heavily focuses on rote learning and success in standardized examinations. This system places significant pressure on students to seek additional coaching specifically tailored to help them excel in these exams, thereby contributing to the demand for shadow education. One of the respondents stated that: "Most parents encourage their children to study Khmer literature, mathematics, physics, chemistry, and biology, as these are considered the most challenging subjects essential for achieving high grades in national exams for both lower and upper secondary schools. Particularly at the upper secondary level, achieving a grade A can led to university scholarships and awards from Cambodian political elites at both provincial and national levels. Students who excel often receive gifts from our Prime Minister." (P7). The most obvious finding is that the lack of stringent regulations and quality control over private tutoring allows for significant variance in the quality and effectiveness of tutoring services. This insufficient oversight not only perpetuates the prevalence of shadow education but also poses challenges in ensuring that it positively contributes to students’ education, rather than merely exploiting parental anxieties and aspirations for commercial gain. These factors often lead to a scenario where wealthier, urban, and more educated families are able to utilize shadow education more effectively, further entrenching educational and social disparities. Conversely, lower-income, rural families, despite valuing education highly, often struggle to provide the same level of supplementary education to their children due to financial and geographical constraints. One respondent shared his personal experience: “Even though regulations issued by the Ministry of Education, Youth, and Sport exist, they seem ineffective because teachers who violate these laws and regulations are not fined or punished at either the school or ministerial levels. Violating teachers continue to offer illegal supplementary classes to their students, both inside and outside of regular classes” (P21). Furthermore, teachers' low salaries are one of the factors impacting private supplementary tutoring in Cambodia. The royal government has increased teachers' monthly salaries and benefits to between USD 350 and USD 550. Addressing these issues requires a comprehensive approach that includes improving the quality of public education, ensuring equitable access to resources, and implementing rigorous regulatory frameworks for private tutoring. By understanding these socioeconomic and cultural factors, parents and educators can work towards a more equitable educational landscape that reduces the reliance on private supplementary tutoring in Cambodia. One participant explained: "Based on my personal experience and observations, government salaries in Cambodia remain low compared to those in other ASEAN countries. Consequently, many teachers cannot cover their daily expenses, especially those necessary to maintain social dignity in a civilized society. To supplement their income, some teachers take on secondary positions at private schools and only occasionally attend their public-school classes. Others charge students personal fees for full access to the school curriculum. This places students who cannot afford these fees at a disadvantage, limiting their educational opportunities. Therefore, many teachers feel they have no choice but to offer extra classes to manage their living costs and health care expenses (P 15). 7.1.2 Research Question Two: What are challenges that associated with shadow education in Cambodia? The research has shown that engagement in shadow education in Cambodia poses significant academic and psychological challenges for students and their families. To address these challenges effectively, it's crucial to understand the diverse impacts that private supplementary tutoring has on the various stakeholders involved. Firstly, students may develop an excessive reliance on private tutors to grasp fundamental concepts, hindering their ability to learn independently. This reliance undermines the cultivation of critical thinking and self-study skills, potentially impeding their long-term academic progress. Moreover, discrepancies between the content provided by private tutors and the school curriculum can lead to confusion and misalignment in students' understanding of academic material. Such discrepancies may result in conflicts in learning strategies and outcomes. Additionally, the extra hours spent in tutoring sessions, beyond regular school hours, amplify the academic workload and pressure on students. Intensive tutoring, focused primarily on rote learning and exam preparation, can induce stress and burnout among students, exacerbated by high expectations to excel in examinations driven by parental pressure and the competitive educational environment. Consequently, students may experience significant stress and anxiety, with the additional burden of supplementary classes further impacting their mental health and well-being. This engagement often sacrifices students' leisure time, limiting opportunities for holistic development and social interactions, thereby affecting their overall happiness and quality of life. Moreover, there exists a cultural and social expectation to participate in tutoring, potentially stigmatizing students who are unable or unwilling to do so. This stigma can foster feelings of inadequacy or social isolation, particularly among students already facing academic struggles or hailing from less affluent backgrounds. In summary, the multifaceted impacts of shadow education on students and their families underscore the need for a comprehensive approach to addressing its challenges. One respondent noted: "As a school principal, I have observed that students from disadvantaged backgrounds often perform poorly academically because they cannot fully access the curriculum and engage in practical learning with their teachers and peers. These students tend to be psychologically affected and feel isolated from their classmates. In Cambodian culture, there is a noticeable hesitancy among poorer students to interact with their wealthier peers, leading to a higher dropout rate. To address this issue, I consistently advise my teachers to adhere to the professional code of conduct and to encourage students to actively participate in their classes. This involvement is crucial for their future prospects and the development of our country (P1)." Additionally, students and parents face financial challenges related to the burden of private tutoring, with many families allocating a significant portion of their income to afford these services. This financial strain can impact the overall family budget, constraining spending on other essential needs such as healthcare, nutrition, and recreational activities. The cost of private tutoring exacerbates economic disparities, as only families with sufficient financial resources can afford high-quality tutoring. Consequently, this disparity reinforces educational inequities, as economically disadvantaged students have limited access to supplementary educational resources. For many families, sustaining the ongoing cost of private tutoring proves challenging, especially when multiple children in the family require such services. This long-term financial commitment can lead to debt or financial insecurity. One participant shared: "Based on my experiences at my school, some parents have faced financial difficulties and incurred debts due to the COVID-19 pandemic and the economic crisis; as a result, they lack the budget to afford their children's supplementary courses. Additionally, some parents have expressed concerns to the principal and school leaders about teachers' performance and perceived discrimination. The Cambodian Ministry of Education, Youth, and Sport frequently advises school leaders and teachers to avoid unnecessary supplementary classes, the sale of lessons, and other forms of corruption that could negatively impact educational quality and the school's reputation." (P15). Therefore, the challenges associated with shadow education in Cambodia are multifaceted, impacting students and families academically, psychologically, and financially. Addressing these challenges necessitates comprehensive policy interventions aimed at reducing the academic pressure linked to examinations, establishing support systems for students' mental health, and ensuring more equitable access to quality education. Implementing such measures could help alleviate the adverse effects of private supplementary tutoring and foster a more balanced and inclusive educational environment. 7.1.3. Research Question Three: which existing policies and regulations have been effective in managing the issues of private supplementary tutoring in Cambodia, and what additional measures could be implemented to enhance their effectiveness? Based on the findings, it's evident that existing policies and regulations in Cambodia regarding private supplementary tutoring require enhancement to improve their effectiveness. Cambodia has various policies and regulations in place, including the Child-friendly School Policy, Lifelong Learning Policy, Inclusive Education Policy, Teacher Policy, National Policy on Child Protection System 2019–2029, Curriculum Framework of General Education and Technical Education, Cambodian Sustainable Development Goals (CSDGs) framework (2016–2023), School-based Management (SBM) Policy, Reform Strategy on Education, Youth, and Sport (2018–2023), New Generation School Policy, sub-decree on Teacher’s Professional Code, Model School Standards, and Educational Law. Additionally, a ministerial declaration dated May 7, 2024, addressed concerns about students’ supplementary courses, emphasizing the need for teachers to fulfill their duties assigned by school principals with provisions of equity, inclusivity, and professionalism in educational services. However, the effectiveness of these regulations is mixed, with licensing ensuring a minimum standard but significant gaps persisting in enforcement and monitoring, allowing many tutoring operations to operate informally without adherence to regulations and escaping governmental oversight. Moreover, additional measures could be implemented to enhance the effectiveness of these regulations. Time restrictions, often not strictly enforced, result in students spending extended hours in tutoring sessions after school, contributing to stress and reduced personal time. Enhancing funding and capabilities for relevant regulatory bodies could address this issue. Implementing a standardized assessment system for tutoring centers, including regular inspections and student feedback mechanisms, can ensure educational quality and consistency. Educating parents and students about the potential downsides of excessive tutoring and promoting the benefits of holistic education could help shift cultural perceptions that overly emphasize rote learning. Policies encouraging better integration between school curricula and tutoring sessions' content would require collaboration between the Ministry of Education, schools, and private tutoring providers. Furthermore, the Royal Government of Cambodia providing financial aid for low-income families could alleviate the economic burden of tutoring, making supplementary education more accessible and equitable. Extending regulations to cover online tutoring services, ensuring data privacy, content quality, and limiting advertising directed at children, is crucial with the rise of digital education platforms. Community-based tutoring programs, either free or low-cost, could provide alternatives to commercial private tutoring, supported by civil society, local government initiatives, and development partners. Enhancing the regulatory framework and introducing these additional measures would enable Cambodia to better manage the challenges posed by private supplementary tutoring. This approach would not only maintain educational equity but also ensure that private tutoring complements the formal education system rather than undermining it. 7.2. Discussion