Heavy Metal Contamination and Bioaccumulation in Soil, Water, and Plants Around Urban Dumpsites in Zambia’s Copperbelt Mining Towns

Heavy Metal Contamination and Bioaccumulation in Soil, Water, and Plants Around Urban Dumpsites in Zambia’s Copperbelt Mining Towns | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article Heavy Metal Contamination and Bioaccumulation in Soil, Water, and Plants Around Urban Dumpsites in Zambia’s Copperbelt Mining Towns Maggie Tonga, Murali Dadi, Stanford M. Siachoono, Lackson Chama, and 3 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8289376/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 12 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Copper mining and smelting activities in Zambia's Copperbelt Province have led to significant environmental degradation. Vast amounts of mine waste and solid waste generated from urban settlements have resulted from improper waste disposal and landfilling, increasing heavy metal pollution and likely contributing to environmental degradation and health concerns. This study assessed the levels of heavy metal pollution in soil, water, and plants around dumpsites across three towns located within the Copperbelt province, namely Kitwe, Mufulira, and Chingola, evaluating the potential health risks and environmental impacts of the pollution. Samples were collected from the Ichimpe dumpsite in Kitwe, the Butondo dumpsite in Mufulira, and the Mutimpe dumpsite in Chingola, and analyzed for heavy metals, viz., Cu, Zn, Mn, Co, and Fe. Then compared heavy metal concentrations across dumpsites to identify differences between towns. The results showed significant variations in heavy metal concentrations among the three dumpsites. The order of heavy metal contents in soil was Fe > Cu > Zn > Mn > Co, while in water samples it was Fe > Cu > Mn > Zn > Co. Bio-accumulated heavy metals in plants followed the order Fe > Cu > Zn > Co > Mn. The Chingola dumpsite had the highest levels of heavy metal pollution. The study highlights the urgent need for improved waste management practices, regular monitoring, and strict regulations to mitigate environmental degradation and potential health impacts. Responsible mining practices and environmental stewardship are crucial to protect local communities and preserve the natural environment. Biological sciences/Ecology Earth and environmental sciences/Ecology Earth and environmental sciences/Environmental sciences Dumpsites Bioaccumulation Environmental impact Heavy metal pollution Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Introduction Mining activities have been increasing rapidly worldwide, leading to a significant rise in heavy metal pollution [ 1 – 3 ]. In Zambia's Copperbelt Province, mining operations have been ongoing for over a century, with activity increasing in recent decades due to rising demand for metals [ 4 , 5 ]. The province is known for its copper mines, with Kitwe, Mufulira, and Chingola towns being major mining hubs. According to recent reports, the province generates approximately 791 million tons of mine waste annually, with about 9125 hectares of land declared as dumpsites for mine waste [ 6 ]. Heavy metal pollution from mining activities poses significant environmental and health risks [ 7 ]. Toxic metals such as copper, cobalt, cadmium, lead, and zinc can accumulate in soil, water, and plants, causing harm to humans, animals, and ecosystems [ 8 – 11 ]. The concerns of heavy metal pollution at dumpsites and their significant effects on the population and environment have prompted this study. In Zambia, the impact of heavy metal pollution is particularly concerning, given the country's reliance on agriculture and natural resources for livelihoods [ 12 ]. The Copperbelt Province is a critical region for Zambia's economy, accounting for a significant portion of the country's copper production [ 4 , 13 ]. However, mining activities in the area have been linked to environmental degradation, affecting local communities and ecosystems [ 14 – 16 ]. The increasing demand for metals led to the expansion of mining operations, generating large amounts of mine waste that are often disposed of in environmentally unsustainable way (Lim & Alorro, 2021; Makhathini et al., 2023; Dusengemungu et al., 2022). While several toxic elements may be found in dumpsites, focusing on assessing heavy metals such as copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), manganese (Mn), cobalt (Co), and iron (Fe), which are closely associated with the region's main mining activities, is crucial to understand the environmental impacts of mining [ 19 , 20 ]. Copper and cobalt are the primary metals extracted in the region, while zinc, manganese, and iron are often associated with copper ores and are commonly in the region's geology [ 21 , 22 ]. Zinc plays a vital role in plant growth and human health, manganese is essential for plant growth and human nutrition, and iron is necessary for life, but all three can be toxic at elevated concentrations, causing oxidative stress, neurological damage, and other health problems [ 23 – 25 ]. Bioaccumulation of heavy metals is a serious concern, as it can result in the buildup of toxic substances in organisms and the food chain [ 25 – 27 ]. Aquatic organisms are more vulnerable to bioaccumulation than other species, and humans can be affected through diet (Ray & Vashishth, 2024; Noman et al., 2022). This study aims to investigate the concentrations of heavy metals and their associated bioaccumulation risks in urban dumpsites in Kitwe, Mufulira, and Chingola in the Copperbelt Province of Zambia. Specifically, the study seeks to determine the levels of heavy metal pollution in soil, water, and plants, and evaluate the potential health risks and environmental impacts. It is anticipated that the dumpsites will be highly contaminated with heavy metals due to prolonged, intensive mining activities in the region, posing significant risks to human health and the environment. We further expect to find substantial variations in heavy metal concentrations across the three dumpsites, with the highest levels of pollution likely in areas with inadequate waste management practices (Dusengemungu et al., 2022; Mwanamuchende Trevor et al.,2019). Additionally, it is expect bioaccumulation of heavy metals to be a significant concern, posing potential risks to human health and the environment through the food chain (Laoye et al., 2025; Ray & Vashishth, 2024). Although several studies have examined mining-related pollution in the Copperbelt Province, few have simultaneously evaluated cross-media contamination (soil, water, and plants) at urban dumpsites. This study fills this gap by offering an integrated assessment of heavy metal transfer pathways and related bioaccumulation risks. Methods and Materials Methodology Study Areas The present research was conducted at dumpsites in Kitwe, Mufulira, and Chingola in the Copperbelt province of Zambia. Kitwe is the second-largest city in Zambia by both size and population, and it is the leading industrial and commercial center of the Copperbelt region. Its population as of 2022 is 400,914, (12 ◦ 48’8.75” S, 28 ◦ 12’47.63” E, 1239.44m asl). Mufulira is a mining town located on the north side of Kitwe with a population of 120,500 as of 2022, (12 ◦ 32’59.35” S, 28 ◦ 14’26.56” E, 1274m asl). Chingola, with a population of 148,564 as of 2022, (12 ◦ 31’44.29” S, 27 ◦ 53’1.75” E, 1300m asl), is also a mining town west of Kitwe (Zambia Statistics Agency, 2022). The selected dumpsites, located on the outskirts of each town, include the Ichimpe, Butondo, and Mutimpe dumpsites for Kitwe, Mufulira, and Chingola, respectively. These sites were chosen for their proximity to mining activities and potential environmental and health impacts on surrounding communities [ 30 , 31 ]. The area's climate is subtropical, featuring distinct wet and dry seasons, while its geology is characterized by copper-rich rocks, which mainly cause heavy metal pollution [ 32 ]. Data Collection Sampling design A stratified sampling design was employed to evaluate the impact of heavy metal pollution in soils, waters, and plants in and around the three dumpsites in Kitwe, Mufulira, and Chingola. The study area was divided into two sections. Section 1 was the area unaffected by the heavy metal dumps, and Section 2 was the area around the three dumpsites affected by heavy metal pollution. The three sites included the Ichimpe, Butondo, and Mutimpe dumpsites for Kitwe, Mufulira, and Chingola, respectively. The unaffected area (section 1) was chosen as the control, located at Chimfunshi, north of the Chingola district, near the source of the Kafue River. This site is located upstream (in an area not directly impacted by mining) and was thus used as a control [ 31 ]. The affected area (section 2) (downstream of mining activities) was divided into ten sampling sites at each of the three dumpsites (Samples 1 to 10), where soil, water, and plant samples were collected. Five water samples were collected around each dumpsite, and three plant samples (Pumpkin, Bean, and Maize leaves) were collected from areas surrounding the dumpsites. The Ichimpe dumpsite (Kitwe) is approximately 35 km from the Butondo dumpsite (Mufulira), and approximately 45 km from the Mutimpe dumpsite (Chingola). The Butondo dumpsite is located approximately 38 km upstream of the Mutimpe dumpsite. The control area is approximately 120 km away (upstream) from the Ichimpe dumpsite, Kitwe (Fig. 1 ). The samples were collected during the winter season between 15th of June and 10th of July 2025, because winter sampling provides more stable, uncontaminated, and representative soil, water, and plant samples by minimizing runoff, microbial activity, and seasonal variability. Sampling was conducted across the three dumpsites to assess the effects of heavy metal pollution on water, soil, and plant bioaccumulation. Assessment of Water Quality Water samples were collected from each sampling site, including the control site at Chimfunshi, 5–10 cm below the surface, using clean 1-liter high-density polyethylene bottles. To ensure representativeness, bottles were rinsed three times at each site before filling and sealing. Samples were stored in a cooler box with ice and transported to the Copperbelt University laboratory within a few hours of collection to prevent changes in water quality. In the laboratory, heavy metal concentrations were determined by Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometry (ICP-OES, Agilent, 5900 SVDV). Unfiltered samples were acidified to pH < 2 with ultrapure HNO₃ and stored at 4°C until analysis. Total metals were digested using hotplate acid digestion with Con. HNO₃ before analysis [ 33 ]. Quality assurance measures included calibration standards, blanks (including field blanks and reagent blanks), duplicates, and certified reference materials (EPA, 1994; Peter Riles, 2023). The control site at Chimfunshi served as a reference point for comparing results from the affected areas, providing a baseline for evaluating the impacts of heavy metal pollution. Analysis of Soil Samples Soil samples were analyzed using Energy Dispersive X-Fluorescence (ED-XRF, Malvern Panalytical Epsilon 3). Soil samples were air-dried at room temperature, ground using an agate mortar, and sieved through a 2 mm mesh to ensure homogeneity; subsamples were finely milled (< 75 µm) to enhance measurement precision. The powdered samples were pressed into pellets using a hydraulic press with a binder such as boric acid. XRF analysis was performed under optimized excitation conditions, with calibration against certified reference materials (CRMs) and inclusion of blanks and replicates for quality control to quantify elemental composition [ 36 – 38 ]. Plant Samples bioaccumulation assessments Plant samples were analyzed using the same ED-XRF instrument to assess heavy metal bioaccumulation. Plant tissues were washed with deionized water, oven-dried at 60–70°C to constant weight, ground into a fine homogeneous powder, and pressed into pellets using a binder such as cellulose or boric acid. The prepared pellets were analyzed directly by XRF under matrix-appropriate conditions, with calibration and quantification performed using plant-specific standard addition to correct for matrix effects. Data quality was ensured by including blanks, duplicates, and CRMs