Applications of Expanded Polystyrene and its Cost-time Advantage on Building Construction (Case study)

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Purpose This study aimed to evaluate the technical performance, cost efficiency, and construction time implications of using expanded polystyrene (EPS) panels as a primary building construction material. Methods A model two-story building incorporating EPS-based construction panels was analyzed and systematically compared with a conventional construction system in terms of cost, construction duration, mechanical performance, and durability-related properties. Results The EPS construction system demonstrated substantial advantages, achieving cost savings of 30.9% and construction time reductions of 45.7% relative to conventional methods. Mechanical testing showed compressive strengths of 9.3 MPa and 17.1 MPa for EPS panels with densities of 15 kg/m³ and 18 kg/m³, respectively, surpassing the performance of traditional hollow concrete block wall systems. Corresponding flexural strengths were 30.2 kN and 41.5 kN, indicating satisfactory load-bearing capacity for low-rise structures. EPS panels also exhibited low water absorption and self-extinguishing behavior, enhancing durability and fire safety. However, dimensional instability and susceptibility to shrinkage at elevated temperatures (~ 70°C) were identified as key limitations. Conclusions EPS panels offer a cost-effective, time-efficient, and structurally viable alternative for building construction, provided that thermal and dimensional constraints are adequately addressed. Future studies should focus on improving the thermal stability and long-term dimensional performance of EPS-based construction systems. Physical sciences/Engineering Physical sciences/Materials science Cost-effectiveness EPS Polystyrene Time efficiency Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 1. Introduction The construction industry, crucial to any nation's economy, influences diverse sectors and aspects of development, with rapid growth necessitating innovation in housing design, technology, materials, and construction methods [ 1 ]. Since 2001, Ethiopia's construction industry has seen remarkable growth, with its Gross Domestic Product (GDP) contribution rising to 5.6%, nearing the sub-Saharan average of 6%. Gross Domestic Capital Formation (GDCF) has surged from 60% in 1996/97 to almost 75% in 2002. Additionally, it ranks as the 6th largest contributor to infrastructure stock in Africa, following South Africa, Egypt, Morocco, Algeria, and Nigeria [ 2 ]. Among emerging technologies and materials, expanded polystyrene sheet (EPS) geo-foam's notable properties, including water resistance, non-biodegradability, and ease of transportation and installation, have garnered attention, especially in regions with resource constraints [ 3 ]. Integration of MMC, such as prefabrication and EPS geo-foam, not only addresses resource limitations but also reduces costs, CO 2 emissions, and energy consumption, facilitating faster construction and meeting housing demands [ 4 ]. Ethiopia's development stands to benefit from these approaches, promising to advance the construction sector, drive economic growth, and promote sustainable development aligned with global environmental goals [ 2 ]. The broad appeal of EPS geofoam lies in its outstanding features, including water resistance, non-biodegradability, eco-friendliness, easy transport and installation without special equipment, and compressibility [ 5 ]. The use of EPS is one of the materials introduced in the Ethiopian construction industry [ 6 ]. Polystyrene, derived from styrene polymerization, finds application in packaging electronics, food, and constructing houses, requiring polymerization into Expanded Polystyrene blocks for house building due to its lightweight nature [ 7 ]. Various types and sizes of polystyrene are utilized in building construction, commonly for wall panels and slabs, necessitating mesh for erection, while EPS blocks, typically 3000 mm long, 1200 mm wide, and 100 mm thick, serve as reinforcement for wall panels [ 8 ]. Expanded Polystyrene embedded in Concrete and Steel Reinforcement (EPSCSR) walls ensure comfort through effective heating, cooling, and sound insulation, with EPS's low thermal conductivity reducing energy consumption by up to 60–80%, while the external concrete layer provides protection against pests and moisture, diverging from conventional brick structures [ 9 ]. EPS is among the most important plastic materials, with more than 30 years of application in various functions. EPS is favored in construction for its lightweight, cost-effectiveness, and sustainability, offering enhanced strength, thermal insulation, fire resistance, soundproofing, water resistance, and durability against earthquakes and storms, alongside recyclability and environmental friendliness [ 4 ]. EPS, is a 100% recyclable and environmentally friendly, undergoes four stages such as mechanical crushing, dissolving, slurry filtration, and polystyrene precipitation to manage its bulky, highly mobile nature, given its composition of 98% air and 2% polystyrene [ 10 ].The study proposes dissolving EPS in supercritical solvents as a cost-effective and efficient waste management method, indicating its potential as a sustainable construction material devoid of chlorofluorocarbons, with one application being its use as a wood adhesive alternative to traditional options [ 11 ]. In the construction industry, delays caused by factors like rising overhead, costs, and material degradation, pose significant challenges. Thus, to address this, countries like Ethiopia, allocating substantial budgets to construction, must adopt modern methods, including prefabrication and modularization, alongside exploring alternative materials [ 12 ]. EPS, an industry innovation, improves productivity and quality, shortening construction time and reducing costs by eliminating lengthy concrete curing and streamlining assembly [ 13 ]. EPS construction boasts up to 30% cost reduction and 50% time saving compared to conventional methods, utilizing scaffoldings for concrete work while eliminating the need for cranes and formwork [ 14 ]. EPS, a rigid, closed-cell foam plastic, offers low thermal conductivity, compressive strength, lightness, and inertness, serving as a versatile building material or design element and adaptable to various household applications, all derived from its resin form [ 15 ]. The resin, containing pentane gas (C 5 H 12 ), safely releases it during expansion, where with steam addition, the EPS resin expands up to 40% of its original size [ 16 ]. The cost of manufacturing an EPS is considered linearly proportional to its density [ 17 ]. EPS properties, including insulation and mechanical strength, are density-dependent, while cushioning characteristics in foam packaging rely more on molded part geometry than density or bead size [ 18 ]. 1.1. Physical Properties of Expanded Polystyrene The EPS Manual in India outlines EPS as a versatile material with low thermal conductivity and high compressive strength, suitable for diverse building and household applications, expanding up to 40% of its original size during resin processing with the release of pentane gas [ 19 ]. The expanded pellets are transferred into a block molder, where EPS density serves as the primary determinant of most properties [ 10 ]. The compressive, shear, tensile, and flexural strengths, as well as stiffness and other mechanical characteristics, are contingent upon the density [ 20 ]. EPS's mechanical properties improve with density, while cushioning characteristics in foam packaging are mainly influenced by molded part geometry, and to a lesser extent, bead size and processing conditions [ 17 ]. According to Indian Standard (IS), 46711984 and ASTMC578-95 density of EPS shallbe 15, 20, 25, 30 or 35 kg/m 3 [ 16 ]. EPS concrete serves as an energy-absorbing material for protecting buried military structures and specific constructions subject to long-term cyclic loading, with requisite strength and durability standards [ 21 ]. 1.2. Structural Components of EPS Construction Bezawit Schnell's factory in Bahir Dar city uses EPS and galvanized steel wire to produce wall, slab, roof, and stair panels, emphasizing efficiency and durability . EPS, often used in wall panels and slabs with steel meshes, reinforces structures by transferring forces, with concrete layers protecting reinforcements and reflecting the growing adoption of plastic in civil construction for durability, efficiency, and insulation. 1.3. Connection Details of EPS Building Construction Using steel bars to connect EPS components in building construction can simplify the process, offering flexibility and ease of assembly while providing structural integrity. Schnell Home, an Italian company, likely offers various connection details adapted to different EPS building components, ensuring stability, durability, and ease of assembly for builders with specific project needs [ 22 ]. 1.4. Durability of EPS The dispute over EPS durability persists despite limited studies, but evidence suggests EPS concrete may resist chemical and sulfate attacks better than plain concrete, highlighting its value for further investigation in addressing durability challenges [ 23 ]. Thus, the aim of this study was to assess the use of EPS as a building construction material, a two-story building incorporating EPS as a construction panels. 2. Research Methodology and Expermentation In the comparative study, the time and cost implications of using EPS in construction projects were assessed, providing valuable insights for decision-makers. Due to delays in project submissions and contract agreements, purposive sampling was adopted. A single G + 1 office model building was selected, and 30 samples were prepared for laboratory testing, including 12 for structural tests and 18 for non-structural tests. This approach ensured a comprehensive analysis of EPS building materials compared with conventional materials. 