The research findings indicate that shadow education in Cambodia presents challenges that academically and psychologically impact students and families. This observation aligns with the study by Zhang & Gao ( 2023 ), which highlights similar academic and psychological challenges associated with private tutoring, emphasizing its significance not only for students but also for tutors, as noted by Bray et al. ( 2019 ). However, such practices can negatively affect children's self-esteem and contribute to a culture of intense competition (Chhun, 2017 ; Gürel & Brummelman, 2020 ). It is essential to remember that while pursuing educational success is important, it should not come at the expense of children's physical, mental, and emotional well-being. The Royal Government of Cambodia has made commendable efforts to reduce reliance on private tutoring through initiatives like the New Generation Schools (NGS). The NGS initiative, in particular, aims to decrease teachers' involvement in shadow education. However, despite these efforts, persistent quality issues in schools and ongoing examination pressures have not fully curbed the demand for private tutoring (Nhem, 2022 ). Studies by Choi ( 2014 ), Jamil ( 2014 ), and Ngel ( 2022 ) have identified a deep respect for teachers and their achievements, suggesting that enhancing teacher status could positively influence educational dynamics. Moreover, research by Dawson ( 2010 ) underscores the broader implications of private tutoring, extending beyond individual academic success to influence societal values and expectations. This supports the idea that systemic changes in educational policy and school practices could alleviate some pressures fueling the demand for private tutoring. Similarly, the OECD report (2017) notes that high levels of anxiety among students in systems heavily reliant on private tutoring can detract from overall student well-being, reinforcing the need for balanced educational approaches that prioritize student welfare alongside academic achievement. To this end, policy interventions could focus on enhancing intrinsic motivation within students and fostering an environment that values holistic development, as suggested by Vora ( 2019 ) and Chim & Soeung ( 2023 ). These advocates for educational reforms emphasize the need to diminish academic pressure and promote holistic growth. By adopting these broader strategies, we can work towards an educational system that supports both the intellectual and emotional needs of students, ensuring a healthier approach to learning and development. 8. Conclusion and Implications 8.1. Conclusion This study has provided critical insights into the prevalence and implications of private supplementary tutoring (PST) in Cambodia. Our findings highlight the complex interplay between socioeconomic status, parental expectations, and the quality of public education in influencing the demand for PST. The pervasive nature of PST not only aids in academic preparation but also perpetuates existing educational and social inequalities. The research underscores the need for robust policy interventions that focus on enhancing the quality of public education, ensuring equitable access to resources, and more effectively regulating the shadow education sector. Such measures are crucial to mitigating the socioeconomic disparities that PST can exacerbate. Furthermore, improving teacher salaries and training could reduce educators' need to seek supplementary income through private tutoring, thus potentially decreasing its prevalence. For future directions, it is of utmost importance to delve deeper into more comprehensive strategies that address both the causes and effects of PST. Research should continue to rigorously examine the long-term impacts of PST on student outcomes and investigate the effectiveness of policy reforms aimed at integrating PST within the broader educational framework. Additionally, understanding the cultural factors that drive the high valuation of education in Cambodian society could provide deeper insights into how to reshape educational practices to better serve all students. In conclusion, while PST serves critical academic functions in Cambodia, stakeholders at all levels—government, educators, parents, and the community—must actively collaborate in creating a more inclusive and equitable educational landscape. By aligning the goals of PST with those of the national education system, we can ensure that all students have the opportunity to succeed without undue reliance on supplementary education. This alignment is not only about improving academic performance but also about fostering a society where education uplifts everyone equally, contributing to the overall development of the nation. 8.2. Implication Policy Implications Based on our empirical findings and literature review, researchers discuss policy implications for addressing the challenges associated with PST in Cambodia. Researchers propose a multi-faceted approach that includes measures to improve school quality, reduce exam pressure, and enhance support for disadvantaged students. Researchers also consider regulatory frameworks and incentives to promote transparency and accountability in the PST sector. Our recommendations aim to foster educational equity and quality while mitigating the negative effects of excessive tutoring. Students and parents Students should recognize their right to a high-quality education and understand the importance of their well-being. They should not feel compelled to attend various tuition and coaching classes, as this not only fosters a dislike for education but also impacts their mental health. Instead of relying solely on private tutoring, students should receive academic and psychological support from their teachers and peers, especially in subjects they find challenging. It’s crucial for students to develop independence in their learning. They should utilize a variety of educational resources, both virtual and non-virtual, to enhance their autonomous learning and engagement within peer groups. Parents play a significant role in the educational system. They should avoid participating in corrupt practices such as offering teachers additional payments for supplementary courses. Instead, they can support educators by contributing to the school community's council, which may provide funds for teachers. Additionally, parents should focus more holistically on their children’s development rather than solely on academic outcomes. It is also important for parents to refrain from constantly comparing their children to others or pushing them to exceed at the expense of their well-being. Educators In Cambodia, educators are expected to uphold educational laws, regulations, and the professional code of ethics, ensuring they are respected and valued by society. Educators have a duty to serve as role models for their students, as their actions and behaviors significantly shape students' attitudes towards education. Educators should prioritize the genuine welfare of their students over personal financial gain. In many ways, they are like second parents within the classroom and school environment. Teachers should strive to inspire and guide students to become upstanding citizens, aligning with the principles outlined in UNESCO's pillars and Cambodian laws. For Ministries, policy makers, and school leaders The government and policymakers need to increase funding for education and educational research to enhance the quality of Cambodia’s education system. Additionally, they should uphold the integrity of national examinations by continuing to implement educational reforms such as the no-cheating policy and the New Generation School (NGS) initiatives. Specifically, it is crucial to encourage schools to adopt more formative assessments rather than relying solely on summative assessments. School leaders must collaborate with relevant stakeholders to oversee and address any teacher misconduct. Simultaneously, they should focus on improving curricula and examinations, and advocate for competitive salaries and benefits to attract and retain qualified teachers. Furthermore, the government and policymakers should elevate the status of the educational profession by offering competitive salaries and benefits, and by enhancing the prestige of teaching careers. This approach will not only attract talented individuals but also build trust among parents and other key stakeholders. Declarations Acknowledgement The author offers his heartfelt gratitude to everyone who helped, supported, and guided him in making this manuscript successful. He would also like to express their heartfelt gratitude to the Research and Development Center of the National University of Battambang, and principals and teachers who participated in this study. Funding No funding Conflict of Interests The authors declare no conflict of Interest. References Bray, M., Liu, J., Zhang, W., & Kobakhidze, M.N. (2019). (Mis)Trust and (Abuse of) Authority in Cambodian Education: Parallel Lessons in the Shadow. In: Schüpbach, M., Lilla, N. (eds) Extended Education from an International Comparative Point of View. Springer VS, Wiesbaden. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-27172-5_2 Bray, M. (2016). Parallel private lessons: Scale, nature and implications for policy and school management. This Life Cambodia and Comparative Education Research Centre, the University of Hong Kong, retrieved from http://www.thislifecambodia.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/20160714_Final_Parallel_Private_Lessons.pdf Bray, M., & Lykins, C. (2012). Shadow education: Private supplementary tutoring and its implications for policy makers in Asia. Asian Development Bank, retrieved from https://www.adb.org/publications/shadow-education-private-supplementary-tutoring-and-its-implications-policy-makers-asia Bray, M., (1990). The Private Costs of Public Schooling: Household and Community Financing of Primary Education in Cambodia. IIEP/UNESCO, retrieved from https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000117632 Brehm, W.C. (2016). The Structures and Agents Enabling Educational Corruption in Cambodia. In: Kitamura, Y., Edwards, D.B., Sitha, C., Williams, J.H. (eds) The Political Economy of Schooling in Cambodia. International and Development Education. Palgrave Macmillan, New York. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137456007_6 Brehm, W.C. & Silova, I. (2014). Hidden privatization of public education in Cambodia: Equity implications of private tutoring, Journal for educational research online , 6 (1), https://doi.org/10.25656/01:8842 Brehm, W. C., Silova, I. & Tout, M. (2012). The public-private education system in Cambodia: The impact and implications of complementary tutoring [OSI Privatization in Education Research Initiative Working Paper Series No. 39]. Braun, V. & Clarke, V. (2006) Using thematic analysis in psychology, Qualitative Research in Psychology , 3:2, 77-101, https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa Buchmann, C., Condron, D. J., & Roscigno, V. J. (2010). Shadow education: Theory, analysis and future directions. Social Forces , 89(2), 483-490. https://doi.org/10.1353/sof.2010.0073 Chim, V. & Soeung S., (2023). Private Tuition in Cambodia: Evidence from Urban and Rural Upper Secondary Schools, Journal of International and Comparative Education , 12 (1). https://doi.org/10.14425/jice.2023.12.1.0913 Chhun, B. (2017, August 17). Online private tutoring takes off in Cambodia after tough exam reforms hamper cheating. VOA Cambodia, retrieved from https://www.voacambodia.com/a/online-private-tutoring-takes-off-in-cambodia-after-tough-exam-reforms-hamper-cheating/3989872.html Choi, A. (2014, December 4). What the best education systems are doing right. IDEAS.TED.COM, retrieved from https://ideas.ted.com/what-the-best-education-systems-are-doing-right/ Dang, H. (2007). The determinants and impact of private tutoring classes in Vietnam. Economics of Education Review , 26(6), 683-698. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/ j.econedurev.2007.10.003 Dang, H., & Rogers, F. H. (2008). The growing phenomenon of private tutoring: Does it deepen human capital, widen inequalities, or waste resources? The World Bank Research Observer , 23(2), 161-200, https://doi.org/10.1093/wbro/lkn004 Davie, S. (2017, August 20). Singapore students suffer from high levels of anxiety: Study. The Straits Times. https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/education/spore-students-suffer-from-high-levels-of-anxiety-study Dawson, W. (2010). Private tutoring and mass schooling in East Asia: Reflections of inequality in Japan, South Korea, and Cambodia, Asia Pacific Education Review , 11 (1). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-009-9058-4 Dawson, W. P. (2009). ‘“Tricks of the Teacher”: Teacher Corruption and Shadow Education in Cambodia’. In S. Heyneman (ed.), Education and Corruption. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers, retrieved from https://link.springer.com/chapter /10.1057/9781137456007_6 Dawson, W. P. (2011). The Focus: Supplementary education in Asia, Supplementary education in Cambodia, retrieved from https://www.iias.asia/sites/iias/files/nwl_article/2019-05/IIAS_NL56_1819_0.pdf Gürel, Ç., & Brummelman, E. (2020, April 7). The problem with telling children they’re better than others. Retrieved from Scientific American. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-problem-with-telling-children-theyre-better-than-others/ Jamil, H. (2014). Teacher is Matter for Education Quality: A Transformation of Policy for Enhancing the Teaching Profession in Malaysia, Journal of International Cooperation in Education, 16 (2), retrieved from https://cice.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/16-2-11.pdf Jeffery, H. M. and Tsuyoshi, F. (2019). Shadow Education and Inequality in Lower Secondary Schooling in Cambodia: Understanding the Dynamics of Private Tutoring Participation and Provision, Comparative Education Review , 63 (1). https://doi.org/10.1086/701064 Mark, B. Kobakhidze, M.N, Liu, J. and Zhang, W. (2016). The internal dynamics of privatized public education: Fee-charging supplementary tutoring provided by teachers in Cambodia, International Journal of Educational Development , 49:291-299, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2016.04.003 Mark, B. and Chad, L. (2012). Shadow Education Private Supplementary Tutoring and Its Implications for Policy Makers in Asia, Mandaluyong City, Philippines: Asia Development Bank, retrieved from https://www.adb.org/sites/ default/files/publication/ 29777/shadow-education.pdf Meas, S., No, F., Sok, S. (2023). Basic Education in Cambodia. In: Symaco, L.P., Hayden, M. (eds) International Handbook on Education in South East Asia. Springer International Handbooks of Education. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-8136-3_50-1 MoEYS (2023). Annual Educational Congress on Education, Youth, and Sport in academic year 2022-2023. Ministry of Education, Youth, and Sport, Phnom Penh, Cambodia Nhem, D. (2022). New generation school initiative in Cambodia: Revisiting its effects on shadow education. Policy Futures in Education , 21(2),145-156. https://doi.org/10.1177/14782103221094352 Ngel, K. (2022). Shadow Education in Cambodia: Causes, Benefits, Problems, and Solutions, Cambodian Education Forum, retrieved from https://cefcambodia.com/2023/09/18/shadow-education-in-cambodia-causes-benefits-problems-and-solutions/ OECD. (2014). Strong performers and successful reformers in education lessons from PISA for Korea. https://doi.org/10.1787/2220363x OECD. (2017). PISA 2015 results (Volume III) students’ well-being: Students’ well-being. OECD Publishing. https://www.oecd.org/education/pisa-2015-results-volume-iii-9789264273856-en.htm Retka, J. (2017, August 1). Four years later, national exam reforms are bearing fruit. The Cambodia Daily. https://english.cambodiadaily.com/news/four-years-later-national-exam-reforms-are-bearing-fruit-133848/ Sam, R., Ahmad, N., & Hazri, J. (2012a). Cambodia’s Higher Education Development in Historical Perspectives (1863-2012), International Journal of Learning and Development , 2(2), 224-241. https://doi.org/10.5296/ijld.v2i2.1670 Soeung, S. (2021a). A review of Cambodian private tutoring: Parasitic and symbiotic functions towards the mainstream system. Journal of Nusantara Studies (JONUS) , 6(1), 42-58. https://doi.org/10.24200/jonus.vol6iss1pp42-58 Soeung, S. (2021b). Revisiting Cambodian private tutoring: Insights into teachers’ professional misconduct. Journal of International and Comparative Education , 10(1), 1-17. https://doi.org/10.14425/jice.2021.10.1.0704 UNDP (2014). Curbing Private Tutoring and Informal Fees in Cambodia’s Basic Education, retrieved from https://www.undp.org/ sites/g/files/zskgke326/ files/migration/kh/ Curbing-Private-Tutoring-and-Informal-Fee-in-Cambodia-Basic-Education.pdf Vora, S. (2019, January 25). ‘Tuition culture’ overwhelms students’ wellbeing, stifles academic growth. The Swaddle, retrieved from https://theswaddle.com/tuition-culture-overwhelms-students-wellbeing-stifles-academic-growth/ Zhang, Q., & Gao, Y. (2023). Competition and game-playing: The academic returns and mental health costs of private tutoring. Chinese Journal of Sociology , 9(2), 283-318. https://doi.org/10.1177/2057150X231165143 Additional Declarations The authors declare potential competing interests as follows: I declare that there are no competing interests. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-4465183","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":305820189,"identity":"8589f400-45fa-4e44-9e7d-e0c22edc6ad3","order_by":0,"name":"Rany Sam","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA30lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBADOX72BiBlYEG8FmPJngMgLRLEa0nccCMBRBOhRb79dNqHnzsOGzPcfH51w48CCQb+9u4EvFoMzuRuntl75rAc4+ycsps9QIdJnDm7Ab8WhtzNDLxth42ZpXPSbvAAtRhI5OLXIt//djPj37bDiW2SZ9Ju/iFGC8ON3M3MQFsSeyTYj90myhaDG283M8u2pRtL8OSw3ZYxkOAh6Bf5/tzNjG/brOXsjx9/dvPNHxs5/vZeAg6DgGYg5jEAsXiIUQ4CdUDM/oBY1aNgFIyCUTDCAAB6Vkl9+O9tugAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3266-5974","institution":"National University of Battambang","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Rany","middleName":"","lastName":"Sam","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-05-23 07:54:54","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":{"humanSubjects":false,"vertebrateSubjects":true,"conflictsOfInterestStatement":true,"humanSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false,"humanSubjectConsent":false,"humanSubjectClinicalTrial":false,"humanSubjectCaseReport":false,"vertebrateSubjectEthicalGuidelines":true},"doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4465183/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4465183/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":57060109,"identity":"d5d8f77a-2856-4178-9e33-8ad33c5de0cb","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-05-24 05:49:03","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":611058,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4465183/v1/46922ee4-ddf9-421c-a274-b3cfd3848554.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"The authors declare potential competing interests as follows: I declare that there are no competing interests.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePrivate Supplementary Tutoring in Cambodia Educational System: What Matters for Policies?\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eCambodia has a total of 19,342 general education schools spread across 25 provinces and Phnom Penh. This includes 8,891 kindergartens (4,694 public, 3,290 community-based, and 907 private), 8,252 primary schools (of which 854 are private), 1,341 lower secondary schools (99 private), and 897 upper secondary schools (316 private). Notably, the enrollment rate in Cambodian primary schools has more than doubled from 2,477,800 in 2003 to 4,204,471 in the 2023\u0026ndash;2024 academic year. Currently, there are 400,059 kindergarten students, 2,300,000 primary school students, 710,000 lower secondary school students, 430,000 upper secondary school students, and 3,512 students in general and technical high schools (MoEYS, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Meas \u0026amp; Sok, 2023). Private supplementary tutoring (PST) has emerged as a prominent feature of Cambodia's education landscape, with a growing number of students seeking additional academic support outside formal schooling (Bray, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e; Bray \u0026amp; Lykins, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Brehm, et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Sam, et al., 2012; Brehm \u0026amp; Silova, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Bray, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Brehm, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Bray et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMany students extend their learning beyond regular school hours, and shadow education or private tutoring is a longstanding practice. This phenomenon is particularly prevalent in East Asia, as noted by the OECD in 2014, and has become a norm in Cambodia, where it is referred to as \"extra classes\" in English and \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eRean Kour\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo; in Khmer (Brehm \u0026amp; Silova; UNDP, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Typically, these classes occur outside official school hours. According to Brehm (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), there is a prevailing belief in the Cambodian education system that attending these extra classes is essential for students to pass their monthly, semester, and national examinations. Brehm also observed that private tutoring began gaining momentum in Cambodia during the late 1980s or early 1990s. Bray et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), who conducted research in six Cambodian schools involving 48 student interviews, 24 teacher interviews, and questionnaires completed by 1,274 students and 72 teachers, discovered that a significant majority (81.9%) of students received private tutoring in at least one school subject. This tutoring is widely considered necessary to meet the demands of the government school curriculum.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eResearch on shadow education, a global phenomenon, has been extensive. While many studies focus on issues such as corruption and unethical practices within Cambodia\u0026rsquo;s shadow education system (Bray et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Brehm \u0026amp; Silova, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Soeung, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021a\u003c/span\u003e), less attention has been paid to other aspects, such as the benefits and negative impacts of shadow education on students beyond financial considerations. Recognizing that shadow education has both positive and negative outcomes, a balanced understanding can help maximize its benefits and minimize its drawbacks.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe current state of shadow education in Cambodia, much like in other parts of Asia, involves the widespread presence of private tutoring, coaching, and academic enrichment classes that function alongside the formal education system. These shadow education services cater to the desires of parents for their children to excel academically, often because they perceive that schools alone cannot provide sufficient support. This phenomenon creates a parallel education system that not only reflects but also exacerbates existing social class inequalities, as tutoring centers tend to serve those who can afford them, thus privileging certain groups over others. The strategies these centers use to gain public trust include showcasing their success in improving student performance and promoting a more personal and approachable teaching method compared to traditional schools. This situation has several implications for educational practices, including the perpetuation of social class disparities in accessing quality education and the potential demotivation of formal school teachers, who may feel their efforts are undervalued if students rely heavily on tutors. Consequently, the shadow education system is a crucial aspect of the educational landscape, with significant effects on educational inequality and inclusion. This paper aims to investigate the factors driving the demand for PST among Cambodian students and to provide insights for policymakers on effective strategies to address this phenomenon.