to validate accuracy and precision [ 39 , 40 ]. Results were compared with the control to explore the rate of bioaccumulation of heavy metals in the collected plant samples. Specific plant species (pumpkin leaves, bean leaves, and maize) commonly consumed by the local community were analyzed to maintain uniformity in comparisons between dumpsites and the control. Statistical Analysis A general linear model (GLM) was employed to evaluate differences in heavy metal concentrations across towns (Kitwe, Mufulira, and Chingola) and relative to the Zambia Bureau of Standards (ZABS) permissible limits for water samples, and to a control area for soil and plant samples. Separate models were fitted for each metal within each medium (water, soil, and plant tissue). The model took the form: Y_ij = µ + α_i + β_j + ε_ij Y_ij: log-transformed metal concentration µ: overall mean concentration α_i: fixed effect of standard category (ZABS control vs observed concentrations) β_j: fixed effect of town (Kitwe, Mufulira, Chingola) ε_ij: random error term, assumed to be normally distributed with mean 0 and variance σ^2 Data were natural log-transformed to stabilize variance and meet model assumptions. Normality of residuals was assessed using the Shapiro-Wilk test and Q-Q plots, and homogeneity of variance using Levene's test. Hypotheses tested included: H1: Mean concentrations in all towns do not differ significantly from ZABS standards; H2: Mean concentrations do not differ considerably among towns; H3: The difference between towns and ZABS standards is consistent across towns. Tests were based on F-statistics from the ANOVA table at a 5% significance level (p < 0.05). Tukey's Kramer test was used for pairwise comparisons among towns, and significant differences were found. Results Heavy metal analysis revealed that the concentrations of metal ions such as Manganese, Iron, Cobalt, Copper, and Zinc exceeded the ZABS limits in soil, water, and plant samples. The following are the details of metal ion concentrations and their variations in the soils, waters, and plants of three dumpsites of Kitwe, Mufulira, and Chingola. I. Heavy metal Concentrations in the soil across three dumpsites and the control a. Manganese (Mn) Concentrations in the soil across three dumpsites and the control The mean manganese content (ppm) across the dumpsites ranginged from 274.4 ± 70.31 (Control) to 977.4 ± 179.62 (Chingola), with values of 733.8 ± 61.32 (Mufulira) and 931.7 ± 126.27 (Kitwe).733.8 ± 61.32 (Mufulira), 931.7 ± 126.27 (Kitwe), and 977.4 ± 179.62 (Chingola). Statistical analysis revealed a significant difference in manganese concentrations among the sites (F₃/₃₆ = 65.25; p < 0.0001; Fig. 1 a). The mean manganese concentrations at Chingola and Kitwe were statistically similar, but higher than those observed at Mufulira. Overall, manganese levels across all dumpsites were elevated compared to the control. Iron (Fe) b. Iron (Fe) Concentrations in the soil across three dumpsites and the control The mean iron content (ppm) across the dumpsites ranging from 2,517.7 ± 196.33 (Control) to 3929.3 ± 564.74 (Mufulira), 9615.1 ± 2503.46 (Kitwe), and 24642.1 ± 3204.82 (Chingola). Statistical analysis revealed a significant difference in iron concentrations among the sites (F₃/₃₆ = 218.22; p < 0.0001; Fig. 1 b). Iron levels at Mufulira were comparable to those at the control site, whereas those at Chingola and Kitwe were considerably higher. The Chingola dumpsite recorded the highest mean iron content, followed by Kitwe, while Mufulira exhibited relatively lower levels. Overall, iron concentrations at all dumpsites exceeded those of the control. c. Cobalt (Co) Concentrations in the soil across three dumpsites and the control The mean Cobalt content (mg/kg) across dumpsites ranged from 53.6 ± 18.34 (Control), to 1240.00 ± 153.47 (Chingola dumpsite), and 2888.7 ± 2049.88 (Kitwe dumpsite). Cobalt content differed significantly across these two dumpsites (F 3/36 = 15.65; p < 0.0001; Fig. 2 c) and it was higher at Kitwe dumpsite followed by Chingola dumpsite. The Mufulira dumpsite showed no cobalt concentrations. d. Copper (Cu) Concentrations in the soil across three dumpsites and the control The mean copper content (mg/kg) across the dumpsites ranging from 545.5 ± 103.64 (Control) to 2431.9 ± 390.12 (Kitwe), 4812.7 ± 1676.55 (Mufulira), and 5268.7 ± 1360.04 (Chingola). Statistical analysis indicated a significant difference in copper concentrations among the sites (F₃/₃₆ = 36.07; p < 0.0001; Fig. 1 d). The mean copper levels at Chingola and Kitwe were statistically similar, but considerably higher than those at Mufulira. Among the dumpsites, the highest copper concentration was recorded at Chingola, followed by Kitwe, while Mufulira exhibited comparatively lower levels. All three dumpsites showed copper concentrations substantially higher than those at the control site. e. Zinc (Zn) Concentrations in the soil across three dumpsites and the control The mean Zinc content (mg/kg) across the dumpsites including the control ranged from 118.1 ± 11.62 (Control) to 414.2 ± 142.58 (Kitwe dumpsite), 969.7 ± 224.54 (Mufulira), and 1960.5 ± 315.96 (Chingola). Zinc content differed significantly across three dumpsites (F 3/36 = 138.62; p < 0.0001; Fig. 2 e). Zinc content was highest at the Chingola dumpsite followed by Mufulira and Kitwe. The values showed that the Zinc content (ppm) across the three dumpsites as significantly different from each other with the control (p < 0.0001). II. Heavy metal Concentrations in the water around three dumpsites compared to ZABS Standards a. Manganese (Mn) Concentrations in the streams across three dumpsites with ZABS standards The mean Manganese content (mg/L) across the streams at three dumpsites ranged from 1.86 ± 0.355 (Kitwe), 1.96 ± 0.320 (Mufulira), and 3.4 ± 0.517 (Chingola). Manganese content for Chingola was significantly higher than for both Mufulira and Kitwe dumpsites (F 3/16 = 60.66; p < 0.0001; Fig. 3 a). Nonetheless, manganese concentrations in all streams exceeded the ZABS threshold levels (0.5 mg/L). b. Iron (Fe) Concentrations in the streams across three dumpsites with ZABS standards The mean iron concentration (mg/L) in streams associated with the three dumpsites ranged from 3.80 ± 0.761 (Mufulira) to 3.88 ± 0.823 (Kitwe), and 21.46 ± 3.33 (Chingola). Statistical analysis specified a substantial difference in iron concentrations among the dumpsites (F₃/₁₆ = 176.57; p < 0.0001; Fig. 3 b). The mean iron contents in streams from Mufulira and Kitwe were statistically similar but considerably lower than those witnessed at Chingola. Compared with the ZABS threshold value of 1.0 mg/L, all three sites exceeded the recommended limit for Fe, with the Chingola dumpsite showing particularly elevated levels. c. Cobalt (Co) Concentrations in the streams across three dumpsites with ZABS standards The mean cobalt content (mg/L) in streams near the three dumpsites demonstrated clear spatial discrepancy. Cobalt was not detected in streams at the Kitwe and Mufulira dumpsites (0.00 ± 0.00 mg/L), but was 3.40 ± 0.257 mg/L for the Chingola dumpsite. Statistical analysis revealed a significant difference in mean cobalt levels for Chingola compared to the ZABS threshold (0.5 mg/L) (F₃/₁₆ = 6.43; p < 0.0005; Fig. 3 c). d. Copper (Cu) Concentrations in the streams across three dumpsites with ZABS standards The mean copper concentration (mg/L) in streams across the three dumpsites ranged from 1.60 ± 0.414 (Mufulira), to 1.82 ± 0.278 (Chingola), and 3.62 ± 0.503 (Kitwe). Statistical analysis revealed a significant difference in copper concentrations among the sampling sites (F₃/₁₆ = 40.45; p 0.05). Compared with the ZABS threshold of 1.0 mg/L, all three sites recorded elevated copper concentrations above permissible limit. e. Zinc (Zn) Concentrations in the streams across three dumpsites with ZABS standards The mean zinc content (mg/L) in streams across the three dumpsites ranged from 0.70 ± 0.340 (Mufulira) to 0.80 ± 0.244 (Kitwe), and 1.26 ± 0.338 (Chingola). A statistically significant difference in zinc concentrations were observed among the three dumpsites (F₃/₁₆ = 232.57; p < 0.0001; Fig. 3 e). The mean zinc content at Mufulira and Kitwe were statistically similar. However, the concentrations for both Mufurila and Kitwe were lower than those at Chingola sites. Interestingly, zinc concentrations across all streams were considerably below the ZABS threshold value of 5.00 mg/L. III. Bioaccumulation of Metals in Plant tissue near Dumpsites a. Bioaccumulation of Manganese (Mn) in plant tissue near dumpsites The mean manganese concentration (mg/kg) accumulated in plants near the dumpsites ranged from 503.0 ± 81.75 (Kitwe) to 731.3 ± 48.61 (Mufulira), 776.33 ± 24.08 (Control), and 902.0 ± 29.42 (Chingola). A significant difference in manganese bioaccumulation was observed among the sites (F₃/₈ = 21.15; p < 0.0004; Fig. 4 a). Plants collected near the Chingola dumpsite exhibited the highest manganese accumulation, while the lowest levels were recorded at Kitwe. Remarkably, plants from the control site accumulated slightly higher manganese content than those from Kitwe and Mufulira. b. Bioaccumulation of Iron (Fe) in plant tissue near dumpsites The mean iron content (mg/kg) in plants also showed clear variability among the sites, ranging from 4551.0 ± 210.72 (Mufulira) to 6212.0 ± 225.54 (Control), 9472.0 ± 246.68 (Kitwe), and 21,886.21 ± 1,075.30 (Chingola). Statistical analysis confirmed a highly significant difference in iron bioaccumulation across the sites (F₃/₁₈ = 374.85; p < 0.0001; Fig. 4 b). The highest iron accumulation occurred in plants growing near Chingola, while the lowest was recorded at Mufulira. Iron concentrations at Kitwe were substantially elevated compared to both Mufulira and the control. c . Bioaccumulation of Cobalt (Co) in plant tissue near dumpsites Cobalt bioaccumulation in plants (mg/kg) exhibited significant variations around dumpsites. Mean Cobalt content ranged from 36.66 ± 10.33 mg/kg (Control) to 491.66 ± 69.73 (Kitwe) 840.0 ± 45.46 (Mufulira), and 1400.0 ± 81.64 (Chingola). Significant differences of Cobalt were found among the three sites (F₃/₈ = 193.19; p < 0.0001; Fig. 4 c). Plants near Chingola dumpsite accumulated the highest cobalt concentrations. Notably, all dumpsite plants contained higher cobalt levels than those from the control. d. Bioaccumulation of Copper (Cu) in plant tissue near dumpsites The mean copper content (mg/kg) in plants near the dumpsites ranged from 1022.33 ± 8.17 (Control) to 1232.33 ± 123.92 (Kitwe), 2006.66 ± 93.19 (Mufulira), and 6600.0 ± 535.41 (Chingola). Copper accumulation varied significantly among three dumpsites (F₃/₈ = 177.26; p < 0.0001; Fig. 4 d). Plants collected from Chingola dumpsite had the highest Copper levels while those at the control site had the lowest. Meanwhile, Copper bioaccumulation at Mufulira was substantially higher than at Kitwe. Nonetheless, plants from all dumpsites contained copper content exceeding those found at the control. e. Bioaccumulation of Zinc (Zn) in plant tissue near dumpsites The mean zinc content (mg/kg) in plants varied from 108.33 ± 15.41(Kitwe) to 279.33 ± 20.72 (Mufulira), 309.66 ± 11.46 (Control), and 2066.66 ± 205.48 (Chingola). The variation in zinc bioaccumulation among three dump sites were statistically significant (F₃/₈ = 157.87; p < 0.0001; Fig. 4 e). Plants near the Chingola dumpsite showed markedly higher zinc accumulation compared to those from other sites, whereas Kitwe exhibited the lowest levels. Zinc accumulation at Mufulira was comparable to that of the control (p = 0.9906). Discussion Ichimpe, Butondo, and Mutimpe - located in Kitwe, Mufulira, and Chingola, respectively, were significantly impacted by heavy metal pollution as shown by the results. Soil heavy metal analysis revealed that the accumulation of heavy metals, like Mn, Fe, Co, Cu, and Zn, at these sites was significantly higher than the control area. Correspondingly, the same metal ions in the stream water around the dumpsites also showed significant variations and exceeded ZABS threshold limits. Furthermore, heavy metal bioaccumulation was significantly higher in three plant samples (pumpkin, bean, and maize leaves) grown around these dumpsites, posing a risk to livestock and human health. This outcome supports our prediction that the dumpsites were contributing to increased