Phytochemical profile and antimicrobial activity of individual frond extracts of Menisorus pauciflorus, Pteris catoptera, Conniogramme africana and Antrophyum mannianum

Phytochemical profile and antimicrobial activity of individual frond extracts of Menisorus pauciflorus, Pteris catoptera, Conniogramme africana and Antrophyum mannianum | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Phytochemical profile and antimicrobial activity of individual frond extracts of Menisorus pauciflorus, Pteris catoptera, Conniogramme africana and Antrophyum mannianum Herbert Nuwamanya, Ben Lukubye, Grace Kagoro-Rugunda, Clement Olusoji Ajayi, and 2 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-5631852/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 8 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Introduction Ferns have potential antimicrobial compounds but are understudied compared to higher plants. This limits our knowledge of their phytochemical composition and antimicrobial properties, despite their traditional use to treat various ailments. Therefore, this study profiled the phytochemical composition and evaluated the antimicrobial activity of four fern species, namely; Menisorus pauciflorus (Hook.) Alston, Pteris catoptera ( Kunze.) , Conniogramme africana (Hieron.) and Antrophyum mannianum (Hook.). Methods Fern fronds were collected from Kalinzu Central Forest Reserve (KCFR), cleaned with distilled water, and dried under shade at room temperature for two weeks. Dry fronds were ground using an electric blender into a powder and extracted by means of infusion and cold maceration, using distilled water and 70% ethanol as extraction solvents, respectively. Preliminary qualitative screening and a UV-VIS-spectrophotometer were used for phytochemical profiling by recording the presence (+) or absence (-) and quantities of the selected phytochemical classes, respectively. The antimicrobial activity (zones of inhibition) was determined by Agar well diffusion assay while the minimum inhibitory concentrations were determined using micro-broth dilution in 96-well microplates. The minimum bactericidal concentrations and minimum fungicidal concentrations were determined by subculturing technique. Results Fernextracts contain various phytochemical compounds, such as phenols, tannins, saponins, anthraquinones, terpenoids, and flavonoids, with phenols being the most abundant. The antimicrobial activity of both water and ethanol extracts was higher against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus and lower against Candida albicans . The antibacterialactivity was generally greater against E. coli than against S. aureus . The ethanolic extract of A. mannianum had the lowest minimum inhibitory concentration (3.91 mg/mL) and minimum bactericidal concentration (7.81 mg/mL) against E. coli . The A. mannianum aqueous and ethanol extracts, and the M. pauciflorus ethanol extract had the lowest minimum fungicidal concentration (125 mg/mL) against C. albicans. The C. africana ethanol extract at various concentrations (1000, 500, 250, and 125 mg/mL), produced larger inhibition zones against S. aureus (up to 32.67 mm) than did ciprofloxacin (20.77 mm). Conclusions All the M. pauciflorus , P. catoptera , C. africana and A. mannianum extracts presentedvariable secondary metabolite contents, but the concentration of phenols was greaterthan that of flavonoids and saponins. The extracts possess antimicrobial bioactive agents but weak activity against E. coli , S. aureus and C. albicans . Ferns Phytochemical profile Antibacterial activity Antifungal activity Ethnomedicinal values Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Background Ferns have a long history of use in traditional medicine across the globe, treating ailments like bacterial, gastrointestinal, renal and diuretic diseases, as well as headaches (Dutta & Hasan, 2023 ). They are also used as food (Giri & Uniyal, 2022 ). However, there is limited scientific understanding of their phytochemical composition and antimicrobial potential. This is largely because phytochemical research has focused more on higher plants, overlooking ferns, yet they contain diverse bioactive compounds (Moussa et al., 2024 ). Studies on specific fern species like Salivinia cucullate (Santhosh et al., 2022 ), Woodwardia unigmmenta (Takuli et al., 2020 ), and Diplazium esculentum (Raina et al., 2023 ) have shown they contain phenols, flavonoids, terpenoids, alkaloids, tannins, and saponins. These phytochemicals are all known for their medicinal properties (Sivaraman et al., 2022 ). While these assessments have been done in other regions, very few have been conducted in Uganda. Majorly, phenols, flavonoids and saponins are linked to antimicrobial properties of ferns (Singha et al., 2023 ). This may explain their traditional use in treating various ailments, though their medicinal value has been superseded by conventional pharmaceutical approaches (Kumar & Kanwar, 2020 ). Currently, ferns have various therapeutic applications but are commonly used in management of the gastrointestinal disorders. Fern genera Adiantum, Asplenium , Dryopteris Diplazium , and Pteris have been commonly utilized in pharmacological applications (Bandyopadhyay & Dey, 2022 ). Determining the antimicrobial activity and phytochemical profile of fern species is critical for the development of monographs to facilitate the incorporation of fern herbal medicine into modern health care systems. With increasing antimicrobial resistance, ferns present a potential source of new antibiotics (Negi & Maurya, 2020 ). Antrophyum mannianum was selected for phytochemical profiling and antimicrobial activity determination because it was cited by respondents around the KCFR to treat ailments such as stomach pains and food poisoning-related infections [Nuwamanya et al. , (2024), Ethnobotanical survey of ferns of Kalinzu Central Forest Reserve, Unpublished manuscript]. Menisorus pauciflorus , Conniogramme africana and Pteris catoptera were selected as representatives of their families, whose antimicrobial properties have been reported in previous studies (Muhammad et al., 2020 ). This study addresses significant gap in literature by focusing on the understudied phytochemical and antimicrobial potential of ferns. This research provides a valuable insight into the potential of M. pauciflorus , P. catoptera , C. africana and A. mannianum as sources of novel antimicrobial compounds, contributing to a broader understanding of the therapeutic potential of ferns and potentially opening avenues for future drug discovery especially against the current increasing global antimicrobial resistance. We hypothesized that the phytochemical profile and antimicrobial activity vary among M. pauciflorus , P. catoptera , C. africana and A. mannianum . The differences in antimicrobial activity and phytochemical profile could be attributed to habitat differences and evolutionary adaptations. Materials and methods Fern material collection area Fern fronds were collected from Kalinzu Central Forest Reserve (KCFR) (Fig. 1 ), a medium-altitude natural tropical rainforest reserve located on the eastern escarpment of the Albertine Rift Valley in western Uganda at latitude 30 o 07'E and longitude 0 o 17'S and is at an average altitude of 700–1840 m above sea level (Howard, 1991 ). Permission to access the KCFR was obtained from the Uganda National Forestry Authority (NFA), under licence number 403. KCFR was purposively selected because it has a variety of habitats, such as areas of dampness, fallen logs, barks of trees, flowing streams and shady areas, which favour the growth of ferns. Plant material collection and identification Menisorus pauciflorus , P. catoptera , C. a fricana , and A. mannianum were identified, and their fronds were collected with the help of a field botanist from KCFR. Confirmation of the identity of fern species was performed by Dr. Eunice A. Olet, a plant taxonomy scientist at Mbarara University of Science and Technology (MUST), before the samples were deposited at the National Herbarium, Makerere University under accession numbers MHU51296, MHU51297, MHU51298 and MHU51295 for M. pauciflorus , P. catoptera , C. africana and A. Mannianum , respectively. Menisorus pauciflorus is a lithophyte belonging to family Thelypteridaceae and grows on stream stones. It has compound-proliferous fronds and erect rhizome. Pteris catoptera is a lithophyte belonging to family Pteridaceae and grows in moderately dry soils. It has compound-gemmiferous fronds and erect rhizome. Conniogramme africana is a lithophyte belonging to family Adiantaceae and grows in water logged soils. It has compound-monomorphic fronds and an erect rhizome. Antrophyum mannianum is an epiphyte belonging to family Adiantaceae always found hanging on trees. It has simple-tufted fronds and a short creeping rhizome. Sample treatment The fronds of M. pauciflorus , P. catoptera , C. africana and A. mannianum were collected, cleaned with distilled water and dried under shade for two weeks. Fronds were chosen for analysis because they are commonly used in herbal preparation (Singh et al., 2021 ). Dry fronds were ground using an electric blender into a powder. Chemicals and reagents Gallic acid of CAS number 5996-86-8 from Loba Chemie PVT, Quercetin of CAS number 117-39-5 from Sigma-Aldrich, and Diosgenin of CAS number orb1304570 from Toronto research chemicals were used for phytochemical quantification. All media (Mueller Hinton Agar, Sabouraud Dextrose Agar, and Brain Heart Infusion) were all purchased from Himedia laboratories, India and used for culturing the microorganisms. Preparation of extracts The dried fronds, were separately crushed into powder using an electric blender at the Pharmaceutical Sciences/Analytical Laboratory, MUST. To prepare ethanol extracts, cold maceration was employed by mixing 250g of powder with 2000 mL of ethanol (70%) for 24 hours. For aqueous extracts, infusion was used by mixing 150g of powder with 1500 mL of distilled water for 50 minutes (Farràs et al., 2022 ). Using a muslin cloth, the extracts were filtered and then re-filtered using Whatman No. 1 filter paper. The filtrates were concentrated using rotary evaporator of (IKA RV10 model) at 40°C and 55°C for ethanol and water extracts, respectively at a pressure of 2 Pa. The concentrated extracts were freeze-dried in a freeze drier at -70°C and 165 mmHg for 24 hours to obtain a final solid (Kashaninejad et al., 2020 ). Water and ethanol were chosen as solvents for extraction because they are commonly used in preparation of extracts from medicinal plants (Abubakar & Haque, 2020 ). Cold maceration and infusion were chosen as extracted methods because they are commonly used extraction methods (Shikov et al., 2022 ). Preliminary phytochemical screening Preliminary phytochemical screening of water and ethanol extracts for phenols, saponins, alkaloids, anthraquinones, terpenoids, flavonoids, steroids, tannins, quinones, triterpenoids, and polyphenols was performed following the standard procedures described by Balamurugan et al. ( 2019 ). This was done by recording a plus (+) and minus (-) whenever the phytochemical present and absent respectively. Phytochemical quantification Total phenolic compounds (TPCs), total flavonoid compounds (TFCs), and total saponin compounds (TSCs) were obtained using an ultraviolet‒visible (UV‒VIS) spectrophotometer (Draw-well model). Determination of total phenolic compounds in fern extracts Total phenolic compounds (TPCs) were determined using the Folin‒Ciocalteu procedure with gallic acid as the calibration standard for phenols (Jakubíková et al., 2022 ). A stock solution of standard garlic acid (1 mg/mL) was prepared with distilled water as the solvent. This stock solution was used to prepare working solutions of garlic acid (10, 20, 40, 80, and 100 µg/mL). A 0.5 mg/mL concentration of each extract was also prepared along with a water blank solution. Two millilitres (2 mL) of sodium carbonate (7.5%) was added to each concentration of gallic acid standard, blank, and extract followed by 2 mL of Folin-Ciocalteu reagent (10%). The samples were then incubated at 40°C in an oven for 30 minutes, after which their absorbances were measured at 760 nm against a blank using a Drawell-model UV‒visible spectrophotometer. A regression model was fitted using the garlic acid concentrations and corresponding absorbance data to obtain a standard calibration curve (y = 0.0154x − 0.0222, R 2 = 0.9981). The curve was used to estimate the phenol concentrations in each extract as the mean of three readings in µg of gallic acid equivalents (GAE) per mg of extract. Determination of total flavonoids in fern extracts Total flavonoid compounds (TFCs) were determined using the aluminum chloride calorimetric method with quercetin acid as the calibration standard for flavonoids (Sapiun et al., 2020 ). A stock solution of standard quercetin (1 mg/mL) was prepared using methanol as the solvent. This solution was used to prepare working solutions of quercetin (10, 20, 40, 80, and 100 µg/mL). A 1 mg/mL concentration of each extract was also prepared separately along with a methanol blank solution. Three (3 ml) of methanol were added separately to each concentration of the quercetin standard, blank, and extract, with agitation. This was followed by the addition of 0.2 mL of aluminum chloride (10%) and 0.2 mL of sodium acetate (1 M), and the volume made up to 10mL with methanol. The samples were then incubated in the dark for 30 minutes, after which their absorbances were measured at 420 nm against a blank using a Drawell-model UV‒visible spectrophotometer. A regression model was fitted using the quercetin concentrations and corresponding absorbance data to generate a standard calibration curve (y = 0.0074x − 0.0187, R 2 = 0.9886). The curve was used to estimate the flavonoid concentrations in each extract estimate the phenol concentrations in each extract and the results expressed as the mean of three readings in µg of quercetin equivalents (QE) per mg of extract. Determination of total saponins in fern extracts Total saponin compounds (TSCs) were determined using the vanillin–sulphuric acid assay with diosgenin as the calibration standard for saponins (Fu Rong et al., 2019 ). A stock solution of standard diosgenin (1 mg/mL) was prepared using distilled water as the solvent and used to prepare working solutions of diosgenin (10, 20, 40, 80, and 100 µg/mL). A 1 mg/mL concentration of each extract was also prepared separately, along with a water blank. For each concentration of diosgenin standard, blank, and extract, 0.5 mL of vanillin solution (8% (w/v)) was added separately, followed by the addition of 5 mL of sulphuric acid (72% (v/v)) and thorough mixing. The samples were then incubated at 60°C in a shaking water bath for 15 minutes, cooled in ice-cold water for 5 minutes and then measured at 550 nm against a blank using a Drawell-model UV‒visible spectrophotometer. A regression model was fitted using diosgenin concentrations and corresponding absorbance data to generate a standard calibration curve (y = 0.0119x + 0.024, R 2 = 0.9751). The curve was used to estimate the concentrations of saponins in each extract as a mean of three readings expressed in µg of diosgenin equivalents (DE) per mg of extract. Antimicrobial activity of fern extracts The antimicrobial activity of water and ethanol extracts from M. pauciflorus , P. catoptera , C. a fricana , and A. mannianum was investigated. The study examined their effectiveness against Standard stock ATCC cultures of Escherichia coli ATCC 25922, Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923, and Candida albicans ATCC 10231. The zones of inhibition (ZOIs), minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs), minimum bactericidal concentrations (MBCs), and minimum fungicidal concentrations (MFCs) were determined (Kamaruddin et al., 2024 ). Standard stock cultures of E. coli , S. aureus , and C. albicans were obtained from the Microbiology Laboratory, Department of Microbiology, MUST. Fresh stock standard cultures were prepared by subculturing standard E. coli and S. aureus separately on freshly prepared Mueller Hinton agar (MHA) at 37°C for 24 hours. Standard C. albicans was subcultured on Sabouraud dextrose agar (SDA) at 37°C for 72 hours. The cultures were then separately transferred into sterilized distilled water in bijou bottles and standardized to the 0.5 McFarland standard for seeding. Brain heart infusion (BHI) broth containing tetrazolium salt indicator was used to determine MIC for all E. coli , S. aureus , and C. albicans . The BHI that was used for C. albicans was enriched with 0.2% glucose. Media and plate preparation Thirty-eight grams (38 g), 65 g, and 37 g of MHA, SDA and BHI respectively were weighed. Then, 1 g of tetrazolium salt indicator was added to BHI. The masses of media were separately added to 1 L of distilled water. The mixture was heated with frequent agitation to dissolution. The medium was then sterilized by autoclaving at 121°C for 15 minutes. After sterilization, the medium was allowed to cool a temperature of 45–50°C before pour plating. This procedure was repeated to prepare BHI enriched with 0.2% glucose. Determination of zones of inhibition of the fern extracts The zones of inhibition of fern extracts were determined using an Agar well diffusion assay (Jafarı-sales & Pashazadeh, 2020 ). Sterile MHA (20 ml) for bacterial culture or SDA for fungal culture was poured into sterile culture plates and allowed to solidify. The 24-hour-old culture of the test microorganism ( E. coli and S. aureus on MHA, and C. albicans on SDA) were spread on to the surface of the respective agar plates using the spread plate technique. Fern extract stock solutions were prepared at 1000 mg/ml, followed by twofold serial dilutions ranging from 500 mg/mL down to 0.49 mg/mL. This procedure was repeated for each extract. Using a sterile micropipette tip (8 mm in diameter), wells were punched into solid culture media. Then, 200 µL of each serially diluted fern extract, ranging in concentration from 1000 mg/mL down to 0.49 mg/mL, were added to separate wells. This was