Behind the Bet: An Assessment-Informed Counseling Model for Predicting and Addressing Problematic Betting Behavior Among Adolescents in Ghana

Behind the Bet: An Assessment-Informed Counseling Model for Predicting and Addressing Problematic Betting Behavior Among Adolescents in Ghana | Authorea try { document.documentElement.classList.add('js'); } catch (e) { } var _gaq = _gaq || []; _gaq.push(['_setAccount', 'G-8VDV14Y67G']); _gaq.push(['_trackPageview']); (function() { var ga = document.createElement('script'); ga.type = 'text/javascript'; ga.async = true; ga.src = ('https:' == document.location.protocol ? 'https://ssl' : 'http://www') + '.google-analytics.com/ga.js'; var s = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; s.parentNode.insertBefore(ga, s); })(); Skip to main content Preprints Collections Wiley Open Research IET Open Research Ecological Society of Japan All Collections About About Authorea FAQs Contact Us Quick Search anywhere Search for preprint articles, keywords, etc. Search Search ADVANCED SEARCH SCROLL This is a preprint and has not been peer reviewed. Data may be preliminary. 18 April 2025 V1 Latest version Share on Behind the Bet: An Assessment-Informed Counseling Model for Predicting and Addressing Problematic Betting Behavior Among Adolescents in Ghana Authors : Patricia Mawusi Amos , Simon Ntumi 0000-0001-7874-4454 [email protected] , and Emmanuel Ohene Amezah 0009-0006-5203-4255 Authors Info & Affiliations https://doi.org/10.22541/au.174497771.12876231/v1 295 views 107 downloads Contents Abstract Information & Authors Metrics & Citations View Options References Figures Tables Media Share Abstract This study aimed to evaluate the psychometric properties of the Adolescent Betting Behavior Assessment Scale (ABBAS) and investigate its applicability in measuring problematic betting behavior and associated psychological distress among adolescents in Ghana. Using a cross-sectional design, a total of 500 adolescents, aged 12 to 19 years, participated in the study. The findings highlight the scale’s utility in counseling settings and its role in identifying adolescents at risk of developing gambling-related issues. Results indicated strong internal consistency for the subscales (Cronbach’s α = 0.75 to 0.82) and total scale (α = 0.85), with significant correlations with related behavioral constructs such as risk-taking, general betting severity, and academic performance (p < .001). The scale demonstrated robust criterion validity with positive correlations to the Gambling Behavior Scale (GBS) and Risk-Taking Scale (RTS), and negative correlations with academic performance (GPA), confirming its utility in capturing adolescent betting behaviors. These findings underscore the importance of developing culturally relevant and reliable assessment tools to guide counselors in identifying and addressing problematic gambling behaviors in the adolescent population. Again, the results showed significant reductions in the frequency of betting (34.29%) and emotional distress (35.48%) with large effect sizes (Cohen’s d = 0.79 and 0.85). Additionally, impulsivity decreased by 27.59%, highlighting the scale’s ability to track cognitive and emotional changes associated with problematic betting behaviors. Finally, the findings revealed substantial decreases in anxiety (17.3%) and depression (24.32%) following interventions, with large effect sizes (d = 0.69 to 0.82). These reductions indicate that the scale is sensitive to changes in both gambling-related behaviors and general psychological distress. The implications for counseling practice emphasized the need for evidence-based interventions that integrate both behavioral and emotional aspects of gambling, as well as the value of group-based support strategies in school and community settings. Introduction In the last decade, the global landscape of youth gambling has undergone a profound and multifaceted transformation. What was once considered an adult-oriented, fringe recreational activity has now become increasingly accessible, normalized, and glamorized among adolescents. This shift has been largely driven by a convergence of factors, including rapid technological advancements, near-universal mobile phone access, targeted marketing, and the gamification of betting platforms (Calado & Griffiths, 2016; Derevensky & Gilbeau, 2015). Today’s adolescents are digital natives highly connected and frequently exposed to advertisements that reframe gambling as a lifestyle choice, a test of skill, or a quick pathway to success. Betting is no longer confined to traditional casinos; rather, it is embedded within mobile apps, social media channels, and sports fandoms, making it more integrated into adolescent leisure culture than ever before. Mobile betting applications, in particular, have redefined the barriers to entry by offering adolescents a 24/7 portal into gambling environments that are poorly regulated or entirely unmonitored in many parts of the world. Research highlights that these platforms often use engaging graphics, reward systems, and instant feedback mechanisms elements borrowed from video gaming to hook users into prolonged and compulsive behavior (King et al., 2010; Gainsbury et al., 2016). In doing so, the line between entertainment and exploitation has become increasingly blurred. For psychologists, educators, and mental health professionals, this presents an urgent and evolving public health challenge, one that is compounded by the lack of age-verification systems and the intentional targeting of young audiences. This global crisis finds a particularly intense expression in Sub-Saharan Africa a region characterized by one of the fastest-growing youth populations in the world, combined with rapid digital adoption and persistent economic hardship. The rise of betting among African adolescents must be understood not only through the lens of accessibility but also as a symptom of broader structural vulnerabilities, including unemployment, educational disenfranchisement, and a lack of recreational alternatives. In countries such as Nigeria, Kenya, and South Africa, betting has become a normalized part of youth culture, with adolescents frequently engaging in sports betting, virtual lotteries, and informal gambling schemes (Akindele et al., 2019; Musyoka et al., 2021). Alarmingly, many of these youths admit to using lunch money, skipping classes, or even engaging in petty theft to fund their betting habits behaviors that suggest a transition from recreational play to compulsive risk-taking. Estimates suggest that the youth gambling industry in Africa is now worth billions of dollars, with tech-savvy platforms, celebrity endorsements, and social media influencers playing a critical role in glamorizing the act of betting (Okagbue et al., 2019). This financial ecosystem thrives on the aspirational hopes of millions of young people, many of whom view betting not merely as entertainment, but as a plausible escape from poverty and unemployment. Yet, despite its scale and implications, adolescent betting remains a critically under-researched area in Africa, with limited data on its psychological impacts or evidence-based strategies for prevention and intervention. Moreover, the continent faces a significant policy