Evaluation of physicochemical and microbiological quality of Srou river in the middle atlas – Morocco

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This crisis is due to the succession of drought years in the region. The superficial and groundwater resources quality is usually affected by pollution rejected from domestic and industrial wastewater which often contains organic matter, pathogens and chemicals; the leakage of fertilizers and phytosanitary products used in agriculture and the erosion of soils which can also be an important factor whose role is to transport sediments and pollutants. This pollution affects directly the health of the aquatic ecosystem. Therefore, it is important to monitor and supervise the quality of surface water to ensure the safety of human consuming and protect the health of aquatic ecosystems. This work is based on evaluation of the surface water quality of Srou river by examining several samples taken at six different locations along the Wadi during the following period from August 2021 to May 2022 by measuring various parameters physicochemical and microbiological, including temperature, Hydrogen potential, electrical conductivity, turbidity, dissolved oxygen, hardness, alkalinity, nitrite, orthophosphate, sulfate, E. coli, fecal coliforms and fecal streptococci. These samples have been analyzed using the guidelines of the water quality assessment techniques described by Rodier (2009) and the World Health Organization recommendations. The results showed a slight increase after each extraction in term of electrical conductivity and water hardness, however all the parameters tested are within the norm and the water quality from the source till station 6 is of good quality. management quality surface water Srou river water resource Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 Figure 12 Figure 13 Introduction Water covers a significant part of Earth’s surface, mostly in ocean form. Whilst freshwater is scarce, it is crucial for all living beings. Water also has great importance for humanity from a cultural, political, and economic aspect. The water demand and supply has been always people’s primary concern (Marković, 2023 ). For the last five decades, Morocco has been optimizing the capture of freshwater and providing it for agricultural usage, drinking water supplies, industrialization, and energy generation. (World Water Council, 2018 ). Not to mention that climate change is expected to have serious effects on river ecosystems, water characteristics and levels, inundation occurrences, alterations in wetted areas and natural habitats. (Brown, Milner, & Hannah, 2010 ). Consequently, with the growth of human population and economic activities, water is becoming limited which should be used wisely in conjunction with precipitation that become unpredictable due to climate change (Trenberth, Dai, Rasmussen, & Parsons, 2003 ). These changes impact negatively the environment. Effective surveillance of surface water's physicochemical and microbiological parameters can help avoid river pollution (Haque, Jewel, & Sultana, 2019 ). Fecal pollution in aquatic areas is critical for maintaining an adequate ecosystem for both recreational and economic purposes (Anderson, Whitlock, & Harwood, 2005 ). This evaluation of the quality and quantity of surface water craves more attention, with the fast growth of population and industries more and more pollution generated causing the diminution of the clean water levels (“Water pollution from agriculture: A global review—Executive summary,” n.d.). Water quality is critically important for human health, as well as the quantity and quality of agriculture products, due to the way it affects soils, crops, and the environment. (Van Der Hoek, Konradsen, Ensink, Mudasser, & Jensen, 2001 ). The basin of the wadi of Srou, one of the tributaries of the wadi Oum Er Rbia, in the high basin of the Middle Atlas, which experiences substantial annual and inter-annual hydro-climatic fluctuation due to its geographical location, lithological constitutions, and structures (Chakir, Ghadbane, & Ghachi, 2023 ; Elbouqdaoui, Ezzine, Zahraoui, Rouchdi, & Badraoui, 2017 ; Jihad, 2005 ). The surface water quality of the wadi Srou depends on the influence of the mining activities located along the wadi, these activities can have important effects on the water quality, the lithology drained by this watercourse as well as a fraction caused by the influence of the agricultural activity located on the banks of this watercourse, the domestic and industrial influence is existing but minimal, all these factors contribute by different shares, with the mining activity holding the biggest influence. Material and methods 1.1 Study area: Srou basin is the principal feeder of the high Oum Er Rbia. The river is located in the south west of the central Middle Atlas in the province of Khenifra, the watershed covers an area of 1443 Km2 between longitudes 5 ° 05' and 5° 50' west and latitudes 32° 35' and 33° north. The basin is limited to the west by the Hercynian massif, to the north by the causse d’Ajdir and to the southeast by the plain of the upper Moulouya. Wadi Srou is one of the main tributaries of the wadi Oum Er Rbia. It flows from north-east to south-west (Chakir et al., 2023 ). The Chbouka wadi, is situated on the right side. Mountainous in character, the basin has a difference in level between 700 m downstream and 2350 m upstream (Fig. 1 ). This semi-arid to sub-humid region characterized by a Mediterranean climate, which defined by temperate, humid winters and hot and dry summers (Elbouqdaoui et al., n.d.; Jihad, 2005 ). The geological structures of the region, ranging from the Paleozoic to the Quaternary, formed by rocks of varying facies and strength: Cretaceous sub-tabular limestones, Liassic dolomitic limestones, doleritic basalts and Triassic red clays, as well as Paleozoic shales, sandstones and quartzites(Boumalkha et al., 2022 ). The alteration of these various formations and their pedogenetic evolution have given several types of soils: soils not very evolved from alluvial and/or colluvial contribution which are very frequent, vertisols, calcimagnesic soils and isohumic soils rather deep in the valleys and the relatively stable flat areas, and fersiallitic soils and fersiallitic soils under forests and on ancient terraces (Elbouqdaoui et al., n.d.). 1.2 Sampling and analysis: Water samples is collected from six different locations along the watercourse, the aforementioned stations strategically chosen after each extraction site (Table 1 ) to evaluate the effects of the mining activities on the water quality of Wadi Srou. It is crucial to know that all the mining activities in the region along the Wadi are destined to produce construction materials such as cement and gravel… Table 1 location of the sampling stations Stations location longitude Latitude S1 Situated upstream before any quarry installations (reference station). 