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Literature Review","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis section reviews existing literature on PST, focusing on its prevalence, determinants, and effects on educational outcomes. We examine studies from Cambodia and other countries to identify common trends and factors shaping PST participation. Key themes include the role of socio-economic factors, school quality, exam pressure, and parental aspirations in driving demand for PST. We also discuss the potential consequences of PST on students' well-being and the broader education system. Stevenson and Baker (1992) defined shadow education as \"a set of educational activities that occur outside formal schooling and are designed to enhance the student\u0026rsquo;s formal school career\" (p. 1639). Similarly, Buchmann et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e) described it as educational activities like tutoring and extra classes that occur outside of the formal educational system and are designed to improve a student\u0026rsquo;s chance of successfully navigating the allocation process (p. 284). Bray and Lykins (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e) defined shadow education as private supplementary tutoring that mirrors the mainstream school curriculum, often involving tutoring in academic subjects that take place outside regular school hours for a fee. In this chapter, the terms 'shadow education' and 'private tutoring' are used interchangeably.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWorld Vision (2021) listed several reasons why education is important, including its role in developing communication skills, fostering critical thinking, building job qualifications, reducing child mortality, and promoting gender equality. Given the crucial role of education, it is unsurprising that many parents invest heavily in it for their children\u0026rsquo;s future. Bray and Lykins (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e) noted that the primary reason for private tutoring is the recognition of education\u0026rsquo;s importance and the substantial returns it can offer. The demand for supplementary tutoring also arises from the strong link between educational outcomes and opportunities in careers and social status (Stevenson \u0026amp; Baker, 1992). The well-known Cambodian saying \"time is money\" acknowledges the value of time, indicating that the investment of both time and money in education is a testament to its perceived value.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn many educational systems, certain grades determine which schools\u0026rsquo; students may attend. Bray and Lykins (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e) highlighted Singapore, where the stratified secondary education system bases future educational tracks largely on primary school grades, prompting many parents to invest in supplementary tutoring from an early age. In contrast, other systems emphasize the senior year as the critical decision-making point, given the limited availability of post-secondary places. As long as the post-secondary education remains stratified, with varying benefits, private tutoring will continue to be prevalent in secondary education (Bray \u0026amp; Lykins, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). In Cambodia, two national examinations at 9th and 12th grades serve as crucial educational transition points. Notably, the national examination process was marred by widespread cheating until educational reforms in 2014 made it stringent (Chhay, 2014; NBC News, 2014). Kem et al. (2012) found that 77.7% of candidates in the 2012 national exam reported being able to copy answers from each other, and 65.8% brought cheat notes into the exam rooms. The pass rate plummeted from around 80% in 2012\u0026ndash;2013 to 26% in 2014 following the reforms (Maeda, 2021). These reforms forced students to rely heavily on studying to pass their exams (Retka, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). The adoption of online private tutoring surged post-reform, facilitated by affordable technology (Chhun, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). The pressure of the 12th-grade national exam, which influences high school graduation and university admission, often drives students to private tutoring, with top performers sometimes receiving scholarships (Maeda, 2021).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBray (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) collected data from over 1,200 students and 70 teachers in six schools in Siem Reap province, Cambodia, and found that nearly 82% of the students surveyed engaged in private tutoring. This trend mirrors findings from Vietnam, where Dang (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e) observed that students nearing the end of their school level increasingly invested in private tutoring, particularly due to school-leaving examinations (Dang \u0026amp; Rogers, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). The COVID-19 pandemic exacerbated learning losses and heightened fear of national exams, further increasing the reliance on private tutoring (Bhatta et al., 2022). Ngay (2021) reported that a student from Bak Touk High School in Phnom Penh and her peers were intensively preparing for the 12th-grade national exam through private tutoring. This student attended six different classes to compensate for missed online lessons, a common practice among her peers, emphasizing the importance of extra classes during the pandemic-induced rise in remote learning (Ngay, 2021).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrivate supplementary tutoring (PST) has become a ubiquitous phenomenon in Cambodia's education system, attracting significant attention from researchers, policymakers, and practitioners. This literature review provides an overview of key studies examining the prevalence, determinants, effects, and policy implications of PST in Cambodia. Research indicates that PST is widespread across Cambodia, with a large proportion of students participating in private tutoring outside formal schooling hours (Buchmann et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Chim, \u0026amp; Soeung, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e Jeffery \u0026amp; Tsuyoshi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Surveys conducted in urban and rural areas have consistently reported high rates of PST enrollment, suggesting its entrenched nature in Cambodian society.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeveral factors influence the demand for PST among Cambodian students. Socio-economic status plays a significant role, with households from higher income brackets more likely to afford private tutoring services. Parental education also emerges as a determinant, with better-educated parents often valuing education highly and investing in additional academic support for their children (Bray \u0026amp; Lykins, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Brehm, et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, perceived inadequacies in public school quality, including large class sizes and limited resources, drive parents to seek supplementary tutoring to ensure their children receive adequate academic support. While PST is often viewed as a means to enhance academic performance, its effects on students can be multifaceted. Some studies suggest that PST can contribute to improved exam scores and academic achievement (Brehm \u0026amp; Silova, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Bray, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Brehm, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Bray et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). However, excessive reliance on tutoring may exacerbate educational inequalities, as disadvantaged students may lack access to such services (United Nations, 2019; OECD, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; OECD, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, concerns have been raised about the potential negative consequences of PST, including increased stress, pressure, and dependency on external support.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe proliferation of PST in Cambodia poses challenges for education policymakers seeking to promote equity and quality within the education system. Effective policy responses require a nuanced understanding of the drivers and dynamics of PST participation. Strategies to address this issue may include efforts to improve public school quality, enhance teacher training and support, regulate tutoring services, and provide targeted assistance to disadvantaged students; moreover, policymakers must consider the socio-economic context and cultural factors that shape attitudes towards education and tutoring in Cambodia. (Bray, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Brehm, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Bray et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Soeung, 2021).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3. Problem Statement","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Cambodia, the rise of private supplementary tutoring has become a prominent feature of the educational landscape, reflecting broader trends across Southeast Asia. This phenomenon, commonly referred to as 'shadow education', parallels the formal school system and offers additional teaching outside regular school hours. While it aims to enhance student learning and performance, the unchecked expansion of shadow education raises significant concerns regarding educational equity, quality, and the burden on students and families (Brehm, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Bray et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Despite its widespread adoption, there is a profound lack of comprehensive understanding and effective policy frameworks to regulate and integrate private supplementary tutoring within the national educational strategy (Ngel, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Chim \u0026amp; Soeung, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). The absence of robust regulatory mechanisms leads to disparities in educational outcomes, where only students from better-off families can afford high-quality tutoring, thereby exacerbating socioeconomic inequalities. Moreover, there is a critical gap in policy-oriented research that scrutinizes the effectiveness of existing regulations and explores the potential for new policies to address these challenges holistically. Therefore, this study seeks to explore the multifaceted impact of private supplementary tutoring in Cambodia, focusing specifically on how it shapes educational outcomes and contributes to social disparities. The research will critically assess current policy measures, identify their shortcomings, and propose actionable solutions to optimize the regulation of shadow education. By doing so, it aims to contribute to a more equitable and effective educational system that aligns with the broader goals of national educational policy and social justice.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e "},{"header":"4. Objectives of the Study","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003col\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo investigate factors that cause shadow education in Cambodian educational system\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo explore the challenges associated with shadow education in Cambodia\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo investigate policies and regulations that contribute to solve the private supplementary tutoring in Cambodia Educational System\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003c/ol\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. Research Questions","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eWhat factors that cause shadow education in Cambodian educational system in the Cambodian educational system?