heavy metal pollution, leading to altered water quality and increased bioaccumulation of pollutants. Largely, the results indicate significant environmental challenges in and around the dumpsites, characterized by increased heavy metal toxicity, low pH, and bioaccumulation that collectively pose a risk to the aquatic environment, livestock, and human health. The notable differences in heavy metal concentrations among the soil, water, and plants in and around the dumpsites could be attributed to several factors, including the dumping of mining waste, leaching from the tailings, solid waste deposits from the three towns (Kitwe, Mufulira, and Chingola), run-off from the farm lands around the dumpsites, and geochemical processes [ 12 , 32 ]. For example, the dumping of mining waste can lead to the release of heavy metals into the soil and nearby water bodies around the dumpsites through effluent flows, enhancing the concentrations in these areas and water bodies, contaminating the environment, and leading to significant health and ecological risks, such as reduced soil quality, retarded plant growth, harm to aquatic life, and human health [ 2 , 41 ]. Additionally, industrial and municipal solid waste from Kitwe, Mufulira, and Chingola towns also contribute to the heavy metal load in the dumpsites. Improper disposal in open landfills allows the increased levels of heavy metals, such as Mn, Fe, Co, Cu, and Zn, to accumulate in the environment [ 42 ]. Farming activities near the dumpsites often involve the use of fertilizers and pesticides that contain trace amounts of heavy metals. Surface run-off from these agro-farms, especially during the rainy season, delivers these metals into surrounding water bodies and soil, adding to the overall contamination [ 43 ]. In addition, geochemical processes such as adsorption and precipitation may also influence the distribution of heavy metals in and around the dumpsites [ 44 , 45 ]. Notably, this study was conducted during the winter (dry) season in Zambia, which may have influenced the heavy metal dynamics in the soil and water bodies around the dumpsites. Heavy metal pollution on soil Heavy metal pollution in soil was evident at the dumpsites of the three towns. The concentrations of Mn, Fe, Co, Cu, and Zn were significantly higher in the dumpsite areas compared to the control area, indicating that the dumpsites were contaminated with heavy metals. Soil at the dumpsites acted as sinks for these pollutants, accumulating and retaining them over time [ 2 , 46 ]. Although the concentrations of heavy metals were higher in all dumpsites compared to the control, they varied among the dumpsites. Chingola showed the highest levels of Mn, Fe, Cu, and Zn, likely because of its proximity to the Nchanga Copper mine, the largest copper mine in Africa (KCM Plc, 2014). Kitwe dumpsite had significant amounts of Mn, Fe, Co, Cu, and less Zn, while Mufulira had lower concentrations, with no detectable Cobalt content, possibly due to a lack of minerals such as carrollite and cobaltiferous pyrite (Dusengemungu et al., 2022). The order of heavy metals in Kitwe and Mufulira dumpsites was Fe > Cu > Co > Mn > Pb > Zn, indicating low ecological risk (Dusengemungu et al., 2022). However, all metal concentrations in the soil of both dumpsites were higher than the control, posing health risks to the community and environment. Notably, Chingola dumpsite had the highest average concentrations of heavy metals, followed by Kitwe, and then Mufulira, with Kitwe showing a higher overall degree of contamination compared to Mufulira. This highlights the heavy metal contamination levels and their distribution, indicating that the sites were at risk of contamination, leading to health risks. The findings of this study are consistent with research from Zambia and other countries, which have reported heavy metal pollution in mining regions. In Zambia, studies have shown that areas around mining sites, such as Kabwe, have high levels of lead and cadmium contamination, posing health risks to local communities (Backsion Tembo, 1993; MUbanga Stephen Lupupa, 1997; Mwanamuchende Trevor et al., 2019). Similarly, this study found significant heavy metal pollution in soil and water near mining sites in Kitwe, Mufulira, and Chingola. Globally, heavy metal pollution is a widespread issue, with research in Peru revealing high levels of lead, arsenic, and cadmium in soil and water near mining sites, threatening the well-being of nearby populations [ 50 ]. Likewise, significant heavy metal contamination has been reported in South Africa's Witwatersrand Basin, a major gold mining region, affecting soil, water, and air [ 50 , 51 ]. Furthermore, severe heavy metal pollution has been documented in China's mining regions, including the Yangtze River Delta, where soil and water are contaminated, contributing to a growing environmental and public health concern [ 52 , 53 ]. India has also reported high levels of heavy metals, including lead, cadmium, and chromium, in soil and water near mining sites, underscoring the need for stringent mitigation measures to protect human health [ 54 , 55 ] These examples highlight the global nature of heavy metal pollution in mining regions and the need for effective mitigation strategies. Heavy metal pollution in the water around the dumpsites This study reveals that heavy metal pollution is a pressing concern in Zambia's mining regions, with water bodies around dumpsites showing elevated levels of contaminants. Heavy metals have polluted the soil at the dumpsites, and the water bodies around the dumpsites have also been contaminated with heavy metal content due to their toxic and non-biodegradable nature, posing significant risks to both ecosystems and human health through the food chain [ 56 – 58 ]. The water bodies at these three dumpsites have exceed concentrations of heavy metals, including Mn, Fe, and Cu, exceeding ZABS limits, suggesting serious contamination concerns. The Chingola dumpsite had the highest levels of contamination, with Mn, Fe, Co, and Zn detected in water bodies, while Kitwe and Mufulira dumpsites also showed significant contamination, with Mn, Fe, and Cu levels exceeding ZABS limits. The presence of these heavy metals can be attributed to leachate from the dumpsites, which can migrate and pollute adjacent soils, ground, and surface water bodies [ 59 – 61 ]. The findings of this study suggest that current waste management practices in these mining regions are inadequate, and there is a need for more effective strategies to prevent heavy metal pollution. Even low concentrations of heavy metals can have cumulative effects on human health and the environment[ 9 ], underscoring the importance of addressing this issue. The results showed that Chingola was the most contaminated, with manganese being the most prominent, followed by Mufulira, and then Kitwe. These results are of concern, as they indicate a significant risk to the environment and human health, and highlight the need for immediate action to mitigate these risks [ 62 ]. Heavy metal bioaccumulation in the plant tissues around the dumpsites The findings of this study reveal a concerning trend of heavy metal bioaccumulation in plants around the dumpsites (Briffa et al., 2020). The elevated levels of Mn, Fe, Co, Cu, and Zn in plants from the Chingola dumpsite, and the higher levels of Fe, Co, and Cu in plants from Kitwe, suggest that these plants are absorbing heavy metals from the contaminated soil and water [ 59 ]. This is further supported by the high levels of Co, Cu, and Zn in plants from Mufulira, which indicates a potential hotspot for Cobalt contamination [ 62 ]. The bioaccumulation of heavy metals in plant tissues poses significant risks to the food chain and human health (Briffa et al., 2020). The presence of these metals, even at low concentrations, can be toxic to humans and wildlife, highlighting the need for urgent attention. The fact that Iron (Fe) was the most prominent contaminant in plants across all these sites, with Kitwe showing three times more Fe contamination than the other towns, suggests a common source of pollution, likely related to the mining activities in the area. The significant Cobalt contamination in Mufulira warrants further investigation and potential remediation efforts. Cobalt is a known toxic metal that can cause serious health problems, and its presence in the food chain could have devastating consequences [ 62 ]. The high levels of Cu and Zn in plants across all the dumpsites are also concerning, as these metals can be toxic to plants and animals, and can accumulate in the environment, leading to long-term ecosystem damage. The results of this study have important implications for environmental management and human health in these mining regions. The bioaccumulation of heavy metals in plants can lead to biomagnification in the food chain, potentially affecting human health and ecosystem balance [ 31 ]. Therefore, it is essential to implement effective waste management strategies and remediation measures to mitigate heavy metal pollution in these areas. This could include measures such as proper disposal of mining waste, rehabilitation of contaminated sites, and education programs for local communities on the risks associated with heavy metal pollution. Heavy metal bioaccumulation in soil and plants: Landfills and improper disposal of mine and solid wastes at the dumpsites Our study reveals that the alarming levels of heavy metal bioaccumulation in plant samples from the dump areas were caused by landfills and improper disposal of mine and solid wastes at the dumpsites. This has led to amplified levels of heavy metals in the water and soils, which can be transformed via bioavailability and bioaccumulation in plants and aquatic organisms [ 63 ]. The soil contamination at the dumpsite can act as a pool for heavy metals through leachates, extending the exposure of aquatic organisms and plants to these pollutants in the water bodies and their surroundings [ 64 , 65 ]. The bioaccumulation of heavy metals like manganese, cobalt, copper, iron, and zinc in plants can lead to impaired growth and development, biochemical disturbances, and oxidative stress. This can result in reduced crop yields, declined soil fertility, and increased risk of metal transfer to livestock. In both aquatic and terrestrial organisms, exposure to these heavy metals can result in organ damage (liver and kidney), neurological effects, reduced reproductive capacity, mortality, impaired fetal development, and cellular damage [ 56 , 66 , 67 ]. Through biomagnification, these heavy metals are transferred into the food chain and accumulate in higher concentrations in top predators, potentially causing harm [ 68 – 70 ]. For instance, in humans, consumption of contaminated vegetables with heavy metals such as Mn, Fe, Co, Cu, and Zn can lead to neurological disorders, liver, kidney, and bone damage, impaired immune functions, skin allergies, and cancer [ 71 – 74 ]. Consumption of fish and meat from animals grazing on polluted water bodies and plants around the dumpsites can lead to a wide variety of health issues, such as heart, brain, liver, and kidney damage, hormonal imbalances, liver cirrhosis, gastrointestinal disturbances, suppressed immune system, and increased risk of cancer [ 75 – 77 ]. Biomagnification can severely impact ecosystems, often leading to population declines or local extinctions of sensitive species and distressing the delicate balance of ecological systems [ 78 , 79 ]. The elimination of top predators, for instance, can initiate a trophic cascade, fundamentally altering the structure and function of the entire ecosystem [ 80 ]. This process further contributes to a loss of biodiversity by impacting key species that are crucial for providing essential ecosystem services, ultimately compromising the ecosystem's resilience and capacity to operate effectively [ 81 ]. Conclusion In conclusion, this study highlights the severe environmental and health impacts of heavy metal pollution in Zambia's mining regions. The results show that the dumpsites in Kitwe, Mufulira, and Chingola are contaminated with high levels of Mn, Fe, Co, Cu, and Zn, which are toxic to humans and wildlife. The bioaccumulation of these metals in plants and animals poses significant risks to the food chain and human health. The findings suggest that current waste