32°59’54.7’’N 005°39’13.1’’W S2 After the first extraction site and before the second quarry 32°48’36.8’’N 005°34’23.8’’W S3 located after the second quarry 32°49’07.6’’N 005°35’10.2’’W S4 located after the third quarry 32°49’24;1’’N 005°35’34.2’’W S5 Located after the fourth quarry 32°50’02.2’’N 005°36’36.1’’W S6 the final station chosen at the level of the last quarry, while descending towards the downstream of the wadi 32°49’51.9’’N 005°37’09.9’’W The samples were taking monthly from September 2021 to May 2022 and transported in bottles pre-rinsed with the Wadi water. Some parameters were measured in site such as temperature (T), PH, electrical conductivity (EC), dissolved oxygen (DO), using a portable multipara-meter meter (Hach HQ). The other samples are conserved at 4°C and transported to the laboratory of the Higher School of Technology to be analyzed. 1.3 Physicochemical parameters 1.3.1 Water hardness by titration with EDTA Water hardness measured using titration with ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) to determine calcium and magnesium salts dissolved in water. To determine it, we take 100ml of the sample and we add 5ml of buffer solution (PH 10), 3 drops of black Eriochrom T, which colors the solution in dark red or violet. We fill the burette with the solution we prepared and we start the titration until the coloration change into bleu which is mean all the Ca²+ and Mg²+ ions have been complexed by the EDTA (0,02N). The results expressed in mill-equivalents of concentration or in French degrees (f°). 1.3.2 Alkalinity Alkalinity measured by titrating the water sample with a strong acid (HCL 0,02N) to a designated titration endpoint. - Alkali strength: Add 1 to 2 drops of phenolphthalein indicator to 100 ml of sample water. If the coloration doesn’t turn pink it means PH < 8,3 and AS = 0. - Complete alkali strength: During the precedent test if there was no coloration (AS = 0), the same sample can be used for the CAS. To the 100ml of the sample, we add 2 drops of methyl orange indicator and we titrate with the same acid previously used until we reach a titration endpoint to a pink color. The final volume is expressed in ml is the volume of the titrated acid minus 0,5ml needed to reach the titration endpoint as it exceeds the PH needed to neutralize the bicarbonate. 1.3.3 Nitrite determination by Zambelli method We start by sampling 5 ml of water then we add 0.2 ml of ZAMBELLI reagent. Then after 10 min we add 0.2 ml of pure ammoniac. Then the reading effected with the spectrometer at the wavelength of 435 nm. To calculate the concentration of nitrite (Cn), first we prepare a range of standard samples in nitrites then we measured the absorbance at 435nm of each solution, we present the abortion results in the graph A = f(C) to find the concentration of our sample. To get the effective concentration we multiply the concentration found by the inverse of the dilution coefficient. 1.3.4 Orthophosphate determination We sample 20ml of water then we add 4ml of the reagent already prepared, complied with distilled water until 25ml then we wait 20 min and we measured the sample with the spectrometer at 690nm. To calculate the concentration, we used the same method by calibration curve explicated in the nitrate determination. 1.3.5 Sulphate determination We add 0,5ml of hydrochloric acid 1/10 and 0,5 ml of barium chloride solution + tween 20 To 19,5 of sample water to analyze then after 15 min we measured the wavelength at 650nm. We use the same method in upper to calculate the effective concentration. Results and discussion The physico-chemical and microbiological results characteristics of each station presented in the following figures. 2.1 Physico-chemical 2.1.1 Temperature: The Fig. 2 shows the values of each station in different periods according to the time of sampling, as the recorded data shows the watercourse temperatures follow the same variations as the ambient temperatures in the region throughout the year. This indicates the absence of any external factor that might influence the temperatures. 2.1.2 Hydrogen potential (PH) : The PH values taken on site (Fig. 3 ) show a general spatiotemporal constancy throughout the different sites. The pic value in S1 December can be explained by a fault in the measuring electrode as the low temperature of water may have influenced it. However, in all the stations the PH varies between 7.6 and 8.9 these alkaline values are due to the calcious nature of the terrain, the abundance of CACO3 increases the PH of the water. 2.1.3 Electrical conductivity (EC) The values shown in Fig. 4 follow the same pattern, in the dry season the concentration of minerals in the water increase so does the electrical conductivity, as soon as the rainy season starts the concentration of minerals diminishes so does the electrical conductivity values. 2.1.4 Dissolved Oxygen (DO) The data on the oxygenation of water is excellent (Fig. 5 ), these high measures can be explained by the total absence of any human activity involving organic matter or any large settlements. Another factor contributes to this high-quality aspect is that the wadi is of a small depth, which allows the sun to reach the entire submerged surface. 2.1.5 Hardness In general, the water hardness values presented in (Fig. 6 ) increase after each extraction site, this increase is logical as the sites produce construction materials based essentially on calcious and calcareous products. The intensive mining activities and the natural geological formations in the wadi justify the very high hardness values found in the samples taken from every station. 2.1.6 Alkalinity: The Fig. 7 shows a variation of values between 10 °f (10 °f corresponds to an alkalinity level of 100 mg/L as CaCO3) to 24 °f (240 mg/L as CaCO3) which can have a negative impact on plant growth. These values can be justified by the geological structures of the study area depending on the type of rock and minerals present. It is important to note that the Moroccan standards does not impose a standard for alkalinity. 2.1.7 Nitrite: The concentration of nitrite in the Fig. 8 shows a maximum of 0,12 mg/l which considering generally not harmful to aquatic life. The high concentration found in the two first stations of September can be justified by the presence of agricultural fields near the watercourse; applying fertilizers or organic matter can increase the nitrogen content in water. 2.1.8 Orthophosphate: Orthophosphates are generally not dangerous to aquatic life, and they are frequently employed in fish farming to boost planktonic biomass. When present in significant quantities, they may cause eutrophication. Figure 9 presents the concentration recorded in all stations. The data indicates a very low concentration in comparison to the Moroccan standards. 2.1.9 Sulfate : As it is present in the graph (Fig. 10 ), the concentration of sulfate off all stations during the period’s mentions is not important and very low, which considered negligible. 