\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eWhat are challenges that associated with shadow education in Cambodia?\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eWhich existing policies and regulations have been effective in managing the issues of private supplementary tutoring in Cambodia, and what additional measures could be implemented to enhance their effectiveness?\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"6. Methodology","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e6.1. Study Design\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis research adopts a qualitative case study approach to explore the nature of turnaround leadership in high schools located in northwestern Cambodia. The case study method is chosen for its depth, detail, and ability to provide context-specific insights, making it particularly suitable for investigating the complex phenomenon of leadership in unique educational settings.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e6.2. Participants\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study will involve 21 high school principals from various high schools in northwestern Cambodia. These participants will be purposively selected based on specific criteria such as their schools' geographic location, performance metrics, and their recognized efforts in implementing turnaround strategies. The selection aims to ensure a diverse representation of experiences and contexts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"No\" id=\"Taba\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCode\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSex\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSchool Location\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYears of Experiences\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEducational Background\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBattambang\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMPA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBattambang\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMBA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBattambang\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB.Sc.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBattambang\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMPA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBanteay Meanchey\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBanteay Meanchey\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB.Sc.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBanteay Meanchey\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB.Sc.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBanteay Meanchey\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM.Sc.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePursat\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePursat\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM. Ed.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePursat\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM.Bs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePursat\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOddor Meanchey\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOddor Meanchey\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB.Sc.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOddor Meanchey\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMBA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSiem Reap\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSiem Reap\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB.Sc.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSiem Reap\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSiem Reap\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB.Sc.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePailin\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMBA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePailin\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMPA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e6.3. Data Collection\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eData primarily collected through semi-structured interviews, which allow for in-depth exploration of the principals' experiences, perceptions, and leadership practices. The interview guide developed based on the research questions and literature review, covering topics such as leadership strategies, challenges faced, support systems, and perceived outcomes of turnaround efforts. Before conducting the interviews, a pilot performed with two school principals not included in the study to refine the interview questions and approach. Each interview is expected to last between 60 to 90 minutes and will be conducted in Khmer, the native language of the participants, to ensure comfort and clarity. All interviews will be audio-recorded with the participants' consent and later transcribed verbatim for analysis. Participants will be assured of their anonymity and the confidentiality of their responses.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e6.4. Data Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe research adopted a qualitative approach, utilizing thematic analysis to delve into the complexities of turnaround leadership in Cambodian high schools. As prescribed by Braun \u0026amp; Clarke (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e), thematic analysis is particularly effective in psychometric research for the systematic identification and interpretation of key themes within data sets. In this study, the technique was pivotal in unraveling the nuanced facets of leadership dynamics. The data analysis unfolded in meticulously defined phases. Initially, the research team immersed themselves in the data, repeatedly reviewing the interview transcripts to ensure a comprehensive understanding. This first step was crucial for grounding subsequent analysis in the authentic voices and experiences of the participants. Following this, the team generated initial codes, labeling the data with keywords or short phrases that captured the essence of responses. The third and fourth steps involved an iterative process of searching for and reviewing themes, where initial codes were amalgamated into broader themes reflective of overarching patterns in the data. This phase was particularly critical as it transformed raw data into structured insights relevant to turnaround leadership. Subsequently, the team undertook the task of defining and naming the themes, ensuring each was distinct and clearly encapsulated a specific aspect of leadership. The culmination of this process was the production of a detailed report, presenting the findings in a coherent and accessible manner.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e6.5. Ethical Considerations\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eEthical approval for this study obtained from the relevant institutional review board. Informed consent sought from all participants, ensuring they understand the study's purpose, their right to withdraw at any time, and how their data used and protected. The confidentiality of participants and their schools maintained throughout the study, with pseudonyms used in all disseminated findings.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e6.6. Limitations\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study acknowledges potential limitations, including the subjective nature of qualitative data, the reliance on self-reported data from 21 principals in Northwestern Cambodia, and the contextual specificity of the findings which may limit generalizability. However, these limitations are mitigated through careful study design.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"7. Results and Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e7.1. Results\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003e7.1.1. Research Question One: what factors that cause shadow education in Cambodian educational system in the Cambodian educational system?\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe investigation revealed that most participants identified five primary factors contributing to the prevalence of shadow education in the Cambodian educational system. These include inadequate formal education, insufficient resources, high parental expectations, regulatory gaps, and low teacher salaries. One respondent shared his experience, noting that:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e\"I have personally observed several critical issues within the Cambodian public education system, including underqualified teachers, large class sizes, and insufficient resources. Due to shortages of teachers and inadequate infrastructure, many public schools in Cambodia operate only half-day sessions, either in the morning or the afternoon. This leads to overcrowded classrooms, making it challenging for students to achieve significant academic progress with just a few hours of instruction each day. Consequently, these deficiencies can compromise the quality of education, forcing parents to turn to private tutoring to enhance their children\u0026rsquo;s learning. Lacking confidence in the educational services provided by public schools, some parents opt to hire teachers for home instruction, while others send their children to private tutorial schools, often taught by the same teachers who work in the public system.\" (P6).\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe primary finding of the research highlights the role of Cambodian parents' expectations and cultural values, which emphasize academic excellence for their children. This cultural pressure often leads parents to enroll their children in supplementary tutoring to enhance their chances of success in a highly competitive educational environment. Education is highly valued in Cambodian culture as a means of achieving upward mobility. This emphasis encourages families to seek any educational advantage, including private tutoring, which is viewed as an investment in a child\u0026rsquo;s future and reflects a deep-seated belief in the transformative power of education. Students in urban areas, particularly in cities like Battambang, Pursat, and Banteay Meanchey, have greater access to high-quality private tutoring services than those in rural or remote areas. The disparity in access is partly due to the concentration of tutoring centers in urban areas, where there is both a higher demand and greater financial capability to afford such services. One respondent noted that:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e\"Cambodian families with higher incomes are more likely to invest in private supplementary tutoring for their children. This investment stems from the belief that such 'shadow education' provides a competitive advantage in national examinations, which are key to gaining admission to prestigious schools and universities. The ability to afford these services deepens educational inequalities by favoring students from wealthier families who can access extensive tutoring. In contrast, poorer students struggle to afford these supplementary classes and must rely on the limited offerings of public schools.\" (P 18).\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition, the Cambodian educational system is based on an examination-driven curriculum that heavily focuses on rote learning and success in standardized examinations. This system places significant pressure on students to seek additional coaching specifically tailored to help them excel in these exams, thereby contributing to the demand for shadow education. One of the respondents stated that:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e\"Most parents encourage their children to study Khmer literature, mathematics, physics, chemistry, and biology, as these are considered the most challenging subjects essential for achieving high grades in national exams for both lower and upper secondary schools. Particularly at the upper secondary level, achieving a grade A can led to university scholarships and awards from Cambodian political elites at both provincial and national levels. Students who excel often receive gifts from our Prime Minister.