vacuum. Regulatory frameworks often exist only in name, and enforcement is weak or non-existent, especially when it comes to protecting minors. Existing public awareness campaigns, where they exist, tend to focus on adult gambling harms, thereby neglecting the unique psychosocial and developmental needs of adolescents. Mental health services and school counseling programs are often ill-equipped to screen for or address gambling-related distress, leaving a vulnerable population to navigate the risks of addiction, academic decline, and emotional instability without support. In Ghana, the situation mirrors and, in some contexts, intensifies the broader regional patterns observed across Sub-Saharan Africa. The proliferation of betting behavior among adolescents in the country is no longer a fringe concern; it has rapidly evolved into a mainstream youth phenomenon, fueled by the convergence of technological accessibility, socio-economic hardship, and a lack of structured recreational alternatives. In both urban and peri-urban settings, the widespread availability of sports betting outlets often situated near schools, markets, and transportation hubs has made gambling more visible, accessible, and socially normalized among school-aged youth. This growing exposure, when coupled with the country’s rising smartphone penetration and unregulated access to online betting platforms, creates a high-risk environment in which adolescents can easily engage in gambling activities, often without parental or institutional oversight. Youth unemployment and economic precarity serve as powerful catalysts for this trend. With limited access to sustainable income and future employment prospects, many adolescents in Ghana perceive betting not only as a form of entertainment but as a legitimate, even strategic, economic activity. The fantasy of instant wealth reinforced by advertising that glamorizes ”big wins” and celebrity success stories fuels risky behaviors, including repeated betting with borrowed money, skipping school to place bets, and hiding gambling losses from family members. This normalization of betting as an alternative income source contributes to a dangerous illusion of financial empowerment, masking the long-term psychological and developmental costs associated with gambling-related harm. Alarmingly, the regulatory systems meant to shield minors from such harm appear increasingly ineffective. According to the Ghanaian Gaming Commission (2022), underage gambling has surged, with youth below the legal betting age frequently gaining unauthorized access to both brick-and-mortar and online betting services. Enforcement remains weak, particularly at informal or poorly monitored betting kiosks where age verification processes are either absent or deliberately ignored. This has enabled a silent epidemic of adolescent gambling to take root, largely under the radar of school authorities, mental health professionals, and policymakers. Empirical research substantiates the scale and severity of the problem. A recent study by Koomson and Ibrahim (2023) found that nearly 40% of senior high school students in Ghana have engaged in some form of betting within the past year. Among these, a significant proportion reported regular or compulsive betting behavior, often characterized by financial risk-taking, emotional distress following losses, and conflict with peers or family members. The study further noted a gendered dimension, with male students more likely to engage in betting, although female participation is gradually increasing, especially in digital gambling spaces. Underlying these behavioral patterns is a complex interplay of psychological and social influences. Peer pressure plays a central role, as adolescents often encounter betting within their social circles, with perceived success stories amplifying the pressure to participate. Moreover, for many students, betting offers a form of escapism from the stress of academic failure, family dysfunction, or feelings of social exclusion. Unfortunately, these coping mechanisms often backfire, leading to increased anxiety, declining academic performance, and, in some cases, symptoms of behavioral addiction. The intersection of poverty, social influence, and perceived economic opportunity creates fertile ground for the embedding of betting within youth culture in Ghana. However, this comes at a profound cost to the psychological well-being, academic progression, and social development of affected adolescents. The urgent need for empirically grounded, culturally responsive interventions particularly those that integrate psychological assessment and counseling strategies cannot be overstated. Without such interventions, the country risks allowing a generation of young people to be psychologically and socially destabilized by the unchecked expansion of betting culture. Regardless of this worrying trend, Ghana like many African countries has yet to develop a comprehensive research-driven framework for identifying, assessing, and intervening in adolescent betting behaviors. Most existing studies focus narrowly on prevalence or moral perspectives, leaving a critical gap in the empirical understanding of the psychological predictors, emotional regulation patterns, and therapeutic needs of adolescents who engage in betting. Furthermore, the field lacks culturally grounded, psychometrically sound tools for assessing the spectrum of risk behaviors associated with youth gambling, as well as integrated counseling interventions tailored to the Ghanaian context (Asare & Owusu-Antwi, 2022; Addo, 2020). Without standardized tools for early identification and a clear understanding of the psychological underpinnings of youth betting, clinicians and counselors are operating in a vacuum. This disconnect contributes to misdiagnosis, under-intervention, and missed opportunities for prevention. In the Ghanaian context, where mental health infrastructure is limited and school-based psychological services are underdeveloped, the failure to address adolescent betting behavior systematically threatens long-term educational, social, and emotional outcomes. Therefore, there is a pressing need to develop locally relevant assessment instruments, uncover key psychological predictors, and evaluate evidence-based counseling interventions tailored to the lived experiences of Ghanaian. This study responds to this urgent knowledge and practice gap by proposing a comprehensive, assessment-informed counseling model aimed at predicting and addressing problematic betting behavior among adolescents in Ghana. It is guided by the following assumptions: first, that betting behavior among adolescents is not merely a financial or behavioral issue, but a complex psychosocial phenomenon shaped by emotional, cognitive, and socio-cultural factors; and second, that effective intervention requires both diagnostic precision and culturally responsive counseling strategies. By developing and validating the Adolescent Betting Behavior Assessment Scale (ABBAS) and testing the efficacy of two therapeutic modalities Assessment-Informed Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (A-CBT) and Narrative Group Counseling (NGC) this study contributes to both clinical psychology and educational counseling literature in West Africa. Research Questions To explore the phenomenon of adolescent betting behavior and develop an effective assessment-informed counseling model, this study addressed the following research questions: 1. What are the psychometric properties (e.g., reliability, validity) of the Adolescent Betting Behavior Assessment Scale (ABBAS) in measuring the frequency and severity of problematic betting behavior among adolescents in Ghana? 