2.1. Data Collection Method 2.1.1. Observation Through direct observation during data collection, valuable insights were gained into production processes, assembly techniques, efficiency, quality control, and distinctive aspects of EPS construction in both factory and building projects. 2.1.2. Interview Interviews were conducted with shopkeepers in current market centers and with EPS manufacturer representatives in Bahir Dar city to collect firsthand data on the costs of conventional construction materials and the challenges associated with transferring EPS building technology, thereby providing valuable insights from key stakeholders in the construction industry. 2.1.3. Document review Crucial documents obtained from Bezawit Schnell’s factory, including drawings, cost breakdowns, and building codes, were examined, providing detailed insights into EPS construction materials, processes, technical aspects, and regulatory requirements and facilitating a comprehensive understanding of EPS building technology. 2.1.4. Laboratory tests Laboratory tests were conducted on EPS materials, including compressive strength, flexural strength, dimensional stability, water absorption, and flammability, to investigate their physical and mechanical properties, thereby supporting the evaluation of their suitability and durability for construction applications. 2.2. Test Methods And Procedures 2.2.1. Compressive strength of reinforced EPS EPS panels with Type I (15 kg m⁻³) and Type VIII (18 kg m⁻³) densities were selected from the SHENEL Home Factory for testing in accordance with ASTM C578-95, which classifies EPS based on density. These density classes are directly comparable to the Ethiopian standard, as it is derived from ASTM specifications. This selection ensured that the test results were both relevant and reliable for evaluating the suitability of EPS panels for construction applications in the Ethiopian context. 2.2.2. Flexural strength test Flexural strength testing was conducted in accordance with ASTM standards to ensure consistency and reliability in the evaluation of EPS panels. EPS panels with Type I and Type XIII densities were selected to assess their performance under bending loads and to allow comparison with established benchmarks. 2.2.3. Water absorption test The water absorption test was conducted in accordance with ASTM C272-12 to ensure standardized evaluation of the water absorption characteristics of EPS panels. Three samples were prepared with dimensions of 75 mm × 75 mm × 80 mm and 75 mm × 75 mm × 200 mm, ensuring consistency and repeatability of the test results. 2.2.4. Test of flammability Flammability (flame spread) testing was conducted in accordance with ASTM E84. Three test specimens were prepared using a hot wire cutter with dimensions of 200 × 25 × 80 mm and 200 × 25 × 200 mm and were marked at 50 mm and 75 mm from one end. The specimens were conditioned at a temperature of 27 ± 2°C and a relative humidity of 65 ± 5% for at least 48 h prior to testing. This procedure was applied to each EPS density category evaluated. 2.2.5. Dimensional Stability Test The dimensional stability test was conducted in accordance with ASTM D1204, which specifies a maximum allowable dimensional change of 2% for all types of expanded polystyrene panels. 2.3. Preparation of EPS Model Buildings The construction cost and time associated with EPS were examined in comparison with traditional methods, including reinforced cement concrete (RCC) and hollow concrete block (HCB) systems. Various components of the G + 1 office building of the Bezawit Schnell Home Building Prefabrication Factory were analyzed to estimate construction costs and durations. These estimates were then compared with those of RCC and HCB systems to evaluate the cost-effectiveness and efficiency of EPS construction. The analysis accounted for material and labor costs, construction timeframes, and other relevant factors to ensure a comprehensive comparison. 2.3.1. Design of conventional building The conventional building design was developed based on the drawings of the EPS model, with structural elements such as columns, beams, and slabs incorporated using traditional materials, including reinforcement bars, concrete, steel, and timber. The dimensions of these elements were determined by structural engineers. 2.3.2. Preparation of takeoff sheet and BOQ A detailed takeoff sheet was prepared for the selected building model to itemize all required materials, including EPS panels, steel reinforcement, concrete, and associated components. Unit rates for each item were calculated for both EPS and conventional construction methods, and a bill of quantities was generated to enable a comprehensive comparison of material quantities and costs. Costs of conventional materials were obtained from market surveys and construction sites, providing accurate insights into cost differences between the two construction approaches. 2.4. Time Estimation Methods Due to limited scheduling data for the selected construction project, the construction duration of the EPS building was estimated using a baseline of 70 working days. For conventional construction, an aerial estimation method was applied to determine the maximum and average number of workers per activity. Activity durations were estimated using hourly construction productivity rates per crew obtained from BaTCoDA, based on worker numbers and productivity values. Despite the absence of detailed scheduling data for EPS construction, a comparison of total project durations was conducted. The use of standardized productivity rates and crew size estimates for conventional construction provided insights into the time efficiency of both construction methods. 2.4.1. Parametric estimating Activity durations were quantitatively estimated by multiplying work quantities by productivity rates. Total resource quantities were then divided by the number of resources applied to determine activity durations per working period, based on labor hours or production capacity [ 24 ]. \(\:\text{D}\text{u}\text{r}\text{a}\text{t}\text{i}\text{o}\text{n}\:\left(\text{D}\right)=\frac{\text{Q}\text{u}\text{a}\text{n}\text{t}\text{i}\text{t}\text{y}}{\text{D}\text{a}\text{i}\text{l}\text{y}\:\text{p}\text{r}\text{o}\text{d}\text{u}\text{c}\text{t}\text{i}\text{o}\text{n}\:\text{r}\text{a}\text{t}\text{e}\:\:}\) ………………....................... …... 1 2.4.2. Three point estimates Incorporating risk into the original estimate enhanced the accuracy of activity duration estimates, which is fundamental to the three-point estimation method [ 24 ]. Most likely The duration of a scheduled activity is determined by factors such as the resources assigned, their productivity, and realistic expectations of availability, which may be affected by other participants and potential interruptions. Optimistic The activity duration is based on the best-case scenario represented by the most likely estimate. Pessimistic The duration of the scheduled activity was determined by factors such as the resources assigned, their productivity, and realistic expectations of availability, which may be affected by coordination with other participants and potential interruptions. 2.4.3. Methods of number of workers estimation The relationship between workforce size and available workspace was recognized as critical for construction planning and logistics. In the trapezoidal geometry model, worker numbers increased during the ramp-up phase as activities intensified, and stabilized during the active phase to maximize productivity, and gradually decreased during the final phase as work focused on finishing and inspection activities (Fig. 1 ) [ 25 ]. Where, W av = average number of workers W max = maximum number of workers The following formulas are used for the numbers of workers and the average working space, model selected building of conventional construction. \(\:\text{W}\text{S}\text{a}\text{v}\:=\frac{\text{W}\text{S}\text{T}}{}\text{W}\text{m}\text{a}\text{x}\:\:\) …………………………………………………………..................................... 2 WS T = F w *N st……………………………………………………………………………. ……………….. 3 F w = W av /W max ………………………………………………………………………….... ……………… 4 W av =F w *W max………………………………………………………………………… ……………….. 5 \(\:\:\:\text{W}\text{a}\text{v}=\:\frac{\text{W}\text{m}\text{i}\text{n}+18}{2}\) ………………………………………………………… 6 Where , WS av = average working space WS T = total working space W max = maximum number of workers. W av = average number of workers \(\:\text{D}\text{i}\text{f}\text{f}\text{e}\text{r}\text{e}\text{n}\text{c}\text{e}\:\left(\text{\%}\right)=\frac{\left(\text{c}\text{o}\text{s}\text{t}\:\text{o}\text{f}\:\text{c}\text{o}\text{n}\text{v}\text{e}\text{n}\text{t}\text{i}\text{o}\text{n}\text{a}\text{l}\:\text{c}\text{o}\text{n}\text{s}\text{t}\text{r}\text{u}\text{c}\text{t}\text{i}\text{o}\text{n}\:-\text{c}\text{o}\text{s}\text{t}\:\text{o}\text{f}\:\text{E}\text{P}\text{S}\:\text{c}\text{o}\text{n}\text{s}\text{t}\text{r}\text{u}\text{c}\text{t}\text{i}\text{o}\text{n}\right)\text{*}100\:}{\text{c}\text{o}\text{s}\text{t}\:\text{o}\text{f}\:\text{c}\text{o}\text{n}\text{v}\text{e}\text{n}\text{t}\text{i}\text{o}\text{n}\text{a}\text{l}\:\:\text{c}\text{o}\text{n}\text{s}\text{t}\text{r}\text{u}\text{c}\text{t}\text{i}\text{o}\text{n}\:}\) …………….. 7 After the maximum and average number of workers estimated for each construction activity, the maximum and average durations of the activities were estimated. 