\" (P7).\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe most obvious finding is that the lack of stringent regulations and quality control over private tutoring allows for significant variance in the quality and effectiveness of tutoring services. This insufficient oversight not only perpetuates the prevalence of shadow education but also poses challenges in ensuring that it positively contributes to students\u0026rsquo; education, rather than merely exploiting parental anxieties and aspirations for commercial gain. These factors often lead to a scenario where wealthier, urban, and more educated families are able to utilize shadow education more effectively, further entrenching educational and social disparities. Conversely, lower-income, rural families, despite valuing education highly, often struggle to provide the same level of supplementary education to their children due to financial and geographical constraints. One respondent shared his personal experience:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;Even though regulations issued by the Ministry of Education, Youth, and Sport exist, they seem ineffective because teachers who violate these laws and regulations are not fined or punished at either the school or ministerial levels. Violating teachers continue to offer illegal supplementary classes to their students, both inside and outside of regular classes\u0026rdquo; (P21).\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, teachers' low salaries are one of the factors impacting private supplementary tutoring in Cambodia. The royal government has increased teachers' monthly salaries and benefits to between USD 350 and USD 550. Addressing these issues requires a comprehensive approach that includes improving the quality of public education, ensuring equitable access to resources, and implementing rigorous regulatory frameworks for private tutoring. By understanding these socioeconomic and cultural factors, parents and educators can work towards a more equitable educational landscape that reduces the reliance on private supplementary tutoring in Cambodia. One participant explained:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e\"Based on my personal experience and observations, government salaries in Cambodia remain low compared to those in other ASEAN countries. Consequently, many teachers cannot cover their daily expenses, especially those necessary to maintain social dignity in a civilized society. To supplement their income, some teachers take on secondary positions at private schools and only occasionally attend their public-school classes. Others charge students personal fees for full access to the school curriculum. This places students who cannot afford these fees at a disadvantage, limiting their educational opportunities. Therefore, many teachers feel they have no choice but to offer extra classes to manage their living costs and health care expenses (P 15).\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e7.1.2 Research Question Two: What are challenges that associated with shadow education in Cambodia?\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe research has shown that engagement in shadow education in Cambodia poses significant academic and psychological challenges for students and their families. To address these challenges effectively, it's crucial to understand the diverse impacts that private supplementary tutoring has on the various stakeholders involved. Firstly, students may develop an excessive reliance on private tutors to grasp fundamental concepts, hindering their ability to learn independently. This reliance undermines the cultivation of critical thinking and self-study skills, potentially impeding their long-term academic progress.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoreover, discrepancies between the content provided by private tutors and the school curriculum can lead to confusion and misalignment in students' understanding of academic material. Such discrepancies may result in conflicts in learning strategies and outcomes. Additionally, the extra hours spent in tutoring sessions, beyond regular school hours, amplify the academic workload and pressure on students. Intensive tutoring, focused primarily on rote learning and exam preparation, can induce stress and burnout among students, exacerbated by high expectations to excel in examinations driven by parental pressure and the competitive educational environment.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eConsequently, students may experience significant stress and anxiety, with the additional burden of supplementary classes further impacting their mental health and well-being. This engagement often sacrifices students' leisure time, limiting opportunities for holistic development and social interactions, thereby affecting their overall happiness and quality of life. Moreover, there exists a cultural and social expectation to participate in tutoring, potentially stigmatizing students who are unable or unwilling to do so. This stigma can foster feelings of inadequacy or social isolation, particularly among students already facing academic struggles or hailing from less affluent backgrounds. In summary, the multifaceted impacts of shadow education on students and their families underscore the need for a comprehensive approach to addressing its challenges. One respondent noted:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e\"As a school principal, I have observed that students from disadvantaged backgrounds often perform poorly academically because they cannot fully access the curriculum and engage in practical learning with their teachers and peers. These students tend to be psychologically affected and feel isolated from their classmates. In Cambodian culture, there is a noticeable hesitancy among poorer students to interact with their wealthier peers, leading to a higher dropout rate. To address this issue, I consistently advise my teachers to adhere to the professional code of conduct and to encourage students to actively participate in their classes. This involvement is crucial for their future prospects and the development of our country (P1).\"\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdditionally, students and parents face financial challenges related to the burden of private tutoring, with many families allocating a significant portion of their income to afford these services. This financial strain can impact the overall family budget, constraining spending on other essential needs such as healthcare, nutrition, and recreational activities. The cost of private tutoring exacerbates economic disparities, as only families with sufficient financial resources can afford high-quality tutoring. Consequently, this disparity reinforces educational inequities, as economically disadvantaged students have limited access to supplementary educational resources. For many families, sustaining the ongoing cost of private tutoring proves challenging, especially when multiple children in the family require such services. This long-term financial commitment can lead to debt or financial insecurity. One participant shared:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e\"Based on my experiences at my school, some parents have faced financial difficulties and incurred debts due to the COVID-19 pandemic and the economic crisis; as a result, they lack the budget to afford their children's supplementary courses. Additionally, some parents have expressed concerns to the principal and school leaders about teachers' performance and perceived discrimination. The Cambodian Ministry of Education, Youth, and Sport frequently advises school leaders and teachers to avoid unnecessary supplementary classes, the sale of lessons, and other forms of corruption that could negatively impact educational quality and the school's reputation.\" (P15).\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTherefore, the challenges associated with shadow education in Cambodia are multifaceted, impacting students and families academically, psychologically, and financially. Addressing these challenges necessitates comprehensive policy interventions aimed at reducing the academic pressure linked to examinations, establishing support systems for students' mental health, and ensuring more equitable access to quality education. Implementing such measures could help alleviate the adverse effects of private supplementary tutoring and foster a more balanced and inclusive educational environment.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003e7.1.3. Research Question Three: which existing policies and regulations have been effective in managing the issues of private supplementary tutoring in Cambodia, and what additional measures could be implemented to enhance their effectiveness?\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on the findings, it's evident that existing policies and regulations in Cambodia regarding private supplementary tutoring require enhancement to improve their effectiveness. Cambodia has various policies and regulations in place, including the Child-friendly School Policy, Lifelong Learning Policy, Inclusive Education Policy, Teacher Policy, National Policy on Child Protection System 2019\u0026ndash;2029, Curriculum Framework of General Education and Technical Education, Cambodian Sustainable Development Goals (CSDGs) framework (2016\u0026ndash;2023), School-based Management (SBM) Policy, Reform Strategy on Education, Youth, and Sport (2018\u0026ndash;2023), New Generation School Policy, sub-decree on Teacher\u0026rsquo;s Professional Code, Model School Standards, and Educational Law. Additionally, a ministerial declaration dated May 7, 2024, addressed concerns about students\u0026rsquo; supplementary courses, emphasizing the need for teachers to fulfill their duties assigned by school principals with provisions of equity, inclusivity, and professionalism in educational services. However, the effectiveness of these regulations is mixed, with licensing ensuring a minimum standard but significant gaps persisting in enforcement and monitoring, allowing many tutoring operations to operate informally without adherence to regulations and escaping governmental oversight.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoreover, additional measures could be implemented to enhance the effectiveness of these regulations. Time restrictions, often not strictly enforced, result in students spending extended hours in tutoring sessions after school, contributing to stress and reduced personal time. Enhancing funding and capabilities for relevant regulatory bodies could address this issue. Implementing a standardized assessment system for tutoring centers, including regular inspections and student feedback mechanisms, can ensure educational quality and consistency. Educating parents and students about the potential downsides of excessive tutoring and promoting the benefits of holistic education could help shift cultural perceptions that overly emphasize rote learning. Policies encouraging better integration between school curricula and tutoring sessions' content would require collaboration between the Ministry of Education, schools, and private tutoring providers.