2.2 Biological parameters To protect the environment, maintain public health, and make sure that water is suitable for varied uses, it is essential to analyze the microbiological quality of any water source. The quality surveillance of waters courses and even underground water helps in the decision-making process by detecting any possible dangers or risks linked to its uses, and eventually take appropriate decisions for protecting and restoring water resources. E. coli, fecal coliforms (FC) and fecal Streptococci (FS) are all considered to be parts of the Microbiological Quality Index (MQI), these parameters indicate the presence of any fecal contamination in water. The method for processing microbiological data is based on the Fecal Contamination Index (MQI) (Abba et al., 2021 ) by dividing the values of the polluting elements into 5 classes to help (Table 2 ) determinate the origin of contamination if it’s human or animal using the ratio R = FC/FS (Table 2 ) (Abba et al., 2021 ). Table 2 origin of fecal contamination (Abba et al., 2021 ) R = FC/FS Origin of fecal pollution < 0,7 Animal contamination 0,7 < R < 1 Pollution is mixed (human and animal), 1 < R < 2 Predominantly animal pollution 2 < R 4 Pollution is mainly human The results of microbiological analysis in May are represented in the following figures: Based on the results obtained (Fig. 11 ), the average concentration of E. Coli; who is a member of the Fecal Coliform group and is a more specific indicator of fecal pollution than other Fecal Coliforms. At the various samples decrease from upstream to downstream, which can be explained by the dilution of water and the increase of temperature from station 1 to station 6 in May. Using conventional microbiological methods, fecal coliforms were detected in all stations (Fig. 12 ) with a total of 300 CFU/100 ml unites of fecal coliforms in the three first freshwater samples exanimated, and a low total coliform of 50 CFU/100 ml counts in S4 and S6. Fecal streptococci results (Fig. 13 ) show a decrease from station 1 to station 3 to start getting high until reach 300 CFU/100 ml in station 6. Table 3 Pollution source as indicated by the fecal coliforms/fecal streptococci (FC/FS) ratio. Station FS FC R = FC/FS R S1 87 300 3.45 2 < R 4 Pollution is mainly human S3 1 300 - R > 4 Pollution is mainly human S4 16 50 3.125 2 < R < 4 Mixed origin predominantly human S5 94 90 0.957447 0,7 < R < 1 Pollution is mixed (human and animal), S6 300 50 0.17 R < 0,7 Animal contamination Based on the ratio R = FC/FS, it is showed in Table 3 that the source of fecal contamination in study area is mostly human also known as anthropogenic pollution, with the exception of S6 is contaminated by animal pollution. Contamination of surface water bodies with pathogenic agents (including bacteria, viruses and protozoa) could result in the transmission of waterborne and water-related diseases to people using the water for domestic purposes to swimmers and to agricultural workers and the consumers of crops irrigated with polluted waters (Chigor, Sibanda, & Okoh, 2013 ). Conclusion The Assessment of surface water quality is a lifelong procedure considering environmental circumstances may change over time as a result of various factors including land-use change, climate change, and pollution sources. The quality of surface water resources must be protected and improved by ongoing monitoring and adaptive management. The Spatiotemporal monitoring of different physicochemical and microbiological parameters, either on site such as temperature, pH, conductivity, and dissolved O2, or sample analyzing in the lab such as water hardness and many other parameters, showed some favorable characteristics, for example excellent electrical conductivity, dissolved oxygen, orthophosphates, E. coli, fecal coliforms, fecal streptococci and low nitrite concentration which makes this surface water not very useful for agriculture irrigation. We can also observe a deterioration in water quality, particularly after each extraction site in the watercourse. Multiple parameters indicate some kind of accumulation after each station as the values increase from stations upstream to the ones downstream. this degradation of water quality is due to a number of causes, notably the discharge of washed water from materials directly into the wadi, and mining and digging operations on the Srou major bed. The pollution studied is not the same kind usually monitored in this area, as it has no real connection to organic or microbiological pollution, as much as it has a direct connection with mineral pollution as the increase of water hardness and salts. The constant changing of the wadi bed and the alteration of the aforementioned parameters changed the Srou wadi from a natural water ecosystem with multiple endemic species to a near empty small water flow, unforgiving for aquatic life. Declarations Conflict of interest The author declares that there is no conflicts of interest in the publishing of this article. Furthermore, the authors have strictly followed all ethical guidelines, such as plagiarism, informed consent, misconduct, data fabrication and/or falsification, double publishing and/or submission, and redundancy. Availability of data and materials The data that support the findings of this study are available at reasonable request from the corresponding author. Funding Not applicable Acknowledgements Not applicable Authors' contributions Damrani Roumayssae write the main manuscript text and prepared figures 1-13. Essabiri Hamza: science proofing. Damrani Issam: language proofing. Abba El Hassan: reviewed the manuscript. Ethics approval and consent to participate Not applicable References Abba, E. H., Idrissi, I., Bennani, Y., El Yaacoubi, A., Cherroud, S., Ainane, T., & Khaffou, M. (2021). Assessment of water quality of Oum Er Rabia River by Microbiological Quality Index and Water Quality Index. Pollution , 7 (3). 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Grammelis (Ed.), Energy, Transportation and Global Warming , Green Energy and Technology (pp. 719–736). Cham: Springer International Publishing. Retrieved September 21, 2023, from http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-319-30127-3_53 Trenberth, K. E., Dai, A., Rasmussen, R. M., & Parsons, D. B. (2003). The Changing Character of Precipitation. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society , 84 (9), 1205–1218. Van Der Hoek, W., Konradsen, F., Ensink, J. H. J., Mudasser, M., & Jensen, P. K. (2001). Irrigation water as a source of drinking water: Is safe use possible? Tropical Medicine and International Health , 6 (1), 46–54. Water pollution from agriculture: A global review—Executive summary. (n.d.). . World Water Council (Ed.). (2018). Global Water Security . Water Resources Development and Management. Singapore: Springer Singapore. Retrieved June 6, 2023, from http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-981-10-7913-9 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":41562,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSpatiotemporal temperature variation in Wadi Srou.