Parental Incarceration and Mental Health Among Black Youth: Do Neighborhood and School Assets Mitigate Harms?

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Dylan B. Jackson, Rebecca L. Fix, Alexander Testa, J'Mag Karbeah, and 3 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6411858/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 21 Nov, 2025 Read the published version in Journal of Child and Family Studies → Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Objective: To examine associations between parental incarceration and mental health outcomes among Black youth, and whether neighborhood and school assets moderate this relationship. We hypothesized that parental incarceration would be associated with worse mental health, but that this association would be significantly attenuated as neighborhood and school assets increased. Study Design: Data come from the Survey of Police-Adolescent Contact Experiences (SPACE), a cross-sectional survey of a community-based sample of Black youth ages 12-21 in Baltimore City, Maryland ( n = 345) collected from August 2022-July 2023. Multivariable ordinary least squares regressions and product-term analysis were employed to test our hypotheses. Results: Findings indicate that, net of covariates, parental incarceration was associated with lower self-rated mental health and higher depressive and anxiety symptoms among youth. Both neighborhood social capital and perceived school supports significantly buffered associations between parental incarceration, lower self-rated mental health, and depressive symptoms. Conclusions: Neighborhood and school assets can help close the mental health gap between Black youth with and without exposure to parental incarceration. Findings highlight how physicians can support families through multi-sectoral advocacy efforts that increase the resources available to children exposed to parental incarceration. Parental Incarceration Mental Health Black Youth Resources Resilience Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Introduction Starting in the early 1970s, the United States (US) began an unprecedented trajectory marked by the rapid increase in the use of incarceration. 1 , 2 In what has been described as an era of mass incarceration, over the next four decades, the incarceration rate in the US increased by 500%. 3 Today, nearly 2 million people are incarcerated in the US, 4 many of whom have minor children. Data from the Bureau of Justice Statistics estimates that 47% of people residing in a state prison and 58% of people in federal prisons are parents to at least one minor child. 5 This has resulted in an estimated 7% of children in the US having a parent with a history of incarceration. 6 , 7 Structural racism and systemic marginalization have produced disproportionate rates of incarceration among Black families 3 , 8 and higher rates of parental incarceration for Black youth, compared to their White peers. 9 A robust body of evidence has demonstrated that the incarceration of a parent can act as a pivotal life event that can harm the health and development of children. 10 – 13 The compounding stressors associated with the experience of parental incarceration is theorized to cause these harms. 12 , 14 Stress process theory proposes that living in disadvantaged social contexts leads to differential exposure to social stressors that carry negative repercussions for health. 15 , 16 Research has shown that children with incarcerated parents are at higher risk for a range of behavioral and developmental challenges such as poor sleep, 10 , 11 , 17 unhealthy eating behaviors, 10 learning disabilities, attention disorders, and speech and language problems because of the stress associated with having an incarcerated parent. 12 Parental separations through incarceration can also impede the development of parent-child attachment, which can deleteriously impact the physical and mental health of children. 18 Despite extensive evidence about harms stemming from parental incarceration, much less is known about the social assets that might be leveraged to mitigate risk, particularly for Black youth who are disproportionately impacted. Evidence to date suggests that family supports play a key role in sustaining positive mental and behavioral health for youth experiencing parental incarceration. 19 – 21 For instance, national data reveal that Black youth (ages 6–17) experiencing parental incarceration exhibit higher flourishing in the presence of high family connectedness. 20 Despite this finding, extant literature often overlooks schools and neighborhood assets, or has yielded inconclusive results, to date. 20 , 22 , 23 Neighborhood social capital and perceived school supports may mitigate the negative effects of parental incarceration on children by providing stability, support, and a sense of belonging. For children exposed to parental incarceration, strong social ties within their neighborhoods, along with access to community resources, can offer additional adult guidance and positive peer interactions. Similarly, schools that provide emotional support through counseling services, mentorship programs, and well-trained teachers can address the unique needs of children experiencing parental incarceration, promoting mental health and resilience. The present study examines associations between parental incarceration and mental health among a disproportionately impacted sample – Black youth. 9 Critically, we examine how assets in neighborhoods and schools (i.e., neighborhood social capital and perceived school supports) buffer associations between parental incarceration and three mental health outcomes: self-rated mental health, depression, and anxiety. Materials and Methods Data come from the Survey of Police-Adolescent Contact Experiences (SPACE), 24 , 25 SPACE is a cross-sectional, non-probability sample survey of Black youth aged 12–21 in Baltimore City. Data collection occurred from August 2022 to July 2023. Community-based recruitment involved collaboration between SPACE investigators and 12 youth-serving organizations in Baltimore City, including organizations serving particularly vulnerable youth (e.g., LGBQ youth, youth disconnected from school and/or work). These organizations partnered with the research team to share the survey opportunity and assist youth in completing it, both on-site and online. The project was co-developed with the Johns Hopkins Center for Adolescent Health (CAH) Youth Advisory Board (YAB) to ensure youth co-production of materials and inclusion of diverse youth participants in the survey. Surveys were conducted via Qualtrics, with youth participants receiving $ 30. To ensure data quality, attention checks were integrated into the survey and respondents were screened out if data quality was compromised. To be eligible for participation, youth were required to 1) reside in Baltimore City, 2) identify as Black or African American (including Black biracial and multiracial), and 3) be 12–21 years old ( n = 345). Approval was obtained from the [ Institution Blinded for Review ] Institutional Review Board (#18323). Written informed consent was obtained from all participants ages 18 and older, whereas written parental permission and written youth assent were obtained from all participants under age 18. Dependent Variables Self-Rated Mental Health. Our first dependent variable was a single-item measure of self-rated mental health. Single-item measures have been widely used in prior research 26 , 27 – including research on parental incarceration 28 – and have been shown to be associated with social determinants of health and multi-item measures of mental health in the population. 29 Youth were asked “During the past 12 months, would you say that your mental health has been 1) poor, 2) fair, 3) good, 4) very good, or 5) excellent? This coding was retained for the present study. Depressive Symptoms . Depressive symptomatology was measured using the CES-D-10 (Center for Epidemiologic Studies – Depression, 10 item) scale, a short-form measure of the widely used and validated CES-D scale to assess depressive symptom severity, 30 , 31 including in adolescents. 32 Youth were provided with the following statement: “Below is a list of some of the ways you may have felt or behaved. For each statement, please select how often you have felt this way during the past week .” 