3. Results and Discussions 3.1. Cost Comparison of EPS Made and Conventional Building Unit rates for EPS products and conventional construction were derived from different sources, and bills of quantities were prepared for both methods. Percentage cost differences were calculated by subtracting EPS costs from conventional construction costs and dividing by the latter. Costs for masonry and metal works were comparable between the two methods. However, EPS construction was substantially more expensive in wall, roofing, and finishing works, by 121.51%, 44.3%, and 45.7%, respectively. These increases were primarily attributed to additional requirements such as concrete cover and damp-proofing in EPS roofing, compared with the use of IGA sheets and roof trusses in conventional construction. Finishing works in EPS construction, particularly plastering, incurred higher costs due to increased concrete and mortar requirements. In contrast, excavation, concrete works, and carpentry were 42.56%, 76.13%, and 15.3% less costly, respectively, than in conventional construction. Overall, EPS construction demonstrated greater cost efficiency, with a total cost reduction of 1,688,082.04 ETB, corresponding to a 30.92% savings relative to conventional methods. The accompanying graph illustrates cost variations between the two construction approaches across different work categories (Fig. 2 ). 3.2. Construction Time Comparison of EPS and Conventional Construction Factory records indicate that the model office building was completed in 70 working days, whereas conventional construction was projected to require 129 days based on Monte Carlo simulation results (Fig. 3 ). \(\:\%=\frac{129\:\text{d}\text{a}\text{y}\text{s}-70\:\text{d}\text{a}\text{y}\text{s}\:}{129\:\text{d}\text{a}\text{y}\text{s}\:}*100\) = 45.7% This indicates that EPS building construction saves construction time compared to the conventional construction by 45.7%. 3.3. Laboratory Test Results Compressive strength properties of reinforced eps panels The classification of EPS by density varies across national standards. The Indian standard (IS 4671:1984) classifies EPS at densities of 15, 20, 25, 30, and 35 kg m⁻³, whereas ASTM C578-95 categorizes EPS at 12, 15, 18, 22, and 29 kg m⁻³, designated as Types XI, I, VIII, II, and X. As the Ethiopian standard is derived from ASTM specifications, the ASTM classification system was adopted in this study. Accordingly, EPS panels with Type I (15 kg m⁻³) and Type VIII (18 kg m⁻³) densities were selected for testing. Three specimens from each density category were reinforced with 3 mm zinc-coated wire mesh and encased in 35 mm of concrete. Compressive strength was measured after 28 days of curing, providing reliable data for assessing the structural suitability of EPS panels for construction applications (Fig. 4 ). B. Flexural strength test results Flexural strength testing was conducted using a three-point loading configuration with two supports and a centrally applied vertical load. For the 18 kg m⁻³ density panels, Sample 2 recorded the highest flexural strength (47.58 kN), while Sample 3 exhibited the lowest value (33.12 kN). In the 15 kg m⁻³ density panels, the maximum and minimum flexural strengths were 35.26 kN and 22.78 kN, respectively (Fig. 5 ). These results demonstrate a clear density-dependent variation in flexural performance, indicating flexural strength as a critical parameter for assessing the bending resistance and structural suitability of EPS panels in construction applications[ 17 ]. C. Water absorption test results Water absorption testing demonstrated excellent moisture resistance of the EPS panels. The 15 kg m⁻³ density wall panel exhibited a water absorption of 0.06%, which is well below the ASTM C272-12 limit of 4%. Similarly, the 18 kg m⁻³ density slab and roof panel showed a water absorption of only 0.03%, far below the ASTM maximum of 3%. These results confirm the high resistance of EPS panels to moisture ingress, supporting their durability and suitability for construction applications requiring long-term moisture performance. D. Dimensional stability test results The dimensional stability test results provide critical insight into the thermal performance of EPS panels. The 15 kg m⁻³ density wall panel exhibited a dimensional change of 5.67% after 7 days at 70°C, exceeding the ASTM D1204 maximum allowable limit of 2% (Fig. 6 ). Similarly, the 18 kg m⁻³ density slab and roof panel showed a dimensional change of 3.33%, which also surpassed the standard threshold. These findings indicate that dimensional stability under high temperatures is strongly influenced by EPS density, underscoring the need to consider density effects when evaluating EPS panels for construction applications[ 26 ]. E. Flammability test results According to ASTM E84, a material is classified as self-extinguishing if flame propagation ceases once the ignition source is removed. Flame spread testing of EPS specimens marked at 50 mm and 75 mm showed no flame propagation beyond 75 mm. This behavior indicates self-extinguishing characteristics, supporting the suitability of EPS as a fire-safe material for construction applications. 3.4. The Challenges of Adopting EPS Building Technology The adoption of EPS construction technology in Ethiopia faces several challenges, particularly in production and on-site assembly. Technical constraints related to manufacturing processes and panel installation were identified through interviews with industry practitioners. Adapting conventional construction practices to EPS systems often disrupts workflow and increases costs, further compounded by limited stakeholder familiarity with the technology and concerns regarding material quality. In addition, a shortage of skilled designers highlights the need for targeted training and capacity-building initiatives. Constraints in foreign currency availability hinder access to imported raw materials, introducing further logistical and supply-chain challenges. Addressing these barriers requires coordinated efforts among government institutions, the private sector, and educational organizations to provide technical support, training, and policy facilitation for the effective integration of EPS technology into the Ethiopian construction sector. 4. Conclusion This study demonstrates that EPS represents a cost-effective and time-efficient alternative for building construction in Ethiopia, particularly for low-rise structures. Compared with conventional construction methods, EPS construction achieved an overall cost reduction of approximately 31% and a time savings of about 45.7%, emphasizing its economic and operational advantages. The physical and mechanical properties of EPS panels generally complied with relevant international standards, confirming their technical suitability for construction applications. However, challenges related to consistency in product quality among EPS manufacturing facilities in Bahir Dar city were identified, indicating the need for improved quality control and standardization. Despite these limitations, the findings suggest that, with continued research, capacity building, and effective production and project management, EPS technology has considerable potential to enhance construction efficiency and affordability in Ethiopia. Its broader adoption could contribute meaningfully to the modernization of building practices and support sustainable development initiatives within the country. Abbreviations ASTM American Socity for Testing and Materials Co 2 Carbon die Oxide EPS Exbanded Polystrene HCB Hollow Concrete Block EPSCSR Exbanded Polystrene Concrete and Steel Reinforcement GDCF Gross Domostic Capital Formulation GDP Gross Domostic Capital KN Killo Newton MPa Mega Pascal RCC Reinfored Cement Concrete Declarations Data Availability The data supporting the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. Declaration Statement The authors declare that this research article titled “Applications of Expanded Polystyrene and its Cost-Time Advantage on Building Construction” is an original work and has not been published previously, nor is it under consideration for publication elsewhere. No conflict of interest exists with respect to the authorship, research, or publication of this article. All data, analyses, and interpretations presented in this study are the result of the authors’ independent research efforts. Ethics approval and consent to participate This study did not involve any experiments , the use of human tissue samples, or the collection of personal or identifiable human data. Compliance with Guidelines and Regulations All methods employed in this study were carried out in accordance with relevant guidelines, standards, and regulations applicable to building construction research and material performance analysis. The assessment of Expanded Polystyrene (EPS) applications, as well as the cost–time evaluation, was conducted using established engineering practices, published technical standards, and scientifically accepted analytical approaches. Experimental Protocols All experimental protocols and analytical procedures conducted in this study on the applications of Expanded Polystyrene (EPS) and its cost–time advantages in building construction were reviewed and approved by the Debre Markos University, Department of Construction Technology and Management in accordance with relevant institutional, national, and international guidelines and regulations. Consent of Human Subjects Informed consent was obtained from all participants for data collection through interview and observation. As this research is a case study takes place in Bezawit SHENELhome factory, there is a full consent of this company. Conflicts of Interest The authors confirm that that there are no conflicts of interest. Funding statement There is no fund provided for this work. Author Contributions (CRediT taxonomy): Tesfaw Yemru: Conceptualization, methodology, investigation, data curation, formal analysis, visualization, software, validation, writing original draft, and writing and editing. Asregedew Woldesenbet (PhD): Supervision and editing. Both authors reviewed and approved the final version of the manuscript. Acknowledgements The Authers thank Bezawit SHENEL home factory for thire support of taking EPS samples. Authers also would like to thank Debre Markos University for helping us for taking laboratory works . References Akadiri, P. O., Chinyio, E. A. & Olomolaiye, P. O. Design of a sustainable building: A conceptual framework for implementing sustainability in the building sector. Buildings 2 (2), 126–152. 10.3390/buildings2020126 (2012). Ayalew, T., Dakhli, Z. & Lafhaj, Z. Assessment on Performance and Challenges of Ethiopian Construction Industry. Quest Journals J. Archit. Civ. Eng. 2 (11), 2321–8193 (2016). [Online]. 