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3961384/v1/7ee93d69263ba59a8174d112.png"},{"id":52750810,"identity":"30c61c1c-eacb-49ce-bc33-4d0a8cbcc968","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-03-15 10:19:17","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":39460,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSpatiotemporal variation in PH in Wadi Srou.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3961384/v1/40fe206bd5773e300cdec98e.png"},{"id":52750232,"identity":"1e99fc07-5051-4c06-9bca-72c817d3b1af","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-03-15 10:11:17","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":43701,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSpatiotemporal variation of electrical conductivity in Wadi Srou.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3961384/v1/4b6c4ec8ef81a2827aeb9c48.png"},{"id":52749727,"identity":"904938c8-f20b-4d69-9763-75a6eff5df47","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-03-15 10:03:17","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":41197,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSpatiotemporal variation of dissolved oxygen in Wadi Srou\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3961384/v1/cba437a91736d72232ea934a.png"},{"id":52749732,"identity":"ac200d8a-01f4-4f2f-9a6f-7256cda745ab","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-03-15 10:03:17","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":32765,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSpatiotemporal variation of water hardness in Wadi Srou\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3961384/v1/5745eec19d80ec5edebfa54d.png"},{"id":52751441,"identity":"24fcb7e7-325f-4fd8-a677-fead7a9dfd28","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-03-15 10:27:17","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":31505,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSpatiotemporal variation of alkalinity in Wadi Srou\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3961384/v1/8e5f86f22db4b1996e60ed02.png"},{"id":52749738,"identity":"dcf8e078-01bd-41d4-95fc-8cad5e6c7bbb","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-03-15 10:03:18","extension":"png","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":22136,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSpatiotemporal variation of nitrite in Wadi Srou\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3961384/v1/770a3b779dfe07fcbb264cc1.png"},{"id":52749735,"identity":"5f721fda-4205-4430-9723-dca0df74bee5","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-03-15 10:03:17","extension":"png","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":24796,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSpatiotemporal variation of orthophosphates in Wadi Srou\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"9.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3961384/v1/de99992b6e1998b6a26907ee.png"},{"id":52749737,"identity":"8d6c1e19-b739-4254-87bf-c5bbd578ded8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-03-15 10:03:17","extension":"png","order_by":10,"title":"Figure 10","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":21064,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSpatiotemporal variation of sulfates in Wadi Srou\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"10.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3961384/v1/e2e1a81083748bd7a4805057.png"},{"id":52749730,"identity":"7654b044-6024-4bb1-8a25-e858c163d875","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-03-15 10:03:17","extension":"png","order_by":11,"title":"Figure 11","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":19601,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eHistogram of Escherichia coli development in stations in May 2022.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"11.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3961384/v1/6229f641215cde03db81d514.png"},{"id":52749733,"identity":"49630de1-fde4-49af-a3a3-e1cee5021947","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-03-15 10:03:17","extension":"png","order_by":12,"title":"Figure 12","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":21133,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eHistogram of fecal coliform development in stations in May 2022.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"12.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3961384/v1/483374bcea1ffe9a560d7df1.png"},{"id":52749734,"identity":"db861edf-236c-42e4-8ba6-2981d6321426","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-03-15 10:03:17","extension":"png","order_by":13,"title":"Figure 13","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":19886,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eHistogram of fecal streptococci development in stations in May 2022.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"13.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3961384/v1/21a8de49bb2229946b29854c.png"},{"id":53400040,"identity":"16e47fd1-85b7-48d2-99c8-6ff3960c8147","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-03-25 14:22:05","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1886802,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3961384/v1/6d0348a2-c4a5-4808-ae6f-0458d07b560d.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Evaluation of physicochemical and microbiological quality of Srou river in the middle atlas – Morocco","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eWater covers a significant part of Earth\u0026rsquo;s surface, mostly in ocean form. Whilst freshwater is scarce, it is crucial for all living beings. Water also has great importance for humanity from a cultural, political, and economic aspect. The water demand and supply has been always people\u0026rsquo;s primary concern (Marković, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). For the last five decades, Morocco has been optimizing the capture of freshwater and providing it for agricultural usage, drinking water supplies, industrialization, and energy generation. (World Water Council, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Not to mention that climate change is expected to have serious effects on river ecosystems, water characteristics and levels, inundation occurrences, alterations in wetted areas and natural habitats. (Brown, Milner, \u0026amp; Hannah, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). Consequently, with the growth of human population and economic activities, water is becoming limited which should be used wisely in conjunction with precipitation that become unpredictable due to climate change (Trenberth, Dai, Rasmussen, \u0026amp; Parsons, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). These changes impact negatively the environment. Effective surveillance of surface water's physicochemical and microbiological parameters can help avoid river pollution (Haque, Jewel, \u0026amp; Sultana, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Fecal pollution in aquatic areas is critical for maintaining an adequate ecosystem