1) I was bothered by things that usually don’t bother me, 2) I had trouble keeping my mind on what I was doing, 3) I felt depressed, 4) I felt that everything I did was an effort, 5) I felt hopeful about the future (reverse-coded), 6) I felt fearful, 7) My sleep was restless, 8) I was happy (reverse-coded), 9) I felt lonely, and 10) I could not “get going”. Response options range from 1 ( Rarely or none of the time [less than one day] ) to 4 ( most or all of the time [5–7 days] ). Items were averaged into a composite index (range = 1–4; alpha = 0.79), with higher scores indicating greater symptomatology. Anxiety Symptoms . Our measure of anxiety symptoms includes items from the Brief Symptom Inventory 18 (BSI 18), an assessment designed to measure psychological distress and validated for use with Black adolescents. 33 In line with prior research from the Future of Families and Child Wellbeing Study (FFCWS), 34 , 35 we included the following six items in our survey, asking youth about the extent to which they agree that, during the past four weeks , they have 1) had spells of terror or panic, 2) felt tense or keyed up, 3) suddenly got scared for no reason, 4) felt nervous or shaky inside, 5) felt fearful, and 6) felt so restless they can’t sit still. Response options range from 1 ( Strongly Agree ) to 4 ( Strongly Disagree ). Items were averaged into a composite index (range = 1–4; alpha = 0.90), with the score being reverse-coded to indicate greater symptomatology. Independent Variable Parental incarceration. For our measure of parental incarceration, we employed a well-established measure adapted from the National Survey of Children’s Health (NSCH). 36 , 37 The question asked participants whether they had ever experienced the following: a parent or guardian served time in jail or prison. Participants who endorsed this item were assigned a value of 1; otherwise, participants were assigned a value of 0. Moderating Variables Neighborhood Social Capital. Our measure of neighborhood social capital was also adapted from the NSCH 38 , 39 and included four items capturing the extent to which neighborhood makes youth respondents feel supported, secure, and safe. Specifically, respondents were asked, “To what extent do you agree or disagree with these statements about your neighborhood or community: 1) people in this neighborhood help each other out, 2) parents watch out for each other’s children in this neighborhood, 3) children and adolescents are safe in our neighborhood, and 4) when we encounter difficulties, we know where to go for help in our community”. Response options range from 1 ( Strongly Agree ) to 4 ( Strongly Disagree ). Items were averaged into a composite index (range = 1–4; alpha = 0.86), with higher scores reflecting greater neighborhood social capital. Perceived School Supports. To construct our measure of perceived school supports, six items were taken from two subscales of the Child and Adolescent Social Support Scale (CASSS) 40 , 41 that pertain specifically to perceived support from teachers (three items) and classmates (three items). First, youth participants were asked how often teachers 1) show they are proud of you, 2) listen to you when you need to talk, and 3) make suggestions when you don’t know what to do. The same three questions were also asked about classmates (or youth in school). For each of these items, response options included Never (1), Rarely (2), Sometimes (3), Often (4), and Always (5). For the purposes of this study – and given that all items loaded onto a single factor (single eigenvalue above one [2.74], all factor loadings > 0.70) – items were averaged into a composite index (range = 1–5; alpha = 0.87), with higher scores reflecting greater perceived school supports. Covariates. The following covariates were included in each of the multivariable models to minimize the likelihood of spurious results: youth age (in years); youth sex (male = 1; female = 0); youth LGBQ identity (lesbian/gay, bisexual, and queer, with straight as the reference category); youth disconnection (not working or in school = 1), youth multiracial (Black/African American in conjunction with other race/ethnicity = 1); neighborhood disorder (i.e., trash/litter, graffiti/broken windows, run-down buildings); biological parents relationship status (married, cohabiting, and other as reference); parent immigrant (yes/no); maternal education (i.e., from less than high school to completed graduate degree ); and household size (i.e., number of people living in current residence. For more details on the measurement of all study variables, see the appendix. Plan of Analysis First, descriptive statistics were calculated among the full sample and subgroups with and without parental incarceration. Second, associations between parental incarceration and the three mental health outcomes were examined using multivariable Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) regression, including both unstandardized and standardized coefficients. Standardized coefficients were calculated by multiplying the unstandardized coefficients by the ratio of the standard deviations of the independent variable and the dependent variable. Third, OLS regression models were re-run including product-terms (statistical interaction between a binary exposure and continuous moderators) to test whether 1) neighborhood social capital and 2) perceived school supports moderated associations between parental incarceration and each of the mental health outcomes. Finally, to facilitate interpretation of results, we plotted illustrative figures of significant interactions. To do so, we calculated covariate-adjusted predicted percentile scores on select mental health outcomes by parental incarceration and each of the moderators (i.e., neighborhood social capital and perceived school supports). Missing data was imputed in STATA 18.1 using mi commands, which offers advantages over listwise deletion (e.g., resolves issues related to wastefulness as well as biased covariances, p -values, and confidence intervals). 42 In the present study, we employ multiple imputation with chained equations, resulting in 20 multiply imputed data sets. Results First, we calculated descriptive statistics for the full sample of youth ( n = 345) and subsample stratified by parental incarceration (for more details, see the appendix). Overall, 62 youth (or 17.97%) reported parental incarceration during their lifetime. The full sample was, on average, 17.83 years of age. Just over half of the sample (53.04%) identified as male; 20.29% identified as lesbian/gay, 13.62% bisexual, 6.09% queer, 3.48% multiracial. Approximately one-third (34.49%) were disconnected (not working or in school); 8.12% were children of immigrant parents, and more than three-quarters (77.39%) had biological parents who were neither married nor cohabiting. Compared to participants without exposure to parental incarceration, those with exposure to parental incarceration reported lower self-rated mental health and higher depressive and anxiety symptoms. Finally, scores on neighborhood and school assets (i.e., neighborhood social capital and perceived school supports) were similar between youth with and without exposure to parental incarceration. [Table 1 here] Table 1 OLS Regression Models of the Association between Parental Incarceration and Mental Health Outcomes Mental Health Outcomes Self-Rated Mental Health Depressive Symptoms Anxiety Symptoms Model 1 B/Beta SE Model B/Beta SE Model 3 B/Beta SE Parental Incarceration -0.71***/-0.19 0.20 0.33***/0.21 0.08 0.28***/0.14 0.10 Youth Age 0.11**/0.12 0.05 -0.02/-0.06 0.02 -0.03/-0.03 0.03 Youth Sex (Male = 1) 0.25/0.09 0.17 0.14**/0.11 0.07 0.03/0.02 0.09 Youth Lesbian/Gay 0.09/0.02 0.21 0.20**/0.14 0.08 -0.10/-0.05 0.11 Youth Bisexual -0.02/-0.01 0.23 0.41***/0.24 0.09 0.14/0.06 0.12 Youth Queer -0.85***/-0.14 0.32 0.71***/0.28 0.13 0.78***/0.25 0.17 Youth Disconnected 0.41**/0.13 0.17 0.13**/0.11 0.07 0.34***/0.21 0.09 Youth Multiracial -0.14/-0.02 0.42 -0.12/-0.04 0.17 -0.21/-0.05 0.22 Neighborhood Disorder -0.01/-0.01 0.08 -0.03/-0.06 0.03 -0.02/-0.03 0.04 Bio Parents Married 0.07/0.02 0.20 0.02/0.01 0.08 0.07/0.04 0.10 Bio Parents Cohabiting 0.27/0.04 0.35 0.05/0.02 0.14 0.05/0.01 0.18 Parent Immigrant -0.87***/-0.16 0.29 0.30**/0.14 0.11 0.28/0.10 0.15 Maternal Education -0.03/-0.04 0.04 -0.02/-0.05 0.02 -0.01/-0.02 0.02 Household Size 0.01/0.01 0.04 -0.02/-0.05 0.02 -0.01/-0.01 0.02 Note: * = p < 0.10; ** p < 0.05; *** p < 0.01. B = unstandardized coefficient; SE = standard error; Beta = standardized coefficient. The reference category for youth lesbian/gay, bisexual, and queer is “heterosexual”; the reference category for bio parent married and cohabiting is “other relationship status.” Table 1 presents the multivariable OLS regression models examining associations between parental incarceration and