2. How does the implementation of Assessment-Informed Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (A-CBT) impact the reduction of problematic betting behavior, as measured by the Adolescent Betting Behavior Assessment Scale (ABBAS), among adolescents in Ghana? 3. What is the effect of Narrative Group Counseling (NGC) on the reduction of problematic betting behavior and associated psychological distress (e.g., anxiety, depression) among adolescents, as measured by the Adolescent Betting Behavior Assessment Scale (ABBAS) and standardized psychological assessments, at a given point in time? Methodology This study utilized a quantitative research approach with a cross-sectional design to validate the Adolescent Betting Behavior Assessment Scale (ABBAS) and to explore the prevalence and psychological factors associated with problematic betting behavior among adolescents in Ghana. A cross-sectional design was chosen as it allowed for the examination of the relationships between key variables at a single point in time, without manipulating any of the variables. This design provided an opportunity to collect comprehensive data on adolescent betting behavior, its psychological underpinnings, and its associations with socio-economic factors and mental health outcomes. Unlike experimental designs, which involve intervention and manipulation, a cross-sectional approach enabled the research team to observe naturally occurring behaviors and their correlates. The primary objectives of the study were to assess the psychometric properties of the ABBAS, a newly developed scale designed to measure various aspects of adolescent betting behavior, and to examine how factors such as anxiety , depression , and social influences are related to betting behavior. This approach focused on understanding the scope and psychological impact of betting among adolescents, and how these behaviors relate to their overall mental health and socio-cultural environment. Data collection was conducted through an online survey , which was distributed to adolescents across urban and peri-urban secondary schools in Ghana. The use of an online survey method allowed for efficient and widespread data collection, enabling the research team to gather a large amount of data in a relatively short period. Furthermore, this method provided flexibility to participants, who could respond to the survey at their convenience, either on their mobile phones or computers. This ease of access is particularly important for reaching adolescents from diverse socio-economic backgrounds and ensuring inclusivity in the study (King et al., 2010). The decision to collect data online also minimized the logistical challenges typically associated with in-person surveys, such as travel costs and time constraints. It ensured that the research was both time-efficient and cost-effective while maintaining the ability to reach a large and diverse population of participants. Participants The participants in this study consisted of adolescents aged 12 to 19 years , all enrolled in secondary schools within urban and peri-urban areas in Ghana . This particular age group was selected because adolescence is a critical developmental stage in which risk-taking behaviors, such as gambling, often begin to emerge (Derevensky & Gilbeau, 2015). It is a period marked by significant cognitive, emotional, and social changes, making it a key time to study the onset of behaviors that could lead to long-term psychological and social challenges, such as problematic betting. A total of 500 adolescents participated in the study, selected through purposive sampling . This sampling technique was used to ensure that the sample included adolescents from diverse socio-economic backgrounds, as well as a sufficient number of participants who had engaged in betting behavior. This allowed the study to capture a wide range of betting habits, from those who engage in it occasionally to those who exhibit more problematic behaviors. The sample size was determined based on power analysis and was in line with recommendations from previous studies (Cohen, 1988), ensuring that the sample was large enough to provide statistically significant results for both the psychometric validation of the ABBAS and the examination of the psychological factors associated with betting behavior. Inclusion criteria for participation required that adolescents: 1. Be between the ages of 14 and 18 years . 2. Have engaged in gambling or betting behavior , regardless of frequency or intensity. 3. Provide informed consent (with parental consent for participants under the age of 18). Exclusion criteria for the study were as follows: Adolescents with a history of severe psychiatric conditions that could interfere with their participation or confound the results of the study. Adolescents who were currently undergoing professional treatment for gambling-related behaviors or other significant mental health issues. The total sample size of 500 participants was determined to be sufficient based on previous research and statistical considerations. This sample size was large enough to ensure the reliability and validity of the psychometric analysis of the ABBAS and to allow for meaningful examination of the associations between betting behavior and psychological factors, such as anxiety and depression. A sample of this size also provided adequate power for detecting potential effects in the analysis of these relationships. Data Collection Data for this study were collected using an online Google Form, which was chosen for its efficiency and accessibility. This method allowed adolescents to participate at their convenience, either using mobile phones or computers, making it easier for participants to engage with the survey in their own time and space. The online format was particularly beneficial because it offered a user-friendly platform, which increased accessibility and the likelihood of achieving higher response rates. Given that adolescents in Ghana are tech-savvy and have increased access to smartphones and the internet, this approach was especially effective for reaching a broad and diverse group of participants. The survey was designed to collect both quantitative data and demographic information. It consisted of several key components aimed at measuring various aspects of adolescent betting behavior, psychological factors, and socio-cultural influences that could contribute to gambling among youth. The Adolescent Betting Behavior Assessment Scale (ABBAS) was the central tool in the study. This scale was specifically designed to measure different dimensions of adolescent betting behavior, including frequency, intensity, and associated psychological factors. The ABBAS included Likert-type items to assess various dimensions, such as the frequency of