done for both ethanol and aqueous extracts for all the four fern species. For controls, 100 µL of fluconazole (0.2 mg/mL) was added to a well as a positive control for the antifungal activity. Similarly, 100 µL of ciprofloxacin (0.02 mg/mL) was used as a positive control for antibacterial activity. A negative control well with only sterile water and media-only well were included. The plates were incubated at 37°C for 24 hours for E. coli and S. aureus and at 37°C for 72 hours for C. albicans . The diameter of the zone of inhibition on each of the three plate replicates was subsequently measured in millimetres using a transparent ruler. Determination of the minimum inhibitory concentration of the fern extracts The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) was determined using the micro broth dilution assay (Schön et al., 2020 ). Wells of sterile microplate were labelled for fern extract, twofold fern extract dilution series, positive controls, a diluent control, and a media sterility testing control. The fern extract dilution series were prepared using the micro broth dilution technique. Stock solutions for all fern extracts were prepared at 1000 mg/mL using Brain Heart infusion broth containing a tetrazolium salt indicator. One millilitre of brain heart infusion containing tetrazolium salt indicator was placed into sterile Bijou bottles. A stock fern extract solution (1 mL) was added to achieve a concentration of 500 mg/mL. The solution was serially diluted twofold using brain heart infusion broth down up to 0.49 mg/mL. This dilution procedure was repeated for each extract. One hundred microlitres (100 µL) of each extract dilution were then were pipetted into the corresponding dilution wells on the microplate using a micropipette. For controls, 100 µL of sterile water was pipetted into the diluent wells, 100 µL of ciprofloxacin (0.02 mg/mL) was pipetted into the positive control wells for bacteria, and 100 µL of fluconazole (0.2 mg/mL) were pipetted into the positive control wells for fungi. Some wells were left empty for media sterility testing. Finally, 100 µL of standard microbial inoculum (adjusted to the 0.5 McFarland scale using brain heart infusion broth) was added to the fern extract and positive control wells. The microplate was finally covered with sterile aluminium foil to prevent contamination and incubated at 37°C for 24 hours for E. coli and S. aureus and at 37°C for 72 hours for C. albicans . After incubation, the microplates were visually inspected for microbial growth by observing the colour change. The lowest concentration whose colour did not change to purple was noted as the MIC. Determination of the minimum bactericidal concentration and the minimum fungicidal concentration The minimum bactericidal concentrations (MBCs) and minimum fungicidal concentrations (MFCs) were determined by subculturing the bacterial and fungal inocula from each microplate well, which showed no color change (Faujdar et al., 2020 ). The bacterial and fungal inocula were streaked over the surface of freshly prepared plates of sterile MHA for bacteria and sterile SDA for fungi. These plates containing subcultures were then incubated at 37°C for 24 hours for E. coli and S. aureus and 37°C for 72 hours for C. albicans . The lowest concentration of the fern extracts that yield no colonies on the MHA after 24 hours was taken as the MBC. The lowest concentration of the fern extracts that did yielded no colonies on the SDA after 72 hours was taken as the MFC. Data analysis The quantity of phytochemicals and antimicrobial activity of the different fern extracts were compared using one-way ANOVA. Tukey’s post hoc test was used for pairwise comparisons of the zones of inhibition and quantities of different phytochemicals in different extraction solvents. All the statistical tests were performed at the 5% level of significance in Minitab version 20. Results Percentage yield extract of the fern species Water was more effective than ethanol at extracting phytochemical compounds from all the fern species studied. Antrophyum mannianum yielded the highest percentage of extract using water, 23.37%, whereas M. pauciflorus produced the lowest yield, 5.57% (Fig. 2 ). Preliminary phytochemical screening of different fern extracts A Qualitative screening of fern extracts revealed a wide range of phytochemical groups, including; phenols, saponins, polyphenols, flavonoids, tannins, steroids, alkaloids, quinones, anthraquinones, steroids, triterpenoids, and terpenoids (Table 1 ). The presence of these compounds varied among the different fern species and extraction solvents used. In general, phenols, flavonoids, saponins and polyphenols were consistently found in all the extracts. Steroids were only detected in ethanol extract of M. pauciflorus . Table 1 Phytochemical composition of fern extracts Extract Compound M.P(aq) M.P(eth) P.C(aq) P.C(eth) C.A(aq) C.A(eth) A.M(aq) A.M (eth) Flavonoids + + + + + + + + Saponins + + + + + + + + Tannins + + + + + - + + Steroids - + - - - - - - Quinones + + + - + - - - Anthraquinones + + + + - - + + Alkaloids + + + + - + + + Terpenoids - - - - - + + - Triterpenoids - - - - - + + - Phenols + + + + + + + + Polyphenols + + + + + + + + +: Present, -: Absent, M.P(aq): Menisorus pauciflorus aqueous extract, M.P(eth): Menisorus pauciflorus ethanol extract, P.C(aq): Pteris catoptera aqueous extract, P.C(eth): Pteris catoptera ethanol C.A(aq): Conniogramme africana aqueous extract, C.A(eth): Conniogramme africana ethanol extract, A.M(aq): Antrophyum mannianum aqueous extract, A.M(eth): Antrophyum mannianum ethanol extract Phytochemical quantification The concentration of phenols was generally higher than that of flavonoids or saponins in the fern extracts analysed (Table 2 ). Water was more effective at extracting phenols, while ethanol was better for flavonoids and saponins. Specifically, the highest phenol concentration was found in the M. pauciflorus aqueous extract (90.242 ± 0.070 µg/mg), and lowest in the C. africana ethanol extract (35.784 ± 0.150 µg/mg). The highest flavonoid and saponin concentrations were both found in the M. pauciflorus ethanol extract (35.455 ± 0.206 µg/mg and 11.821 ± 0.175 µg/mg respectively) and lowest in the P. catoptera aqueous extract (4.104 ± 0.156 µg/mg), while the lowest saponin concentration was in the M. pauciflorus aqueous extract (0.392 ± 0.0485 µg/mg). There was a statistically significant difference in the concentrations of phenols, flavonoids, and saponins among all the fern extracts analysed (p < 0.0001). Table 2 Quantity of phenols, flavonoids and saponins in fern extracts Extract Phenols (µg/mg) Flavonoids(µg/mg) Saponins(µg/mg) M.P (aq) 90.242 ± 0.075 a 7.122 ± 0.1350 e 0.392 ± 0.0485 f M.P(eth) 57.515 ± 0.150 d 35.455 ± 0.206 a 11.821 ± 0.1750 a P.C(aq) 55.654 ± 0.075 e 4.104 ± 0.156 g 6.387 ± 0.1456 d P.C(eth) 43.100 ± 0.492 f 35.005 ± 0.078 b 11.653 ± 0.257 a C.A(aq) 39.593 ± 0.075 g 3.203 ± 0.000 h 1.541 ± 0.194 e C.A(eth) 35.784 ± 0.150 h 6.0405 ± 0.000 f 7.563 ± 0.222 c A.M(aq) 58.554 ± 0.270 c 10.140 ± 0.078 d 8.123 ± 0.194 b A.M(eth) 62.753 ± 0.344 b 13.698 ± 0.078 c 11.345 ± 0.146 a M.P(aq): Menisorus pauciflorus aqueous extract, M.P(eth): Menisorus pauciflorus ethanol extract, P.C(aq): Pteris catoptera aqueous extract, P.C(eth): Pteris catoptera ethanol C.A(aq): Conniogramme africana aqueous extract, C.A(eth): Conniogramme africana ethanol extract, A.M(aq): Antrophyum mannianum aqueous extract, A.M(eth): Antrophyum mannianum ethanol extract In columns, means that do not share a letter are significantly different Antimicrobial activity of different fern extracts Mean Zones of Inhibition (ZOIs) Both aqueous and ethanol extracts of ferns showed antimicrobial activity against S. aureus , E. coli and C. albicans . Ethanol extracts generally exhibited larger zones of inhibition than aqueous extracts, indicating greater antimicrobial activity. Antimicrobial activity was stronger against bacteria ( S. aureus and E. coli ) than against fungi ( C. albicans ). Among the bacteria, E. coli was more susceptible than S. aureus . The zones of inhibition for all the extracts against all the microorganisms decreased with decreasing extract concentration. At concentrations of 1000, 500, 250, 125, 62.5, and 31.25 mg/mL, the C. africana ethanol extract showed the highest zones of inhibition against S. aureus (32.67 ± 0.58, 31.00 ± 1.00, 28.67 ± 0.58, 25.33 ± 0.58, 20.00 ± 0.00, and 15.03 ± 0.95 mm), followed by the C. africana aqueous extract (25,33 ± 0.58, 23.33 ± 0.58, 21.00 ± 1.00, 18.33 ± 0.58, 16.67 ± 0.58, and 15.00 ± 0.00 mm). Pteris catoptera ethanol extract had the lowest zones of inhibition (18.33 ± 0.58, 16.67 ± 0.58, 14.33 ± 0.58, 10.00 ± 1.00, 7.20 ± 0.27, and 3.13 ± 0.15 mm) at these concentrations (Table 3 ). Interestingly, the C. africana ethanol extract at various concentrations (1000, 500, 250, and 125 mg/mL) had significantly greater zones of inhibition (32.67 ± 0.58, 31.00 ± 1.00, 28.67 ± 0.58, and 25.33 ± 0.58 mm, respectively) against S. aureus than did the conventional drug, 0.02 mg/mL ciprofloxacin (20.77 ± 0.21 mm). Against E . coli A. mannianum ethanol extract exhibited highest zones of inhibition (35.67 ± 0.58 to 13 ± 0.15 mm) at concentrations 1000 − 0.49 mg/mL, followed by the C. africana ethanol extract (30.33 ± 0.58 to 1.53 ± 0.42 mm), while the P. catoptera ethanol extract had the lowest (Table 4 ). For C. albicans , the C. africana ethanol extract showed the highest zones of inhibition (20.67 ± 0.58 to 3.63 ± 0.15 mm) at concentrations 1000–0.98 mg/mL, followed by the M. pauciflorus aqueous extract (16.00 ± 0.00 to 0.00 mm). The Antrophyum mannianum aqueous extract had no activity against C. albicans at these concentrations (Table 5 ). There was a statistically significant difference in the zones of inhibition of different fern extracts against S. aureus , E. coli and C. albicans (p < 0.0001). Table 3 Mean zones of inhibition of each fern extract against Staphylococcus aureus Mean zone of inhibition) ± SD (mm) Extract 1000 500 250 125 62.5 31.25 15.63 7.81 3.91 1.95 0.98 0.49 Ciprofloxacin M.P(aq) 20.00 ± 1.00 de 18.00 ± 0.00 de 15.33 ± 0.58 c 13.00 ± 0.00 cd 11.67 ± 0.58 de 9.60 ± 0.53 c 6.77 ± 0.25 c 4.40 ± 0.69 c 0 0 0 0 31.78 ± 0.36 M.P(eth) 19.33 ± 0.58 de 16.00 ± 0.00 f 14.33 ± 0.58 c 12.33 ± 0.58 d 10.67 ± 0.58 e 8.27 ± 0.25 d 4.23 ± 0.25 e 0 0 0 0 0 25.90 ± 0.17 P.C(aq) 21.00 ± 1.00 cd 17.67 ± 0.58 de 16.00 ± 1.00 c 12.67 ± 0.58 cd 12.00 ± 0.00 d 7.63 ± 0.32 d 5.43 ± 0.31 d 0 0 0 0 0 37.17 ± 1.04 P.C(eth) 18.33 ± 0.58 e 16.67 ± 0.58 ef 14.33 ± 0.58 c 10.00 ± 1.00 e 7.20 ± 0.27 f 3.13 ± 0.15 e 0 0 0 0 0 0 29.00 ± 1.00 C.A(aq) 25.33 ± 0.58 b 23.33 ± 0.58 b 21.00 ± 1.00 b 18.33 ± 0.58 b 16.67 ± 0.58 b 15.00 ± 0.00 a 12.43 ± 0.60 a 8.97 ± 0.35 b 4.300 ± 0.36 c 2.63 ± 0.47 a 1.20 ± 0.200 a 0 20.00 ± 0.00 C.A(eth) 32.67 ± 0.58 a 31.00 ± 1.00 a 28.67 ± 0.58 a 25.33 ± 0.58 a 20.00 ± 0.00 a 15.03 ± 0.95 a 11.43 ± 0.51 ab 10.10 ± 0.17 a 5.07 ± 0.67 bc 1.90 ± 1.67 a 1.17 ± 1.01 a 0 20.77 ± 0.21 A.M(aq) 20.00 ± 0.00 de 18.33 ± 0.58 d 15.33 ± 0.58 c 14.00 ± 0.00 c 13.33 ± 0.58 c 12.67 ± 0.58 b 11.33 ± 0.58 ab 8.70 ± 0.27 b 5.23 ± 0.21 b 0 0 0 28.00 ± 0.00 A.M(eth) 22.00 ± 0.00 c 20.33 ± 0.58 c 19.33 ± 0.58 b 18.33 ± 0.58 b 16.00 ± 0.00 b 13.00 ± 0.00 b 11.27 ± 0.25 b 9.83 ± 0.21 a 7.030 ± 0.25 a 0 0 0 29.83 ± 0.21 In columns, means that do not share a letter are significantly different M.P(aq): Menisorus pauciflorus aqueous extract, M.P(eth): Menisorus pauciflorus ethanol extract, P.C(aq): Pteris catoptera aqueous extract, P.C(eth): Pteris catoptera ethanol C.A(aq): Conniogramme africana aqueous extract, C.A(eth): Conniogramme africana ethanol extract, A.M(aq): Antrophyum mannianum aqueous extract, A.M(eth): Antrophyum mannianum ethanol extract Table 4: Mean zones of inhibition of each fern extract against Escherichia coli Mean zone of inhibition) ± SD (mm) Extract 1000 500 250 125 62.5 31.25 15.63 7.81 3.91 1.95 0.98 0.49 Ciprofloxacin M.P(aq) 15.33 ± 0.58 e 14.00 ± 0.00 d 12.00 ± 0.00 d 9.67 ± 0.58 de 4.63 ± 0.351 f 2.93 ± 0.12 e 1.43 ± 0.25 f 0 0 0 0 0 26.83 ± 0.76 M.P(eth) 18.33 ± 0.58 d 15.00 ± 0.00 d 12.33 ± 0.58 d 10.00 ± 0.00 de 7.33 ± 0.42d e 4.87 ± 0.32 d 3.93 ± 0.38 e 3.27 ± 0.25 d 1.93 ± 0.15 d 0 0 0 31.57 ± 0.25 P.C(aq) 16.00 ± 1.00 e 11.67 ± 0.58 e 10.00 ± 0.00 e 8.67 ± 0.58 e 6.70 ± 0.61 e 4.60 ± 0.20 d 3.10 ± 0.10 e 0 0 0 0 0 34.37 ± 0.55 P.C(eth) 15.33 ± 0.58 e 14.00 ± 0.00 d 12.33 ± 0.58 d 11.03 ± 0.45 d 8.47 ± 0.42 d 2.50 ± 0.10 e 0 0 0 0 0 0 33.77 ± 0.68 C.A(aq) 30.33 ± 0.58 b 28.67 ± 0.58 b 25.33 ± 0.58 b 21.33 ± 0.58 b 19.00 ± 0.00 e 17.33 ± 0.58 b 15.00 ± 0.00 b 12.30 ± 0.61 b 8.63 ± 0.55 b 4.87 ± 0.15 b 2.13 ± 0.15 b 0 30.40 ± 0.69 C.A(eth) 30.33 ± 0.58 b 28.33 ± 0.58 b 25.33 ± 0.58 b 20.67 ± 0.58 b 19.67 ± 0.58 b 16.10 ± 1.11 b 13.17 ± 0.57 c 8.67 ± 0.58 c 4.67 ± 0.31 c 3.10 ± 0.1 c 1.53 ± 0.42 c 0 39.93 ± 0.12 A.M(aq) 21.00 ± 1.00 c 19.33 ± 0.58 c 17.00 ± 0.00 c 16.00 ± 0.00 c 12.333 ± 0.12 c 8.67 ± 0.58 c 6.50 ± 0.50 d 2.83 ± 0.29 d 1.90 ± 0.100 d 0 0 0 40.53 ± 0.50 A.M(eth) 35.67 ± 0.58 a 33.73 ± 1.10 a 30.83 ± 0.76 a 28.67 ± 0.58 a 27.93 ± 0.12 a 25.33 ± 0.58 a 22.57 ± 0.98 a 18.60 ± 0.53 a 16.67 ± 0.58 a 12.50 ± 0.50 a 9.83 ± 0.29 a 5.13 ± 0.15 a 45.00 ± 0.00 In columns, means that do not share a letter are significantly different M.P(aq): Menisorus pauciflorus aqueous extract, M.P(eth): Menisorus pauciflorus ethanol extract, P.C(aq): Pteris catoptera aqueous extract, P.C(eth): Pteris catoptera ethanol C.A(aq): Conniogramme africana aqueous extract, C.A(eth): Conniogramme africana ethanol extract, A.M(aq): Antrophyum mannianum aqueous extract, A.M(eth): Antrophyum mannianum ethanol extract Table 5 : Mean zones of inhibition of each fern extract against Candida albicans Mean Zone of inhibition) ± SD (mm) Extract 1000 500 250 125 62.5 31.25 15.63 7.81 3.91 1.95 0.98 0.49 Fluconazole M.P(aq) 16.00 ± 0.00b c 14.00 ± 0.00 b 12.00 ± 1.00 bc 7.73 ± 0.68 b 5.63 ± 0.78 d 3.27 ± 0.25 b 1.90 ± 0.10 b 0 0 0 0 0 27.83 ± 0.76 M.P(eth) 15.67 ± 0.58 c 13.67 ± 0.58 bc 12.00 ± 0.00 bc 9.47 ± 0.50 ab 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 28.10 ± 0.27 P.C(aq) 15.67 ± 0.58b c 14.67 ± 0.58 b 12.33 ± 0.58 b 6.67 ± 0.58 b 8.93 ± 0.12 b 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 25.60 ± 0.70 P.C(eth) 15.67 ± 0.58 bc 14.33 ± 0.58 b 12.67 ± 0.58 b 8.80 ± 0.27 b 7.23 ± 0.21 c 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 26.00 ± 1.00 C.A(aq) 17.33 ± 0.58 a 12.33 ± 0.58 d 10.23 ± 0.68 d 8.27 ± 0.55 b 4.43 ± 0.40 a 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 20.30 ± 0.52 C.A(eth) 20.67 ± 0.58 b 18.00 ± 0.00 a 16.33 ± 0.58 a 15.33 ± 0.58 a 15.00 ± 0.00 e 13.67 ± 0.58 a 13.00 ± 0.00 a 12.33 ± 0.58 a 10.67 ± 0.58 a 7.77 ± 0.25 a 3.63 ± 0.15 a 0 35.00 ± 0.00 A.M(aq) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 31.87 ± 0.23 A.M(eth) 15.33 ± 0.58 c 12.67 ± 0.58 cd 10.50 ± 0.50 cd 8.80 ± 0.20 b 0 0 0 0 0 35.60 ± 0.70 In columns, means that do not share a letter are significantly different M.P(aq): Menisorus pauciflorus aqueous extract, M.P(eth): Menisorus pauciflorus ethanol extract, P.C(aq): Pteris catoptera aqueous extract, P.C(eth): Pteris catoptera ethanol C.A(aq): Conniogramme africana aqueous extract, C.A(eth): Conniogramme africana ethanol extract, A.M(aq): Antrophyum mannianum aqueous extract, A.M(eth): Antrophyum mannianum ethanol extract Minimum inhibitory, bactericidal and fungicidal concentrations Ethanol extracts generally showed lower minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) than aqueous extracts, indicating they are more potent. Specifically, M. pauciflorus and A. mannianum ethanol and aqueous the lowest MICs (62.5 mg/mL) against S. aureus (Table 6 ), suggesting high susceptibility of S. aureus to these extracts. The ethanol extract of A. mannianum was particularly effective against E. coli (3.91 mg/mL), though lower than the antibiotic ciprofloxacin (0.16 µg/ml). However, the aqueous extracts of M. pauciflorus and P. catoptera only exhibited bacteriostatic with no bactericidal activity against S. aureus . The water and ethanol extracts of M. pauciflorus and C. africana exhibited the lowest MICs for C. albicans (250 mg/mL), indicating high susceptibility of C. albicans to these extracts. The M. pauciflorus ethanol extract the strongest bactericidal activity (62.5 mg/mL) against S. aureus , while A. mannianum ethanol extract had the strongest bactericidal activity (7.81 mg/mL) against E. coli , indicating strong antibacterial activity. The ethanol extracts of Menisorus pauciflorus and A. mannianum had the strongest fungicidal effect (125 mg/mL) against against C. albicans , suggesting strong antifungal activity. However, all the fern extracts tested were less effective against S. aureus , E . coli , and C. albicans than standard antibiotics ciprofloxacin fluconazole. Table 6 Minimum inhibitory concentration, Minimum bactericidal concentration and Minimum fungicidal concentration of each fern extract against each test microorganism MIC (mg/mL) MBC/MFC (mg/ML) Extract S. aureus E. coli C. albicans S. aureus E. coli C. albicans M.P (aq) 62.5 125 250 N/A 500 500 M.P(eth) 62.5 125 250 62.5 62.5 125 P.C(aq) 500 250 1000 N/A 250 250 P.C(eth) 250 125 250 500 500 500 C.A(aq) 250 62.5 250 500 250 500 C.A(eth) 125 250 250 500 500 500 A.M(aq) 62.5 62.5 500 500 62.2 125 A.M(eth) 62.5 3.91 500 500 7.81 125 Ciprofloxacin 0.31 0.16 N/A 0.63 0.31 N/A Fluconazole N/A N/A 2.50 N/A N/A 5.00 M.P(aq): Menisorus pauciflorus aqueous extract, M.P(eth): Menisorus pauciflorus ethanol extract, P.C(aq): Pteris catoptera aqueous extract, P.C(eth): Pteris catoptera ethanol C.A(aq): Conniogramme africana aqueous extract, C.A(eth): Conniogramme africana ethanol extract, A.M(aq): Antrophyum mannianum aqueous extract, A.M(eth): Antrophyum mannianum ethanol extract Discussion Water consistently showed higher yields than ethanol. This may be attributed to higher polarity of water, which is a better solvent for extracting the polar phytochemicals from ferns. The high diversity of polar phytochemicals in ferns (Marimuthu et al., 2022 ), combined with their high affinity for water, explains the higher yields observed with aqueous