management practices are inadequate, and there is a need for more effective strategies to prevent heavy metal pollution. Immediate action is required to mitigate these risks, including proper disposal of mining waste, rehabilitation of contaminated sites, and education programs for local communities. The study underscores the importance of addressing heavy metal pollution in mining regions to protect human health, ecosystems, and biodiversity. The presence of these metals in the environment can have devastating long-term consequences, including increased cancer risk, neurological disorders, and ecosystem disruption. Furthermore, the impact of heavy metal pollution on agriculture and livestock can have significant economic and social implications for local communities. To mitigate these risks, it is essential to implement effective waste management strategies, including proper disposal of mining waste and rehabilitation of contaminated sites. Education and awareness programs for local communities, policymakers, and mining companies are also crucial to address the issue. Additionally, regular monitoring and assessment of heavy metal pollution in the environment are necessary to identify areas of concern and track progress. Collective action can reduce the risks associated with heavy metal pollution and protect human health and the environment. Declarations Statement of Declaration No statement of declaration available </div Ethical Clearance Ethical approval was sought from the Copperbelt University and informed consent was obtained from all respondents. Conflict of Interest Authors declare no conflicts of interest Funding No external funding was received for this study Author Contribution Maggie Tonga carried out the field work and data collection, Murali Dadi composed the manuscript, Stanford Siachoono read the script and made improvements, Lackson Chama did the analysis of data and read the script, Sneha Gautam developed the GIS picture, read and edit the manuscript, Malawo Mweemba did statistical analysis, read the manuscript, improved it and Phenny Mwaanga improved the draft of the manuscript. Acknowledgement We wish to thank the Copperbelt University for providing Research facilities and the approval. 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19:28:57","extension":"xml","order_by":21,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":150660,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"3d501d2a5bb64117bff249c7c1e24b121structuring.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8289376/v1/de05cbc9207182d6ace79a34.xml"},{"id":98347546,"identity":"6c218df3-afc3-4aed-9b81-e7c74fde0c06","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-16 19:28:57","extension":"html","order_by":22,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":170249,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8289376/v1/f7a142c38756e02dd15bbf40.html"},{"id":98438508,"identity":"da921abc-1950-4062-a850-e3fc4cec456a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-17 16:59:21","extension":"jpeg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":394590,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e(a) Location of Zambia showing the administrative boundary of the Copperbelt Province. (b) Digital Elevation Model (DEM) and detailed geographical extent of the Copperbelt Province, highlighting the study districts of Kitwe, Chingola, and Mufulira.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8289376/v1/1f079abab9ffae42cdfacefb.jpeg"},{"id":98347522,"identity":"0a875f02-eca6-469e-9304-7f9e516da478","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-16 19:28:57","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":62603,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eComparative Results of Heavy metals concentrations at three Dumpsite and the Control\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8289376/v1/8da0c5208734f996226af648.jpg"},{"id":98439120,"identity":"61664ade-167a-4250-8e27-7a83a8b0d94b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-17 17:01:14","extension":"jpg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":59283,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eComparative Results of Heavy metals concentrations in the stream waters at three Dumpsite and the\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eZABS Standards\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8289376/v1/8ec794e8097604c797429361.jpg"},{"id":98438595,"identity":"54ac6e61-453f-466f-bc48-6f7d3a7a0633","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-17 16:59:36","extension":"jpg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":58090,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eBioaccumulation results of Heavy metals in the plants around the three Dumpsite and the Control\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8289376/v1/900862e482b734ed7acdede1.jpg"},{"id":98445551,"identity":"ba40017d-750d-4872-9160-a77c1fbba849","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-17 17:19:59","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1987072,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8289376/v1/fa2e6d6f-b562-4e82-a767-c4acac8f32d3.pdf"},{"id":98347524,"identity":"1b5b0fa9-4ea9-4342-a6a1-b01e88053be8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-16 19:28:57","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":338535,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"SupplementaryInformationPDF.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8289376/v1/98b7bcbcfa8a93f187877f00.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Heavy Metal Contamination and Bioaccumulation in Soil, Water, and Plants Around Urban Dumpsites in Zambia’s Copperbelt Mining Towns","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eMining activities have been increasing rapidly worldwide, leading to a significant rise in heavy metal pollution [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR2\" citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. In Zambia's Copperbelt Province, mining operations have been ongoing for over a century, with activity increasing in recent decades due to rising demand for metals [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. The province is known for its copper mines, with Kitwe, Mufulira, and Chingola towns being major mining hubs. According to recent reports, the province generates approximately 791\u0026nbsp;million tons of mine waste annually, with about 9125 hectares of land declared as dumpsites for mine waste [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHeavy metal pollution from mining activities poses significant environmental and health risks [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. Toxic metals such as copper, cobalt, cadmium, lead, and zinc can accumulate in soil, water, and plants, causing harm to humans, animals, and ecosystems [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR9 CR10\" citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. The concerns of heavy metal pollution at dumpsites and their significant effects on the population and environment have prompted this study. In Zambia, the impact of heavy metal pollution is particularly concerning, given the country's reliance on agriculture and natural resources for livelihoods [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Copperbelt Province is a critical region for Zambia's economy, accounting for a significant portion of the country's copper production [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. However, mining activities in the area have been linked to environmental degradation, affecting local communities and ecosystems [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR15\" citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]. The increasing demand for metals led to the expansion of mining operations, generating large amounts of mine waste that are often disposed of in environmentally unsustainable way (Lim \u0026amp; Alorro, 2021; Makhathini et al., 2023; Dusengemungu et al., 2022).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhile several toxic elements may be found in dumpsites, focusing on assessing heavy metals such as copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), manganese (Mn), cobalt (Co), and iron (Fe), which are closely associated with the region's main mining activities, is crucial to understand the environmental impacts of mining [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]. Copper and cobalt are the primary metals extracted in the region, while zinc, manganese, and iron are often associated with copper ores and are commonly in the region's geology [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. Zinc plays a vital role in plant growth and human health, manganese is essential for plant growth and human nutrition, and iron is necessary for life, but all three can be toxic at elevated concentrations, causing oxidative stress, neurological damage, and other health problems [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR24\" citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBioaccumulation of heavy metals is a serious concern, as it can result in the buildup of toxic substances in organisms and the food chain [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR26\" citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]. Aquatic organisms are more vulnerable to bioaccumulation than other species, and humans can be affected through diet (Ray \u0026amp; Vashishth, 2024; Noman et al., 2022).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study aims to investigate the concentrations of heavy metals and their associated bioaccumulation risks in urban dumpsites in Kitwe, Mufulira, and Chingola in the Copperbelt Province of Zambia. Specifically, the study seeks to determine the levels of heavy metal pollution in soil, water, and plants, and evaluate the potential health risks and environmental impacts. It is anticipated that the dumpsites will be highly contaminated with heavy metals due to prolonged, intensive mining activities in the region, posing significant risks to human health and the environment. We further expect to find substantial variations in heavy metal concentrations across the three dumpsites, with the highest levels of pollution likely in areas with inadequate waste management practices (Dusengemungu et al., 2022; Mwanamuchende Trevor et al.,2019). Additionally, it is expect bioaccumulation of heavy metals to be a significant concern, posing potential risks to human health and the environment through the food chain (Laoye et al., 2025; Ray \u0026amp; Vashishth, 2024). Although several studies have examined mining-related pollution in the Copperbelt Province, few have simultaneously evaluated cross-media contamination (soil, water, and plants) at urban dumpsites. This study fills this gap by offering an integrated assessment of heavy metal transfer pathways and related bioaccumulation risks.