each of the youth mental health outcomes: self-rated mental health, depressive symptoms, and anxiety symptoms. Findings revealed that, net of covariates, parental incarceration is associated with significantly lower self-rated mental health (B = -0.71, Beta = -0.19; p < .01), as well as significantly higher depressive (B = 0.33, Beta = 0.21; p < .01) and anxiety (B = 0.28, Beta = 0.14; p < .01) symptoms. Other significant predictors in these models include identifying as lesbian/gay (for depressive symptoms), bisexual (for depressive symptoms), or queer (for all outcomes). Additionally, 1) males reported significantly more depressive symptoms, 2) youth disconnected from work and school reported significantly more depressive and anxiety symptoms, and 3) children of immigrants reported significantly lower self-rated mental health and higher depressive symptoms. [Table 2 here] Table 2 Parental Incarceration and Mental Health Outcomes: Do Neighborhood Social Capital and Perceived School Supports Buffer the Association? Mental Health Outcomes Self-Rated Mental Health Depressive Symptoms Anxiety Symptoms Model 1 B/Beta SE Model B/Beta SE Model 3 B/Beta SE Parental Incarceration x Neighborhood Social Capital 0.73***/0.54 0.29 -0.31***/-0.55 0.11 0.11/0.15 0.15 Parental Incarceration x Perceived School Supports 0.60***/0.49 0.23 -0.20**/-0.38 0.09 0.06/0.09 0.12 Note: * = p < 0.10; ** p < 0.05; *** p < 0.01. B = unstandardized coefficient; SE = standard error; Beta = standardized coefficient. The following covariates are included in all models are suppressed to conserve space: youth age, youth sex, youth lesbian/gay, youth bisexual, youth queer, youth disconnected, youth multiracial (for count models), neighborhood disorder, parents married, biological parents cohabiting, parent immigrant, maternal education, and household size. Next, we constructed product terms between parental incarceration and our two moderators: neighborhood social capital and perceived school supports (see Table 2 ). Each of the mental health outcomes were then regressed on the product terms and all covariates. Findings revealed that the negative association between parental incarceration and youth self-rated mental health was significantly attenuated as both neighborhood social capital (B = 0.73, Beta = 0.54, p < 0.01) and perceived school supports (B = 0.60, Beta = 0.49, p < 0.01) increased. Similar patterns emerged for depressive symptomatology: the positive association between parental incarceration and youth depressive symptoms was significantly attenuated as both neighborhood social capital (B = -0.31, Beta = -0.55, p < 0.01) and perceived school supports (B = -0.20, Beta = -0.38, p < 0.05) increased. No significant interactions emerged, however, in the case of anxiety symptoms. [Figures 1 and 2 here] Finally, to illustrate the pattern of results displayed in Table 2 , we calculated covariate-adjusted predicted percentile scores on both self-rated mental health and depressive symptoms by parental incarceration and each moderator and plotted these in two figures (Figs. 1 and 2 ). Figure 1 displays the findings pertaining to neighborhood social capital, whereas Fig. 2 displays the findings pertaining to perceived school supports. For each outcome, increases in neighborhood social capital and perceived school supports helped to close the gap – sometimes entirely -- in mental health between youth with and without parental incarceration. Broadly, youth with parental incarceration (versus those without) exhibited worse mental health outcomes at low levels of neighborhood social capital and perceived school supports; however, as these sources of social capital and perceived support increased (e.g., to “often” perceiving school supports or “strongly agreeing” with neighborhood social capital indicators), scores on depression and self-rated mental health of youth experiencing parental incarceration became much more favorable, closing the mental health gap between youth with and without parental incarceration. Discussion This study examined the association between parental incarceration and mental health outcomes among Black youth in Baltimore City, focusing on the potential moderating effects of neighborhood social capital and perceived school supports. This work answers the call for researchers to espouse a resilience framework, contextualizing parental incarceration in the assets found in youths’ social ecology. 43 Consistent with prior research on the health consequences of parental incarceration., 10 , 12 , 21 , 36 findings reveal that youth who have experienced parental incarceration (compared to those who have not) report significantly worse self-rated mental health, as well as elevated depressive and anxiety symptoms. However, in the case of self-rated mental health and depressive symptoms, higher levels of neighborhood social capital and perceived school supports completely closed the mental health gap between children with and without incarcerated parents. Buffering effects were not observed for anxiety symptoms. Before discussing the implications, it is important to highlight some limitations that can be expanded upon in future research. First, given the cross-sectional nature of the data, we cannot definitively determine the causal ordering between our main variables of interest. Even so, parental incarceration is a lifetime report, whereas (for instance) depressive and anxiety symptoms are measured during the past 7 days and past 4 weeks, respectively. Second, the sample is a non-probability, community-based sample of Black youth; findings cannot be generalized to other groups of youth. Third, while our neighborhood and school measures are well-validated, 38 – 41 they are self-reported by youth and cannot be understood as objective indicators of neighborhood or school resources or assets. Larger, multi-level studies (with objective school- and community-level indicators) are needed to build upon and more rigorously test our findings. Finally, our measurement of parental incarceration – while taken from a widely used national survey 36 , 37 – remains limited in its detail. Future studies including details concerning incarceration (e.g., precise parent/guardian identity; incarceration duration, frequency, timing; facility type) would support a more nuanced examination of our research questions. The results of this study suggest the importance of multi-level interventions to support youth impacted by parental incarceration. First, screening for parental incarceration in pediatric settings may be an important first step in connecting youth with resources. Second, the findings underscore the importance of investing in community resources that foster social cohesion and mutual support among neighbors. Policies aimed at strengthening neighborhood social capital in communities with high rates of incarceration – such as investments in civic engagement activities, neighborhood groups and coalitions, 44 and public spaces that alter the built environment to foster connections 45 – may be a valuable direction to bolster neighborhood supports. Third, the study points to schools as a vital source of support for youth experiencing parental incarceration. Schools can serve as a critical intervention point, providing academic and emotional support from educators and peers. Policies that enhance school-based support systems – such as increasing access to mental health counseling, establishing peer mentoring programs, and providing professional development for teachers on trauma-informed care – could make a substantial difference in the lives of these students. 46 , 47 Furthermore, prioritizing resources for schools in communities disproportionately impacted by incarceration (e.g., funding for social-emotional learning programs; partnerships with local mental health providers) may help to create a more supportive and responsive environment for students. These policy implications highlight how physicians can support families through multi-sectoral advocacy efforts that increase the resources available to children exposed to parental incarceration. 48 Declarations Acknowledgements Funding for this study was provided by the Bloomberg American Health Initiative Vanguard Award. Compliance with Ethical Standards Conflict of Interest. The authors declare they have no conflict of interest to disclose. Consent to Participate. Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study. Ethical Approval. All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. The study was approved by the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health Institutional Review Board (#18323). Author Contribution Contributors: D.J. conceptualized and designed the study, conducted the statistical analyses, wrote, edited and revised the manuscript. R.F., A.T. and J.K. wrote, edited and revised the manuscript. P.S., E.J., and R.S. edited and revised the manuscript. All authors interpreted the results and reviewed and approved the final manuscript as submitted. 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Sexual orientation disparities in mental health and substance use among Black American young people in the USA: effects of cyber and bias-based victimisation. Culture, Health & Sexuality , 21 (9), 985–998. 10.1080/13691058.2018.1532113 Björgvinsson, T., Kertz, S. J., Bigda-Peyton, J. S., McCoy, K. L., & Aderka, I. M. (2013). Psychometric Properties of the CES-D-10 in a Psychiatric Sample. Assessment , 20 (4), 429–436. 10.1177/1073191113481998 González, P., Nuñez, A., Merz, E., et al. (2017). Measurement properties of the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D 10): Findings from HCHS/SOL. Psychological Assessment , 29 (4), 372–381. 10.1037/pas0000330 Kim, D. H., Michalopoulos, L. M., & Voisin, D. R. (2021). Validation of the Brief Symptom Inventory-18 Among Low-Income African American Adolescents Exposed to Community Violence. J Interpers Violence , 36 (1–2), NP984–NP1002. 10.1177/0886260517738778 Jackson, D. B., Testa, A., Semenza, D. C., & Fix, R. L. (2022). Youth Mental Well-Being Following Witnessed Police Stops. J Urban Health , 99 (5), 783–793. 10.1007/s11524-022-00667-x Buggs, S. A. L., Zhang, X., Aubel, A., Bruns, A., & Kravitz-Wirtz, N. (2022). Heterogeneous effects of spatially proximate firearm homicide exposure on anxiety and depression symptoms among U.S. youth. Preventive Medicine , 165 (Pt A), 107224. 10.1016/j.ypmed.2022.107224 Testa, A., & Jackson, D. B. (2021). Parental Incarceration and School Readiness: Findings From the 2016 to 2018 National Survey of Children’s Health. Academic Pediatric , 21 (3), 534–541. 10.1016/j.acap.2020.08.016 Jackson, D. B., Testa, A., & Vaughn, M. G. (2023). Parental Incarceration and Children’s Living Arrangements in the United States. Child And Adolescent Social Work Journal , 40 (5), 695–711. 10.1007/s10560-021-00794-5 Jackson, D. B., Johnson, K. R., Vaughn, M. G., & Hinton, M. E. (2019). The role of neighborhoods in household food insufficiency: Considering interactions between physical disorder, low social capital, violence, and perceptions of danger. Soc Sci Med 1982 , 221 , 58–67. 10.1016/j.socscimed.2018.12.013 Jones, M. S., Everett, H. D., & Hoffmann, J. P. (2024). The combined effects of adverse childhood experiences and neighborhood quality on child health and well-being. Child Abuse And Neglect , 154 , 106913. 10.1016/j.chiabu.2024.106913 Watson, R. J., Grossman, A. H., & Russell, S. T. (2019). Sources of Social Support and Mental Health Among LGB Youth. Youth Soc , 51 (1), 30–48. 10.1177/0044118X16660110 Malecki, C. K., Demaray, M. K., Elliott, S. N., & Nolten, P. W. (2018). Child and Adolescent Social Support Scale. Published online April , 9 . 10.1037/t57891-000 van Ginkel, J. R., Linting, M., Rippe, R. C. A., & van der Voort, A. (2020). Rebutting Existing Misconceptions About Multiple Imputation as a Method for Handling Missing Data. Journal Of Personality Assessment , 102 (3), 297–308. 10.1080/00223891.2018.1530680 Arditti, J. A., & Johnson, E. I. (2022). A family resilience agenda for understanding and responding to parental incarceration. American Psychologist , 77 (1), 56–70. 10.1037/amp0000687 Ruef, M., & Kwon, S. W. (2016). Neighborhood Associations and Social Capital. Social Forces , 95 (1), 159–190. 10.1093/sf/sow053 Mullenbach, L. E., Larson, L. R., Floyd, M. F., et al. (2022). Cultivating social capital in diverse, low-income neighborhoods: The value of parks for parents with young children. Landsc Urban Plan , 219 , 104313. 10.1016/j.landurbplan.2021.104313 Warren, J. M., Coker, G. L., & Collins, M. L. (2019). Children of Incarcerated Parents: Considerations for Professional School Counselors. Prof Couns , 9 (3), 185–199. Turney, K. (2019). Understanding the Needs of Children with Incarcerated Parents: What Educators Should Know. American Educator , 43 (2), 22. Kerker, B. D., Storfer-Isser, A., Szilagyi, M., et al. (2016). Do Pediatricians Ask About Adverse Childhood Experiences in Pediatric Primary Care? Academic Pediatric , 16 (2), 154–160. 10.1016/j.acap.2015.08.002 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files AppendixDescriptives.docx AppendixMeasures.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 21 Nov, 2025 Read the published version in Journal of Child and Family Studies → Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Jackson","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA+0lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDCCA8wNQJKNgYEHxKtgSwBREvi1MCJrOUO8FgaIFsY2BsJa+G4kNn4uYOCT5+85/vBx4Ty+PIMDzAdv8+DRInkjsVl6BgOb4YyzPcbGM7exFRscYEu2xqfF4EZigzQPAxvjBn4eNmnebWyJGw7wmEkT0NL8G6jFfgM/+zNp3jkgLfzfCGlpA9mSuIG3wUyatwFsCxteLZJnHrZZ8xiwJc84c8bYmOcYW+LMw2zGlnPwaOE7nnz4Nk/FMdv+nvSHj3lqjiX2HW9+eOMNHi0MAgkg5x2DcYEMZnzKQYD/AIisgXFrcCocBaNgFIyCkQsA3+ZK2qa1OekAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"Johns Hopkins University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Dylan","middleName":"B.","lastName":"Jackson","suffix":""},{"id":456740837,"identity":"73f0eb19-a811-4bd6-841e-bef82d629f53","order_by":1,"name":"Rebecca L. Fix","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Johns Hopkins University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Rebecca","middleName":"L.","lastName":"Fix","suffix":""},{"id":456740839,"identity":"576d9aca-306e-4012-8794-3b43326f540a","order_by":2,"name":"Alexander Testa","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Alexander","middleName":"","lastName":"Testa","suffix":""},{"id":456740840,"identity":"c1c4e17b-d433-4ddc-aef1-2b24b98a1e54","order_by":3,"name":"J'Mag Karbeah","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Minnesota","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"J'Mag","middleName":"","lastName":"Karbeah","suffix":""},{"id":456740841,"identity":"b9e92129-b760-41a8-9999-224c14a08696","order_by":4,"name":"Parvati Singh","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"The Ohio State University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Parvati","middleName":"","lastName":"Singh","suffix":""},{"id":456740842,"identity":"93654bcf-3fc8-41b2-83a4-f38f2c0ca087","order_by":5,"name":"Elizabeth I. Johnson","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Tennessee at Knoxville","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Elizabeth","middleName":"I.","lastName":"Johnson","suffix":""},{"id":456740843,"identity":"a5a489d5-cb1e-4f67-94e3-0af5d97afe96","order_by":6,"name":"Rebecca J. Shlafer","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Minnesota","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Rebecca","middleName":"J.","lastName":"Shlafer","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-04-09 12:23:20","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6411858/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6411858/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-025-03213-w","type":"published","date":"2025-11-21T15:58:29+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":82889003,"identity":"76530786-9c21-440d-af15-02b783bb9a95","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-16 12:04:23","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":75127,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eAdjusted Predicted Percentile Scores of Mental Health Outcomes by Parental Incarceration and Neighborhood Social Capital\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6411858/v1/07de4d64575ba06c6a24b113.png"},{"id":82891315,"identity":"8d4f246d-b12a-4d5e-afd7-c40ecc62a9ef","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-16 12:12:23","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":80844,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eAdjusted Predicted Percentiles Scores of Mental Health Outcomes by Parental Incarceration and Perceived School Supports\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6411858/v1/1d6f3e9d6f818bed08d84126.png"},{"id":96650337,"identity":"03b4cd35-7d74-4593-aaa7-bf33f29aef14","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-24 16:11:17","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":890726,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6411858/v1/949e29a6-d1db-4227-a5ee-6a2c5aba1d52.pdf"},{"id":82891314,"identity":"4703d525-76c5-4e4d-ba2f-30b960e770f8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-16 12:12:23","extension":"docx","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":18496,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"AppendixDescriptives.