extraction. This also supports the traditional use of water as an extraction solvent in herbal medicine preparation. However, other factors like extraction method and temperature, could have affected the yield (Tourabi et al., 2023 ). The presence of diverse phytochemical groups (phenols, saponins, polyphenols, flavonoids, tannins, steroids, alkaloids, quinones, anthraquinones, steroids, triterpenoids, and terpenoids) in extracts confirms the rich chemical diversity of phytochemicals in ferns. Variations in these compounds across different extracts are attributed to the difference in fern species and the polarity of extraction solvents. The presence of polar phytochemical groups such as phenols, flavonoids, saponins and polyphenols in these extracts shows that polar solvents extract polar compounds. This aligns with the previous research on Pteris quadriaurita extracts (Thomas, 2011 ), which found out that polar solvents (water, methanol and acetone) unlike non polar petroleum ether extracted phenols. Our study highlights that solvent polarity significantly impacts the quantity of extracted phytochemicals. Specifically, ethanol extracts more flavonoids and saponins, while water extracts more phenols. The high concentration of phenols, including related compounds like polyphenols, anthracenes and flavonoids, is a common feature in ferns, as supported by the previous study on Asplenium ceterach (Živković et al., 2017 ). The high concentration of phenols in all fern extracts could be because many phytochemical components in ferns are phenolic, including phenolic derivatives such as polyphenols, anthracenes and flavonoids. Similar studies have reported the prominence of phenols and polyphenols among fern species (Sureshkumar & Ayyanar, 2022 ). The fern extracts showed higher concentrations of key phytochemicals (phenols, flavonoids, and saponins) compared to extracts from common higher plants, as supported by the findings of Lee et al. ( 2011 ), who recorded low concentrations of these in phytochemicals in soya and mung beans. This suggests that ferns are a rich source of antimicrobial compounds that could be valuable for developing new drugs to combat antimicrobial resistance. The antimicrobial activity of fern extracts against S. aureus , E. coli and C. albicans is attributed to a variety of phytochemicals present, including phenols, flavonoids, saponins, tannins, and alkaloids, which are capable of inhibiting the growth of the tested microorganisms (Ahmed et al., 2024 ). The differences in the activity of the fern extracts against different test microorganisms are likely due to varying concentrations of these secondary metabolites in the extracts. The ethanol extracts generally showed stronger antimicrobial activity than aqueous extracts, possibly due to higher concentrations of flavonoid and saponins. The fern extracts are generally more effective against bacteria than fungi, which aligns with the findings form the study on Adiantum capillus-veneris and Adiantum incisum (Hassan et al., 2025 ). The higher antibacterial activity is attributed to flavonoids and polyphenols, which target bacterial cell walls and interrupt intracellular functions (Lobiuc et al., 2023 ). This can be through interfering with the intracellular constituents like proteins, nucleotides, enzymes, and metabolite disruption which impedes bacterial cell functioning (Bhattarai & Kunwar, 2022 ). It is possible that these phytochemical compounds are specific to bacteria than they are to fungi hence very weak antifungal activity. The lower antifungal activity against C. albicans is not surprising, as fern extracts normally have lower antifungal activities (Ramya et al., 2021 ). The less effectiveness of the fern extracts against C. albicans agree with the findings of Mehta et al. ( 2020 ), who reported low antifungal effects of oils from Eucalyptus species, Aloe vera , Mentna and Nerium species against C. albicans. However, the extracts are more effective against E. coli than for S. aureus , suggesting potential for developing fern based antimicrobial agents specifically against E. coli . This contrasts with the general trend where plant extracts are generally more effective against S. aureus than for E. coli (Ramya et al., 2021 ). The antimicrobial activity of extracts depends on their chemical composition (Afqir et al., 2024 ), suggesting that the analysed extracts contain phytochemicals that are more effective at destabilizing the gram negative cell walls ( E. coli ) than gram positive cell walls ( S. aureus ). The ethanol extract of A. mannianum was effective against E. coli all concentrations, likely due to high concentration of phenols, saponins, and flavonoids, which are the key antibacterial agents of fern (Hassan et al., 2025 ). However, the aqueous extract of A. mannianum showed no antifungal activity against C. albicans , potentially due to low concentration of key phytochemicals. In contrast, ethanol extracts generally exhibited stronger antimicrobial activity against S. aureus , E. coli and C. albicans . This is attributed to ethanol’s moderate polarity, which allows it to extract a wider range of phytochemicals, including the less polar ones, compared to water’s high polarity. The antimicrobial activity of the ethanol fern extracts was generally greater than that of the aqueous extracts against all the tested microorganisms. The ethanol extracts of M. pauciflorus , P. catoptera , C. africana , and A. mannianum showed strong antimicrobial activity due to possession of diverse phytochemicals. Conniogramme africana ethanol extract was particularly effective against S. aureus surpassing the efficacy of the tested drug (ciprofloxacin), likely due to high diversity of phenols that disrupt bacterial DNA replication and enzyme production according to the findings of Lobiuc et al. ( 2023 ). This suggests that the C. africana ethanol extract has potential as natural antimicrobial agent, especially against S. aureus . Conclusions Water generally extracted more diverse phytochemicals from M. Pauciflorus , P. Catoptera , C. africana , and A. mannianum . The concentration of total phenolic compounds (TPCSs) in M. Pauciflorus , P. catoptera , C. africana , and A. mannianum were greater than those of flavonoids and saponins. Conniogramme africana ethanol extract registered a high antimicrobial activity against S. aureus at concentrations of 1000–31.25 mg/mL and should therefore be further investigated for the development of novel antibiotic products to curb down the current global antimicrobial resistance. More studies profiling the phytochemical composition of more fern species and their antimicrobial activity are recommended. Additionally, further research should investigate specific active compounds, mechanisms of action, toxicity, activity of the fern extracts against drug resistant strains, and potential synergistic effects with existing drugs. Abbreviations ANOVA Analysis of Variance aq Aqueous ATCC American Type Culture Collection DE Diosgenin equivalents eth Ethanol GAE Gallic acid equivalents KCFR Kalinzu Central Forest Reserve QE Quercetin equivalents MBC Minimum Bactericidal Concentration MFC Minimum Fungicidal Concentration MHA Mueller Hinton Agar MIC Minimum Inhibitory Concentration mL Millitres MUST Mbarara University of Science and Technology NFA National Forestry Authority REC Research Ethics Committee SDA Sabouraund Dextrose Agar TFCs Total flavonoid compounds TPCs Total phenolic compounds TSCs Total saponin compounds UV Ultraviolet VIS Visible and ZOI Zone Of Inhibition. Declarations Ethics, approval and consent to participate This research study was approved by the National Forestry Authority (NFA) under reference number 403 and the Mbarara University Research Ethics Committee (MUST-REC) under reference number MUST-2024-1326. Consent for publication Not applicable Availability of data and material The datasets used and analysed in this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Funding This study was funded by DAAD (German Academic Exchange Service) under funding Programme, In-Country/In-Region Scholarship Programme - Uganda, MUST Natural Resources - Master, 2023 (57667598) and personal number, 91871155. Authors' contributions HN: Data curation, formal analysis, investigation, methodology, project administration, visualization, writing of the original draft, review & editing. RW, GKR, EO, COA and BL: Supervised the study, read all the drafts and approved the final version of the manuscript for publication. Acknowledgements We acknowledge and thank the National Forestry Authority (NFA) and the management of the Kalinzu central forest reserve (KCFR) for their permission and support during the collection of the fern samples. With great pleasure, we acknowledge the Departments of Biology and Pharmacy, MUST, for providing the laboratories and all the technical guidance during the conduct of this study. Finally, we thank Mr. James Mwesigye and Mr. Christopher Ainebyona for their support during laboratory and field work, respectively. References Abubakar, A. R., & Haque, M. (2020). Preparation of medicinal plants: Basic extraction and fractionation procedures for experimental purposes. 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Singha, S., Nath, R., Das, S., Kityania, S., Talukdar, A. D., & Nath, D. (2023). Phytochemicals and their bioactivity from plants of Dryopteridaceae family. In Bioactive Compounds in Bryophytes and Pteridophytes (pp. 443-460). Springer. Sivaraman, A., Shivananthini, B., & Paulraj, K. (2022). Phytochemistry of Indian Pteridophytes. Ferns: Biotechnology, Propagation, Medicinal Uses and Environmental Regulation , 433. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-6170-9_19 Sureshkumar, J., & Ayyanar, M. (2022). Phytochemical composition and in vitro antioxidant and antidiabetic activities of Nephrolepis auriculata (L.) Trimen: An unexplored ethnomedicinal fern. In Ferns: Biotechnology, Propagation, Medicinal Uses and Environmental Regulation (pp. 571-584). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-6170-9 Takuli, P., Khulbe, K., Kumar, P., Parki, A., Syed, A., & Elgorban, A. M. (2020). Phytochemical profiling, antioxidant and antibacterial efficacy of a native Himalayan Fern: Woodwardia unigemmata (Makino) Nakai. Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences , 27 (8), 1961-1967. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sjbs.2020.06.006 Thomas, T. (2011). Preliminary antibacterial evaluation of fronds of Pteris quadriaurita Retz. towards bacteria involved in dermatological diseases. Journal of Applied Pharmaceutical Science (Issue), 214-216. Tourabi, M., Metouekel, A., Ghouizi, A. E., Jeddi, M., Nouioura, G., Laaroussi, H., Hosen, M. E., Benbrahim, K. F., Bourhia, M., & Salamatullah, A. M. (2023). Efficacy of various extracting solvents on phytochemical composition, and biological properties of Mentha longifolia L. leaf extracts. Scientific Reports , 13 (1), 18028. Živković, S., Skorić, M., Šiler, B., Dmitrović, S., Filipović, B., Nikolić, T., & Mišić, D. (2017). Phytochemical characterization and antioxidant potential of rustyback fern ( Asplenium ceterach L.). Lekovite sirovine , 37 , 15-20. https://doi.org/10.5937/leksir1737015Z Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 14 May, 2025 Reviews received at journal 13 May, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 03 May, 2025 Reviews received at journal 29 Apr, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 29 Apr, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 28 Apr, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 28 Apr, 2025 First submitted to journal 21 Apr, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-5631852","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":449056945,"identity":"5175536d-082e-4d30-854a-f741480b042d","order_by":0,"name":"Herbert Nuwamanya","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA+klEQVRIiWNgGAWjYFADCQYGZgYGGyCLsfEAKVrSQFoaSNJyGMzGq8VcIsfw042aO4n9s5uPfS74c95ubfthoC01NtG4tFjOyDGWzjn2LHHGnWPJs2e23U7ediYRqOVYWm4DDi0GN3I3SOewHU5suJFjzMzbcDvZ7ABQC2PDYXxaNv/O+Xc4cf6N/M/MPH/OJZudf0hQyzbp3LbDiRtu5DAz87AdsDO7QciWM++/Wef2HTbeeCPNmHlmW3KC2Q2gLQn4/HI8Lfl2zrfDsvNuJD9mLvhjZ292Pv3hgw81Nji1wIAjTEEimJFAQDkI2GMwRsEoGAWjYBTAAAAnSWuxDrtaSQAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"Mbarara University of Science and Technology","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Herbert","middleName":"","lastName":"Nuwamanya","suffix":""},{"id":449056946,"identity":"7f80b28a-04e1-4ae0-83f4-c315542071a7","order_by":1,"name":"Ben Lukubye","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Mbarara University of Science and Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ben","middleName":"","lastName":"Lukubye","suffix":""},{"id":449056947,"identity":"fb451aaf-27f1-4843-903e-e70f1e00468c","order_by":2,"name":"Grace Kagoro-Rugunda","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Mbarara University of Science and Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Grace","middleName":"","lastName":"Kagoro-Rugunda","suffix":""},{"id":449056948,"identity":"3aa13e53-78ea-478e-b1f1-dd835b3455ee","order_by":3,"name":"Clement Olusoji Ajayi","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Mbarara University of Science and Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Clement","middleName":"Olusoji","lastName":"Ajayi","suffix":""},{"id":449056949,"identity":"03f05b5d-0d47-4749-83b5-d88b1da22ef5","order_by":4,"name":"Raphael Wangalwa","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Mbarara University of Science and Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Raphael","middleName":"","lastName":"Wangalwa","suffix":""},{"id":449056950,"identity":"5d816b5c-a8eb-4b06-94fb-137394b9cf24","order_by":5,"name":"Eunice Apio Olet","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Mbarara University of Science and Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Eunice","middleName":"Apio","lastName":"Olet","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-12-12 13:08:29","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5631852/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5631852/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":81621272,"identity":"1e976d3a-438a-4d04-b5bb-6a95e0447d7e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-29 09:18:38","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":266890,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMap of Uganda showing the location of Kalinzu Central Forest Reserve and fern sample collection sites\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5631852/v1/273d123f65aebd89cfa548fc.png"},{"id":81621249,"identity":"31d1f7aa-3ed1-400f-a6cc-802a48d30778","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-29 09:18:36","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":44101,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePercentage yield of fern extracts\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5631852/v1/acc9abd5c4b6e53faa5623b5.png"},{"id":81623243,"identity":"3d429730-e5e0-450c-a5a2-3c25855f345d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-29 09:42:42","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2038425,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5631852/v1/b7f6463f-e2d5-4333-89ee-0158e4388323.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Phytochemical profile and antimicrobial activity of individual frond extracts of Menisorus pauciflorus, Pteris catoptera, Conniogramme africana and Antrophyum mannianum","fulltext":[{"header":"Background","content":"\u003cp\u003eFerns have a long history of use in traditional medicine across the globe, treating ailments like bacterial, gastrointestinal, renal and diuretic diseases, as well as headaches (Dutta \u0026amp; Hasan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). They are also used as food (Giri \u0026amp; Uniyal, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). However, there is limited scientific understanding of their phytochemical composition and antimicrobial potential. This is largely because phytochemical research has focused more on higher plants, overlooking ferns, yet they contain diverse bioactive compounds (Moussa et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Studies on specific fern species like \u003cem\u003eSalivinia cucullate\u003c/em\u003e (Santhosh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), \u003cem\u003eWoodwardia unigmmenta\u003c/em\u003e (Takuli et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), and \u003cem\u003eDiplazium esculentum\u003c/em\u003e (Raina et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) have shown they contain phenols, flavonoids, terpenoids, alkaloids, tannins, and saponins. These phytochemicals are all known for their medicinal properties (Sivaraman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). While these assessments have been done in other regions, very few have been conducted in Uganda. Majorly, phenols, flavonoids and saponins are linked to antimicrobial properties of ferns (Singha et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). This may explain their traditional use in treating various ailments, though their medicinal value has been superseded by conventional pharmaceutical approaches (Kumar \u0026amp; Kanwar, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Currently, ferns have various therapeutic applications but are commonly used in management of the gastrointestinal disorders. Fern genera \u003cem\u003eAdiantum, Asplenium\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eDryopteris Diplazium\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003ePteris\u003c/em\u003e have been commonly utilized in pharmacological applications (Bandyopadhyay \u0026amp; Dey, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Determining the antimicrobial activity and phytochemical profile of fern species is critical for the development of monographs to facilitate the incorporation of fern herbal medicine into modern health care systems. With increasing antimicrobial resistance, ferns present a potential source of new antibiotics (Negi \u0026amp; Maurya, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). \u003cem\u003eAntrophyum mannianum\u003c/em\u003e was selected for phytochemical profiling and antimicrobial activity determination because it was cited by respondents around the KCFR to treat ailments such as stomach pains and food poisoning-related infections [Nuwamanya \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e, (2024), Ethnobotanical survey of ferns of Kalinzu Central Forest Reserve, Unpublished manuscript]. \u003cem\u003eMenisorus pauciflorus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eConniogramme africana\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003ePteris catoptera\u003c/em\u003e were selected as representatives of their families, whose antimicrobial properties have been reported in previous studies (Muhammad et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). This study addresses significant gap in literature by focusing on the understudied phytochemical and antimicrobial potential of ferns. This research provides a valuable insight into the potential of \u003cem\u003eM. pauciflorus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eP. catoptera\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eC. africana\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eA. mannianum\u003c/em\u003e as sources of novel antimicrobial compounds, contributing to a broader understanding of the therapeutic potential of ferns and potentially opening avenues for future drug discovery especially against the current increasing global antimicrobial resistance. We hypothesized that the phytochemical profile and antimicrobial activity vary among \u003cem\u003eM. pauciflorus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eP. catoptera\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eC. africana\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eA. mannianum\u003c/em\u003e. The differences in antimicrobial activity and phytochemical profile could be attributed to habitat differences and evolutionary adaptations.