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods and Materials","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMethodology\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStudy Areas\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe present research was conducted at dumpsites in Kitwe, Mufulira, and Chingola in the Copperbelt province of Zambia. Kitwe is the second-largest city in Zambia by both size and population, and it is the leading industrial and commercial center of the Copperbelt region. Its population as of 2022 is 400,914, (12\u003csup\u003e◦\u003c/sup\u003e48\u0026rsquo;8.75\u0026rdquo; S, 28\u003csup\u003e◦\u003c/sup\u003e12\u0026rsquo;47.63\u0026rdquo; E, 1239.44m asl). Mufulira is a mining town located on the north side of Kitwe with a population of 120,500 as of 2022, (12\u003csup\u003e◦\u003c/sup\u003e32\u0026rsquo;59.35\u0026rdquo; S, 28\u003csup\u003e◦\u003c/sup\u003e14\u0026rsquo;26.56\u0026rdquo; E, 1274m asl). Chingola, with a population of 148,564 as of 2022, (12\u003csup\u003e◦\u003c/sup\u003e31\u0026rsquo;44.29\u0026rdquo; S, 27\u003csup\u003e◦\u003c/sup\u003e53\u0026rsquo;1.75\u0026rdquo; E, 1300m asl), is also a mining town west of Kitwe (Zambia Statistics Agency, 2022). The selected dumpsites, located on the outskirts of each town, include the Ichimpe, Butondo, and Mutimpe dumpsites for Kitwe, Mufulira, and Chingola, respectively. These sites were chosen for their proximity to mining activities and potential environmental and health impacts on surrounding communities [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e]. The area's climate is subtropical, featuring distinct wet and dry seasons, while its geology is characterized by copper-rich rocks, which mainly cause heavy metal pollution [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eData Collection\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSampling design\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA stratified sampling design was employed to evaluate the impact of heavy metal pollution in soils, waters, and plants in and around the three dumpsites in Kitwe, Mufulira, and Chingola. The study area was divided into two sections. Section 1 was the area unaffected by the heavy metal dumps, and Section 2 was the area around the three dumpsites affected by heavy metal pollution. The three sites included the Ichimpe, Butondo, and Mutimpe dumpsites for Kitwe, Mufulira, and Chingola, respectively. The unaffected area (section 1) was chosen as the control, located at Chimfunshi, north of the Chingola district, near the source of the Kafue River. This site is located upstream (in an area not directly impacted by mining) and was thus used as a control [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e]. The affected area (section 2) (downstream of mining activities) was divided into ten sampling sites at each of the three dumpsites (Samples 1 to 10), where soil, water, and plant samples were collected. Five water samples were collected around each dumpsite, and three plant samples (Pumpkin, Bean, and Maize leaves) were collected from areas surrounding the dumpsites. The Ichimpe dumpsite (Kitwe) is approximately 35 km from the Butondo dumpsite (Mufulira), and approximately 45 km from the Mutimpe dumpsite (Chingola). The Butondo dumpsite is located approximately 38 km upstream of the Mutimpe dumpsite. The control area is approximately 120 km away (upstream) from the Ichimpe dumpsite, Kitwe (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). The samples were collected during the winter season between 15th of June and 10th of July 2025, because winter sampling provides more stable, uncontaminated, and representative soil, water, and plant samples by minimizing runoff, microbial activity, and seasonal variability. Sampling was conducted across the three dumpsites to assess the effects of heavy metal pollution on water, soil, and plant bioaccumulation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eAssessment of Water Quality\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWater samples were collected from each sampling site, including the control site at Chimfunshi, 5\u0026ndash;10 cm below the surface, using clean 1-liter high-density polyethylene bottles. To ensure representativeness, bottles were rinsed three times at each site before filling and sealing. Samples were stored in a cooler box with ice and transported to the Copperbelt University laboratory within a few hours of collection to prevent changes in water quality. In the laboratory, heavy metal concentrations were determined by Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometry (ICP-OES, Agilent, 5900 SVDV). Unfiltered samples were acidified to pH\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;2 with ultrapure HNO₃ and stored at 4\u0026deg;C until analysis. Total metals were digested using hotplate acid digestion with Con. HNO₃ before analysis [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]. Quality assurance measures included calibration standards, blanks (including field blanks and reagent blanks), duplicates, and certified reference materials (EPA, 1994; Peter Riles, 2023). The control site at Chimfunshi served as a reference point for comparing results from the affected areas, providing a baseline for evaluating the impacts of heavy metal pollution.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eAnalysis of Soil Samples\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil samples were analyzed using Energy Dispersive X-Fluorescence (ED-XRF, Malvern Panalytical Epsilon 3). Soil samples were air-dried at room temperature, ground using an agate mortar, and sieved through a 2 mm mesh to ensure homogeneity; subsamples were finely milled (\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;75 \u0026micro;m) to enhance measurement precision. The powdered samples were pressed into pellets using a hydraulic press with a binder such as boric acid. XRF analysis was performed under optimized excitation conditions, with calibration against certified reference materials (CRMs) and inclusion of blanks and replicates for quality control to quantify elemental composition [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR37\" citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003ePlant Samples bioaccumulation assessments\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePlant samples were analyzed using the same ED-XRF instrument to assess heavy metal bioaccumulation. Plant tissues were washed with deionized water, oven-dried at 60\u0026ndash;70\u0026deg;C to constant weight, ground into a fine homogeneous powder, and pressed into pellets using a binder such as cellulose or boric acid. The prepared pellets were analyzed directly by XRF under matrix-appropriate conditions, with calibration and quantification performed using plant-specific standard addition to correct for matrix effects. Data quality was ensured by including blanks, duplicates, and CRMs to validate accuracy and precision [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e]. Results were compared with the control to explore the rate of bioaccumulation of heavy metals in the collected plant samples. Specific plant species (pumpkin leaves, bean leaves, and maize) commonly consumed by the local community were analyzed to maintain uniformity in comparisons between dumpsites and the control.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStatistical Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA general linear model (GLM) was employed to evaluate differences in heavy metal concentrations across towns (Kitwe, Mufulira, and Chingola) and relative to the Zambia Bureau of Standards (ZABS) permissible limits for water samples, and to a control area for soil and plant samples. Separate models were fitted for each metal within each medium (water, soil, and plant tissue).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe model took the form: Y_ij\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026micro;\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;α_i\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;β_j\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;ε_ij\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eY_ij: log-transformed metal concentration\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026micro;: overall mean concentration\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eα_i: fixed effect of standard category (ZABS control vs observed concentrations)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eβ_j: fixed effect of town (Kitwe, Mufulira, Chingola)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eε_ij: random error term, assumed to be normally distributed with mean 0 and variance σ^2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eData were natural log-transformed to stabilize variance and meet model assumptions. Normality of residuals was assessed using the Shapiro-Wilk test and Q-Q plots, and homogeneity of variance using Levene's test.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHypotheses tested included: H1: Mean concentrations in all towns do not differ significantly from ZABS standards; H2: Mean concentrations do not differ considerably among towns; H3: The difference between towns and ZABS standards is consistent across towns. Tests were based on F-statistics from the ANOVA table at a 5% significance level (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). Tukey's Kramer test was used for pairwise comparisons among towns, and significant differences were found.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eHeavy metal analysis revealed that the concentrations of metal ions such as Manganese, Iron, Cobalt, Copper, and Zinc exceeded the ZABS limits in soil, water, and plant samples. The following are the details of metal ion concentrations and their variations in the soils, waters, and plants of three dumpsites of Kitwe, Mufulira, and Chingola.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eI. Heavy metal Concentrations in the soil across three dumpsites and the control\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003c/ol\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ea. Manganese (Mn) Concentrations in the soil across three dumpsites and the control\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe mean manganese content (ppm) across the dumpsites ranginged from 274.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;70.31 (Control) to 977.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;179.62 (Chingola), with values of 733.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;61.32 (Mufulira) and 931.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;126.27 (Kitwe).733.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;61.32 (Mufulira), 931.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;126.27 (Kitwe), and 977.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;179.62 (Chingola). Statistical analysis revealed a significant difference in manganese concentrations among the sites (F₃/₃₆ = 65.25; p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.0001; Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003ea). The mean manganese concentrations at Chingola and Kitwe were statistically similar, but higher than those observed at Mufulira. Overall, manganese levels across all dumpsites were elevated compared to the control.\u003cem\u003eIron (Fe)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eb. Iron (Fe) Concentrations in the soil across three dumpsites and the control\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe mean iron content (ppm) across the dumpsites ranging from 2,517.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;196.33 (Control) to 3929.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;564.74 (Mufulira), 9615.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2503.46 (Kitwe), and 24642.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3204.82 (Chingola). Statistical analysis revealed a significant difference in iron concentrations among the sites (F₃/₃₆ = 218.22; p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.0001; Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eb). Iron levels at Mufulira were comparable to those at the control site, whereas those at Chingola and Kitwe were considerably higher. The Chingola dumpsite recorded the highest mean iron content, followed by Kitwe, while Mufulira exhibited relatively lower levels. Overall, iron concentrations at all dumpsites exceeded those of the control.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ec. Cobalt (Co) Concentrations in the soil across three dumpsites and the control\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe mean Cobalt content (mg/kg) across dumpsites ranged from 53.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;18.34 (Control), to 1240.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;153.47 (Chingola dumpsite), and 2888.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2049.88 (Kitwe dumpsite). Cobalt content differed significantly across these two dumpsites (F\u003csub\u003e3/36\u003c/sub\u003e = 15.65; p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.0001; Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003ec) and it was higher at Kitwe dumpsite followed by Chingola dumpsite. The Mufulira dumpsite showed no cobalt concentrations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ed. Copper (Cu) Concentrations in the soil across three dumpsites and the control\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe mean copper content (mg/kg) across the dumpsites ranging from 545.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;103.64 (Control) to 2431.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;390.12 (Kitwe), 4812.