for both recreational and economic purposes (Anderson, Whitlock, \u0026amp; Harwood, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). This evaluation of the quality and quantity of surface water craves more attention, with the fast growth of population and industries more and more pollution generated causing the diminution of the clean water levels (\u0026ldquo;Water pollution from agriculture: A global review\u0026mdash;Executive summary,\u0026rdquo; n.d.). Water quality is critically important for human health, as well as the quantity and quality of agriculture products, due to the way it affects soils, crops, and the environment. (Van Der Hoek, Konradsen, Ensink, Mudasser, \u0026amp; Jensen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe basin of the wadi of Srou, one of the tributaries of the wadi Oum Er Rbia, in the high basin of the Middle Atlas, which experiences substantial annual and inter-annual hydro-climatic fluctuation due to its geographical location, lithological constitutions, and structures (Chakir, Ghadbane, \u0026amp; Ghachi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Elbouqdaoui, Ezzine, Zahraoui, Rouchdi, \u0026amp; Badraoui, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Jihad, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). The surface water quality of the wadi Srou depends on the influence of the mining activities located along the wadi, these activities can have important effects on the water quality, the lithology drained by this watercourse as well as a fraction caused by the influence of the agricultural activity located on the banks of this watercourse, the domestic and industrial influence is existing but minimal, all these factors contribute by different shares, with the mining activity holding the biggest influence.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Material and methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e1.1 Study area:\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSrou basin is the principal feeder of the high Oum Er Rbia. The river is located in the south west of the central Middle Atlas in the province of Khenifra, the watershed covers an area of 1443 Km2 between longitudes 5 \u0026deg; 05\u0026apos; and 5\u0026deg; 50\u0026apos; west and latitudes 32\u0026deg; 35\u0026apos; and 33\u0026deg; north. The basin is limited to the west by the Hercynian massif, to the north by the causse d\u0026rsquo;Ajdir and to the southeast by the plain of the upper Moulouya. Wadi Srou is one of the main tributaries of the wadi Oum Er Rbia. It flows from north-east to south-west (Chakir et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). The Chbouka wadi, is situated on the right side. Mountainous in character, the basin has a difference in level between 700 m downstream and 2350 m upstream (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). This semi-arid to sub-humid region characterized by a Mediterranean climate, which defined by temperate, humid winters and hot and dry summers (Elbouqdaoui et al., n.d.; Jihad, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe geological structures of the region, ranging from the Paleozoic to the Quaternary, formed by rocks of varying facies and strength: Cretaceous sub-tabular limestones, Liassic dolomitic limestones, doleritic basalts and Triassic red clays, as well as Paleozoic shales, sandstones and quartzites(Boumalkha et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). The alteration of these various formations and their pedogenetic evolution have given several types of soils: soils not very evolved from alluvial and/or colluvial contribution which are very frequent, vertisols, calcimagnesic soils and isohumic soils rather deep in the valleys and the relatively stable flat areas, and fersiallitic soils and fersiallitic soils under forests and on ancient terraces (Elbouqdaoui et al., n.d.).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e1.2 Sampling and analysis:\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWater samples is collected from six different locations along the watercourse, the aforementioned stations strategically chosen after each extraction site (Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e) to evaluate the effects of the mining activities on the water quality of Wadi Srou. It is crucial to know that all the mining activities in the region along the Wadi are destined to produce construction materials such as cement and gravel\u0026hellip;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003ctable id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003elocation of the sampling stations\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStations\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003elocation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003elongitude\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLatitude\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eS1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSituated upstream before any quarry installations (reference station).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32\u0026deg;59\u0026rsquo;54.7\u0026rsquo;\u0026rsquo;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e005\u0026deg;39\u0026rsquo;13.1\u0026rsquo;\u0026rsquo;W\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eS2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAfter the first extraction site and before the second quarry\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32\u0026deg;48\u0026rsquo;36.8\u0026rsquo;\u0026rsquo;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e005\u0026deg;34\u0026rsquo;23.8\u0026rsquo;\u0026rsquo;W\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eS3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003elocated after the second quarry\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32\u0026deg;49\u0026rsquo;07.6\u0026rsquo;\u0026rsquo;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e005\u0026deg;35\u0026rsquo;10.2\u0026rsquo;\u0026rsquo;W\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eS4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003elocated after the third quarry\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32\u0026deg;49\u0026rsquo;24;1\u0026rsquo;\u0026rsquo;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e005\u0026deg;35\u0026rsquo;34.2\u0026rsquo;\u0026rsquo;W\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eS5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLocated after the fourth quarry\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32\u0026deg;50\u0026rsquo;02.2\u0026rsquo;\u0026rsquo;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e005\u0026deg;36\u0026rsquo;36.1\u0026rsquo;\u0026rsquo;W\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eS6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ethe final station chosen at the level of the last quarry, while descending towards the downstream of the wadi\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32\u0026deg;49\u0026rsquo;51.9\u0026rsquo;\u0026rsquo;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e005\u0026deg;37\u0026rsquo;09.9\u0026rsquo;\u0026rsquo;W\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe samples were taking monthly from September 2021 to May 2022 and transported in bottles pre-rinsed with the Wadi water. Some parameters were measured in site such as temperature (T), PH, electrical conductivity (EC), dissolved oxygen (DO), using a portable multipara-meter meter (Hach HQ). The other samples are conserved at 4\u0026deg;C and transported to the laboratory of the Higher School of Technology to be analyzed.