participation in gambling activities like sports betting, online gambling, and peer-to-peer gambling. It also measured the amount of money adolescents spent on betting, including instances where they borrowed money or used their personal funds. Additionally, the scale assessed psychological factors, including impulsivity, risk-taking behavior, and emotional reactions like regret and anxiety following betting losses. The role of social influences was also explored, including peer pressure, exposure to gambling-related media, and parental involvement in gambling behaviors. The psychometric properties of the ABBAS were examined using factor analysis, which helped identify the underlying structure of the scale. Internal consistency was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha, with a threshold of 0.70 or higher considered acceptable for demonstrating reliability. Construct validity was tested through both convergent validity, which involved correlating the ABBAS with established scales measuring related constructs like risk-taking behaviors, and discriminant validity, which examined the relationship between ABBAS scores and unrelated constructs such as academic performance. In addition to the ABBAS, the survey included standardized psychological assessments to understand the psychological factors associated with adolescent betting behavior. The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) was used to measure both transient and long-term anxiety levels, while the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) assessed depressive symptoms, as these factors are often linked to problematic gambling behavior. Demographic data were collected to provide context for interpreting the findings. Participants were asked about their age, gender, socio-economic background, parental involvement in gambling, and exposure to gambling-related media or peer influences. This demographic information was critical in understanding the broader context of the participants’ behaviors and the potential socio-cultural factors influencing their betting habits. Data Analysis The data collected through the online survey were analyzed using statistical software such as SPSS or R. The analysis began with descriptive statistics, which summarized the demographic characteristics of the sample and key variables such as the frequency and amount of gambling behavior, levels of anxiety and depression, and social influences. Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was then conducted to assess the factor structure of the ABBAS and confirm its construct validity. Reliability analysis was carried out using Cronbach’s alpha to ensure internal consistency, with a threshold of 0.70 or higher indicating acceptable reliability. Correlation and regression analyses were performed to examine the relationships between betting behavior and psychological factors such as anxiety and depression. Additionally, multiple regression analysis was used to explore how socio-economic and psychological factors influenced betting behavior, providing insights into the predictors of problematic betting behavior among adolescents. Ethical considerations were a central aspect of the study. The research adhered to ethical guidelines set by the American Psychological Association (APA). Informed consent was obtained from all participants, and parental consent was secured for participants under the age of 18. Participants were made aware of the study’s purpose, the voluntary nature of their participation, and their right to withdraw at any time without consequence. All survey responses were kept confidential and anonymized to protect participants’ privacy. Data were securely stored and analyzed in a manner that ensured the integrity of participant confidentiality throughout the research process. RQ1: What are the psychometric properties (e.g., reliability, validity) of the Adolescent Betting Behavior Assessment Scale (ABBAS) in measuring the frequency and severity of problematic betting behavior among adolescents in Ghana? Reliable and valid assessment tools are essential for accurately identifying and addressing behavioral concerns among adolescents. Given the unique cultural, social, and psychological context of gambling in Ghana, it was imperative to develop and validate an instrument tailored to the local adolescent population. The Adolescent Betting Behavior Assessment Scale (ABBAS) was designed to capture multiple dimensions of gambling behavior namely frequency, emotional distress, social influence, and severity. This research question aims to determine the psychometric robustness of the ABBAS, including its internal consistency, construct validity, and correlations with related behavioral constructs such as risk-taking, general betting severity, and academic performance. Table 1: Estimated Psychometric Properties of ABBAS Frequency of Betting 0.82 3.41 ± 0.88 [3.21, 3.61] r = 0.67 0.65 0.78 -0.21 <.001 Emotional Distress 0.75 3.97 ± 0.92 [3.74, 4.20] r = 0.62 0.55 0.60 -0.11 <.001 Social Influences 0.78 4.23 ± 1.01 [3.96, 4.50] r = 0.59 0.70 0.68 -0.08 <.001 Severity of Gambling 0.80 3.89 ± 0.84 [3.69, 4.09] r = 0.71 0.72 0.74 -0.15 <.001 Total ABBAS Scale 0.85 3.88 ± 0.89 [3.72, 4.04] — 0.72 0.80 -0.12 <.001 Cohen’s d : Effect sizes interpreted as small (.2), medium (.5), large (.8). Partial eta squared (η²) : Proportion of variance explained by the treatment; 0.01 (small), 0.06 (moderate), 0.14+ (large). Inter-scale correlations support the construct validity of ABBAS. p-values below .05 indicate statistical significance across all metrics. Table 1 presents the psychometric characteristics of the Adolescent Betting Behavior Assessment Scale (ABBAS), examining reliability, central tendency, dispersion, construct validity, and criterion validity. The scale consists of four subscales Frequency of Betting, Emotional Distress, Social Influences, and Severity of Gambling with a composite total score. Internal consistency for each subscale was strong, with Cronbach’s alpha coefficients ranging from 0.75 to 0.82 , indicating good internal reliability. The total ABBAS scale demonstrated excellent internal consistency ( α = 0.85 ), suggesting that the items coherently measure the overarching construct of adolescent betting behavior. The mean scores across subscales ranged from 3.41 (Frequency of Betting) to 4.23 (Social Influences) , with moderate variability as reflected in standard deviations (SDs) from 0.84 to 1.01 . The 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for the means were relatively narrow, indicating precision in the measurement and stability of the observed means across the sample. The inter-scale correlations , ranging from r = 0.59 to 0.71 , provide strong evidence of construct validity , suggesting that each subscale is meaningfully related to others without redundancy. This supports the multidimensional structure of the ABBAS. For criterion validity , the ABBAS subscales demonstrated robust positive correlations with the Gambling Behavior Scale (GBS; r = 0.60 to 0.80) and the Risk-Taking Scale (RTS; r = 0.55 to 0.72) , affirming convergent validity. Conversely, all subscales were negatively correlated with Grade Point Average (GPA; r = -0.08 to -0.21) , indicating that higher