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Properties, Performance and Design Fundamentals of Expanded Polystyrene Packaging, EPS Recycling Advancements & Technology Innovations, pp. 0–3, (2016). Hofstadler, C. Calculation of Construction Time for Building Projects-Application of the Monte Carlo Method to Determine the Period Required for Shell Construction Works, CIB 2010 World Congr. , pp. 214–225, (2010). Ibrahim, D., Bankole, O. C., Ma’aji, S. A., Ohize, E. J. & Abdul, B. K. Assessment Of The Strength Properties Of Polystyrene Material Used In Building Construction. Int. J. Eng. Res. Dev. 6 (12), 80–84 (2013). Mbora District Of Abuja,Nigeria. Harit, M. A Critical Review of Expanded Polystyrene Core Panel System in Buildings in India, vol. 4, no. January, pp. 1–8, (2022). Nyambara Ngugi, H. Use of Expanded Polystyrene Technology and Materials Recycling for Building Construction in Kenya. Am. J. Eng. Technol. Manag . 2 (5), 64. 10.11648/j.ajetm.20170205.12 (2017). Mesaros, P., Spisakova, M., Kyjakova, L. & Mandicak, T. 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(Basel) . 12 (18). 10.3390/ma12182882 (2019). Agyei, W. & Project Planning And Scheduling Using PERT And CPM Techniques With Linear Programming. Case Study. Int. J. Sci. Technol. Res. 4 (08), 8 (2015). [Online]. Available: www.ijstr.org. Bolotov, M. A., Pechenin, V. A., Ruzanov, N. V. & Pronichev, N. D. Information model for estimate of the geometric parameters between the surfaces trapezoidal shape in the measurements of compressor blades of GTE, 2015 5th Int. Work. Comput. Sci. Eng. Inf. Process. Control Eng. WCSE 2015-IPCE , pp. 208–212, (2015). 10.18178/wcse.2015.04.034 Ubi, S. E., Ewa, D. E., Bessong, A. R. & Nyah, E. D. Effects of Incorporating Expanded Polystyrene in Concrete Construction, pp. 79–101, (2022). 10.4236/jbcpr.2022.103004 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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Yemru","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA90lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYJCCDwgWG5gywKuch4GBcQaMwzgDoQW3NhQtzDzEaLFnb3/Y8LONIbFf7OwzaZuybYkN7M3bJBgq/uC2heeMYWMvUMvM2elm0jnnbic28Bwrk2A4g8dhEjnsD3i3MSRuuJ3GJp3bBtQikWMmwdiGR4v884eNf4Fa9oO0WIK0yL8BavmHzxYGw2awLdJALYxgW3iAWhrwaDmTY9gs+4/BeMbtNGbLnnO3jdt40ootEo4Z49TC3n78YeObMwyy/bPTGG/8KLst289+eOONDzVyOLVAwX/HBhgTHDUJhDQAgT0RakbBKBgFo2CkAgAid1Dj+lL3wgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"Debre Markos University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Tesfaw","middleName":"","lastName":"Yemru","suffix":""},{"id":585156325,"identity":"44a8ec49-a1f5-4c28-9e66-d5031c0785c8","order_by":1,"name":"Asregedew Woldesenbet","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Addis Ababa Science and technology University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Asregedew","middleName":"","lastName":"Woldesenbet","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-01-16 11:54:56","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8618572/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8618572/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":101940322,"identity":"67d91ba2-dc95-4d28-a70b-253db3ebb834","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-05 09:13:42","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":25503,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTrapezoidal geometry model\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8618572/v1/77491695ab5c0b33fddfd553.jpg"},{"id":101940151,"identity":"ee2268ab-585d-4bc3-9773-375bceec9a13","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-05 09:13:14","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":251048,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eConstruction cost comparesion of EPS and conventional construction\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture2.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8618572/v1/d9db7746ba07a71d915d51aa.jpg"},{"id":101940196,"identity":"e97e4f72-49fb-4f87-b52d-4a8c3aabc3a0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-05 09:13:17","extension":"jpg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":343416,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eProbability of completion of the project.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture3.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8618572/v1/a21bc105a516e640285d2f42.jpg"},{"id":101940207,"identity":"dbed1c3c-a8d6-4bf8-9962-a04979d09f98","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-05 09:13:24","extension":"jpg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":127559,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCompressive strength versus density.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture4.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8618572/v1/00b5e6198652186a529e4928.jpg"},{"id":101940270,"identity":"00af8e4a-6f85-43de-87b5-cc5dac87def6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-05 09:13:30","extension":"jpg","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":155294,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFlexural strength versus density.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture5.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8618572/v1/d9920bf2372ff8a4182588ff.jpg"},{"id":101940205,"identity":"f51762f0-34fc-4716-9cac-3dfec14a644d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-05 09:13:23","extension":"jpg","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":133470,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eWater absorption and dimensional stability test results.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture6.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8618572/v1/a3a0701aa343c6040bf66b73.jpg"},{"id":101943591,"identity":"19058cc7-f1b6-4d21-850d-b4edf6da8a0f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-05 09:42:26","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2202563,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8618572/v1/796953dd-6538-41d5-a43e-3652d924ec25.pdf"},{"id":101940264,"identity":"9bc608c6-65e7-4dd5-b681-18b8b8a61348","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-05 09:13:28","extension":"docx","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":1349303,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"SupplemetaryMaterials.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8618572/v1/cc49f1dfe5d8389ba092ea6f.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Applications of Expanded Polystyrene and its Cost-time Advantage on Building Construction (Case study)","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe construction industry, crucial to any nation's economy, influences diverse sectors and aspects of development, with rapid growth necessitating innovation in housing design, technology, materials, and construction methods [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. Since 2001, Ethiopia's construction industry has seen remarkable growth, with its Gross Domestic Product (GDP) contribution rising to 5.6%, nearing the sub-Saharan average of 6%. Gross Domestic Capital Formation (GDCF) has surged from 60% in 1996/97 to almost 75% in 2002. Additionally, it ranks as the 6th largest contributor to infrastructure stock in Africa, following South Africa, Egypt, Morocco, Algeria, and Nigeria [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. Among emerging technologies and materials, expanded polystyrene sheet (EPS) geo-foam's notable properties, including water resistance, non-biodegradability, and ease of transportation and installation, have garnered attention, especially in regions with resource constraints [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. Integration of MMC, such as prefabrication and EPS geo-foam, not only addresses resource limitations but also reduces costs, CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e emissions, and energy consumption, facilitating faster construction and meeting housing demands [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. Ethiopia's development stands to benefit from these approaches, promising to advance the construction sector, drive economic growth, and promote sustainable development aligned with global environmental goals [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. The broad appeal of EPS geofoam lies in its outstanding features, including water resistance, non-biodegradability, eco-friendliness, easy transport and installation without special equipment, and compressibility [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. The use of EPS is one of the materials introduced in the Ethiopian construction industry [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. Polystyrene, derived from styrene polymerization, finds application in packaging electronics, food, and constructing houses, requiring polymerization into Expanded Polystyrene blocks for house building due to its lightweight nature [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. Various types and sizes of polystyrene are utilized in building construction, commonly for wall panels and slabs, necessitating mesh for erection, while EPS blocks, typically 3000 mm long, 1200 mm wide, and 100 mm thick, serve as reinforcement for wall panels [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. Expanded Polystyrene embedded in Concrete and Steel Reinforcement (EPSCSR) walls ensure comfort through effective heating, cooling, and sound insulation, with EPS's low thermal conductivity reducing energy consumption by up to 60\u0026ndash;80%, while the external concrete layer provides protection against pests and moisture, diverging from conventional brick structures [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. EPS is among the most important plastic materials, with more than 30 years of application in various functions. EPS is favored in construction for its lightweight, cost-effectiveness, and sustainability, offering enhanced