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials and methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eFern material collection area\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFern fronds were collected from Kalinzu Central Forest Reserve (KCFR) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e), a medium-altitude natural tropical rainforest reserve located on the eastern escarpment of the Albertine Rift Valley in western Uganda at latitude 30\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003e07'E and longitude 0\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003e17'S and is at an average altitude of 700\u0026ndash;1840 m above sea level (Howard, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003e). Permission to access the KCFR was obtained from the Uganda National Forestry Authority (NFA), under licence number 403. KCFR was purposively selected because it has a variety of habitats, such as areas of dampness, fallen logs, barks of trees, flowing streams and shady areas, which favour the growth of ferns.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003ePlant material collection and identification\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eMenisorus pauciflorus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eP. catoptera\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eC.\u003c/em\u003e a\u003cem\u003efricana\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eA.\u003c/em\u003e mannianum were identified, and their fronds were collected with the help of a field botanist from KCFR. Confirmation of the identity of fern species was performed by Dr. Eunice A. Olet, a plant taxonomy scientist at Mbarara University of Science and Technology (MUST), before the samples were deposited at the National Herbarium, Makerere University under accession numbers MHU51296, MHU51297, MHU51298 and MHU51295 for \u003cem\u003eM. pauciflorus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eP. catoptera\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eC. africana\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eA. Mannianum\u003c/em\u003e, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eMenisorus pauciflorus\u003c/em\u003e is a lithophyte belonging to family Thelypteridaceae and grows on stream stones. It has compound-proliferous fronds and erect rhizome. \u003cem\u003ePteris catoptera\u003c/em\u003e is a lithophyte belonging to family Pteridaceae and grows in moderately dry soils. It has compound-gemmiferous fronds and erect rhizome. \u003cem\u003eConniogramme africana\u003c/em\u003e is a lithophyte belonging to family Adiantaceae and grows in water logged soils. It has compound-monomorphic fronds and an erect rhizome. \u003cem\u003eAntrophyum mannianum\u003c/em\u003e is an epiphyte belonging to family Adiantaceae always found hanging on trees. It has simple-tufted fronds and a short creeping rhizome.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSample treatment\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe fronds of \u003cem\u003eM. pauciflorus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eP. catoptera\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eC. africana\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eA. mannianum\u003c/em\u003e were collected, cleaned with distilled water and dried under shade for two weeks. Fronds were chosen for analysis because they are commonly used in herbal preparation (Singh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Dry fronds were ground using an electric blender into a powder.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eChemicals and reagents\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGallic acid of CAS number 5996-86-8 from Loba Chemie PVT, Quercetin of CAS number 117-39-5 from Sigma-Aldrich, and Diosgenin of CAS number orb1304570 from Toronto research chemicals were used for phytochemical quantification. All media (Mueller Hinton Agar, Sabouraud Dextrose Agar, and Brain Heart Infusion) were all purchased from Himedia laboratories, India and used for culturing the microorganisms.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003ePreparation of extracts\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe dried fronds, were separately crushed into powder using an electric blender at the Pharmaceutical Sciences/Analytical Laboratory, MUST. To prepare ethanol extracts, cold maceration was employed by mixing 250g of powder with 2000 mL of ethanol (70%) for 24 hours. For aqueous extracts, infusion was used by mixing 150g of powder with 1500 mL of distilled water for 50 minutes (Farr\u0026agrave;s et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Using a muslin cloth, the extracts were filtered and then re-filtered using Whatman No. 1 filter paper. The filtrates were concentrated using rotary evaporator of (IKA RV10 model) at 40\u0026deg;C and 55\u0026deg;C for ethanol and water extracts, respectively at a pressure of 2 Pa. The concentrated extracts were freeze-dried in a freeze drier at -70\u0026deg;C and 165 mmHg for 24 hours to obtain a final solid (Kashaninejad et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Water and ethanol were chosen as solvents for extraction because they are commonly used in preparation of extracts from medicinal plants (Abubakar \u0026amp; Haque, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Cold maceration and infusion were chosen as extracted methods because they are commonly used extraction methods (Shikov et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePreliminary phytochemical screening\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003ePreliminary phytochemical screening of water and ethanol extracts for phenols, saponins, alkaloids, anthraquinones, terpenoids, flavonoids, steroids, tannins, quinones, triterpenoids, and polyphenols was performed following the standard procedures described by Balamurugan et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). This was done by recording a plus (+) and minus (-) whenever the phytochemical present and absent respectively.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003ePhytochemical quantification\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTotal phenolic compounds (TPCs), total flavonoid compounds (TFCs), and total saponin compounds (TSCs) were obtained using an ultraviolet‒visible (UV‒VIS) spectrophotometer (Draw-well model).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eDetermination of total phenolic compounds in fern extracts\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTotal phenolic compounds (TPCs) were determined using the Folin‒Ciocalteu procedure with gallic acid as the calibration standard for phenols (Jakub\u0026iacute;kov\u0026aacute; et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). A stock solution of standard garlic acid (1 mg/mL) was prepared with distilled water as the solvent. This stock solution was used to prepare working solutions of garlic acid (10, 20, 40, 80, and 100 \u0026micro;g/mL). A 0.5 mg/mL concentration of each extract was also prepared along with a water blank solution. Two millilitres (2 mL) of sodium carbonate (7.5%) was added to each concentration of gallic acid standard, blank, and extract followed by 2 mL of Folin-Ciocalteu reagent (10%). The samples were then incubated at 40\u0026deg;C in an oven for 30 minutes, after which their absorbances were measured at 760 nm against a blank using a Drawell-model UV‒visible spectrophotometer. A regression model was fitted using the garlic acid concentrations and corresponding absorbance data to obtain a standard calibration curve (y\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.0154x \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.0222, R\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.9981). The curve was used to estimate the phenol concentrations in each extract as the mean of three readings in \u0026micro;g of gallic acid equivalents (GAE) per mg of extract.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eDetermination of total flavonoids in fern extracts\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal flavonoid compounds (TFCs) were determined using the aluminum chloride calorimetric method with quercetin acid as the calibration standard for flavonoids (Sapiun et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). A stock solution of standard quercetin (1 mg/mL) was prepared using methanol as the solvent. This solution was used to prepare working solutions of quercetin (10, 20, 40, 80, and 100 \u0026micro;g/mL). A 1 mg/mL concentration of each extract was also prepared separately along with a methanol blank solution. Three (3 ml) of methanol were added separately to each concentration of the quercetin standard, blank, and extract, with agitation. This was followed by the addition of 0.2 mL of aluminum chloride (10%) and 0.2 mL of sodium acetate (1 M), and the volume made up to 10mL with methanol. The samples were then incubated in the dark for 30 minutes, after which their absorbances were measured at 420 nm against a blank using a Drawell-model UV‒visible spectrophotometer. A regression model was fitted using the quercetin concentrations and corresponding absorbance data to generate a standard calibration curve (y\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.0074x \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.0187, R\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.9886). The curve was used to estimate the flavonoid concentrations in each extract estimate the phenol concentrations in each extract and the results expressed as the mean of three readings in \u0026micro;g of quercetin equivalents (QE) per mg of extract.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eDetermination of total saponins in fern extracts\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal saponin compounds (TSCs) were determined using the vanillin\u0026ndash;sulphuric acid assay with diosgenin as the calibration standard for saponins (Fu Rong et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). A stock solution of standard diosgenin (1 mg/mL) was prepared using distilled water as the solvent and used to prepare working solutions of diosgenin (10, 20, 40, 80, and 100 \u0026micro;g/mL). A 1 mg/mL concentration of each extract was also prepared separately, along with a water blank. For each concentration of diosgenin standard, blank, and extract, 0.5 mL of vanillin solution (8% (w/v)) was added separately, followed by the addition of 5 mL of sulphuric acid (72% (v/v)) and thorough mixing. The samples were then incubated at 60\u0026deg;C in a shaking water bath for 15 minutes, cooled in ice-cold water for 5 minutes and then measured at 550 nm against a blank using a Drawell-model UV‒visible spectrophotometer. A regression model was fitted using diosgenin concentrations and corresponding absorbance data to generate a standard calibration curve (y\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.0119x\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;0.024, R\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.9751). The curve was used to estimate the concentrations of saponins in each extract as a mean of three readings expressed in \u0026micro;g of diosgenin equivalents (DE) per mg of extract.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eAntimicrobial activity of fern extracts\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe antimicrobial activity of water and ethanol extracts from \u003cem\u003eM. pauciflorus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eP. catoptera\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eC.\u003c/em\u003e a\u003cem\u003efricana\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eA. mannianum\u003c/em\u003e was investigated. The study examined their effectiveness against Standard stock ATCC cultures of \u003cem\u003eEscherichia coli\u003c/em\u003e ATCC 25922, \u003cem\u003eStaphylococcus aureus\u003c/em\u003e ATCC 25923, and \u003cem\u003eCandida albicans\u003c/em\u003e ATCC 10231. The zones of inhibition (ZOIs), minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs), minimum bactericidal concentrations (MBCs), and minimum fungicidal concentrations (MFCs) were determined (Kamaruddin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Standard stock cultures of \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eS. aureus\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eC. albicans\u003c/em\u003e were obtained from the Microbiology Laboratory, Department of Microbiology, MUST. Fresh stock standard cultures were prepared by subculturing standard \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eS. aureus\u003c/em\u003e separately on freshly prepared Mueller Hinton agar (MHA) at 37\u0026deg;C for 24 hours. Standard \u003cem\u003eC. albicans\u003c/em\u003e was subcultured on Sabouraud dextrose agar (SDA) at 37\u0026deg;C for 72 hours. The cultures were then separately transferred into sterilized distilled water in bijou bottles and standardized to the 0.5 McFarland standard for seeding. Brain heart infusion (BHI) broth containing tetrazolium salt indicator was used to determine MIC for all \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eS. aureus\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eC. albicans\u003c/em\u003e. The BHI that was used for \u003cem\u003eC. albicans\u003c/em\u003e was enriched with 0.2% glucose.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMedia and plate preparation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThirty-eight grams (38 g), 65 g, and 37 g of MHA, SDA and BHI respectively were weighed. Then, 1 g of tetrazolium salt indicator was added to BHI. The masses of media were separately added to 1 L of distilled water. The mixture was heated with frequent agitation to dissolution. The medium was then sterilized by autoclaving at 121\u0026deg;C for 15 minutes. After sterilization, the medium was allowed to cool a temperature of 45\u0026ndash;50\u0026deg;C before pour plating. This procedure was repeated to prepare BHI enriched with 0.2% glucose.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eDetermination of zones of inhibition of the fern extracts\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe zones of inhibition of fern extracts were determined using an Agar well diffusion assay (Jafarı-sales \u0026amp; Pashazadeh, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Sterile MHA (20 ml) for bacterial culture or SDA for fungal culture was poured into sterile culture plates and allowed to solidify. The 24-hour-old culture of the test microorganism (\u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eS. aureus\u003c/em\u003e on MHA, and \u003cem\u003eC. albicans\u003c/em\u003e on SDA) were spread on to the surface of the respective agar plates using the spread plate technique. Fern extract stock solutions were prepared at 1000 mg/ml, followed by twofold serial dilutions ranging from 500 mg/mL down to 0.49 mg/mL. This procedure was repeated for each extract. Using a sterile micropipette tip (8 mm in diameter), wells were punched into solid culture media. Then, 200 \u0026micro;L of each serially diluted fern extract, ranging in concentration from 1000 mg/mL down to 0.49 mg/mL, were added to separate wells. This was done for both ethanol and aqueous extracts for all the four fern species. For controls, 100 \u0026micro;L of fluconazole (0.2 mg/mL) was added to a well as a positive control for the antifungal activity. Similarly, 100 \u0026micro;L of ciprofloxacin (0.02 mg/mL) was used as a positive control for antibacterial activity. A negative control well with only sterile water and media-only well were included. The plates were incubated at 37\u0026deg;C for 24 hours for \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eS. aureus\u003c/em\u003e and at 37\u0026deg;C for 72 hours for \u003cem\u003eC. albicans\u003c/em\u003e. The diameter of the zone of inhibition on each of the three plate replicates was subsequently measured in millimetres using a transparent ruler.