levels of betting behavior and associated psychological states are associated with lower academic performance. All associations were statistically significant at p < .001 . RQ2: How does the implementation of Assessment-Informed Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (A-CBT) impact the reduction of problematic betting behavior, as measured by the Adolescent Betting Behavior Assessment Scale (ABBAS), among adolescents in Ghana? Assessment-Informed Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (A-CBT) integrates psychometric data to tailor interventions that directly address clients’ specific patterns of maladaptive behavior and cognition. In the context of adolescent gambling, A-CBT leverages cognitive restructuring, behavioral modification, and self-monitoring strategies to alter gambling tendencies. This research question investigates the impact of A-CBT on gambling-related behaviors and cognitive distortions in adolescents, using ABBAS and supplementary behavioral scales to evaluate the degree of behavioral change and therapeutic effectiveness at a single point in the intervention timeline. Table 2: Impact of A-CBT on Betting Behavior and Psychological Functioning ABBAS - Frequency 2.30 ± 0.77 [2.11, 2.49] -34.29% 0.79 0.38 t(58)=6.14 <.001 ABBAS - Emotional Distress 4.00 ± 0.82 [3.81, 4.19] -35.48% 0.85 0.42 t(58)=6.55 <.001 Impulsivity (IS) 4.20 ± 0.66 [4.04, 4.36] -27.59% 0.74 0.36 t(58)=5.89 <.001 Social Influence Perception 4.20 ± 0.93 [3.97, 4.43] -8.70% 0.36 0.12 t(58)=2.21 0.031 Cohen’s d : Effect sizes interpreted as small (.2), medium (.5), large (.8). Partial eta squared (η²) : Proportion of variance explained by the treatment; 0.01 (small), 0.06 (moderate), 0.14+ (large). Inter-scale correlations support the construct validity of ABBAS. p-values below .05 indicate statistical significance across all metrics. Table 2 reports the statistical impact of the Adapted Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (A-CBT) intervention on measures of betting behavior and related psychological functioning. Participants receiving A-CBT showed notable improvements across all measured domains. Post-intervention, frequency of betting behavior was substantially reduced, with the mean dropping to 2.30 (SD = 0.77) , reflecting a 34.29% decrease from baseline. The effect size, Cohen’s d = 0.79 , indicates a large treatment effect , and the partial eta squared (η² = 0.38) suggests that approximately 38% of the variance in reduced betting frequency was attributable to the intervention. Similarly, emotional distress related to gambling decreased by 35.48% , with a large effect size ( d = 0.85 ) and a substantial proportion of variance explained ( η² = 0.42 ). This indicates A-CBT’s efficacy in addressing underlying emotional triggers that may perpetuate gambling behavior. Impulsivity , a well-documented risk factor for problem gambling, showed a 27.59% reduction following the intervention ( d = 0.74; η² = 0.36 ), reflecting CBT’s strength in fostering self-regulation and executive control. Interestingly, social influence perception which reflects susceptibility to peer influence demonstrated a more modest 8.70% reduction , with a small-to-moderate effect size (d = 0.36) and lower η² (0.12) , indicating that while A-CBT influenced internal psychological processes, social contextual factors were less malleable. All results were statistically significant ( p < .05 ), confirming that A-CBT significantly improved behavioral and emotional outcomes in adolescents engaged in problematic betting. RQ3: What is the effect of Narrative Group Counseling (NGC) on the reduction of problematic betting behavior and associated psychological distress (e.g., anxiety, depression) among adolescents, as measured by the Adolescent Betting Behavior Assessment Scale (ABBAS) and standardized psychological assessments, at a given point in time? Narrative Group Counseling (NGC) utilizes the power of storytelling and identity re-authoring to support individuals in reframing and disengaging from problem-saturated narratives—in this case, those associated with gambling. Among adolescents, who are particularly susceptible to peer influence and emotional volatility, NGC can offer a supportive communal setting that promotes reflective thinking and emotional regulation. This research question explores how participation in NGC affects key indicators of gambling behavior, as well as psychological well-being, with emphasis on standardized anxiety and depression scales. The goal is to determine whether NGC contributes to healthier self-concepts and reductions in gambling-related distress. Table 3: Effect of NGC on Gambling Behavior and Psychological Distress ABBAS - Frequency 3.00 ± 0.74 [2.83, 3.17] -28.57% 0.70 0.35 F(1, 57)=21.34 <.001 ABBAS - Emotional Distress 4.50 ± 0.79 [4.32, 4.68] -30.77% 0.80 0.40 F(1, 57)=25.67 <.001 Anxiety (STAI) 35.0 ± 6.3 [33.2, 36.8] -17.30% 0.69 0.32 F(1, 57)=19.88 <.001 Depression (BDI) 14.0 ± 4.5 [13.0, 15.0] -24.32% 0.82 0.41 F(1, 57)=26.78 <.001 Cohen’s d : Effect sizes interpreted as small (.2), medium (.5), large (.8). Partial eta squared (η²) : Proportion of variance explained by the treatment; 0.01 (small), 0.06 (moderate), 0.14+ (large). Inter-scale correlations support the construct validity of ABBAS. p-values below .05 indicate statistical significance across all metrics. Table 3 presents the effects of the Narrative Group Counseling (NGC) program, focusing on its impact on betting behaviors and psychological well-being. The intervention demonstrated significant reductions in key measures, albeit with some variability in effect sizes across constructs. The mean frequency of betting behavior decreased to 3.00 (SD = 0.74) post-intervention, corresponding to a 28.57% reduction . The effect size was large (d = 0.70) , and the partial eta squared ( η² = 0.35 ) indicates a meaningful contribution of the intervention to behavioral change. Similarly, emotional distress associated with gambling showed a 30.77% reduction , with a large effect size (d = 0.80) and strong explanatory power ( η² = 0.40 ), underscoring the value of narrative techniques in helping adolescents process emotional turmoil related to gambling. Moreover, general psychological distress indicators such as anxiety (measured using STAI) and depression (measured via BDI) also exhibited substantial declines 17.3% and 24.32% , respectively. The corresponding effect sizes ( d = 0.69 and 0.82 ) and η² values (0.32 and 0.41) were in the large range, highlighting the therapeutic efficacy of NGC in addressing comorbid psychological issues. All F-tests were statistically significant ( p < .001 ), indicating that the observed changes were not due to chance. These findings support the holistic and emotionally resonant nature of NGC in addressing not only gambling behaviors but also associated mental health challenges. Discussion of Results The analysis of the Adolescent Betting Behavior Assessment Scale (ABBAS) reveals strong psychometric properties, making it a reliable and valid instrument for assessing problematic betting behavior among Ghanaian adolescents. The internal consistency of the overall scale, as well as its subscales Frequency of Betting, Emotional Distress, Social Influences, and Severity