strength, thermal insulation, fire resistance, soundproofing, water resistance, and durability against earthquakes and storms, alongside recyclability and environmental friendliness [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. EPS, is a 100% recyclable and environmentally friendly, undergoes four stages such as mechanical crushing, dissolving, slurry filtration, and polystyrene precipitation to manage its bulky, highly mobile nature, given its composition of 98% air and 2% polystyrene [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e].The study proposes dissolving EPS in supercritical solvents as a cost-effective and efficient waste management method, indicating its potential as a sustainable construction material devoid of chlorofluorocarbons, with one application being its use as a wood adhesive alternative to traditional options [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. In the construction industry, delays caused by factors like rising overhead, costs, and material degradation, pose significant challenges. Thus, to address this, countries like Ethiopia, allocating substantial budgets to construction, must adopt modern methods, including prefabrication and modularization, alongside exploring alternative materials [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. EPS, an industry innovation, improves productivity and quality, shortening construction time and reducing costs by eliminating lengthy concrete curing and streamlining assembly [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. EPS construction boasts up to 30% cost reduction and 50% time saving compared to conventional methods, utilizing scaffoldings for concrete work while eliminating the need for cranes and formwork [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. EPS, a rigid, closed-cell foam plastic, offers low thermal conductivity, compressive strength, lightness, and inertness, serving as a versatile building material or design element and adaptable to various household applications, all derived from its resin form [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e]. The resin, containing pentane gas (C\u003csub\u003e5\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e12\u003c/sub\u003e), safely releases it during expansion, where with steam addition, the EPS resin expands up to 40% of its original size [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]. The cost of manufacturing an EPS is considered linearly proportional to its density [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]. EPS properties, including insulation and mechanical strength, are density-dependent, while cushioning characteristics in foam packaging rely more on molded part geometry than density or bead size [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec2\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e1.1. Physical Properties of Expanded Polystyrene\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe EPS Manual in India outlines EPS as a versatile material with low thermal conductivity and high compressive strength, suitable for diverse building and household applications, expanding up to 40% of its original size during resin processing with the release of pentane gas [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. The expanded pellets are transferred into a block molder, where EPS density serves as the primary determinant of most properties [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe compressive, shear, tensile, and flexural strengths, as well as stiffness and other mechanical characteristics, are contingent upon the density [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]. EPS's mechanical properties improve with density, while cushioning characteristics in foam packaging are mainly influenced by molded part geometry, and to a lesser extent, bead size and processing conditions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]. According to Indian Standard (IS), 46711984 and ASTMC578-95 density of EPS shallbe 15, 20, 25, 30 or 35 kg/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]. EPS concrete serves as an energy-absorbing material for protecting buried military structures and specific constructions subject to long-term cyclic loading, with requisite strength and durability standards [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e1.2. Structural Components of EPS Construction\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eBezawit Schnell's factory in Bahir Dar city uses EPS and galvanized steel wire to produce wall, slab, roof, and stair panels, emphasizing efficiency and durability .\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEPS, often used in wall panels and slabs with steel meshes, reinforces structures by transferring forces, with concrete layers protecting reinforcements and reflecting the growing adoption of plastic in civil construction for durability, efficiency, and insulation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e1.3. Connection Details of EPS Building Construction\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eUsing steel bars to connect EPS components in building construction can simplify the process, offering flexibility and ease of assembly while providing structural integrity. Schnell Home, an Italian company, likely offers various connection details adapted to different EPS building components, ensuring stability, durability, and ease of assembly for builders with specific project needs [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e1.4. Durability of EPS\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe dispute over EPS durability persists despite limited studies, but evidence suggests EPS concrete may resist chemical and sulfate attacks better than plain concrete, highlighting its value for further investigation in addressing durability challenges [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e]. Thus, the aim of this study was to assess the use of EPS as a building construction material, a two-story building incorporating EPS as a construction panels.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"2. Research Methodology and Expermentation","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn the comparative study, the time and cost implications of using EPS in construction projects were assessed, providing valuable insights for decision-makers. Due to delays in project submissions and contract agreements, purposive sampling was adopted. A single G\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;1 office model building was selected, and 30 samples were prepared for laboratory testing, including 12 for structural tests and 18 for non-structural tests. This approach ensured a comprehensive analysis of EPS building materials compared with conventional materials.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1. Data Collection Method\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1.1. Observation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThrough direct observation during data collection, valuable insights were gained into production processes, assembly techniques, efficiency, quality control, and distinctive aspects of EPS construction in both factory and building projects.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1.2. Interview\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eInterviews were conducted with shopkeepers in current market centers and with EPS manufacturer representatives in Bahir Dar city to collect firsthand data on the costs of conventional construction materials and the challenges associated with transferring EPS building technology, thereby providing valuable insights from key stakeholders in the construction industry.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1.3. Document review\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrucial documents obtained from Bezawit Schnell\u0026rsquo;s factory, including drawings, cost breakdowns, and building codes, were examined, providing detailed insights into EPS construction materials, processes, technical aspects, and regulatory requirements and facilitating a comprehensive understanding of EPS building technology.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1.4. Laboratory tests\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eLaboratory tests were conducted on EPS materials, including compressive strength, flexural strength, dimensional stability, water absorption, and flammability, to investigate their physical and mechanical properties, thereby supporting the evaluation of their suitability and durability for construction applications.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2. Test Methods And Procedures\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.1. Compressive strength of reinforced EPS\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eEPS panels with Type I (15 kg m⁻\u0026sup3;) and Type VIII (18 kg m⁻\u0026sup3;) densities were selected from the SHENEL Home Factory for testing in accordance with ASTM C578-95, which classifies EPS based on density. These density classes are directly comparable to the Ethiopian standard, as it is derived from ASTM specifications. This selection ensured that the test results were both relevant and reliable for evaluating the suitability of EPS panels for construction applications in the Ethiopian context.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.2. Flexural strength test\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFlexural strength testing was conducted in accordance with ASTM standards to ensure consistency and reliability in the evaluation of EPS panels. EPS panels with Type I and Type XIII densities were selected to assess their performance under bending loads and to allow comparison with established benchmarks.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.3. Water absorption test\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe water absorption test was conducted in accordance with ASTM C272-12 to ensure standardized evaluation of the water absorption characteristics of EPS panels. Three samples were prepared with dimensions of 75 mm \u0026times; 75 mm \u0026times; 80 mm and 75 mm \u0026times; 75 mm \u0026times; 200 mm, ensuring consistency and repeatability of the test results.