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e1.3 Physicochemical parameters\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e1.3.1 Water hardness by titration with EDTA\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWater hardness measured using titration with ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) to determine calcium and magnesium salts dissolved in water. To determine it, we take 100ml of the sample and we add 5ml of buffer solution (PH 10), 3 drops of black Eriochrom T, which colors the solution in dark red or violet. We fill the burette with the solution we prepared and we start the titration until the coloration change into bleu which is mean all the Ca\u0026sup2;+ and Mg\u0026sup2;+ ions have been complexed by the EDTA (0,02N). The results expressed in mill-equivalents of concentration or in French degrees (f\u0026deg;).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e1.3.2 Alkalinity\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAlkalinity measured by titrating the water sample with a strong acid (HCL 0,02N) to a designated titration endpoint.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e- Alkali strength: Add 1 to 2 drops of phenolphthalein indicator to 100 ml of sample water. If the coloration doesn\u0026rsquo;t turn pink it means PH\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;8,3 and AS\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e- Complete alkali strength: During the precedent test if there was no coloration (AS\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0), the same sample can be used for the CAS. To the 100ml of the sample, we add 2 drops of methyl orange indicator and we titrate with the same acid previously used until we reach a titration endpoint to a pink color.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe final volume is expressed in ml is the volume of the titrated acid minus 0,5ml needed to reach the titration endpoint as it exceeds the PH needed to neutralize the bicarbonate.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e1.3.3 Nitrite determination by Zambelli method\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWe start by sampling 5 ml of water then we add 0.2 ml of ZAMBELLI reagent. Then after 10 min we add 0.2 ml of pure ammoniac. Then the reading effected with the spectrometer at the wavelength of 435 nm.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTo calculate the concentration of nitrite (Cn), first we prepare a range of standard samples in nitrites then we measured the absorbance at 435nm of each solution, we present the abortion results in the graph A\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;f(C) to find the concentration of our sample. To get the effective concentration we multiply the concentration found by the inverse of the dilution coefficient.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e1.3.4 Orthophosphate determination\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWe sample 20ml of water then we add 4ml of the reagent already prepared, complied with distilled water until 25ml then we wait 20 min and we measured the sample with the spectrometer at 690nm. To calculate the concentration, we used the same method by calibration curve explicated in the nitrate determination.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e1.3.5 Sulphate determination\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWe add 0,5ml of hydrochloric acid 1/10 and 0,5 ml of barium chloride solution\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;tween 20 To 19,5 of sample water to analyze then after 15 min we measured the wavelength at 650nm. We use the same method in upper to calculate the effective concentration.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results and discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe physico-chemical and microbiological results characteristics of each station presented in the following figures.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Physico-chemical\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1.1 Temperature:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e shows the values of each station in different periods according to the time of sampling, as the recorded data shows the watercourse temperatures follow the same variations as the ambient temperatures in the region throughout the year. This indicates the absence of any external factor that might influence the temperatures.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1.2 Hydrogen potential (PH) :\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe PH values taken on site (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e) show a general spatiotemporal constancy throughout the different sites. The pic value in S1 December can be explained by a fault in the measuring electrode as the low temperature of water may have influenced it. However, in all the stations the PH varies between 7.6 and 8.9 these alkaline values are due to the calcious nature of the terrain, the abundance of CACO3 increases the PH of the water.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1.3 Electrical conductivity (EC)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe values shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e follow the same pattern, in the dry season the concentration of minerals in the water increase so does the electrical conductivity, as soon as the rainy season starts the concentration of minerals diminishes so does the electrical conductivity values.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1.4 Dissolved Oxygen (DO)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe data on the oxygenation of water is excellent (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e), these high measures can be explained by the total absence of any human activity involving organic matter or any large settlements. Another factor contributes to this high-quality aspect is that the wadi is of a small depth, which allows the sun to reach the entire submerged surface.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1.5 Hardness\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn general, the water hardness values presented in (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e) increase after each extraction site, this increase is logical as the sites produce construction materials based essentially on calcious and calcareous products. The intensive mining activities and the natural geological formations in the wadi justify the very high hardness values found in the samples taken from every station.