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eDetermination of the minimum inhibitory concentration of the fern extracts\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) was determined using the micro broth dilution assay (Sch\u0026ouml;n et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Wells of sterile microplate were labelled for fern extract, twofold fern extract dilution series, positive controls, a diluent control, and a media sterility testing control. The fern extract dilution series were prepared using the micro broth dilution technique. Stock solutions for all fern extracts were prepared at 1000 mg/mL using Brain Heart infusion broth containing a tetrazolium salt indicator. One millilitre of brain heart infusion containing tetrazolium salt indicator was placed into sterile Bijou bottles. A stock fern extract solution (1 mL) was added to achieve a concentration of 500 mg/mL. The solution was serially diluted twofold using brain heart infusion broth down up to 0.49 mg/mL. This dilution procedure was repeated for each extract. One hundred microlitres (100 \u0026micro;L) of each extract dilution were then were pipetted into the corresponding dilution wells on the microplate using a micropipette. For controls, 100 \u0026micro;L of sterile water was pipetted into the diluent wells, 100 \u0026micro;L of ciprofloxacin (0.02 mg/mL) was pipetted into the positive control wells for bacteria, and 100 \u0026micro;L of fluconazole (0.2 mg/mL) were pipetted into the positive control wells for fungi. Some wells were left empty for media sterility testing. Finally, 100 \u0026micro;L of standard microbial inoculum (adjusted to the 0.5 McFarland scale using brain heart infusion broth) was added to the fern extract and positive control wells. The microplate was finally covered with sterile aluminium foil to prevent contamination and incubated at 37\u0026deg;C for 24 hours for \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eS. aureus\u003c/em\u003e and at 37\u0026deg;C for 72 hours for \u003cem\u003eC. albicans\u003c/em\u003e. After incubation, the microplates were visually inspected for microbial growth by observing the colour change. The lowest concentration whose colour did not change to purple was noted as the MIC.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eDetermination of the minimum bactericidal concentration and the minimum fungicidal concentration\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe minimum bactericidal concentrations (MBCs) and minimum fungicidal concentrations (MFCs) were determined by subculturing the bacterial and fungal inocula from each microplate well, which showed no color change (Faujdar et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The bacterial and fungal inocula were streaked over the surface of freshly prepared plates of sterile MHA for bacteria and sterile SDA for fungi. These plates containing subcultures were then incubated at 37\u0026deg;C for 24 hours for \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eS. aureus\u003c/em\u003e and 37\u0026deg;C for 72 hours for \u003cem\u003eC. albicans\u003c/em\u003e. The lowest concentration of the fern extracts that yield no colonies on the MHA after 24 hours was taken as the MBC. The lowest concentration of the fern extracts that did yielded no colonies on the SDA after 72 hours was taken as the MFC.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eData analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe quantity of phytochemicals and antimicrobial activity of the different fern extracts were compared using one-way ANOVA. Tukey\u0026rsquo;s post hoc test was used for pairwise comparisons of the zones of inhibition and quantities of different phytochemicals in different extraction solvents. All the statistical tests were performed at the 5% level of significance in Minitab version 20.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003ePercentage yield extract of the fern species\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWater was more effective than ethanol at extracting phytochemical compounds from all the fern species studied. \u003cem\u003eAntrophyum mannianum\u003c/em\u003e yielded the highest percentage of extract using water, 23.37%, whereas \u003cem\u003eM. pauciflorus\u003c/em\u003e produced the lowest yield, 5.57% (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003ePreliminary phytochemical screening of different fern extracts\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA Qualitative screening of fern extracts revealed a wide range of phytochemical groups, including; phenols, saponins, polyphenols, flavonoids, tannins, steroids, alkaloids, quinones, anthraquinones, steroids, triterpenoids, and terpenoids (Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). The presence of these compounds varied among the different fern species and extraction solvents used. In general, phenols, flavonoids, saponins and polyphenols were consistently found in all the extracts. Steroids were only detected in ethanol extract of \u003cem\u003eM. pauciflorus\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003ctable id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePhytochemical composition of fern extracts\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eExtract\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCompound\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM.P(aq)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM.P(eth)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP.C(aq)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP.C(eth)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC.A(aq)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC.A(eth)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA.M(aq)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA.M (eth)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFlavonoids\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSaponins\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTannins\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e-\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSteroids\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e-\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e-\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e-\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e-\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e-\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e-\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e-\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eQuinones\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e-\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e-\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e-\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e-\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAnthraquinones\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e-\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e-\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAlkaloids\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e-\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTerpenoids\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e-\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e-\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e-\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e-\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e-\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e-\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTriterpenoids\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e-\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e-\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e-\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e-\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e-\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e-\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePhenols\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePolyphenols\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e+: Present, -: Absent, M.P(aq): \u003cem\u003eMenisorus pauciflorus\u003c/em\u003e aqueous extract, M.P(eth): \u003cem\u003eMenisorus pauciflorus\u003c/em\u003e ethanol extract, P.C(aq): \u003cem\u003ePteris\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003ecatoptera\u003c/em\u003e aqueous extract, P.C(eth): \u003cem\u003ePteris\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003ecatoptera\u003c/em\u003e ethanol C.A(aq): \u003cem\u003eConniogramme\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003eafricana\u003c/em\u003e aqueous extract, C.A(eth): \u003cem\u003eConniogramme\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003eafricana\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eethanol extract, A.M(aq): \u003cem\u003eAntrophyum\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003emannianum\u003c/em\u003e aqueous extract, A.M(eth): \u003cem\u003eAntrophyum\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003emannianum\u003c/em\u003e ethanol extract\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003ePhytochemical quantification\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe concentration of phenols was generally higher than that of flavonoids or saponins in the fern extracts analysed (Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Water was more effective at extracting phenols, while ethanol was better for flavonoids and saponins. Specifically, the highest phenol concentration was found in the \u003cem\u003eM. pauciflorus\u003c/em\u003e aqueous extract (90.242\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.070 \u0026micro;g/mg), and lowest in the \u003cem\u003eC. africana\u003c/em\u003e ethanol extract (35.784\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.150 \u0026micro;g/mg). The highest flavonoid and saponin concentrations were both found in the \u003cem\u003eM. pauciflorus\u003c/em\u003e ethanol extract (35.455\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.206 \u0026micro;g/mg and 11.821\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.175 \u0026micro;g/mg respectively) and lowest in the \u003cem\u003eP. catoptera\u003c/em\u003e aqueous extract (4.104\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.156 \u0026micro;g/mg), while the lowest saponin concentration was in the \u003cem\u003eM. pauciflorus\u003c/em\u003e aqueous extract (0.392\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0485 \u0026micro;g/mg). There was a statistically significant difference in the concentrations of phenols, flavonoids, and saponins among all the fern extracts analysed (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.0001).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003ctable id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eQuantity of phenols, flavonoids and saponins in fern extracts\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eExtract\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePhenols (\u0026micro;g/mg)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFlavonoids(\u0026micro;g/mg)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSaponins(\u0026micro;g/mg)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM.P (aq)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e90.242\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.075\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.122\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1350\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.392\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0485\u003csup\u003ef\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM.P(eth)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e57.515\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.150\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e35.455\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.206\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.821\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1750\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP.C(aq)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e55.654\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.075\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.104\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.156\u003csup\u003eg\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.387\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1456\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP.C(eth)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e43.100\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.492\u003csup\u003ef\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e35.005\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.078\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.653\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.257\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC.A(aq)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e39.593\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.075\u003csup\u003eg\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.203\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.000\u003csup\u003eh\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.541\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.194\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC.A(eth)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e35.784\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.150\u003csup\u003eh\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.0405\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.000\u003csup\u003ef\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.563\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.222\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA.M(aq)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e58.554\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.270\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.140\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.078\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.123\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.194\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA.M(eth)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e62.753\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.344\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.698\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.078\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.345\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.146\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM.P(aq): \u003cem\u003eMenisorus pauciflorus\u003c/em\u003e aqueous extract, M.P(eth): \u003cem\u003eMenisorus pauciflorus\u003c/em\u003e ethanol extract, P.C(aq): \u003cem\u003ePteris\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003ecatoptera\u003c/em\u003e aqueous extract, P.C(eth): \u003cem\u003ePteris\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003ecatoptera\u003c/em\u003e ethanol C.A(aq): \u003cem\u003eConniogramme\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003eafricana\u003c/em\u003e aqueous extract, C.A(eth): \u003cem\u003eConniogramme\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003eafricana\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eethanol extract, A.M(aq): \u003cem\u003eAntrophyum\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003emannianum\u003c/em\u003e aqueous extract, A.M(eth): \u003cem\u003eAntrophyum\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003emannianum\u003c/em\u003e ethanol extract\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn columns, means that do not share a letter are significantly different\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec23\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eAntimicrobial activity of different fern extracts\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec24\" class=\"Section4\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eMean Zones of Inhibition (ZOIs)\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBoth aqueous and ethanol extracts of ferns showed antimicrobial activity against \u003cem\u003eS. aureus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eC. albicans\u003c/em\u003e. Ethanol extracts generally exhibited larger zones of inhibition than aqueous extracts, indicating greater antimicrobial activity. Antimicrobial activity was stronger against bacteria (\u003cem\u003eS. aureus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e) than against fungi (\u003cem\u003eC. albicans\u003c/em\u003e). Among the bacteria, \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e was more susceptible than \u003cem\u003eS. aureus\u003c/em\u003e. The zones of inhibition for all the extracts against all the microorganisms decreased with decreasing extract concentration. At concentrations of 1000, 500, 250, 125, 62.5, and 31.25 mg/mL, the \u003cem\u003eC. africana\u003c/em\u003e ethanol extract showed the highest zones of inhibition against \u003cem\u003eS. aureus\u003c/em\u003e (32.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58, 31.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.00, 28.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58, 25.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58, 20.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00, and 15.03\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.95 mm), followed by the \u003cem\u003eC. africana\u003c/em\u003e aqueous extract (25,33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58, 23.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58, 21.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.00, 18.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58, 16.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58, and 15.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00 mm). \u003cem\u003ePteris catoptera\u003c/em\u003e ethanol extract had the lowest zones of inhibition (18.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58, 16.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58, 14.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58, 10.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.00, 7.