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.4. Test of flammability\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFlammability (flame spread) testing was conducted in accordance with ASTM E84. Three test specimens were prepared using a hot wire cutter with dimensions of 200 \u0026times; 25 \u0026times; 80 mm and 200 \u0026times; 25 \u0026times; 200 mm and were marked at 50 mm and 75 mm from one end. The specimens were conditioned at a temperature of 27\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2\u0026deg;C and a relative humidity of 65\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5% for at least 48 h prior to testing. This procedure was applied to each EPS density category evaluated.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.5. Dimensional Stability Test\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe dimensional stability test was conducted in accordance with ASTM D1204, which specifies a maximum allowable dimensional change of 2% for all types of expanded polystyrene panels.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3. Preparation of EPS Model Buildings\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe construction cost and time associated with EPS were examined in comparison with traditional methods, including reinforced cement concrete (RCC) and hollow concrete block (HCB) systems. Various components of the G\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;1 office building of the Bezawit Schnell Home Building Prefabrication Factory were analyzed to estimate construction costs and durations. These estimates were then compared with those of RCC and HCB systems to evaluate the cost-effectiveness and efficiency of EPS construction. The analysis accounted for material and labor costs, construction timeframes, and other relevant factors to ensure a comprehensive comparison.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3.1. Design of conventional building\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe conventional building design was developed based on the drawings of the EPS model, with structural elements such as columns, beams, and slabs incorporated using traditional materials, including reinforcement bars, concrete, steel, and timber. The dimensions of these elements were determined by structural engineers.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3.2. Preparation of takeoff sheet and BOQ\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA detailed takeoff sheet was prepared for the selected building model to itemize all required materials, including EPS panels, steel reinforcement, concrete, and associated components. Unit rates for each item were calculated for both EPS and conventional construction methods, and a bill of quantities was generated to enable a comprehensive comparison of material quantities and costs. Costs of conventional materials were obtained from market surveys and construction sites, providing accurate insights into cost differences between the two construction approaches.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4. Time Estimation Methods\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eDue to limited scheduling data for the selected construction project, the construction duration of the EPS building was estimated using a baseline of 70 working days. For conventional construction, an aerial estimation method was applied to determine the maximum and average number of workers per activity. Activity durations were estimated using hourly construction productivity rates per crew obtained from BaTCoDA, based on worker numbers and productivity values. Despite the absence of detailed scheduling data for EPS construction, a comparison of total project durations was conducted. The use of standardized productivity rates and crew size estimates for conventional construction provided insights into the time efficiency of both construction methods.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e\u003cem\u003e2.4.1.\u003c/em\u003e Parametric \u003cem\u003eestimating\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eActivity durations were quantitatively estimated by multiplying work quantities by productivity rates. Total resource quantities were then divided by the number of resources applied to determine activity durations per working period, based on labor hours or production capacity [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e \u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\text{D}\\text{u}\\text{r}\\text{a}\\text{t}\\text{i}\\text{o}\\text{n}\\:\\left(\\text{D}\\right)=\\frac{\\text{Q}\\text{u}\\text{a}\\text{n}\\text{t}\\text{i}\\text{t}\\text{y}}{\\text{D}\\text{a}\\text{i}\\text{l}\\text{y}\\:\\text{p}\\text{r}\\text{o}\\text{d}\\text{u}\\text{c}\\text{t}\\text{i}\\text{o}\\text{n}\\:\\text{r}\\text{a}\\text{t}\\text{e}\\:\\:}\\)\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;....................... \u0026hellip;... 1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec23\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4.2. Three point estimates\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIncorporating risk into the original estimate enhanced the accuracy of activity duration estimates, which is fundamental to the three-point estimation method [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eMost likely\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe duration of a scheduled activity is determined by factors such as the resources assigned, their productivity, and realistic expectations of availability, which may be affected by other participants and potential interruptions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eOptimistic\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe activity duration is based on the best-case scenario represented by the most likely estimate.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003ePessimistic\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe duration of the scheduled activity was determined by factors such as the resources assigned, their productivity, and realistic expectations of availability, which may be affected by coordination with other participants and potential interruptions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec24\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4.3. Methods of number of workers estimation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe relationship between workforce size and available workspace was recognized as critical for construction planning and logistics. In the trapezoidal geometry model, worker numbers increased during the ramp-up phase as activities intensified, and stabilized during the active phase to maximize productivity, and gradually decreased during the final phase as work focused on finishing and inspection activities (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhere,\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eW\u003csub\u003eav\u003c/sub\u003e = average number of workers\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eW\u003csub\u003emax\u003c/sub\u003e = maximum number of workers\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe following formulas are used for the numbers of workers and the average working space, model selected building of conventional construction.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"No\" id=\"Taba\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\text{W}\\text{S}\\text{a}\\text{v}\\:=\\frac{\\text{W}\\text{S}\\text{T}}{}\\text{W}\\text{m}\\text{a}\\text{x}\\:\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;..................................... 2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWS\u003csub\u003eT\u003c/sub\u003e = F\u003csub\u003ew\u003c/sub\u003e*N\u003csub\u003est\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;. \u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;.. \u003cb\u003e3\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eF\u003csub\u003ew\u003c/sub\u003e= W\u003csub\u003eav\u003c/sub\u003e/W\u003csub\u003emax \u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;.... \u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip; \u003cb\u003e4\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW\u003csub\u003eav\u003c/sub\u003e =F\u003csub\u003ew\u003c/sub\u003e *W\u003csub\u003emax\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip; \u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;.. \u003cb\u003e5\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\:\\:\\text{W}\\text{a}\\text{v}=\\:\\frac{\\text{W}\\text{m}\\text{i}\\text{n}+18}{2}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip; 6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eWhere\u003c/b\u003e,\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWS\u003csub\u003eav\u003c/sub\u003e = average working space\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWS\u003csub\u003eT\u003c/sub\u003e = total working space\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eW\u003csub\u003emax\u003c/sub\u003e = maximum number of workers.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eW\u003csub\u003eav\u003c/sub\u003e = average number of workers\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e \u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\text{D}\\text{i}\\text{f}\\text{f}\\text{e}\\text{r}\\text{e}\\text{n}\\text{c}\\text{e}\\:\\left(\\text{\\%}\\right)=\\frac{\\left(\\text{c}\\text{o}\\text{s}\\text{t}\\:\\text{o}\\text{f}\\:\\text{c}\\text{o}\\text{n}\\text{v}\\text{e}\\text{n}\\text{t}\\text{i}\\text{o}\\text{n}\\text{a}\\text{l}\\:\\text{c}\\text{o}\\text{n}\\text{s}\\text{t}\\text{r}\\text{u}\\text{c}\\text{t}\\text{i}\\text{o}\\text{n}\\:-\\text{c}\\text{o}\\text{s}\\text{t}\\:\\text{o}\\text{f}\\:\\text{E}\\text{P}\\text{S}\\:\\text{c}\\text{o}\\text{n}\\text{s}\\text{t}\\text{r}\\text{u}\\text{c}\\text{t}\\text{i}\\text{o}\\text{n}\\right)\\text{*}100\\:}{\\text{c}\\text{o}\\text{s}\\text{t}\\:\\text{o}\\text{f}\\:\\text{c}\\text{o}\\text{n}\\text{v}\\text{e}\\text{n}\\text{t}\\text{i}\\text{o}\\text{n}\\text{a}\\text{l}\\:\\:\\text{c}\\text{o}\\text{n}\\text{s}\\text{t}\\text{r}\\text{u}\\text{c}\\text{t}\\text{i}\\text{o}\\text{n}\\:}\\)\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;.. \u003cb\u003e7\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAfter the maximum and average number of workers estimated for each construction activity, the maximum and average durations of the activities were estimated.