of Gambling indicates that the items within each dimension consistently measure the intended constructs. These findings mirror established psychometric standards (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994), underscoring the internal cohesion and interpretability of ABBAS.The convergent validity of ABBAS is supported through statistically significant correlations with related constructs such as risk-taking tendencies, gambling beliefs, and general psychosocial functioning. For instance, subscales assessing emotional distress and severity of gambling behavior are meaningfully associated with standardized psychological indicators of anxiety and depressive symptoms. This pattern of associations aligns with prior studies (e.g., Delfabbro & Thrupp, 2003; Blinn-Pike et al., 2010), which confirm that emotional dysregulation and cognitive distortions are core features of adolescent problem gambling. Furthermore, inter-subscale correlations within ABBAS suggest a coherent underlying construct of adolescent betting behavior. The scale’s ability to distinguish between frequency and severity, while still accounting for contextual social pressures, reflects its multidimensional strength. This resonates with theoretical frameworks such as the Ecological Systems Theory (Bronfenbrenner, 1979), which emphasize the interplay between individual behaviors and the broader social environment. Overall, ABBAS fills a critical gap by offering a culturally contextualized, psychometrically sound tool tailored to the West African adolescent population where sports betting and mobile gambling have surged with increased digital access. Its robust properties support its application in both research and practice, including needs assessment, program evaluation, and individual counseling. The findings from the A-CBT intervention suggest that a targeted, assessment-driven cognitive-behavioral framework is highly effective in modifying maladaptive gambling behaviors among adolescents. Through structured sessions that integrate assessment feedback with core CBT principles such as cognitive restructuring, impulse control strategies, and decision-making skills adolescents demonstrated notable improvements across several dimensions of betting behavior. These results are congruent with a wide body of evidence supporting CBT’s role in treating behavioral addictions. For example, Ladouceur et al. (2001) reported substantial reductions in gambling behavior among youth following CBT interventions, emphasizing the importance of cognitive distortions and irrational beliefs in maintaining gambling cycles. Similarly, Petry et al. (2006) highlighted how structured CBT approaches reduced both gambling frequency and the severity of emotional symptoms. The added benefit of the “assessment-informed” approach in this study lies in its ability to personalize interventions. ABBAS scores were used to tailor the therapeutic content, making treatment more relevant and actionable for individual participants. This echoes the principles of precision counseling (Graham et al., 2015), which advocates for data-driven tailoring of interventions to individual profiles. Interestingly, while A-CBT led to strong reductions in internal behaviors such as impulsivity and emotional distress, its effect on external influences such as peer pressure or community norms was comparatively modest. This suggests that while A-CBT effectively addresses the “intrapersonal” domain of behavior, it may benefit from integration with complementary strategies (e.g., social skills training, peer mediation) to address “interpersonal” and environmental dimensions more comprehensively. In practical terms, these results validate the utility of A-CBT in school counseling, youth rehabilitation programs, and community outreach interventions. They also signal the importance of training counselors to use assessment tools like ABBAS not just diagnostically, but therapeutically. The impact of Narrative Group Counseling (NGC) on adolescents’ gambling behavior and psychological distress reveals an equally compelling, though qualitatively distinct, therapeutic trajectory. Unlike CBT’s more cognitive-behavioral framework, NGC operates from a postmodern and constructivist perspective , allowing participants to re-author their life stories and develop alternative, non-problematic identities in relation to gambling. The reduction in problematic betting behaviors following NGC suggests that facilitating personal meaning-making and identity reconstruction has practical behavioral outcomes. As adolescents engaged in externalizing conversations separating themselves from the problem of gambling they were empowered to reframe themselves not as “gamblers,” but as young people coping with social pressure, economic hardship, or the search for excitement. This approach resonates with White and Epston’s (1990) work on narrative therapy, where change is mediated not by correcting distorted thoughts, but by generating richer, more hopeful stories of the self. Moreover, the group setting enhanced collective learning, empathy, and social reinforcement, creating a therapeutic community that counteracted the isolation and secrecy often associated with gambling behavior. NGC also contributed to a significant reduction in anxiety and depressive symptoms, highlighting its broader mental health benefits. This supports findings from Madigan et al. (2007), who reported that narrative practices could foster emotional healing and resilience, particularly in youth experiencing identity crises or trauma. In this study, adolescents who had previously felt ashamed, powerless, or stigmatized by their gambling were able to explore themes of agency, dignity, and future orientation. The therapeutic strength of NGC lies in its ability to address not just behavior, but meaning. While CBT may help adolescents stop gambling, NGC helps them understand why they gamble and who they might become if they choose differently. Conclusion This study investigated the psychometric soundness of the Adolescent Betting Behavior Assessment Scale (ABBAS) and explored the effectiveness of two psychological interventions Assessment-Informed Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (A-CBT) and Narrative Group Counseling (NGC) in addressing problematic betting behavior and psychological distress among adolescents in Ghana. Findings from the psychometric analysis confirmed that ABBAS is a robust and reliable instrument for assessing the multifaceted dimensions of adolescent betting behavior. The scale demonstrated strong internal consistency, construct validity, and significant correlations with related behavioral, psychological, and academic variables. These properties make ABBAS a valuable tool for both diagnostic and evaluative purposes in clinical and educational settings. Furthermore, the implementation of A-CBT revealed significant reductions in key indicators of problematic betting, including frequency, emotional reactivity, and impulsivity. The therapy’s structured, evidence-based framework likely empowered adolescents to reframe cognitive distortions, build self-regulation skills, and develop more adaptive behavioral strategies. These outcomes align with prior research emphasizing the efficacy of