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6411858/v1/d3c23a74aa611c2afde4257b.docx"},{"id":82889011,"identity":"88428626-fba5-4570-a66b-f46917040dea","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-16 12:04:23","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":20209,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"AppendixMeasures.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6411858/v1/469ec515004f04b8c0bdc222.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Parental Incarceration and Mental Health Among Black Youth: Do Neighborhood and School Assets Mitigate Harms?","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eStarting in the early 1970s, the United States (US) began an unprecedented trajectory marked by the rapid increase in the use of incarceration.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e In what has been described as an era of mass incarceration, over the next four decades, the incarceration rate in the US increased by 500%.\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e Today, nearly 2\u0026nbsp;million people are incarcerated in the US,\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e many of whom have minor children. Data from the Bureau of Justice Statistics estimates that 47% of people residing in a state prison and 58% of people in federal prisons are parents to at least one minor child.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e This has resulted in an estimated 7% of children in the US having a parent with a history of incarceration.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Structural racism and systemic marginalization have produced disproportionate rates of incarceration among Black families\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and higher rates of parental incarceration for Black youth, compared to their White peers.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA robust body of evidence has demonstrated that the incarceration of a parent can act as a pivotal life event that can harm the health and development of children.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR11 CR12\" citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e The compounding stressors associated with the experience of parental incarceration is theorized to cause these harms.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Stress process theory proposes that living in disadvantaged social contexts leads to differential exposure to social stressors that carry negative repercussions for health.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Research has shown that children with incarcerated parents are at higher risk for a range of behavioral and developmental challenges such as poor sleep,\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e unhealthy eating behaviors,\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e learning disabilities, attention disorders, and speech and language problems because of the stress associated with having an incarcerated parent.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Parental separations through incarceration can also impede the development of parent-child attachment, which can deleteriously impact the physical and mental health of children.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite extensive evidence about harms stemming from parental incarceration, much less is known about the social assets that might be leveraged to mitigate risk, particularly for Black youth who are disproportionately impacted. Evidence to date suggests that family supports play a key role in sustaining positive mental and behavioral health for youth experiencing parental incarceration.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR20\" citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e For instance, national data reveal that Black youth (ages 6\u0026ndash;17) experiencing parental incarceration exhibit higher flourishing in the presence of high family connectedness.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Despite this finding, extant literature often overlooks schools and neighborhood assets, or has yielded inconclusive results, to date.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Neighborhood social capital and perceived school supports may mitigate the negative effects of parental incarceration on children by providing stability, support, and a sense of belonging. For children exposed to parental incarceration, strong social ties within their neighborhoods, along with access to community resources, can offer additional adult guidance and positive peer interactions. Similarly, schools that provide emotional support through counseling services, mentorship programs, and well-trained teachers can address the unique needs of children experiencing parental incarceration, promoting mental health and resilience.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe present study examines associations between parental incarceration and mental health among a disproportionately impacted sample \u0026ndash; Black youth.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Critically, we examine how assets in neighborhoods and schools (i.e., neighborhood social capital and perceived school supports) buffer associations between parental incarceration and three mental health outcomes: self-rated mental health, depression, and anxiety.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eData come from the Survey of Police-Adolescent Contact Experiences (SPACE),\u003csup\u003e \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/sup\u003e SPACE is a cross-sectional, non-probability sample survey of Black youth aged 12\u0026ndash;21 in Baltimore City. Data collection occurred from August 2022 to July 2023. Community-based recruitment involved collaboration between SPACE investigators and 12 youth-serving organizations in Baltimore City, including organizations serving particularly vulnerable youth (e.g., LGBQ youth, youth disconnected from school and/or work). These organizations partnered with the research team to share the survey opportunity and assist youth in completing it, both on-site and online. The project was co-developed with the Johns Hopkins Center for Adolescent Health (CAH) Youth Advisory Board (YAB) to ensure youth co-production of materials and inclusion of diverse youth participants in the survey. Surveys were conducted via Qualtrics, with youth participants receiving \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e30. To ensure data quality, attention checks were integrated into the survey and respondents were screened out if data quality was compromised. To be eligible for participation, youth were required to 1) reside in Baltimore City, 2) identify as Black or African American (including Black biracial and multiracial), and 3) be 12\u0026ndash;21 years old (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;345). Approval was obtained from the [\u003cem\u003eInstitution Blinded for Review\u003c/em\u003e] Institutional Review Board (#18323). Written informed consent was obtained from all participants ages 18 and older, whereas written parental permission and written youth assent were obtained from all participants under age 18.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eDependent Variables\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eSelf-Rated Mental Health.\u003c/b\u003e Our first dependent variable was a single-item measure of self-rated mental health. Single-item measures have been widely used in prior research\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e \u0026ndash; including research on parental incarceration\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e \u0026ndash; and have been shown to be associated with social determinants of health and multi-item measures of mental health in the population.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Youth were asked \u0026ldquo;During the past 12 months, would you say that your mental health has been 1) poor, 2) fair, 3) good, 4) very good, or 5) excellent? This coding was retained for the present study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eDepressive Symptoms\u003c/b\u003e. Depressive symptomatology was measured using the CES-D-10 (Center for Epidemiologic Studies \u0026ndash; Depression, 10 item) scale, a short-form measure of the widely used and validated CES-D scale to assess depressive symptom severity,\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e including in adolescents.