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1.6 Alkalinity:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e shows a variation of values between 10 \u0026deg;f (10 \u0026deg;f corresponds to an alkalinity level of 100 mg/L as CaCO3) to 24 \u0026deg;f (240 mg/L as CaCO3) which can have a negative impact on plant growth. These values can be justified by the geological structures of the study area depending on the type of rock and minerals present.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt is important to note that the Moroccan standards does not impose a standard for alkalinity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1.7 Nitrite:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe concentration of nitrite in the Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e shows a maximum of 0,12 mg/l which considering generally not harmful to aquatic life. The high concentration found in the two first stations of September can be justified by the presence of agricultural fields near the watercourse; applying fertilizers or organic matter can increase the nitrogen content in water.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1.8 Orthophosphate:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrthophosphates are generally not dangerous to aquatic life, and they are frequently employed in fish farming to boost planktonic biomass. When present in significant quantities, they may cause eutrophication. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e presents the concentration recorded in all stations. The data indicates a very low concentration in comparison to the Moroccan standards.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1.9 Sulfate :\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs it is present in the graph (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig10\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e), the concentration of sulfate off all stations during the period\u0026rsquo;s mentions is not important and very low, which considered negligible.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2 Biological parameters\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo protect the environment, maintain public health, and make sure that water is suitable for varied uses, it is essential to analyze the microbiological quality of any water source. The quality surveillance of waters courses and even underground water helps in the decision-making process by detecting any possible dangers or risks linked to its uses, and eventually take appropriate decisions for protecting and restoring water resources.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eE. coli, fecal coliforms (FC) and fecal Streptococci (FS) are all considered to be parts of the Microbiological Quality Index (MQI), these parameters indicate the presence of any fecal contamination in water. The method for processing microbiological data is based on the Fecal Contamination Index (MQI) (Abba et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) by dividing the values of the polluting elements into 5 classes to help (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e) determinate the origin of contamination if it\u0026rsquo;s human or animal using the ratio R\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;FC/FS (Table \u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e) (Abba et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eorigin of fecal contamination (Abba et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;FC/FS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrigin of fecal pollution\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0,7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnimal contamination\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0,7\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;R\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePollution is mixed (human and animal),\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;R\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePredominantly animal pollution\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;R\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMixed Origin predominantly human\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePollution is mainly human\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results of microbiological analysis in May are represented in the following figures:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on the results obtained (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig11\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e), the average concentration of E. Coli; who is a member of the Fecal Coliform group and is a more specific indicator of fecal pollution than other Fecal Coliforms.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAt the various samples decrease from upstream to downstream, which can be explained by the dilution of water and the increase of temperature from station 1 to station 6 in May.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUsing conventional microbiological methods, fecal coliforms were detected in all stations (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig12\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e) with a total of 300 CFU/100 ml unites of fecal coliforms in the three first freshwater samples exanimated, and a low total coliform of 50 CFU/100 ml counts in S4 and S6.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFecal streptococci results (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig13\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e) show a decrease from station 1 to station 3 to start getting high until reach 300 CFU/100 ml in station 6.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePollution source as indicated by the fecal coliforms/fecal streptococci (FC/FS) ratio.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;FC/FS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e300\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;R\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMixed origin predominantly human\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e71\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e300\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePollution is mainly human\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e300\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePollution is mainly human\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.125\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;R\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMixed origin predominantly human\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e94\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.957447\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0,7\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;R\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePollution is mixed (human and animal),\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e300\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0,7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnimal contamination\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on the ratio R\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;FC/FS, it is showed in Table \u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e that the source of fecal contamination in study area is mostly human also known as anthropogenic pollution, with the exception of S6 is contaminated by animal pollution.