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.27, and 3.13\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.15 mm) at these concentrations (Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Interestingly, the \u003cem\u003eC. africana\u003c/em\u003e ethanol extract at various concentrations (1000, 500, 250, and 125 mg/mL) had significantly greater zones of inhibition (32.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58, 31.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.00, 28.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58, and 25.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58 mm, respectively) against \u003cem\u003eS. aureus\u003c/em\u003e than did the conventional drug, 0.02 mg/mL ciprofloxacin (20.77\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.21 mm). Against \u003cem\u003eE\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003ecoli A. mannianum\u003c/em\u003e ethanol extract exhibited highest zones of inhibition (35.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58 to 13\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.15 mm) at concentrations 1000\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.49 mg/mL, followed by the \u003cem\u003eC. africana\u003c/em\u003e ethanol extract (30.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58 to 1.53\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.42 mm), while the \u003cem\u003eP. catoptera\u003c/em\u003e ethanol extract had the lowest (Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). For \u003cem\u003eC. albicans\u003c/em\u003e, the \u003cem\u003eC. africana\u003c/em\u003e ethanol extract showed the highest zones of inhibition (20.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58 to 3.63\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.15 mm) at concentrations 1000\u0026ndash;0.98 mg/mL, followed by the \u003cem\u003eM. pauciflorus\u003c/em\u003e aqueous extract (16.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00 to 0.00 mm). The \u003cem\u003eAntrophyum mannianum\u003c/em\u003e aqueous extract had no activity against \u003cem\u003eC. albicans\u003c/em\u003e at these concentrations (Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). There was a statistically significant difference in the zones of inhibition of different fern extracts against \u003cem\u003eS. aureus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eC. albicans\u003c/em\u003e(p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.0001).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMean zones of inhibition of each fern extract against \u003cem\u003eStaphylococcus aureus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"15\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMean zone of inhibition)\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SD (mm)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eExtract\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e500\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e250\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e125\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e62.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31.25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.63\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.81\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.91\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.95\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.98\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.49\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCiprofloxacin\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM.P(aq)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.00\u003csup\u003ede\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003csup\u003ede\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003csup\u003ecd\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003ede\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.60\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.53\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.77\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.25\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.40\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.69\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31.78\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.36\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM.P(eth)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003ede\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003csup\u003ef\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.27\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.25\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.23\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.25\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25.90\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP.C(aq)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.00\u003csup\u003ecd\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003ede\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.00\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003ecd\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.63\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.32\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.43\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.31\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e37.17\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP.C(eth)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003eef\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.00\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.27\u003csup\u003ef\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.13\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.15\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC.A(aq)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.00\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.43\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.60\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.97\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.35\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.300\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.36\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.63\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.47\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.200\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC.A(eth)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.00\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.03\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.95\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.43\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.51\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.17\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.07\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.67\u003csup\u003ebc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.90\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.67\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.17\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.01\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20.77\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA.M(aq)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003csup\u003ede\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.70\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.27\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.23\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.21\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA.M(eth)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.27\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.25\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.83\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.21\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.030\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.25\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29.83\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn columns, means that do not share a letter are significantly different\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM.P(aq): \u003cem\u003eMenisorus pauciflorus\u003c/em\u003e aqueous extract, M.P(eth): \u003cem\u003eMenisorus pauciflorus\u003c/em\u003e ethanol extract, P.C(aq): \u003cem\u003ePteris\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003ecatoptera\u003c/em\u003e aqueous extract, P.C(eth): \u003cem\u003ePteris\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003ecatoptera\u003c/em\u003e ethanol C.A(aq): \u003cem\u003eConniogramme\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003eafricana\u003c/em\u003e aqueous extract, C.A(eth): \u003cem\u003eConniogramme\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003eafricana\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eethanol extract, A.M(aq): \u003cem\u003eAntrophyum\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003emannianum\u003c/em\u003e aqueous extract, A.M(eth): \u003cem\u003eAntrophyum\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003emannianum\u003c/em\u003e ethanol extract\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 4: Mean zones of inhibition of each fern extract against \u003cem\u003eEscherichia coli\u003c/em\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003ctable id=\"Taba\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"14\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMean zone of inhibition)\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SD (mm)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eExtract\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e500\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e250\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e125\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e62.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31.25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.63\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.81\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.91\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.95\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.98\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.49\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCiprofloxacin\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM.P(aq)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003ede\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.63\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.351\u003csup\u003ef\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.93\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.12\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.43\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.25\u003csup\u003ef\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26.83\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.76\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM.P(eth)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003csup\u003ede\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.42d\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.87\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.32\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.93\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.38\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.27\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.25\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.93\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.15\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31.57\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP.C(aq)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.00\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.70\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.61\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.60\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.20\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.10\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e34.37\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.55\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP.C(eth)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.03\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.45\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.47\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.42\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.10\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33.77\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.68\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC.A(aq)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.30\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.61\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.63\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.55\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.87\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.15\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.13\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.15\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30.40\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.69\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC.A(eth)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.11\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.17\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.57\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.31\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.53\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.42\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e39.93\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA.M(aq)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.00\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.333\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.12\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.50\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.83\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.29\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.90\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.100\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e40.53\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA.M(eth)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e35.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33.73\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.10\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30.83\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.76\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27.93\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.12\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22.57\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.98\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.60\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.53\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.50\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.83\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.29\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.13\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.15\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e45.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn columns, means that do not share a letter are significantly different\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM.P(aq): \u003cem\u003eMenisorus pauciflorus\u003c/em\u003e aqueous extract, M.P(eth): \u003cem\u003eMenisorus pauciflorus\u003c/em\u003e ethanol extract, P.C(aq): \u003cem\u003ePteris\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003ecatoptera\u003c/em\u003e aqueous extract, P.C(eth): \u003cem\u003ePteris\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003ecatoptera\u003c/em\u003e ethanol C.A(aq): \u003cem\u003eConniogramme\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003eafricana\u003c/em\u003e aqueous extract, C.A(eth): \u003cem\u003eConniogramme\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003eafricana\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eethanol extract, A.M(aq): \u003cem\u003eAntrophyum\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003emannianum\u003c/em\u003e aqueous extract, A.M(eth): \u003cem\u003eAntrophyum\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003emannianum\u003c/em\u003e ethanol extract\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e5\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e: Mean zones of inhibition of each fern extract against\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eCandida albicans\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003ctable id=\"Tabb\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"15\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMean Zone of inhibition)\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SD (mm)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eExtract\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e500\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e250\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e125\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e62.