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1676.55 (Mufulira), and 5268.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1360.04 (Chingola). Statistical analysis indicated a significant difference in copper concentrations among the sites (F₃/₃₆ = 36.07; p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.0001; Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003ed). The mean copper levels at Chingola and Kitwe were statistically similar, but considerably higher than those at Mufulira. Among the dumpsites, the highest copper concentration was recorded at Chingola, followed by Kitwe, while Mufulira exhibited comparatively lower levels. All three dumpsites showed copper concentrations substantially higher than those at the control site.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ee. Zinc (Zn) Concentrations in the soil across three dumpsites and the control\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe mean Zinc content (mg/kg) across the dumpsites including the control ranged from 118.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.62 (Control) to 414.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;142.58 (Kitwe dumpsite), 969.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;224.54 (Mufulira), and 1960.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;315.96 (Chingola). Zinc content differed significantly across three dumpsites (F\u003csub\u003e3/36\u003c/sub\u003e = 138.62; p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.0001; Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003ee). Zinc content was highest at the Chingola dumpsite followed by Mufulira and Kitwe. The values showed that the Zinc content (ppm) across the three dumpsites as significantly different from each other with the control (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.0001).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eII. Heavy metal Concentrations in the water around three dumpsites compared to ZABS Standards\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003c/ol\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ea. Manganese (Mn) Concentrations in the streams across three dumpsites with ZABS standards\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe mean Manganese content (mg/L) across the streams at three dumpsites ranged from 1.86\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.355 (Kitwe), 1.96\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.320 (Mufulira), and 3.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.517 (Chingola). Manganese content for Chingola was significantly higher than for both Mufulira and Kitwe dumpsites (F\u003csub\u003e3/16\u003c/sub\u003e = 60.66; p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.0001; Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003ea). Nonetheless, manganese concentrations in all streams exceeded the ZABS threshold levels (0.5 mg/L).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eb. Iron (Fe) Concentrations in the streams across three dumpsites with ZABS standards\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe mean iron concentration (mg/L) in streams associated with the three dumpsites ranged from 3.80\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.761 (Mufulira) to 3.88\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.823 (Kitwe), and 21.46\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.33 (Chingola). Statistical analysis specified a substantial difference in iron concentrations among the dumpsites (F₃/₁₆ = 176.57; p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.0001; Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eb). The mean iron contents in streams from Mufulira and Kitwe were statistically similar but considerably lower than those witnessed at Chingola. Compared with the ZABS threshold value of 1.0 mg/L, all three sites exceeded the recommended limit for Fe, with the Chingola dumpsite showing particularly elevated levels.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ec. Cobalt (Co) Concentrations in the streams across three dumpsites with ZABS standards\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe mean cobalt content (mg/L) in streams near the three dumpsites demonstrated clear spatial discrepancy. Cobalt was not detected in streams at the Kitwe and Mufulira dumpsites (0.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00 mg/L), but was 3.40\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.257 mg/L for the Chingola dumpsite. Statistical analysis revealed a significant difference in mean cobalt levels for Chingola compared to the ZABS threshold (0.5 mg/L) (F₃/₁₆ = 6.43; p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.0005; Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003ec).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ed. Copper (Cu) Concentrations in the streams across three dumpsites with ZABS standards\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe mean copper concentration (mg/L) in streams across the three dumpsites ranged from 1.60\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.414 (Mufulira), to 1.82\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.278 (Chingola), and 3.62\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.503 (Kitwe). Statistical analysis revealed a significant difference in copper concentrations among the sampling sites (F₃/₁₆ = 40.45; p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.0001; Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003ed). The Kitwe streams exhibited significantly higher copper levels than those at Mufulira and Chingola, which were similar (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). Compared with the ZABS threshold of 1.0 mg/L, all three sites recorded elevated copper concentrations above permissible limit.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ee. Zinc (Zn) Concentrations in the streams across three dumpsites with ZABS standards\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe mean zinc content (mg/L) in streams across the three dumpsites ranged from 0.70\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.340 (Mufulira) to 0.80\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.244 (Kitwe), and 1.26\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.338 (Chingola). A statistically significant difference in zinc concentrations were observed among the three dumpsites (F₃/₁₆ = 232.57; p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.0001; Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003ee). The mean zinc content at Mufulira and Kitwe were statistically similar. However, the concentrations for both Mufurila and Kitwe were lower than those at Chingola sites. Interestingly, zinc concentrations across all streams were considerably below the ZABS threshold value of 5.00 mg/L.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eIII. Bioaccumulation of Metals in Plant tissue near Dumpsites\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003c/ol\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ea. Bioaccumulation of Manganese (Mn) in plant tissue near dumpsites\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe mean manganese concentration (mg/kg) accumulated in plants near the dumpsites ranged from 503.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;81.75 (Kitwe) to 731.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;48.61 (Mufulira), 776.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;24.08 (Control), and 902.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;29.42 (Chingola). A significant difference in manganese bioaccumulation was observed among the sites (F₃/₈ = 21.15; p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.0004; Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003ea). Plants collected near the Chingola dumpsite exhibited the highest manganese accumulation, while the lowest levels were recorded at Kitwe. Remarkably, plants from the control site accumulated slightly higher manganese content than those from Kitwe and Mufulira.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec23\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eb. Bioaccumulation of Iron (Fe) in plant tissue near dumpsites\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe mean iron content (mg/kg) in plants also showed clear variability among the sites, ranging from 4551.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;210.72 (Mufulira) to 6212.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;225.54 (Control), 9472.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;246.68 (Kitwe), and 21,886.21\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1,075.30 (Chingola). Statistical analysis confirmed a highly significant difference in iron bioaccumulation across the sites (F₃/₁₈ = 374.85; p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.0001; Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eb). The highest iron accumulation occurred in plants growing near Chingola, while the lowest was recorded at Mufulira. Iron concentrations at Kitwe were substantially elevated compared to both Mufulira and the control.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003ec\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003eBioaccumulation of Cobalt (Co) in plant tissue near dumpsites\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCobalt bioaccumulation in plants (mg/kg) exhibited significant variations around dumpsites. Mean Cobalt content ranged from 36.66\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;10.33 mg/kg (Control) to 491.66\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;69.73 (Kitwe) 840.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;45.46 (Mufulira), and 1400.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;81.64 (Chingola). Significant differences of Cobalt were found among the three sites (F₃/₈ = 193.19; p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.0001; Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003ec). Plants near Chingola dumpsite accumulated the highest cobalt concentrations. Notably, all dumpsite plants contained higher cobalt levels than those from the control.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec24\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ed. Bioaccumulation of Copper (Cu) in plant tissue near dumpsites\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe mean copper content (mg/kg) in plants near the dumpsites ranged from 1022.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;8.17 (Control) to 1232.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;123.92 (Kitwe), 2006.66\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;93.19 (Mufulira), and 6600.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;535.41 (Chingola). Copper accumulation varied significantly among three dumpsites (F₃/₈ = 177.26; p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.0001; Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003ed). Plants collected from Chingola dumpsite had the highest Copper levels while those at the control site had the lowest. Meanwhile, Copper bioaccumulation at Mufulira was substantially higher than at Kitwe. Nonetheless, plants from all dumpsites contained copper content exceeding those found at the control.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec25\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ee. Bioaccumulation of Zinc (Zn) in plant tissue near dumpsites\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe mean zinc content (mg/kg) in plants varied from 108.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;15.41(Kitwe) to 279.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;20.72 (Mufulira), 309.66\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.46 (Control), and 2066.66\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;205.48 (Chingola). The variation in zinc bioaccumulation among three dump sites were statistically significant (F₃/₈ = 157.87; p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.0001; Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003ee). Plants near the Chingola dumpsite showed markedly higher zinc accumulation compared to those from other sites, whereas Kitwe exhibited the lowest levels. Zinc accumulation at Mufulira was comparable to that of the control (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.9906).