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Youth were provided with the following statement: \u0026ldquo;Below is a list of some of the ways you may have felt or behaved. For each statement, please select how often you have felt this way \u003cb\u003eduring the past week\u003c/b\u003e.\u0026rdquo; 1) I was bothered by things that usually don\u0026rsquo;t bother me, 2) I had trouble keeping my mind on what I was doing, 3) I felt depressed, 4) I felt that everything I did was an effort, 5) I felt hopeful about the future (reverse-coded), 6) I felt fearful, 7) My sleep was restless, 8) I was happy (reverse-coded), 9) I felt lonely, and 10) I could not \u0026ldquo;get going\u0026rdquo;. Response options range from 1 (\u003cem\u003eRarely or none of the time [less than one day]\u003c/em\u003e) to 4 (\u003cem\u003emost or all of the time [5\u0026ndash;7 days]\u003c/em\u003e). Items were averaged into a composite index (range\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1\u0026ndash;4; alpha\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.79), with higher scores indicating greater symptomatology.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eAnxiety Symptoms\u003c/b\u003e. Our measure of anxiety symptoms includes items from the Brief Symptom Inventory 18 (BSI 18), an assessment designed to measure psychological distress and validated for use with Black adolescents.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e In line with prior research from the Future of Families and Child Wellbeing Study (FFCWS),\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e we included the following six items in our survey, asking youth about the extent to which they agree that, \u003cb\u003eduring the past four weeks\u003c/b\u003e, they have 1) had spells of terror or panic, 2) felt tense or keyed up, 3) suddenly got scared for no reason, 4) felt nervous or shaky inside, 5) felt fearful, and 6) felt so restless they can\u0026rsquo;t sit still. Response options range from 1 (\u003cem\u003eStrongly Agree\u003c/em\u003e) to 4 (\u003cem\u003eStrongly Disagree\u003c/em\u003e). Items were averaged into a composite index (range\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1\u0026ndash;4; alpha\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.90), with the score being reverse-coded to indicate greater symptomatology.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eIndependent Variable\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eParental incarceration.\u003c/b\u003e For our measure of parental incarceration, we employed a well-established measure adapted from the National Survey of Children\u0026rsquo;s Health (NSCH).\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e The question asked participants whether they had ever experienced the following: a parent or guardian served time in jail or prison. Participants who endorsed this item were assigned a value of 1; otherwise, participants were assigned a value of 0.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eModerating Variables\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eNeighborhood Social Capital.\u003c/b\u003e Our measure of neighborhood social capital was also adapted from the NSCH\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and included four items capturing the extent to which neighborhood makes youth respondents feel supported, secure, and safe. Specifically, respondents were asked, \u0026ldquo;To what extent do you agree or disagree with these statements about your neighborhood or community: 1) people in this neighborhood help each other out, 2) parents watch out for each other\u0026rsquo;s children in this neighborhood, 3) children and adolescents are safe in our neighborhood, and 4) when we encounter difficulties, we know where to go for help in our community\u0026rdquo;. Response options range from 1 (\u003cem\u003eStrongly Agree\u003c/em\u003e) to 4 (\u003cem\u003eStrongly Disagree\u003c/em\u003e). Items were averaged into a composite index (range\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1\u0026ndash;4; alpha\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.86), with higher scores reflecting greater neighborhood social capital.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePerceived School Supports.\u003c/b\u003e To construct our measure of perceived school supports, six items were taken from two subscales of the Child and Adolescent Social Support Scale (CASSS)\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e that pertain specifically to perceived support from teachers (three items) and classmates (three items). First, youth participants were asked how often teachers 1) show they are proud of you, 2) listen to you when you need to talk, and 3) make suggestions when you don\u0026rsquo;t know what to do. The same three questions were also asked about classmates (or youth in school). For each of these items, response options included \u003cem\u003eNever\u003c/em\u003e (1), \u003cem\u003eRarely\u003c/em\u003e (2), \u003cem\u003eSometimes\u003c/em\u003e (3), \u003cem\u003eOften\u003c/em\u003e (4), and \u003cem\u003eAlways\u003c/em\u003e (5). For the purposes of this study \u0026ndash; and given that all items loaded onto a single factor (single eigenvalue above one [2.74], all factor loadings\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.70) \u0026ndash; items were averaged into a composite index (range\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1\u0026ndash;5; alpha\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.87), with higher scores reflecting greater perceived school supports.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eCovariates.\u003c/b\u003e The following covariates were included in each of the multivariable models to minimize the likelihood of spurious results: youth age (in years); youth sex (male\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1; female\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0); youth LGBQ identity (lesbian/gay, bisexual, and queer, with straight as the reference category); youth disconnection (not working or in school\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1), youth multiracial (Black/African American in conjunction with other race/ethnicity\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1); neighborhood disorder (i.e., trash/litter, graffiti/broken windows, run-down buildings); biological parents relationship status (married, cohabiting, and other as reference); parent immigrant (yes/no); maternal education (i.e., from \u003cem\u003eless than high school\u003c/em\u003e to \u003cem\u003ecompleted graduate degree\u003c/em\u003e); and household size (i.e., number of people living in current residence. For more details on the measurement of all study variables, see the appendix.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003ePlan of Analysis\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFirst, descriptive statistics were calculated among the full sample and subgroups with and without parental incarceration. Second, associations between parental incarceration and the three mental health outcomes were examined using multivariable Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) regression, including both unstandardized and standardized coefficients. Standardized coefficients were calculated by multiplying the unstandardized coefficients by the ratio of the standard deviations of the independent variable and the dependent variable. Third, OLS regression models were re-run including product-terms (statistical interaction between a binary exposure and continuous moderators) to test whether 1) neighborhood social capital and 2) perceived school supports moderated associations between parental incarceration and each of the mental health outcomes. Finally, to facilitate interpretation of results, we plotted illustrative figures of significant interactions. To do so, we calculated covariate-adjusted predicted percentile scores on select mental health outcomes by parental incarceration and each of the moderators (i.e., neighborhood social capital and perceived school supports). Missing data was imputed in STATA 18.1 using mi commands, which offers advantages over listwise deletion (e.g., resolves issues related to wastefulness as well as biased covariances, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e-values, and confidence intervals).