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, the Royal Government of Cambodia providing financial aid for low-income families could alleviate the economic burden of tutoring, making supplementary education more accessible and equitable. Extending regulations to cover online tutoring services, ensuring data privacy, content quality, and limiting advertising directed at children, is crucial with the rise of digital education platforms. Community-based tutoring programs, either free or low-cost, could provide alternatives to commercial private tutoring, supported by civil society, local government initiatives, and development partners. Enhancing the regulatory framework and introducing these additional measures would enable Cambodia to better manage the challenges posed by private supplementary tutoring. This approach would not only maintain educational equity but also ensure that private tutoring complements the formal education system rather than undermining it.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e7.2. Discussion\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe research findings indicate that shadow education in Cambodia presents challenges that academically and psychologically impact students and families. This observation aligns with the study by Zhang \u0026amp; Gao (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), which highlights similar academic and psychological challenges associated with private tutoring, emphasizing its significance not only for students but also for tutors, as noted by Bray et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). However, such practices can negatively affect children's self-esteem and contribute to a culture of intense competition (Chhun, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; G\u0026uuml;rel \u0026amp; Brummelman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). It is essential to remember that while pursuing educational success is important, it should not come at the expense of children's physical, mental, and emotional well-being.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Royal Government of Cambodia has made commendable efforts to reduce reliance on private tutoring through initiatives like the New Generation Schools (NGS). The NGS initiative, in particular, aims to decrease teachers' involvement in shadow education. However, despite these efforts, persistent quality issues in schools and ongoing examination pressures have not fully curbed the demand for private tutoring (Nhem, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Studies by Choi (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e), Jamil (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e), and Ngel (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) have identified a deep respect for teachers and their achievements, suggesting that enhancing teacher status could positively influence educational dynamics.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoreover, research by Dawson (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e) underscores the broader implications of private tutoring, extending beyond individual academic success to influence societal values and expectations. This supports the idea that systemic changes in educational policy and school practices could alleviate some pressures fueling the demand for private tutoring. Similarly, the OECD report (2017) notes that high levels of anxiety among students in systems heavily reliant on private tutoring can detract from overall student well-being, reinforcing the need for balanced educational approaches that prioritize student welfare alongside academic achievement. To this end, policy interventions could focus on enhancing intrinsic motivation within students and fostering an environment that values holistic development, as suggested by Vora (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) and Chim \u0026amp; Soeung (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). These advocates for educational reforms emphasize the need to diminish academic pressure and promote holistic growth. By adopting these broader strategies, we can work towards an educational system that supports both the intellectual and emotional needs of students, ensuring a healthier approach to learning and development.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"8. Conclusion and Implications","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e8.1. Conclusion\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study has provided critical insights into the prevalence and implications of private supplementary tutoring (PST) in Cambodia. Our findings highlight the complex interplay between socioeconomic status, parental expectations, and the quality of public education in influencing the demand for PST. The pervasive nature of PST not only aids in academic preparation but also perpetuates existing educational and social inequalities. The research underscores the need for robust policy interventions that focus on enhancing the quality of public education, ensuring equitable access to resources, and more effectively regulating the shadow education sector. Such measures are crucial to mitigating the socioeconomic disparities that PST can exacerbate. Furthermore, improving teacher salaries and training could reduce educators' need to seek supplementary income through private tutoring, thus potentially decreasing its prevalence. For future directions, it is of utmost importance to delve deeper into more comprehensive strategies that address both the causes and effects of PST. Research should continue to rigorously examine the long-term impacts of PST on student outcomes and investigate the effectiveness of policy reforms aimed at integrating PST within the broader educational framework. Additionally, understanding the cultural factors that drive the high valuation of education in Cambodian society could provide deeper insights into how to reshape educational practices to better serve all students.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn conclusion, while PST serves critical academic functions in Cambodia, stakeholders at all levels\u0026mdash;government, educators, parents, and the community\u0026mdash;must actively collaborate in creating a more inclusive and equitable educational landscape. By aligning the goals of PST with those of the national education system, we can ensure that all students have the opportunity to succeed without undue reliance on supplementary education. This alignment is not only about improving academic performance but also about fostering a society where education uplifts everyone equally, contributing to the overall development of the nation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e8.2. Implication\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003ePolicy Implications\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on our empirical findings and literature review, researchers discuss policy implications for addressing the challenges associated with PST in Cambodia. Researchers propose a multi-faceted approach that includes measures to improve school quality, reduce exam pressure, and enhance support for disadvantaged students. Researchers also consider regulatory frameworks and incentives to promote transparency and accountability in the PST sector. Our recommendations aim to foster educational equity and quality while mitigating the negative effects of excessive tutoring.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eStudents and parents\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudents should recognize their right to a high-quality education and understand the importance of their well-being. They should not feel compelled to attend various tuition and coaching classes, as this not only fosters a dislike for education but also impacts their mental health. Instead of relying solely on private tutoring, students should receive academic and psychological support from their teachers and peers, especially in subjects they find challenging. It\u0026rsquo;s crucial for students to develop independence in their learning. They should utilize a variety of educational resources, both virtual and non-virtual, to enhance their autonomous learning and engagement within peer groups. Parents play a significant role in the educational system. They should avoid participating in corrupt practices such as offering teachers additional payments for supplementary courses. Instead, they can support educators by contributing to the school community's council, which may provide funds for teachers. Additionally, parents should focus more holistically on their children\u0026rsquo;s development rather than solely on academic outcomes. It is also important for parents to refrain from constantly comparing their children to others or pushing them to exceed at the expense of their well-being.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eEducators\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Cambodia, educators are expected to uphold educational laws, regulations, and the professional code of ethics, ensuring they are respected and valued by society. Educators have a duty to serve as role models for their students, as their actions and behaviors significantly shape students' attitudes towards education. Educators should prioritize the genuine welfare of their students over personal financial gain. In many ways, they are like second parents within the classroom and school environment. Teachers should strive to inspire and guide students to become upstanding citizens, aligning with the principles outlined in UNESCO's pillars and Cambodian laws.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eFor Ministries, policy makers, and school leaders\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe government and policymakers need to increase funding for education and educational research to enhance the quality of Cambodia\u0026rsquo;s education system. Additionally, they should uphold the integrity of national examinations by continuing to implement educational reforms such as the no-cheating policy and the New Generation School (NGS) initiatives. Specifically, it is crucial to encourage schools to adopt more formative assessments rather than relying solely on summative assessments. School leaders must collaborate with relevant stakeholders to oversee and address any teacher misconduct. Simultaneously, they should focus on improving curricula and examinations, and advocate for competitive salaries and benefits to attract and retain qualified teachers. Furthermore, the government and policymakers should elevate the status of the educational profession by offering competitive salaries and benefits, and by enhancing the prestige of teaching careers. This approach will not only attract talented individuals but also build trust among parents and other key stakeholders.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe author offers his heartfelt gratitude to everyone who helped, supported, and guided him in making this manuscript successful. He would also like to express their heartfelt gratitude to the Research and Development Center of the National University of Battambang, and principals and teachers who participated in this study.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNo funding\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict of Interests\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no conflict of Interest.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBray, M., Liu, J., Zhang, W., \u0026amp; Kobakhidze, M.N. (2019). (Mis)Trust and (Abuse of) Authority in Cambodian Education: Parallel Lessons in the Shadow. In: Sch\u0026uuml;pbach, M., Lilla, N. (eds) Extended Education from an International Comparative Point of View. Springer VS, Wiesbaden. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-27172-5_2\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBray, M. (2016). Parallel private lessons: Scale, nature and implications for policy and school management. This Life Cambodia and Comparative Education Research Centre, the University of Hong Kong, retrieved from http://www.thislifecambodia.