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eIchimpe, Butondo, and Mutimpe - located in Kitwe, Mufulira, and Chingola, respectively, were significantly impacted by heavy metal pollution as shown by the results. Soil heavy metal analysis revealed that the accumulation of heavy metals, like Mn, Fe, Co, Cu, and Zn, at these sites was significantly higher than the control area. Correspondingly, the same metal ions in the stream water around the dumpsites also showed significant variations and exceeded ZABS threshold limits. Furthermore, heavy metal bioaccumulation was significantly higher in three plant samples (pumpkin, bean, and maize leaves) grown around these dumpsites, posing a risk to livestock and human health. This outcome supports our prediction that the dumpsites were contributing to increased heavy metal pollution, leading to altered water quality and increased bioaccumulation of pollutants. Largely, the results indicate significant environmental challenges in and around the dumpsites, characterized by increased heavy metal toxicity, low pH, and bioaccumulation that collectively pose a risk to the aquatic environment, livestock, and human health.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe notable differences in heavy metal concentrations among the soil, water, and plants in and around the dumpsites could be attributed to several factors, including the dumping of mining waste, leaching from the tailings, solid waste deposits from the three towns (Kitwe, Mufulira, and Chingola), run-off from the farm lands around the dumpsites, and geochemical processes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e]. For example, the dumping of mining waste can lead to the release of heavy metals into the soil and nearby water bodies around the dumpsites through effluent flows, enhancing the concentrations in these areas and water bodies, contaminating the environment, and leading to significant health and ecological risks, such as reduced soil quality, retarded plant growth, harm to aquatic life, and human health [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdditionally, industrial and municipal solid waste from Kitwe, Mufulira, and Chingola towns also contribute to the heavy metal load in the dumpsites. Improper disposal in open landfills allows the increased levels of heavy metals, such as Mn, Fe, Co, Cu, and Zn, to accumulate in the environment [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e]. Farming activities near the dumpsites often involve the use of fertilizers and pesticides that contain trace amounts of heavy metals. Surface run-off from these agro-farms, especially during the rainy season, delivers these metals into surrounding water bodies and soil, adding to the overall contamination [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e]. In addition, geochemical processes such as adsorption and precipitation may also influence the distribution of heavy metals in and around the dumpsites [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e]. Notably, this study was conducted during the winter (dry) season in Zambia, which may have influenced the heavy metal dynamics in the soil and water bodies around the dumpsites.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec27\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eHeavy metal pollution on soil\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eHeavy metal pollution in soil was evident at the dumpsites of the three towns. The concentrations of Mn, Fe, Co, Cu, and Zn were significantly higher in the dumpsite areas compared to the control area, indicating that the dumpsites were contaminated with heavy metals. Soil at the dumpsites acted as sinks for these pollutants, accumulating and retaining them over time [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e]. Although the concentrations of heavy metals were higher in all dumpsites compared to the control, they varied among the dumpsites. Chingola showed the highest levels of Mn, Fe, Cu, and Zn, likely because of its proximity to the Nchanga Copper mine, the largest copper mine in Africa (KCM Plc, 2014). Kitwe dumpsite had significant amounts of Mn, Fe, Co, Cu, and less Zn, while Mufulira had lower concentrations, with no detectable Cobalt content, possibly due to a lack of minerals such as carrollite and cobaltiferous pyrite (Dusengemungu et al., 2022).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe order of heavy metals in Kitwe and Mufulira dumpsites was Fe\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;Cu\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;Co\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;Mn\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;Pb\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;Zn, indicating low ecological risk (Dusengemungu et al., 2022). However, all metal concentrations in the soil of both dumpsites were higher than the control, posing health risks to the community and environment. Notably, Chingola dumpsite had the highest average concentrations of heavy metals, followed by Kitwe, and then Mufulira, with Kitwe showing a higher overall degree of contamination compared to Mufulira. This highlights the heavy metal contamination levels and their distribution, indicating that the sites were at risk of contamination, leading to health risks.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings of this study are consistent with research from Zambia and other countries, which have reported heavy metal pollution in mining regions. In Zambia, studies have shown that areas around mining sites, such as Kabwe, have high levels of lead and cadmium contamination, posing health risks to local communities (Backsion Tembo, 1993; MUbanga Stephen Lupupa, 1997; Mwanamuchende Trevor et al., 2019). Similarly, this study found significant heavy metal pollution in soil and water near mining sites in Kitwe, Mufulira, and Chingola. Globally, heavy metal pollution is a widespread issue, with research in Peru revealing high levels of lead, arsenic, and cadmium in soil and water near mining sites, threatening the well-being of nearby populations [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e]. Likewise, significant heavy metal contamination has been reported in South Africa's Witwatersrand Basin, a major gold mining region, affecting soil, water, and air [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e]. Furthermore, severe heavy metal pollution has been documented in China's mining regions, including the Yangtze River Delta, where soil and water are contaminated, contributing to a growing environmental and public health concern [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e]. India has also reported high levels of heavy metals, including lead, cadmium, and chromium, in soil and water near mining sites, underscoring the need for stringent mitigation measures to protect human health [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e] These examples highlight the global nature of heavy metal pollution in mining regions and the need for effective mitigation strategies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec28\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eHeavy metal pollution in the water around the dumpsites\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study reveals that heavy metal pollution is a pressing concern in Zambia's mining regions, with water bodies around dumpsites showing elevated levels of contaminants. Heavy metals have polluted the soil at the dumpsites, and the water bodies around the dumpsites have also been contaminated with heavy metal content due to their toxic and non-biodegradable nature, posing significant risks to both ecosystems and human health through the food chain [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR57\" citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e58\u003c/span\u003e]. The water bodies at these three dumpsites have exceed concentrations of heavy metals, including Mn, Fe, and Cu, exceeding ZABS limits, suggesting serious contamination concerns.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Chingola dumpsite had the highest levels of contamination, with Mn, Fe, Co, and Zn detected in water bodies, while Kitwe and Mufulira dumpsites also showed significant contamination, with Mn, Fe, and Cu levels exceeding ZABS limits. The presence of these heavy metals can be attributed to leachate from the dumpsites, which can migrate and pollute adjacent soils, ground, and surface water bodies [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR60\" citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e59\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e61\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings of this study suggest that current waste management practices in these mining regions are inadequate, and there is a need for more effective strategies to prevent heavy metal pollution. Even low concentrations of heavy metals can have cumulative effects on human health and the environment[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e], underscoring the importance of addressing this issue. The results showed that Chingola was the most contaminated, with manganese being the most prominent, followed by Mufulira, and then Kitwe. These results are of concern, as they indicate a significant risk to the environment and human health, and highlight the need for immediate action to mitigate these risks [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e62\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec29\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eHeavy metal bioaccumulation in the plant tissues around the dumpsites\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings of this study reveal a concerning trend of heavy metal bioaccumulation in plants around the dumpsites (Briffa et al., 2020). The elevated levels of Mn, Fe, Co, Cu, and Zn in plants from the Chingola dumpsite, and the higher levels of Fe, Co, and Cu in plants from Kitwe, suggest that these plants are absorbing heavy metals from the contaminated soil and water [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e59\u003c/span\u003e]. This is further supported by the high levels of Co, Cu, and Zn in plants from Mufulira, which indicates a potential hotspot for Cobalt contamination [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e62\u003c/span\u003e]. The bioaccumulation of heavy metals in plant tissues poses significant risks to the food chain and human health (Briffa et al., 2020). The presence of these metals, even at low concentrations, can be toxic to humans and wildlife, highlighting the need for urgent attention. The fact that Iron (Fe) was the most prominent contaminant in plants across all these sites, with Kitwe showing three times more Fe contamination than the other towns, suggests a common source of pollution, likely related to the mining activities in the area.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe significant Cobalt contamination in Mufulira warrants further investigation and potential remediation efforts. Cobalt is a known toxic metal that can cause serious health problems, and its presence in the food chain could have devastating consequences [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e62\u003c/span\u003e]. The high levels of Cu and Zn in plants across all the dumpsites are also concerning, as these metals can be toxic to plants and animals, and can accumulate in the environment, leading to long-term ecosystem damage. The results of this study have important implications for environmental management and human health in these mining regions. The bioaccumulation of heavy metals in plants can lead to biomagnification in the food chain, potentially affecting human health and ecosystem balance [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e]. Therefore, it is essential to implement effective waste management strategies and remediation measures to mitigate heavy metal pollution in these areas. This could include measures such as proper disposal of mining waste, rehabilitation of contaminated sites, and education programs for local communities on the risks associated with heavy metal pollution.