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31.25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.63\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.81\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.91\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.95\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.98\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.49\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFluconazole\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM.P(aq)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00b\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.00\u003csup\u003ebc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.73\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.68\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.63\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.78\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.27\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.25\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.90\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.10\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27.83\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.76\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM.P(eth)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003ebc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003csup\u003ebc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.47\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.50\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28.10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP.C(aq)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58b\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.93\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.12\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25.60\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.70\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP.C(eth)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003ebc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.80\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.27\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.23\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.21\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC.A(aq)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.23\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.68\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.27\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.55\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.43\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.40\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20.30\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.52\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC.A(eth)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.77\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.25\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.63\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.15\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e35.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA.M(aq)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31.87\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA.M(eth)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003ecd\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.50\u003csup\u003ecd\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.80\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.20\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e35.60\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.70\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn columns, means that do not share a letter are significantly different\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM.P(aq): \u003cem\u003eMenisorus pauciflorus\u003c/em\u003e aqueous extract, M.P(eth): \u003cem\u003eMenisorus pauciflorus\u003c/em\u003e ethanol extract, P.C(aq): \u003cem\u003ePteris\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003ecatoptera\u003c/em\u003e aqueous extract, P.C(eth): \u003cem\u003ePteris\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003ecatoptera\u003c/em\u003e ethanol C.A(aq): \u003cem\u003eConniogramme\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003eafricana\u003c/em\u003e aqueous extract, C.A(eth): \u003cem\u003eConniogramme\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003eafricana\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eethanol extract, A.M(aq): \u003cem\u003eAntrophyum\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003emannianum\u003c/em\u003e aqueous extract, A.M(eth): \u003cem\u003eAntrophyum\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003emannianum\u003c/em\u003e ethanol extract\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec25\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eMinimum inhibitory, bactericidal and fungicidal concentrations\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEthanol extracts generally showed lower minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) than aqueous extracts, indicating they are more potent. Specifically, \u003cem\u003eM. pauciflorus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eA. mannianum\u003c/em\u003e ethanol and aqueous the lowest MICs (62.5 mg/mL) against \u003cem\u003eS. aureus\u003c/em\u003e (Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e), suggesting high susceptibility of \u003cem\u003eS. aureus\u003c/em\u003e to these extracts. The ethanol extract of \u003cem\u003eA. mannianum\u003c/em\u003e was particularly effective against \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e (3.91 mg/mL), though lower than the antibiotic ciprofloxacin (0.16 \u0026micro;g/ml). However, the aqueous extracts of \u003cem\u003eM. pauciflorus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eP. catoptera\u003c/em\u003e only exhibited bacteriostatic with no bactericidal activity against \u003cem\u003eS. aureus\u003c/em\u003e. The water and ethanol extracts of \u003cem\u003eM. pauciflorus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eC. africana\u003c/em\u003e exhibited the lowest MICs for \u003cem\u003eC. albicans\u003c/em\u003e (250 mg/mL), indicating high susceptibility of \u003cem\u003eC. albicans\u003c/em\u003e to these extracts.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe \u003cem\u003eM. pauciflorus\u003c/em\u003e ethanol extract the strongest bactericidal activity (62.5 mg/mL) against \u003cem\u003eS. aureus\u003c/em\u003e, while \u003cem\u003eA. mannianum\u003c/em\u003e ethanol extract had the strongest bactericidal activity (7.81 mg/mL) against \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e, indicating strong antibacterial activity. The ethanol extracts of \u003cem\u003eMenisorus pauciflorus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eA. mannianum\u003c/em\u003e had the strongest fungicidal effect (125 mg/mL) against against \u003cem\u003eC. albicans\u003c/em\u003e, suggesting strong antifungal activity. However, all the fern extracts tested were less effective against \u003cem\u003eS. aureus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eE\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003ecoli\u003c/em\u003e, and\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eC. albicans\u003c/em\u003e than standard antibiotics ciprofloxacin fluconazole.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 6\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMinimum inhibitory concentration, Minimum bactericidal concentration and Minimum fungicidal concentration of each fern extract against each test microorganism\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMIC (mg/mL)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMBC/MFC (mg/ML)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eExtract\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS. aureus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eC. albicans\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eS. aureus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eC. albicans\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM.P (aq)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e62.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e125\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e250\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eN/A\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e500\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e500\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM.P(eth)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e62.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e125\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e250\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e62.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e62.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e125\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP.C(aq)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e500\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e250\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eN/A\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e250\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e250\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP.C(eth)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e250\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e125\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e250\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e500\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e500\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e500\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC.A(aq)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e250\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e62.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e250\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e500\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e250\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e500\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC.A(eth)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e125\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e250\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e250\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e500\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e500\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e500\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA.M(aq)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e62.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e62.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e500\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e500\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e62.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e125\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA.M(eth)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e62.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.91\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e500\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e500\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.81\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e125\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCiprofloxacin\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eN/A\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.63\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eN/A\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFluconazole\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eN/A\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eN/A\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eN/A\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eN/A\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM.P(aq): \u003cem\u003eMenisorus pauciflorus\u003c/em\u003e aqueous extract, M.P(eth): \u003cem\u003eMenisorus pauciflorus\u003c/em\u003e ethanol extract, P.C(aq): \u003cem\u003ePteris\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003ecatoptera\u003c/em\u003e aqueous extract, P.C(eth): \u003cem\u003ePteris\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003ecatoptera\u003c/em\u003e ethanol C.A(aq): \u003cem\u003eConniogramme\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003eafricana\u003c/em\u003e aqueous extract, C.A(eth): \u003cem\u003eConniogramme\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003eafricana\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eethanol extract, A.M(aq): \u003cem\u003eAntrophyum\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003emannianum\u003c/em\u003e aqueous extract, A.M(eth): \u003cem\u003eAntrophyum\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003emannianum\u003c/em\u003e ethanol extract\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eWater consistently showed higher yields than ethanol. This may be attributed to higher polarity of water, which is a better solvent for extracting the polar phytochemicals from ferns. The high diversity of polar phytochemicals in ferns (Marimuthu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), combined with their high affinity for water, explains the higher yields observed with aqueous extraction. This also supports the traditional use of water as an extraction solvent in herbal medicine preparation. However, other factors like extraction method and temperature, could have affected the yield (Tourabi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe presence of diverse phytochemical groups (phenols, saponins, polyphenols, flavonoids, tannins, steroids, alkaloids, quinones, anthraquinones, steroids, triterpenoids, and terpenoids) in extracts confirms the rich chemical diversity of phytochemicals in ferns. Variations in these compounds across different extracts are attributed to the difference in fern species and the polarity of extraction solvents. The presence of polar phytochemical groups such as phenols, flavonoids, saponins and polyphenols in these extracts shows that polar solvents extract polar compounds. This aligns with the previous research on \u003cem\u003ePteris quadriaurita\u003c/em\u003e extracts (Thomas, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e), which found out that polar solvents (water, methanol and acetone) unlike non polar petroleum ether extracted phenols.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur study highlights that solvent polarity significantly impacts the quantity of extracted phytochemicals. Specifically, ethanol extracts more flavonoids and saponins, while water extracts more phenols. The high concentration of phenols, including related compounds like polyphenols, anthracenes and flavonoids, is a common feature in ferns, as supported by the previous study on \u003cem\u003eAsplenium ceterach\u003c/em\u003e (Živković et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). The high concentration of phenols in all fern extracts could be because many phytochemical components in ferns are phenolic, including phenolic derivatives such as polyphenols, anthracenes and flavonoids. Similar studies have reported the prominence of phenols and polyphenols among fern species (Sureshkumar \u0026amp; Ayyanar, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). The fern extracts showed higher concentrations of key phytochemicals (phenols, flavonoids, and saponins) compared to extracts from common higher plants, as supported by the findings of Lee et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e), who recorded low concentrations of these in phytochemicals in soya and mung beans. This suggests that ferns are a rich source of antimicrobial compounds that could be valuable for developing new drugs to combat antimicrobial resistance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe antimicrobial activity of fern extracts against \u003cem\u003eS. aureus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eC. albicans\u003c/em\u003e is attributed to a variety of phytochemicals present, including phenols, flavonoids, saponins, tannins, and alkaloids, which are capable of inhibiting the growth of the tested microorganisms (Ahmed et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). The differences in the activity of the fern extracts against different test microorganisms are likely due to varying concentrations of these secondary metabolites in the extracts. The ethanol extracts generally showed stronger antimicrobial activity than aqueous extracts, possibly due to higher concentrations of flavonoid and saponins. The fern extracts are generally more effective against bacteria than fungi, which aligns with the findings form the study on \u003cem\u003eAdiantum capillus-veneris\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eAdiantum incisum\u003c/em\u003e (Hassan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). The higher antibacterial activity is attributed to flavonoids and polyphenols, which target bacterial cell walls and interrupt intracellular functions (Lobiuc et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). This can be through interfering with the intracellular constituents like proteins, nucleotides, enzymes, and metabolite disruption which impedes bacterial cell functioning (Bhattarai \u0026amp; Kunwar, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). It is possible that these phytochemical compounds are specific to bacteria than they are to fungi hence very weak antifungal activity. The lower antifungal activity against \u003cem\u003eC. albicans\u003c/em\u003e is not surprising, as fern extracts normally have lower antifungal activities (Ramya et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The less effectiveness of the fern extracts against \u003cem\u003eC. albicans\u003c/em\u003e agree with the findings of Mehta et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), who reported low antifungal effects of oils from \u003cem\u003eEucalyptus\u003c/em\u003e species, \u003cem\u003eAloe vera\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eMentna\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eNerium species\u003c/em\u003e against \u003cem\u003eC.