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/20160714_Final_Parallel_Private_Lessons.pdf\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBray, M., \u0026amp; Lykins, C. (2012). Shadow education: Private supplementary tutoring and its implications for policy makers in Asia. Asian Development Bank, retrieved from https://www.adb.org/publications/shadow-education-private-supplementary-tutoring-and-its-implications-policy-makers-asia\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBray, M., (1990). The Private Costs of Public Schooling: Household and Community Financing of Primary Education in Cambodia. IIEP/UNESCO, retrieved from https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000117632\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBrehm, W.C. (2016). The Structures and Agents Enabling Educational Corruption in Cambodia. In: Kitamura, Y., Edwards, D.B., Sitha, C., Williams, J.H. (eds) The Political Economy of Schooling in Cambodia. International and Development Education. Palgrave Macmillan, New York. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137456007_6\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBrehm, W.C. \u0026amp; Silova, I. (2014). Hidden privatization of public education in Cambodia: Equity implications of private tutoring, \u003cem\u003eJournal for educational research online\u003c/em\u003e, 6 (1), https://doi.org/10.25656/01:8842\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBrehm, W. C., Silova, I. \u0026amp; Tout, M. (2012). The public-private education system in Cambodia: The impact and implications of complementary tutoring [OSI Privatization in Education Research Initiative Working Paper Series No. 39].\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBraun, V. \u0026amp; Clarke, V. (2006) Using thematic analysis in psychology, \u003cem\u003eQualitative Research in Psychology\u003c/em\u003e, 3:2, 77-101, https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBuchmann, C., Condron, D. J., \u0026amp; Roscigno, V. J. (2010). Shadow education: Theory, analysis and future directions. \u003cem\u003eSocial Forces\u003c/em\u003e, 89(2), 483-490. https://doi.org/10.1353/sof.2010.0073\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eChim, V. \u0026amp; Soeung S., (2023). Private Tuition in Cambodia: Evidence from Urban and Rural Upper Secondary Schools, \u003cem\u003eJournal of International and Comparative Education\u003c/em\u003e, 12 (1). https://doi.org/10.14425/jice.2023.12.1.0913\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eChhun, B. (2017, August 17). Online private tutoring takes off in Cambodia after tough exam reforms hamper cheating. VOA Cambodia, retrieved from https://www.voacambodia.com/a/online-private-tutoring-takes-off-in-cambodia-after-tough-exam-reforms-hamper-cheating/3989872.html\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eChoi, A. (2014, December 4). What the best education systems are doing right. IDEAS.TED.COM, retrieved from https://ideas.ted.com/what-the-best-education-systems-are-doing-right/\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eDang, H. (2007). The determinants and impact of private tutoring classes in Vietnam. \u003cem\u003eEconomics of Education Review\u003c/em\u003e, 26(6), 683-698. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/ j.econedurev.2007.10.003\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eDang, H., \u0026amp; Rogers, F. H. (2008). The growing phenomenon of private tutoring: Does it deepen human capital, widen inequalities, or waste resources? \u003cem\u003eThe World Bank Research Observer\u003c/em\u003e, 23(2), 161-200, https://doi.org/10.1093/wbro/lkn004\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eDavie, S. (2017, August 20). Singapore students suffer from high levels of anxiety: Study. The Straits Times. https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/education/spore-students-suffer-from-high-levels-of-anxiety-study\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eDawson, W. (2010). Private tutoring and mass schooling in East Asia: Reflections of inequality in Japan, South Korea, and Cambodia, \u003cem\u003eAsia Pacific Education Review\u003c/em\u003e, 11 (1). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-009-9058-4\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eDawson, W. P. (2009). \u0026lsquo;\u0026ldquo;Tricks of the Teacher\u0026rdquo;: Teacher Corruption and Shadow Education in Cambodia\u0026rsquo;. In S. Heyneman (ed.), Education and Corruption. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers, retrieved from https://link.springer.com/chapter /10.1057/9781137456007_6\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eDawson, W. P. (2011). The Focus: Supplementary education in Asia, Supplementary education in Cambodia, retrieved from https://www.iias.asia/sites/iias/files/nwl_article/2019-05/IIAS_NL56_1819_0.pdf\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eG\u0026uuml;rel, \u0026Ccedil;., \u0026amp; Brummelman, E. (2020, April 7). The problem with telling children they\u0026rsquo;re better than others. Retrieved from Scientific American. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-problem-with-telling-children-theyre-better-than-others/\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eJamil, H. (2014). Teacher is Matter for Education Quality: A Transformation of Policy for Enhancing the Teaching Profession in Malaysia, Journal of International Cooperation in Education, 16 (2), retrieved from https://cice.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/16-2-11.pdf\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eJeffery, H. M. and Tsuyoshi, F. (2019). Shadow Education and Inequality in Lower Secondary Schooling in Cambodia: Understanding the Dynamics of Private Tutoring Participation and Provision, \u003cem\u003eComparative Education Review\u003c/em\u003e, 63 (1). https://doi.org/10.1086/701064\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eMark, B. Kobakhidze, M.N, Liu, J. and Zhang, W. (2016). The internal dynamics of privatized public education: Fee-charging supplementary tutoring provided by teachers in Cambodia, \u003cem\u003eInternational Journal of Educational Development\u003c/em\u003e, 49:291-299, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2016.04.003\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eMark, B. and Chad, L. (2012). Shadow Education Private Supplementary Tutoring and Its Implications for Policy Makers in Asia, Mandaluyong City, Philippines: Asia Development Bank, retrieved from https://www.adb.org/sites/ default/files/publication/ 29777/shadow-education.pdf\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eMeas, S., No, F., Sok, S. (2023). Basic Education in Cambodia. In: Symaco, L.P., Hayden, M. (eds) International Handbook on Education in South East Asia. Springer International Handbooks of Education. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-8136-3_50-1\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eMoEYS (2023). Annual Educational Congress on Education, Youth, and Sport in academic year 2022-2023. Ministry of Education, Youth, and Sport, Phnom Penh, Cambodia\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eNhem, D. (2022). New generation school initiative in Cambodia: Revisiting its effects on shadow education. \u003cem\u003ePolicy Futures in Education\u003c/em\u003e, 21(2),145-156. https://doi.org/10.1177/14782103221094352\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eNgel, K. (2022). Shadow Education in Cambodia: Causes, Benefits, Problems, and Solutions, Cambodian Education Forum, retrieved from https://cefcambodia.com/2023/09/18/shadow-education-in-cambodia-causes-benefits-problems-and-solutions/\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eOECD. (2014). Strong performers and successful reformers in education lessons from PISA for Korea. https://doi.org/10.1787/2220363x\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eOECD. (2017). PISA 2015 results (Volume III) students\u0026rsquo; well-being: Students\u0026rsquo; well-being. OECD Publishing. https://www.oecd.org/education/pisa-2015-results-volume-iii-9789264273856-en.htm\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eRetka, J. (2017, August 1). Four years later, national exam reforms are bearing fruit. The Cambodia Daily. https://english.cambodiadaily.com/news/four-years-later-national-exam-reforms-are-bearing-fruit-133848/\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSam, R., Ahmad, N., \u0026amp; Hazri, J. (2012a). Cambodia\u0026rsquo;s Higher Education Development in Historical Perspectives (1863-2012), \u003cem\u003eInternational Journal of Learning and Development\u003c/em\u003e, 2(2), 224-241. https://doi.org/10.5296/ijld.v2i2.1670\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSoeung, S. (2021a). A review of Cambodian private tutoring: Parasitic and symbiotic functions towards the mainstream system. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Nusantara Studies (JONUS)\u003c/em\u003e, 6(1), 42-58. https://doi.org/10.24200/jonus.vol6iss1pp42-58\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSoeung, S. (2021b). Revisiting Cambodian private tutoring: Insights into teachers\u0026rsquo; professional misconduct. \u003cem\u003eJournal of International and Comparative Education\u003c/em\u003e, 10(1), 1-17. https://doi.org/10.14425/jice.2021.10.1.0704\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eUNDP (2014). Curbing Private Tutoring and Informal Fees in Cambodia\u0026rsquo;s Basic Education, retrieved from https://www.undp.org/ sites/g/files/zskgke326/ files/migration/kh/ Curbing-Private-Tutoring-and-Informal-Fee-in-Cambodia-Basic-Education.pdf\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eVora, S. (2019, January 25). \u0026lsquo;Tuition culture\u0026rsquo; overwhelms students\u0026rsquo; wellbeing, stifles academic growth. The Swaddle, retrieved from https://theswaddle.com/tuition-culture-overwhelms-students-wellbeing-stifles-academic-growth/\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eZhang, Q., \u0026amp; Gao, Y. (2023). Competition and game-playing: The academic returns and mental health costs of private tutoring. \u003cem\u003eChinese Journal of Sociology\u003c/em\u003e, 9(2), 283-318. https://doi.org/10.1177/2057150X231165143\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"National University of Battambang ","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Shadow education, private supplementary tutoring and coaching, policy, Cambodia","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4465183/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4465183/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eIn Cambodia, as in many ASEAN countries, private supplementary tutoring, also known as 'shadow education,' is a significant component of the educational landscape. This chapter examines the root causes of shadow education in Cambodia, the challenges it poses, and the effectiveness of existing policies aimed at regulating this sector. Through semi-structured interviews with 21 principals and teachers, the study identifies key drivers of shadow education, including inadequate formal education, insufficient resources, regulatory gaps, and teachers\u0026rsquo; low salaries. The findings indicate a widespread reliance on private tutoring to compensate for these deficiencies, which exacerbates educational inequalities. The chapter concludes with targeted recommendations for students, parents, educators, and policymakers, underscoring the critical need for robust and effective regulatory frameworks to address the challenges of shadow education and to enhance the quality and equity of Cambodia's educational system\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Private Supplementary Tutoring in Cambodia Educational System: What Matters for Policies?","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-05-24 05:40:57","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4465183/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"fd5313d2-0df6-4a3e-8050-681b7cfbff18","owner":[],"postedDate":"May 24th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":32295863,"name":"Educational Philosophy and Theory"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-05-24T05:40:57+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-05-24 05:40:57","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-4465183","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-4465183","identity":"rs-4465183","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}