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eHeavy metal bioaccumulation in soil and plants: Landfills and improper disposal of mine and solid wastes at the dumpsites\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur study reveals that the alarming levels of heavy metal bioaccumulation in plant samples from the dump areas were caused by landfills and improper disposal of mine and solid wastes at the dumpsites. This has led to amplified levels of heavy metals in the water and soils, which can be transformed via bioavailability and bioaccumulation in plants and aquatic organisms [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e63\u003c/span\u003e]. The soil contamination at the dumpsite can act as a pool for heavy metals through leachates, extending the exposure of aquatic organisms and plants to these pollutants in the water bodies and their surroundings [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e64\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e65\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe bioaccumulation of heavy metals like manganese, cobalt, copper, iron, and zinc in plants can lead to impaired growth and development, biochemical disturbances, and oxidative stress. This can result in reduced crop yields, declined soil fertility, and increased risk of metal transfer to livestock. In both aquatic and terrestrial organisms, exposure to these heavy metals can result in organ damage (liver and kidney), neurological effects, reduced reproductive capacity, mortality, impaired fetal development, and cellular damage [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e66\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e67\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThrough biomagnification, these heavy metals are transferred into the food chain and accumulate in higher concentrations in top predators, potentially causing harm [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR69\" citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e68\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e70\u003c/span\u003e]. For instance, in humans, consumption of contaminated vegetables with heavy metals such as Mn, Fe, Co, Cu, and Zn can lead to neurological disorders, liver, kidney, and bone damage, impaired immune functions, skin allergies, and cancer [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR72 CR73\" citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e71\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e74\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eConsumption of fish and meat from animals grazing on polluted water bodies and plants around the dumpsites can lead to a wide variety of health issues, such as heart, brain, liver, and kidney damage, hormonal imbalances, liver cirrhosis, gastrointestinal disturbances, suppressed immune system, and increased risk of cancer [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR76\" citationid=\"CR75\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e75\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e77\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBiomagnification can severely impact ecosystems, often leading to population declines or local extinctions of sensitive species and distressing the delicate balance of ecological systems [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e78\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR79\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e79\u003c/span\u003e]. The elimination of top predators, for instance, can initiate a trophic cascade, fundamentally altering the structure and function of the entire ecosystem [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR80\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e80\u003c/span\u003e]. This process further contributes to a loss of biodiversity by impacting key species that are crucial for providing essential ecosystem services, ultimately compromising the ecosystem's resilience and capacity to operate effectively [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR81\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e81\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn conclusion, this study highlights the severe environmental and health impacts of heavy metal pollution in Zambia's mining regions. The results show that the dumpsites in Kitwe, Mufulira, and Chingola are contaminated with high levels of Mn, Fe, Co, Cu, and Zn, which are toxic to humans and wildlife. The bioaccumulation of these metals in plants and animals poses significant risks to the food chain and human health. The findings suggest that current waste management practices are inadequate, and there is a need for more effective strategies to prevent heavy metal pollution. Immediate action is required to mitigate these risks, including proper disposal of mining waste, rehabilitation of contaminated sites, and education programs for local communities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study underscores the importance of addressing heavy metal pollution in mining regions to protect human health, ecosystems, and biodiversity. The presence of these metals in the environment can have devastating long-term consequences, including increased cancer risk, neurological disorders, and ecosystem disruption. Furthermore, the impact of heavy metal pollution on agriculture and livestock can have significant economic and social implications for local communities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo mitigate these risks, it is essential to implement effective waste management strategies, including proper disposal of mining waste and rehabilitation of contaminated sites. Education and awareness programs for local communities, policymakers, and mining companies are also crucial to address the issue. Additionally, regular monitoring and assessment of heavy metal pollution in the environment are necessary to identify areas of concern and track progress. Collective action can reduce the risks associated with heavy metal pollution and protect human health and the environment.\u003c/p\u003e "},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec31\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStatement of Declaration\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo statement of declaration available\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div \u003c/div\u003e\u003ch2\u003eEthical Clearance\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eEthical approval\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003ewas sought from the Copperbelt University and informed consent was obtained from all respondents.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eConflict of Interest\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eAuthors declare no conflicts of interest\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFunding\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo external funding was received for this study\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eMaggie Tonga carried out the field work and data collection, Murali Dadi composed the manuscript, Stanford Siachoono read the script and made improvements, Lackson Chama did the analysis of data and read the script, Sneha Gautam developed the GIS picture, read and edit the manuscript, Malawo Mweemba did statistical analysis, read the manuscript, improved it and Phenny Mwaanga improved the draft of the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe wish to thank the Copperbelt University for providing Research facilities and the approval.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author due to requested privacy by respondents.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGuo, K. et al. 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Biol.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e28\u003c/b\u003e, 2846\u0026ndash;2874 (2022). a) b) c) d) e).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Dumpsites, Bioaccumulation, Environmental impact, Heavy metal pollution","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8289376/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8289376/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eCopper mining and smelting activities in Zambia's Copperbelt Province have led to significant environmental degradation. Vast amounts of mine waste and solid waste generated from urban settlements have resulted from improper waste disposal and landfilling, increasing heavy metal pollution and likely contributing to environmental degradation and health concerns. This study assessed the levels of heavy metal pollution in soil, water, and plants around dumpsites across three towns located within the Copperbelt province, namely Kitwe, Mufulira, and Chingola, evaluating the potential health risks and environmental impacts of the pollution. Samples were collected from the Ichimpe dumpsite in Kitwe, the Butondo dumpsite in Mufulira, and the Mutimpe dumpsite in Chingola, and analyzed for heavy metals, viz., Cu, Zn, Mn, Co, and Fe. Then compared heavy metal concentrations across dumpsites to identify differences between towns. The results showed significant variations in heavy metal concentrations among the three dumpsites. The order of heavy metal contents in soil was Fe\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;Cu\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;Zn\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;Mn\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;Co, while in water samples it was Fe\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;Cu\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;Mn\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;Zn\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;Co. Bio-accumulated heavy metals in plants followed the order Fe\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;Cu\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;Zn\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;Co\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;Mn. The Chingola dumpsite had the highest levels of heavy metal pollution. The study highlights the urgent need for improved waste management practices, regular monitoring, and strict regulations to mitigate environmental degradation and potential health impacts. Responsible mining practices and environmental stewardship are crucial to protect local communities and preserve the natural environment.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Heavy Metal Contamination and Bioaccumulation in Soil, Water, and Plants Around Urban Dumpsites in Zambia’s Copperbelt Mining Towns","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-12-16 19:28:52","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8289376/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-12-29T10:08:32+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-12-24T04:47:43+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-12-20T22:51:04+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-12-19T21:56:21+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"123392463999129211991138290581160646144","date":"2025-12-12T18:04:21+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"36032666767500437420480724090980677909","date":"2025-12-11T08:00:09+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"10951884025025503128025666260245261497","date":"2025-12-10T18:05:31+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-12-10T18:00:10+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2025-12-10T13:58:30+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-12-08T00:49:37+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-12-08T00:49:09+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Scientific Reports","date":"2025-12-05T15:49:15+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"ccdd9484-8581-47e2-b41d-8b9ffac67001","owner":[],"postedDate":"December 16th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[{"id":59606974,"name":"Biological sciences/Ecology"},{"id":59606975,"name":"Earth and environmental sciences/Ecology"},{"id":59606976,"name":"Earth and environmental sciences/Environmental sciences"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-04-04T17:08:16+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-12-16 19:28:52","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8289376","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8289376","identity":"rs-8289376","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}