\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e In the present study, we employ multiple imputation with chained equations, resulting in 20 multiply imputed data sets.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eFirst, we calculated descriptive statistics for the full sample of youth (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;345) and subsample stratified by parental incarceration (for more details, see the appendix). Overall, 62 youth (or 17.97%) reported parental incarceration during their lifetime. The full sample was, on average, 17.83 years of age. Just over half of the sample (53.04%) identified as male; 20.29% identified as lesbian/gay, 13.62% bisexual, 6.09% queer, 3.48% multiracial. Approximately one-third (34.49%) were disconnected (not working or in school); 8.12% were children of immigrant parents, and more than three-quarters (77.39%) had biological parents who were neither married nor cohabiting. Compared to participants without exposure to parental incarceration, those with exposure to parental incarceration reported lower self-rated mental health and higher depressive and anxiety symptoms. Finally, scores on neighborhood and school assets (i.e., neighborhood social capital and perceived school supports) were similar between youth with and without exposure to parental incarceration.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e here]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOLS Regression Models of the Association between Parental Incarceration and Mental Health Outcomes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eMental Health Outcomes\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"ItalicUnderline\" class=\"ItalicUnderline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eSelf-Rated Mental Health\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"ItalicUnderline\" class=\"ItalicUnderline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eDepressive Symptoms\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"ItalicUnderline\" class=\"ItalicUnderline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eAnxiety Symptoms\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModel 1\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eB/Beta\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModel\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eB/Beta\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModel 3\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eB/Beta\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParental Incarceration\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.71***/-0.19\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.33***/0.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.28***/0.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYouth Age\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.11**/0.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.02/-0.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.03/-0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYouth Sex (Male\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.25/0.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.14**/0.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.03/0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYouth Lesbian/Gay\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.09/0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.20**/0.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.10/-0.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYouth Bisexual\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.02/-0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.41***/0.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.14/0.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYouth Queer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.85***/-0.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.71***/0.28\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.78***/0.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYouth Disconnected\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.41**/0.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.13**/0.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.34***/0.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYouth Multiracial\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.14/-0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.12/-0.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.21/-0.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNeighborhood Disorder\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.01/-0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.03/-0.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.02/-0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBio Parents Married\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.07/0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.02/0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.07/0.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBio Parents Cohabiting\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.27/0.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.05/0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.05/0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParent Immigrant\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.87***/-0.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.30**/0.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.28/0.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMaternal Education\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.03/-0.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.02/-0.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.01/-0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHousehold Size\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01/0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.02/-0.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.01/-0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"4\"\u003eNote: * = \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.10; ** \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05; *** \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01. B\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;unstandardized coefficient; SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;standard error; Beta\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;standardized coefficient. The reference category for youth lesbian/gay, bisexual, and queer is \u0026ldquo;heterosexual\u0026rdquo;; the reference category for bio parent married and cohabiting is \u0026ldquo;other relationship status.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e presents the multivariable OLS regression models examining associations between parental incarceration and each of the youth mental health outcomes: self-rated mental health, depressive symptoms, and anxiety symptoms. Findings revealed that, net of covariates, parental incarceration is associated with significantly lower self-rated mental health (B = -0.71, Beta = -0.19; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01), as well as significantly higher depressive (B\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.33, Beta\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.21; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01) and anxiety (B\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.28, Beta\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.14; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01) symptoms. Other significant predictors in these models include identifying as lesbian/gay (for depressive symptoms), bisexual (for depressive symptoms), or queer (for all outcomes). Additionally, 1) males reported significantly more depressive symptoms, 2) youth disconnected from work and school reported significantly more depressive and anxiety symptoms, and 3) children of immigrants reported significantly lower self-rated mental health and higher depressive symptoms.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e here]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParental Incarceration and Mental Health Outcomes: Do Neighborhood Social Capital and Perceived School Supports Buffer the Association?