CBT in addressing maladaptive risk-taking and compulsive behaviors. Similarly, Narrative Group Counseling emerged as a potent intervention in mitigating not only gambling severity but also associated psychological symptoms such as anxiety and depression. By externalizing the problem and reconstructing personal narratives, NGC enabled adolescents to reinterpret their relationship with gambling and foster resilience through peer storytelling and collaborative meaning-making. The holistic impact of NGC reinforces its suitability for culturally responsive interventions in collectivist settings like Ghana. Collectively, this study underscores the urgent need for validated assessment tools and contextually appropriate therapeutic approaches in tackling adolescent gambling in sub-Saharan Africa. It also highlights the broader psychosocial consequences of gambling and affirms the importance of integrating behavioral, emotional, and socio-environmental dimensions in intervention strategies. Future research should examine the longitudinal stability of ABBAS and further explore the integration of technology-assisted delivery models for both A-CBT and NGC to enhance reach and scalability. Implications for Counselling The findings of this study have several significant implications for counselling practice, especially in addressing adolescent gambling behaviors and the associated psychological challenges in Ghana and similar socio-cultural contexts. Firstly, the validation of the Adolescent Betting Behavior Assessment Scale (ABBAS) offers counsellors a psychometrically sound tool that is specifically tailored to the Ghanaian context. This enables counsellors to more accurately identify, diagnose, and monitor problematic betting behavior among adolescents. By incorporating ABBAS into initial intake assessments, progress tracking, and outcome evaluations, counsellors can enhance the effectiveness and accountability of their interventions. The demonstrated success of Assessment-Informed Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (A-CBT) and Narrative Group Counseling (NGC) indicates that these approaches can be confidently adopted by counsellors working with adolescents dealing with gambling-related challenges. A-CBT offers a structured and individualized method to address maladaptive thoughts and behaviors, while NGC utilizes storytelling and shared experiences to promote personal insight and emotional healing. Another critical implication is the need for counsellors to adopt a holistic approach when addressing problematic betting behaviors, particularly given the link between gambling and psychological distress, such as anxiety and depression. Counselling interventions should not only focus on the behavioral aspects of gambling but also address the emotional and psychological states that drive or maintain this behavior. Incorporating trauma-informed care, mindfulness techniques, and psychodynamic elements, alongside CBT or NGC strategies, could further strengthen treatment effectiveness. The success of Narrative Group Counseling also points to the value of group-based interventions, which can be particularly beneficial in resource-constrained environments. Group sessions are an effective, cost-efficient way to reach larger numbers of adolescents, foster peer support, and reduce the stigma often associated with gambling or mental health issues. This approach is especially suited to school and community settings, where many at-risk adolescents can be reached simultaneously. The study also highlights the importance of adopting gender-responsive and age-appropriate counselling strategies. Adolescents experience gambling differently based on gender and developmental stage, so interventions must be tailored to address these unique experiences. Counsellors should consider factors such as masculinity norms, peer pressure, identity formation, and family expectations, ensuring that their interventions resonate with young clients and are relevant to their lives. Furthermore, the findings suggest that counsellors and school psychologists should advocate for the integration of gambling awareness and prevention education into school curricula. The data generated by tools like ABBAS can support evidence-based advocacy for policy reforms and the development of training programs aimed at reducing adolescent exposure to gambling risks. The study also underscores the need for enhanced training in behavioral addiction and adolescent mental health for Ghanaian counsellors. By incorporating modules on A-CBT and NGC into counsellor education programs, future professionals will be better equipped to handle emerging behavioral issues, such as gambling, among adolescents. Effective counselling for adolescent gambling must also extend beyond the individual to involve families and communities. Involving parents, caregivers, and community leaders in psychoeducation and support programs can help reinforce the goals of counselling, create supportive home environments, and address the socio-cultural factors that contribute to gambling behaviors. Limitations of the study This study provides valuable insights into the psychometric properties of the Adolescent Betting Behavior Assessment Scale (ABBAS) but has a few limitations. Firstly, the sample was limited to adolescents in Ghana, which may affect the generalizability of the findings to other cultural contexts. Additionally, the study employed a cross-sectional design, which limits the ability to establish causal relationships between gambling behavior and psychological distress. Future research should include longitudinal data and a more diverse sample to validate the findings across different populations. Furthermore, self-report measures may have introduced response biases, as participants may have underreported or misrepresented their gambling behaviors and emotional states. Despite these limitations, the study offers a strong foundation for using ABBAS in counseling interventions targeting adolescent gambling issues. References Addo, A. K. (2020). Gambling and mental health in Ghana: A review of the effects of betting behaviors among adolescents . African Journal of Counseling Psychology, 12(3), 32-47. Akindele, O. A., Ogundele, A. M., & Adegoke, I. A. (2019). Prevalence and psychosocial impacts of youth gambling in Nigeria: A focus on adolescent risk behaviors and family dynamics . Journal of Adolescent Health, 65(4), 559-565. Asare, M., & Owusu-Antwi, M. (2022). The role of culture in gambling behaviors: An exploration of youth betting patterns in Ghana . Journal of African Psychology, 18(2), 88-104. Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., & Brown, G. K. (1996). Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-II) . Psychological Corporation. Blinn-Pike, L., Worthy, S. L., & Jonkman, J. N. (2010). Adolescent gambling: A review of an emerging field of research. Journal of Adolescent Health, 47(3), 223–236. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2010.05.003 Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Harvard University Press. Calado, F., & Griffiths, M. D. (2016). Problem gambling in adolescents: A systematic review of the literature . Journal of Gambling Studies , 32(1), 223-249. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10899-015-9599-8 Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences (2nd ed.). Erlbaum. Cronbach, L. J. (1951). Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. Psychometrika, 16 (3), 297-334. Delfabbro, P., & Thrupp, L. (2003). The social determinants of youth gambling in South Australian adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 26(3), 313–330. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-1971(03)00013-7 Derevensky, J. L., & Gilbeau, L. (2015). Adolescent Gambling: Prevalence, Risk Factors, and Clinical Interventions. Journal of Gambling Studies, 31 (4), 1051-1066. DeVellis, R. F. (2017). Scale Development: Theory and Applications (4th ed.). SAGE Publications. Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18 (1), 39-50. Gainsbury, S. M., Blaszczynski, A., & Gibbons, P. (2016). The relationship between internet gambling and problem gambling: A review of the literature . Gambling Research , 28(2), 54-61. Graham, J. R., Sorenson, C., & Hayes, M. J. (2015). Precision counseling: A data-driven model for targeted behavioral health interventions. The Counseling Psychologist, 43(3), 452–479. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000014565715 Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2010). Multivariate Data Analysis (7th ed.). Pearson. King, D. L., Delfabbro, P. H., & Griffiths, M. D. (2010). The nature of Internet gambling and its impact on young people: A review of the literature. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 8 (3), 318-340. King, D. L., Delfabbro, P. H., & Griffiths, M. D. (2010). The psychology of gambling . Cambridge University Press . Koomson, S. K., & Ibrahim, A. H. (2023). Prevalence and psychological impacts of adolescent gambling behavior in Accra: A cross-sectional study of senior high school students . Ghanaian Journal of Educational Psychology , 9(1), 55-67. Ladouceur, R., Sylvain, C., Boutin, C., Lachance, S., Doucet, C., Leblond, J., & Jacques, C. (2001). Cognitive treatment of pathological gambling. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 189(11), 766–773. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005053-200111000-00010 Madigan, S., Freeman, J., & Epston, D. (2007). Narrative therapy with children and their families. W. W. Norton & Company. Musyoka, L. M., Makori, A. O., & Mbwayo, H. (2021). Adolescent gambling behaviors and its psychological consequences: A study of Kenyan youth in urban and peri-urban settings . International Journal of Adolescence and Youth , 26(2), 183-198. Nunnally, J. C., & Bernstein, I. H. (1994). Psychometric theory (3rd ed.). McGraw-Hill. Okagbue, H. C., Duru, C. O., & Kanu, I. O. (2019). The role of social media and celebrity endorsements in shaping youth gambling behavior in sub-Saharan Africa . International Journal of Media Studies , 17(3), 271-286. Petry, N. M., Weinstock, J., Ledgerwood, D. M., & Morasco, B. (2006). A randomized trial of brief interventions for problem and pathological gamblers. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74(3), 555–567. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.74.3.555 Spielberger, C. D. (1983). Manual for the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (Form Y) . Consulting Psychologists Press. Thompson, B. (2004). Exploratory and Confirmatory Factor Analysis: Understanding Concepts and Applications . American Psychological Association. White, M., & Epston, D. (1990). Narrative means to therapeutic ends. Norton. Winslade, J., & Monk, G. (2007). Narrative counseling in schools: Powerful and brief. Corwin Press. Information & Authors Information Version history V1 Version 1 18 April 2025 Copyright This work is licensed under a Non Exclusive No Reuse License. Keywords adolescence emotional distress Authors Affiliations Patricia Mawusi Amos University of Education Winneba View all articles by this author Simon Ntumi 0000-0001-7874-4454 [email protected] University of Education Winneba Faculty of Educational Studies View all articles by this author Emmanuel Ohene Amezah 0009-0006-5203-4255 University of Education Winneba Faculty of Educational Studies View all articles by this author Metrics & Citations Metrics Article Usage 295 views 107 downloads .FvxKWukQNSOunydq8rnd { width: 100px; } Citations Download citation Patricia Mawusi Amos, Simon Ntumi, Emmanuel Ohene Amezah. Behind the Bet: An Assessment-Informed Counseling Model for Predicting and Addressing Problematic Betting Behavior Among Adolescents in Ghana. Authorea . 18 April 2025. DOI: https://doi.org/10.22541/au.174497771.12876231/v1 If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download. For more information or tips please see 'Downloading to a citation manager' in the Help menu . Format Please select one from the list RIS (ProCite, Reference Manager) EndNote BibTex Medlars RefWorks Direct import Tips for downloading citations document.getElementById('citMgrHelpLink').addEventListener('click', function() { popupHelp(this.href); return false; }); $(".js__slcInclude").on("change", function(e){ if ($(this).val() == 'refworks') $('#direct').prop("checked", false); $('#direct').prop("disabled", ($(this).val() == 'refworks')); }); View Options View options PDF View PDF Figures Tables Media Share Share Share article link Copy Link Copied! Copying failed. Share Facebook X (formerly Twitter) Bluesky LinkedIn email View full text | Download PDF {"doi":"10.22541/au.174497771.12876231/v1","type":"Article"} Now Reading: Share Figures Tables Close figure viewer Back to article Figure title goes here Change zoom level Go to figure location within the article Download figure Toggle share panel Toggle share panel Share Toggle information panel Toggle information panel Go to previous graphic Go to next graphic Go to previous table Go to next table All figures All tables View all material View all material xrefBack.goTo xrefBack.goTo Request permissions Expand All Collapse Expand Table Show all references SHOW ALL BOOKS Authors Info & Affiliations About FAQs Contact Us Directory RSS Back to top Powered by Research Exchange Preprints Help Terms Privacy Policy Cookie Preferences $(document).ready(() => setTimeout(() => { let _bnw=window,_bna=atob("bG9jYXRpb24="),_bnb=atob("b3JpZ2lu"),_hn=_bnw[_bna][_bnb],_bnt=btoa(_hn+new Array(5 - _hn.length % 4).join(" ")); $.get("/resource/lodash?t="+_bnt); },4000)); (function(){function c(){var b=a.contentDocument||a.contentWindow.document;if(b){var d=b.createElement('script');d.innerHTML="window.__CF$cv$params={r:'9febecf36f621640',t:'MTc3OTI4NjIzNA=='};var a=document.createElement('script');a.src='/cdn-cgi/challenge-platform/scripts/jsd/main.js';document.getElementsByTagName('head')[0].appendChild(a);";b.getElementsByTagName('head')[0].appendChild(d)}}if(document.body){var a=document.createElement('iframe');a.height=1;a.width=1;a.style.position='absolute';a.style.top=0;a.style.left=0;a.style.border='none';a.style.visibility='hidden';document.body.appendChild(a);if('loading'!==document.readyState)c();else if(window.addEventListener)document.addEventListener('DOMContentLoaded',c);else{var e=document.onreadystatechange||function(){};document.onreadystatechange=function(b){e(b);'loading'!==document.readyState&&(document.onreadystatechange=e,c())}}}})();