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results and Discussions","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec26\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1. Cost Comparison of EPS Made and Conventional Building\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnit rates for EPS products and conventional construction were derived from different sources, and bills of quantities were prepared for both methods. Percentage cost differences were calculated by subtracting EPS costs from conventional construction costs and dividing by the latter. Costs for masonry and metal works were comparable between the two methods. However, EPS construction was substantially more expensive in wall, roofing, and finishing works, by 121.51%, 44.3%, and 45.7%, respectively. These increases were primarily attributed to additional requirements such as concrete cover and damp-proofing in EPS roofing, compared with the use of IGA sheets and roof trusses in conventional construction. Finishing works in EPS construction, particularly plastering, incurred higher costs due to increased concrete and mortar requirements. In contrast, excavation, concrete works, and carpentry were 42.56%, 76.13%, and 15.3% less costly, respectively, than in conventional construction. Overall, EPS construction demonstrated greater cost efficiency, with a total cost reduction of 1,688,082.04 ETB, corresponding to a 30.92% savings relative to conventional methods. The accompanying graph illustrates cost variations between the two construction approaches across different work categories (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec27\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2. Construction Time Comparison of EPS and Conventional Construction\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFactory records indicate that the model office building was completed in 70 working days, whereas conventional construction was projected to require 129 days based on Monte Carlo simulation results (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e \u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\%=\\frac{129\\:\\text{d}\\text{a}\\text{y}\\text{s}-70\\:\\text{d}\\text{a}\\text{y}\\text{s}\\:}{129\\:\\text{d}\\text{a}\\text{y}\\text{s}\\:}*100\\)\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/span\u003e = 45.7%\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis indicates that EPS building construction saves construction time compared to the conventional construction by 45.7%.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003e3.3. Laboratory Test Results\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003col\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eCompressive strength properties of reinforced eps panels\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003c/ol\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe classification of EPS by density varies across national standards. The Indian standard (IS 4671:1984) classifies EPS at densities of 15, 20, 25, 30, and 35 kg m⁻\u0026sup3;, whereas ASTM C578-95 categorizes EPS at 12, 15, 18, 22, and 29 kg m⁻\u0026sup3;, designated as Types XI, I, VIII, II, and X. As the Ethiopian standard is derived from ASTM specifications, the ASTM classification system was adopted in this study. Accordingly, EPS panels with Type I (15 kg m⁻\u0026sup3;) and Type VIII (18 kg m⁻\u0026sup3;) densities were selected for testing. Three specimens from each density category were reinforced with 3 mm zinc-coated wire mesh and encased in 35 mm of concrete. Compressive strength was measured after 28 days of curing, providing reliable data for assessing the structural suitability of EPS panels for construction applications (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eB.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003eFlexural strength test results\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFlexural strength testing was conducted using a three-point loading configuration with two supports and a centrally applied vertical load. For the 18 kg m⁻\u0026sup3; density panels, Sample 2 recorded the highest flexural strength (47.58 kN), while Sample 3 exhibited the lowest value (33.12 kN). In the 15 kg m⁻\u0026sup3; density panels, the maximum and minimum flexural strengths were 35.26 kN and 22.78 kN, respectively (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). These results demonstrate a clear density-dependent variation in flexural performance, indicating flexural strength as a critical parameter for assessing the bending resistance and structural suitability of EPS panels in construction applications[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eC. Water absorption test results\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWater absorption testing demonstrated excellent moisture resistance of the EPS panels. The 15 kg m⁻\u0026sup3; density wall panel exhibited a water absorption of 0.06%, which is well below the ASTM C272-12 limit of 4%. Similarly, the 18 kg m⁻\u0026sup3; density slab and roof panel showed a water absorption of only 0.03%, far below the ASTM maximum of 3%. These results confirm the high resistance of EPS panels to moisture ingress, supporting their durability and suitability for construction applications requiring long-term moisture performance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eD. Dimensional stability test results\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe dimensional stability test results provide critical insight into the thermal performance of EPS panels. The 15 kg m⁻\u0026sup3; density wall panel exhibited a dimensional change of 5.67% after 7 days at 70\u0026deg;C, exceeding the ASTM D1204 maximum allowable limit of 2% (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e). Similarly, the 18 kg m⁻\u0026sup3; density slab and roof panel showed a dimensional change of 3.33%, which also surpassed the standard threshold. These findings indicate that dimensional stability under high temperatures is strongly influenced by EPS density, underscoring the need to consider density effects when evaluating EPS panels for construction applications[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eE. Flammability test results\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccording to ASTM E84, a material is classified as self-extinguishing if flame propagation ceases once the ignition source is removed. Flame spread testing of EPS specimens marked at 50 mm and 75 mm showed no flame propagation beyond 75 mm. This behavior indicates self-extinguishing characteristics, supporting the suitability of EPS as a fire-safe material for construction applications.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec28\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4. The Challenges of Adopting EPS Building Technology\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe adoption of EPS construction technology in Ethiopia faces several challenges, particularly in production and on-site assembly. Technical constraints related to manufacturing processes and panel installation were identified through interviews with industry practitioners. Adapting conventional construction practices to EPS systems often disrupts workflow and increases costs, further compounded by limited stakeholder familiarity with the technology and concerns regarding material quality. In addition, a shortage of skilled designers highlights the need for targeted training and capacity-building initiatives. Constraints in foreign currency availability hinder access to imported raw materials, introducing further logistical and supply-chain challenges. Addressing these barriers requires coordinated efforts among government institutions, the private sector, and educational organizations to provide technical support, training, and policy facilitation for the effective integration of EPS technology into the Ethiopian construction sector.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study demonstrates that EPS represents a cost-effective and time-efficient alternative for building construction in Ethiopia, particularly for low-rise structures. Compared with conventional construction methods, EPS construction achieved an overall cost reduction of approximately 31% and a time savings of about 45.7%, emphasizing its economic and operational advantages. The physical and mechanical properties of EPS panels generally complied with relevant international standards, confirming their technical suitability for construction applications. However, challenges related to consistency in product quality among EPS manufacturing facilities in Bahir Dar city were identified, indicating the need for improved quality control and standardization. Despite these limitations, the findings suggest that, with continued research, capacity building, and effective production and project management, EPS technology has considerable potential to enhance construction efficiency and affordability in Ethiopia. Its broader adoption could contribute meaningfully to the modernization of building practices and support sustainable development initiatives within the country.