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eContamination of surface water bodies with pathogenic agents (including bacteria, viruses and protozoa) could result in the transmission of waterborne and water-related diseases to people using the water for domestic purposes to swimmers and to agricultural workers and the consumers of crops irrigated with polluted waters (Chigor, Sibanda, \u0026amp; Okoh, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe Assessment of surface water quality is a lifelong procedure considering environmental circumstances may change over time as a result of various factors including land-use change, climate change, and pollution sources. The quality of surface water resources must be protected and improved by ongoing monitoring and adaptive management. The Spatiotemporal monitoring of different physicochemical and microbiological parameters, either on site such as temperature, pH, conductivity, and dissolved O2, or sample analyzing in the lab such as water hardness and many other parameters, showed some favorable characteristics, for example excellent electrical conductivity, dissolved oxygen, orthophosphates, E. coli, fecal coliforms, fecal streptococci and low nitrite concentration which makes this surface water not very useful for agriculture irrigation. We can also observe a deterioration in water quality, particularly after each extraction site in the watercourse. Multiple parameters indicate some kind of accumulation after each station as the values increase from stations upstream to the ones downstream. this degradation of water quality is due to a number of causes, notably the discharge of washed water from materials directly into the wadi, and mining and digging operations on the Srou major bed. The pollution studied is not the same kind usually monitored in this area, as it has no real connection to organic or microbiological pollution, as much as it has a direct connection with mineral pollution as the increase of water hardness and salts. The constant changing of the wadi bed and the alteration of the aforementioned parameters changed the Srou wadi from a natural water ecosystem with multiple endemic species to a near empty small water flow, unforgiving for aquatic life.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict of interest\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe author declares that there is no conflicts of interest in the publishing of this article. Furthermore, the authors have strictly followed all ethical guidelines, such as plagiarism, informed consent, misconduct, data fabrication and/or falsification, double publishing and/or submission, and redundancy.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and materials\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data that support the findings of this study are available at reasonable request from the corresponding author.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors\u0026apos; contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDamrani Roumayssae write the main manuscript text and prepared figures 1-13.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEssabiri Hamza: science proofing.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDamrani Issam: language proofing.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAbba El Hassan: reviewed the manuscript. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAbba, E. 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Singapore: Springer Singapore. Retrieved June 6, 2023, from http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-981-10-7913-9\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"management, quality, surface water, Srou river, water resource","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3961384/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3961384/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eMorocco faces a serious problem regarding water resources management concerning quantity and quality. This crisis is due to the succession of drought years in the region. The superficial and groundwater resources quality is usually affected by pollution rejected from domestic and industrial wastewater which often contains organic matter, pathogens and chemicals; the leakage of fertilizers and phytosanitary products used in agriculture and the erosion of soils which can also be an important factor whose role is to transport sediments and pollutants. This pollution affects directly the health of the aquatic ecosystem. Therefore, it is important to monitor and supervise the quality of surface water to ensure the safety of human consuming and protect the health of aquatic ecosystems.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis work is based on evaluation of the surface water quality of Srou river by examining several samples taken at six different locations along the Wadi during the following period from August 2021 to May 2022 by measuring various parameters physicochemical and microbiological, including temperature, Hydrogen potential, electrical conductivity, turbidity, dissolved oxygen, hardness, alkalinity, nitrite, orthophosphate, sulfate, E. coli, fecal coliforms and fecal streptococci. These samples have been analyzed using the guidelines of the water quality assessment techniques described by Rodier (2009) and the World Health Organization recommendations. The results showed a slight increase after each extraction in term of electrical conductivity and water hardness, however all the parameters tested are within the norm and the water quality from the source till station 6 is of good quality.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Evaluation of physicochemical and microbiological quality of Srou river in the middle atlas – Morocco","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-03-15 10:03:12","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3961384/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"17a4a3c0-19c9-4d85-9345-58f520f6405b","owner":[],"postedDate":"March 15th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-03-25T14:13:57+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-03-15 10:03:12","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-3961384","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-3961384","identity":"rs-3961384","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}