\u003c/em\u003e albicans. However, the extracts are more effective against \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e than for \u003cem\u003eS. aureus\u003c/em\u003e, suggesting potential for developing fern based antimicrobial agents specifically against \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e. This contrasts with the general trend where plant extracts are generally more effective against \u003cem\u003eS. aureus\u003c/em\u003e than for \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e (Ramya et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The antimicrobial activity of extracts depends on their chemical composition (Afqir et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), suggesting that the analysed extracts contain phytochemicals that are more effective at destabilizing the gram negative cell walls (\u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e) than gram positive cell walls (\u003cem\u003eS. aureus\u003c/em\u003e). The ethanol extract of \u003cem\u003eA. mannianum\u003c/em\u003e was effective against \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e all concentrations, likely due to high concentration of phenols, saponins, and flavonoids, which are the key antibacterial agents of fern (Hassan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). However, the aqueous extract of \u003cem\u003eA. mannianum\u003c/em\u003e showed no antifungal activity against \u003cem\u003eC. albicans\u003c/em\u003e, potentially due to low concentration of key phytochemicals. In contrast, ethanol extracts generally exhibited stronger antimicrobial activity against \u003cem\u003eS. aureus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eC. albicans\u003c/em\u003e. This is attributed to ethanol\u0026rsquo;s moderate polarity, which allows it to extract a wider range of phytochemicals, including the less polar ones, compared to water\u0026rsquo;s high polarity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe antimicrobial activity of the ethanol fern extracts was generally greater than that of the aqueous extracts against all the tested microorganisms. The ethanol extracts of \u003cem\u003eM. pauciflorus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eP. catoptera\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eC. africana\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eA. mannianum\u003c/em\u003e showed strong antimicrobial activity due to possession of diverse phytochemicals. \u003cem\u003eConniogramme africana\u003c/em\u003e ethanol extract was particularly effective against \u003cem\u003eS. aureus\u003c/em\u003e surpassing the efficacy of the tested drug (ciprofloxacin), likely due to high diversity of phenols that disrupt bacterial DNA replication and enzyme production according to the findings of Lobiuc et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). This suggests that the \u003cem\u003eC. africana\u003c/em\u003e ethanol extract has potential as natural antimicrobial agent, especially against \u003cem\u003eS. aureus\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eWater generally extracted more diverse phytochemicals from \u003cem\u003eM. Pauciflorus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eP. Catoptera\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eC. africana\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eA. mannianum\u003c/em\u003e. The concentration of total phenolic compounds (TPCSs) in \u003cem\u003eM. Pauciflorus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eP. catoptera\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eC. africana\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eA. mannianum\u003c/em\u003e were greater than those of flavonoids and saponins. \u003cem\u003eConniogramme africana\u003c/em\u003e ethanol extract registered a high antimicrobial activity against \u003cem\u003eS. aureus\u003c/em\u003e at concentrations of 1000\u0026ndash;31.25 mg/mL and should therefore be further investigated for the development of novel antibiotic products to curb down the current global antimicrobial resistance. More studies profiling the phytochemical composition of more fern species and their antimicrobial activity are recommended. Additionally, further research should investigate specific active compounds, mechanisms of action, toxicity, activity of the fern extracts against drug resistant strains, and potential synergistic effects with existing drugs.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionList\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eANOVA\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnalysis of Variance\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eaq\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAqueous\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eATCC\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmerican Type Culture Collection\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eDE\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDiosgenin equivalents\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eeth\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEthanol\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eGAE\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGallic acid equivalents\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eKCFR\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKalinzu Central Forest Reserve\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eQE\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eQuercetin equivalents\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eMBC\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMinimum Bactericidal Concentration\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eMFC\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMinimum Fungicidal Concentration\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eMHA\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMueller Hinton Agar\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eMIC\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMinimum Inhibitory Concentration\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003emL\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMillitres\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eMUST\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMbarara University of Science and Technology\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eNFA\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNational Forestry Authority\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eREC\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResearch Ethics Committee\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eSDA\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSabouraund Dextrose Agar\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eTFCs\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal flavonoid compounds\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eTPCs\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal phenolic compounds\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eTSCs\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal saponin compounds\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eUV\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUltraviolet\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eVIS\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVisible\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eand ZOI\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eZone Of Inhibition.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics, approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research study was approved by the National Forestry Authority (NFA) under reference number 403 and the Mbarara University Research Ethics Committee (MUST-REC) under reference number\u0026nbsp;MUST-2024-1326.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and material\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets used and analysed in this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study was funded by DAAD (German Academic Exchange Service) under funding\u0026nbsp;Programme, In-Country/In-Region Scholarship Programme - Uganda, MUST Natural Resources - Master, 2023 (57667598) and personal number, 91871155.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors\u0026apos; contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHN: Data curation, formal analysis, investigation, methodology, project administration, visualization, writing of the original draft, review \u0026amp; editing. RW, GKR, EO, COA and BL: Supervised the study, read all the drafts and approved the final version of the manuscript for publication.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe acknowledge and thank the National Forestry Authority (NFA) and the management of the Kalinzu central forest reserve (KCFR) for their permission and support during the collection of the fern samples. With great pleasure, we acknowledge the Departments of Biology and Pharmacy, MUST, for providing the laboratories and all the technical guidance during the conduct of this study. Finally, we thank Mr. James Mwesigye and Mr. Christopher Ainebyona for their support during laboratory and field work, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAbubakar, A. R., \u0026amp; Haque, M. (2020). 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Methods of extraction of medicinal plants. In \u003cem\u003eEvidence-Based Validation of Herbal Medicine\u003c/em\u003e (pp. 771-796). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-323-85542-6.00029-9 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSingh, C., Chauhan, N., Rani, A., Kishore, K., Singh, K., \u0026amp; Singh, R. (2021). Ethnobotanical and pharmacological studies of pteridophytes (Ferns) from Mussoorie region, Dehradun district, Uttarakhand. \u003cem\u003eInternational Journal of Botany Studies\u003c/em\u003e,\u003cem\u003e 6\u003c/em\u003e(6), 694-702. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSingha, S., Nath, R., Das, S., Kityania, S., Talukdar, A. D., \u0026amp; Nath, D. (2023). Phytochemicals and their bioactivity from plants of Dryopteridaceae family. In \u003cem\u003eBioactive Compounds in Bryophytes and Pteridophytes\u003c/em\u003e (pp. 443-460). Springer. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSivaraman, A., Shivananthini, B., \u0026amp; Paulraj, K. (2022). 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Phytochemical profiling, antioxidant and antibacterial efficacy of a native Himalayan Fern: \u003cem\u003eWoodwardia unigemmata\u003c/em\u003e (Makino) Nakai. \u003cem\u003eSaudi Journal of Biological Sciences\u003c/em\u003e,\u003cem\u003e 27\u003c/em\u003e(8), 1961-1967. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sjbs.2020.06.006 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eThomas, T. (2011). Preliminary antibacterial evaluation of fronds of \u003cem\u003ePteris quadriaurita\u003c/em\u003e Retz. towards bacteria involved in dermatological diseases. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Applied Pharmaceutical Science\u003c/em\u003e(Issue), 214-216. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTourabi, M., Metouekel, A., Ghouizi, A. E., Jeddi, M., Nouioura, G., Laaroussi, H., Hosen, M. E., Benbrahim, K. F., Bourhia, M., \u0026amp; Salamatullah, A. M. (2023). Efficacy of various extracting solvents on phytochemical composition, and biological properties of \u003cem\u003eMentha longifolia\u003c/em\u003e L. leaf extracts. \u003cem\u003eScientific Reports\u003c/em\u003e,\u003cem\u003e 13\u003c/em\u003e(1), 18028. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eŽivković, S., Skorić, M., \u0026Scaron;iler, B., Dmitrović, S., Filipović, B., Nikolić, T., \u0026amp; Mi\u0026scaron;ić, D. (2017). Phytochemical characterization and antioxidant potential of rustyback fern (\u003cem\u003eAsplenium ceterach\u003c/em\u003e L.). \u003cem\u003eLekovite sirovine\u003c/em\u003e,\u003cem\u003e 37\u003c/em\u003e, 15-20. https://doi.org/10.5937/leksir1737015Z \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-complementary-medicine-and-therapies","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"bcam","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Complementary Medicine and Therapies](https://bmccomplementmedtherapies.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"BMC Complementary Medicine and Therapies","twitterHandle":"BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Ferns, Phytochemical profile, Antibacterial activity, Antifungal activity, Ethnomedicinal values","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5631852/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5631852/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIntroduction\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFerns have potential antimicrobial compounds but are understudied compared to higher plants. This limits our knowledge of their phytochemical composition and antimicrobial properties, despite their traditional use to treat various ailments. Therefore, this study profiled the phytochemical composition and evaluated the antimicrobial activity of four fern species, namely;\u003cem\u003e Menisorus\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003epauciflorus \u003c/em\u003e(Hook.) Alston, \u003cem\u003ePteris\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003ecatoptera\u003c/em\u003e (\u003cem\u003eKunze.)\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eConniogramme\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003eafricana\u003c/em\u003e (Hieron.) and \u003cem\u003eAntrophyum\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003emannianum \u003c/em\u003e(Hook.).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMethods\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFern fronds were collected from Kalinzu Central Forest Reserve (KCFR), cleaned with distilled water, and dried under shade at room temperature for two weeks. Dry fronds were ground using an electric blender into a powder and extracted by means of infusion and cold maceration, using distilled water and 70% ethanol as extraction solvents, respectively. Preliminary qualitative screening and a UV-VIS-spectrophotometer were used for phytochemical profiling by recording the presence (+) or absence (-) and quantities of the selected phytochemical classes, respectively. The antimicrobial activity (zones of inhibition) was determined by Agar well diffusion assay while the minimum inhibitory concentrations were determined using micro-broth dilution in 96-well microplates. The minimum bactericidal concentrations and minimum fungicidal concentrations were determined by subculturing technique.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResults\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFernextracts contain various phytochemical compounds, such as phenols, tannins, saponins, anthraquinones, terpenoids, and flavonoids, with phenols being the most abundant. The antimicrobial activity of both water and ethanol extracts was higher against \u003cem\u003eEscherichia coli\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eStaphylococcus aureus\u003c/em\u003e and lower against \u003cem\u003eCandida albicans\u003c/em\u003e. The antibacterialactivity was generally greater against \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e than against \u003cem\u003eS. aureus\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003eThe\u003c/em\u003eethanolic extract of \u003cem\u003eA. mannianum\u003c/em\u003e had the lowest minimum inhibitory concentration (3.91 mg/mL) and minimum bactericidal concentration (7.81 mg/mL) against \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e. The \u003cem\u003eA. mannianum\u003c/em\u003eaqueous and ethanol extracts, and the \u003cem\u003eM. pauciflorus\u003c/em\u003e ethanol extract had the lowest minimum fungicidal concentration (125 mg/mL) against \u003cem\u003eC. albicans.\u003c/em\u003e The \u003cem\u003eC. africana\u003c/em\u003eethanol extract at various concentrations (1000, 500, 250, and 125 mg/mL), produced larger inhibition zones against \u003cem\u003eS. aureus\u003c/em\u003e (up to 32.67 mm) than did ciprofloxacin (20.77 mm).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConclusions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll the \u003cem\u003eM. pauciflorus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eP. catoptera\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eC. africana\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eA. mannianum\u003c/em\u003e extracts presentedvariable secondary metabolite contents, but the concentration of phenols was greaterthan that of flavonoids and saponins. The extracts possess antimicrobial bioactive agents but weak activity against \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eS. aureus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eC. albicans\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Phytochemical profile and antimicrobial activity of individual frond extracts of Menisorus pauciflorus, Pteris catoptera, Conniogramme africana and Antrophyum mannianum","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-04-29 09:18:31","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5631852/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-05-14T13:05:49+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-05-13T04:49:41+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"88671928895677220851614969750911820371","date":"2025-05-03T14:56:51+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-04-30T03:25:58+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"97987112834424621837285903270616305508","date":"2025-04-30T03:23:13+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-04-28T11:06:56+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-04-28T10:52:31+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"BMC Complementary Medicine and Therapies","date":"2025-04-21T08:42:36+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-complementary-medicine-and-therapies","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"bcam","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Complementary Medicine and Therapies](https://bmccomplementmedtherapies.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"BMC Complementary Medicine and Therapies","twitterHandle":"BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"18e489b4-958d-4d2a-af77-00679e36fe22","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 29th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-07-02T12:08:24+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-04-29 09:18:31","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-5631852","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-5631852","identity":"rs-5631852","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}