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003cp\u003eASTM \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; American Socity for Testing and Materials\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCo\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Carbon die Oxide\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEPS \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Exbanded Polystrene\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHCB \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Hollow Concrete Block\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEPSCSR \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Exbanded Polystrene Concrete and Steel Reinforcement\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGDCF \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Gross Domostic Capital Formulation\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGDP \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Gross Domostic Capital\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eKN \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Killo Newton\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMPa \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Mega Pascal\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRCC \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Reinfored Cement Concrete\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Availability\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe data supporting the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDeclaration Statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that this research article titled \u003cem\u003e“Applications of Expanded Polystyrene and its Cost-Time Advantage on Building Construction”\u003c/em\u003e is an original work and has not been published previously, nor is it under consideration for publication elsewhere. No conflict of interest exists with respect to the authorship, research, or publication of this article. All data, analyses, and interpretations presented in this study are the result of the authors’ independent research efforts.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study did not involve any experiments , the use of human tissue samples, or the collection of personal or identifiable human data.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cstrong\u003eCompliance with Guidelines and Regulations\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll methods employed in this study were carried out in accordance with relevant guidelines, standards, and regulations applicable to building construction research and material performance analysis. The assessment of Expanded Polystyrene (EPS) applications, as well as the cost–time evaluation, was conducted using established engineering practices, published technical standards, and scientifically accepted analytical approaches.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eExperimental Protocols\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll experimental protocols and analytical procedures conducted in this study on the applications of Expanded Polystyrene (EPS) and its cost–time advantages in building construction were reviewed and approved by the\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;Debre Markos University,\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eDepartment of Construction Technology and Management\u003c/strong\u003e in accordance with relevant institutional, national, and international guidelines and regulations.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent of Human Subjects\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInformed consent was obtained from all participants for data collection through interview and observation. As this research is a case study takes place in Bezawit SHENELhome factory, there is a full consent of this company.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflicts of Interest\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/strong\u003eThe authors confirm that that there are no conflicts of interest.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding statement \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThere is no fund provided for this work.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor Contributions (CRediT taxonomy):\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTesfaw Yemru:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eConceptualization, methodology, investigation, data curation, formal analysis, visualization, software, validation, writing original draft, and writing and editing.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAsregedew Woldesenbet (PhD):\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eSupervision and editing. Both authors reviewed and approved the final version of the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Authers thank Bezawit SHENEL home factory for thire support of taking EPS samples. Authers also would like to thank Debre Markos University \u0026nbsp;for helping us for taking laboratory works\u003cstrong\u003e.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAkadiri, P. O., Chinyio, E. A. \u0026amp; Olomolaiye, P. O. 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(Basel)\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cb\u003e12\u003c/b\u003e (18). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.3390/ma12182882\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3390/ma12182882\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e (2019).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAgyei, W. \u0026amp; Project Planning And Scheduling Using PERT And CPM Techniques With Linear Programming. Case Study. \u003cem\u003eInt. J. Sci. Technol. Res.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e4\u003c/b\u003e (08), 8 (2015). [Online]. Available: www.ijstr.org.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBolotov, M. A., Pechenin, V. A., Ruzanov, N. V. \u0026amp; Pronichev, N. D. Information model for estimate of the geometric parameters between the surfaces trapezoidal shape in the measurements of compressor blades of GTE, \u003cem\u003e2015 5th Int. Work. Comput. Sci. Eng. Inf. Process. Control Eng. WCSE 2015-IPCE\u003c/em\u003e, pp. 208\u0026ndash;212, (2015). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.18178/wcse.2015.04.034\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.18178/wcse.2015.04.034\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eUbi, S. E., Ewa, D. E., Bessong, A. R. \u0026amp; Nyah, E. D. Effects of Incorporating Expanded Polystyrene in Concrete Construction, pp. 79\u0026ndash;101, (2022). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.4236/jbcpr.2022.103004\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.4236/jbcpr.2022.103004\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Cost-effectiveness, EPS, Polystyrene, Time efficiency","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8618572/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8618572/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003eBackground\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eVolatility in construction material costs and the continued reliance on labor-intensive, time-consuming conventional building practices present significant challenges to the construction industry, necessitating the adoption of alternative materials and efficient construction systems.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003ePurpose\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study aimed to evaluate the technical performance, cost efficiency, and construction time implications of using expanded polystyrene (EPS) panels as a primary building construction material.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethods\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA model two-story building incorporating EPS-based construction panels was analyzed and systematically compared with a conventional construction system in terms of cost, construction duration, mechanical performance, and durability-related properties.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe EPS construction system demonstrated substantial advantages, achieving cost savings of 30.9% and construction time reductions of 45.7% relative to conventional methods. Mechanical testing showed compressive strengths of 9.3 MPa and 17.1 MPa for EPS panels with densities of 15 kg/m\u0026sup3; and 18 kg/m\u0026sup3;, respectively, surpassing the performance of traditional hollow concrete block wall systems. Corresponding flexural strengths were 30.2 kN and 41.5 kN, indicating satisfactory load-bearing capacity for low-rise structures. EPS panels also exhibited low water absorption and self-extinguishing behavior, enhancing durability and fire safety. However, dimensional instability and susceptibility to shrinkage at elevated temperatures (~\u0026thinsp;70\u0026deg;C) were identified as key limitations.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusions\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eEPS panels offer a cost-effective, time-efficient, and structurally viable alternative for building construction, provided that thermal and dimensional constraints are adequately addressed. Future studies should focus on improving the thermal stability and long-term dimensional performance of EPS-based construction systems.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Applications of Expanded Polystyrene and its Cost-time Advantage on Building Construction (Case study)","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-02-05 09:11:17","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8618572/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"01773372-9fd5-4867-b29e-dc167380eb7f","owner":[],"postedDate":"February 5th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":62251897,"name":"Physical sciences/Engineering"},{"id":62251898,"name":"Physical sciences/Materials science"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-02-05T09:12:15+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-02-05 09:11:17","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8618572","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8618572","identity":"rs-8618572","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}