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eMental Health Outcomes\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"ItalicUnderline\" class=\"ItalicUnderline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eSelf-Rated Mental Health\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"ItalicUnderline\" class=\"ItalicUnderline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eDepressive Symptoms\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"ItalicUnderline\" class=\"ItalicUnderline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eAnxiety Symptoms\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModel 1\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eB/Beta\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModel\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eB/Beta\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModel 3\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eB/Beta\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParental Incarceration x Neighborhood Social Capital\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.73***/0.54\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.31***/-0.55\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.11/0.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParental Incarceration x Perceived School Supports\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.60***/0.49\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.20**/-0.38\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.06/0.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"4\"\u003eNote: * = \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.10; ** \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05; *** \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01. B\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;unstandardized coefficient; SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;standard error; Beta\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;standardized coefficient. The following covariates are included in all models are suppressed to conserve space: youth age, youth sex, youth lesbian/gay, youth bisexual, youth queer, youth disconnected, youth multiracial (for count models), neighborhood disorder, parents married, biological parents cohabiting, parent immigrant, maternal education, and household size.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNext, we constructed product terms between parental incarceration and our two moderators: neighborhood social capital and perceived school supports (see Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Each of the mental health outcomes were then regressed on the product terms and all covariates. Findings revealed that the negative association between parental incarceration and youth self-rated mental health was significantly attenuated as both neighborhood social capital (B\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.73, Beta\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.54, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01) and perceived school supports (B\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.60, Beta\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.49, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01) increased. Similar patterns emerged for depressive symptomatology: the positive association between parental incarceration and youth depressive symptoms was significantly attenuated as both neighborhood social capital (B = -0.31, Beta = -0.55, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01) and perceived school supports (B = -0.20, Beta = -0.38, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) increased. No significant interactions emerged, however, in the case of anxiety symptoms.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Figures \u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e here]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinally, to illustrate the pattern of results displayed in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, we calculated covariate-adjusted predicted percentile scores on both self-rated mental health and depressive symptoms by parental incarceration and each moderator and plotted these in two figures (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e displays the findings pertaining to neighborhood social capital, whereas Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e displays the findings pertaining to perceived school supports. For each outcome, increases in neighborhood social capital and perceived school supports helped to close the gap \u0026ndash; sometimes entirely -- in mental health between youth with and without parental incarceration. Broadly, youth with parental incarceration (versus those without) exhibited worse mental health outcomes at low levels of neighborhood social capital and perceived school supports; however, as these sources of social capital and perceived support increased (e.g., to \u0026ldquo;often\u0026rdquo; perceiving school supports or \u0026ldquo;strongly agreeing\u0026rdquo; with neighborhood social capital indicators), scores on depression and self-rated mental health of youth experiencing parental incarceration became much more favorable, closing the mental health gap between youth with and without parental incarceration.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study examined the association between parental incarceration and mental health outcomes among Black youth in Baltimore City, focusing on the potential moderating effects of neighborhood social capital and perceived school supports. This work answers the call for researchers to espouse a resilience framework, contextualizing parental incarceration in the assets found in youths\u0026rsquo; social ecology.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Consistent with prior research on the health consequences of parental incarceration.,\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e findings reveal that youth who have experienced parental incarceration (compared to those who have not) report significantly worse self-rated mental health, as well as elevated depressive and anxiety symptoms. However, in the case of self-rated mental health and depressive symptoms, higher levels of neighborhood social capital and perceived school supports completely closed the mental health gap between children with and without incarcerated parents. Buffering effects were not observed for anxiety symptoms.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBefore discussing the implications, it is important to highlight some limitations that can be expanded upon in future research. First, given the cross-sectional nature of the data, we cannot definitively determine the causal ordering between our main variables of interest. Even so, parental incarceration is a lifetime report, whereas (for instance) depressive and anxiety symptoms are measured during the past 7 days and past 4 weeks, respectively. Second, the sample is a non-probability, community-based sample of Black youth; findings cannot be generalized to other groups of youth. Third, while our neighborhood and school measures are well-validated,\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR39 CR40\" citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e they are self-reported by youth and cannot be understood as objective indicators of neighborhood or school resources or assets. Larger, multi-level studies (with objective school- and community-level indicators) are needed to build upon and more rigorously test our findings. Finally, our measurement of parental incarceration \u0026ndash; while taken from a widely used national survey\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e \u0026ndash; remains limited in its detail. Future studies including details concerning incarceration (e.g., precise parent/guardian identity; incarceration duration, frequency, timing; facility type) would support a more nuanced examination of our research questions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results of this study suggest the importance of multi-level interventions to support youth impacted by parental incarceration. First, screening for parental incarceration in pediatric settings may be an important first step in connecting youth with resources. Second, the findings underscore the importance of investing in community resources that foster social cohesion and mutual support among neighbors. Policies aimed at strengthening neighborhood social capital in communities with high rates of incarceration \u0026ndash; such as investments in civic engagement activities, neighborhood groups and coalitions,\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and public spaces that alter the built environment to foster connections\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e \u0026ndash; may be a valuable direction to bolster neighborhood supports. Third, the study points to schools as a vital source of support for youth experiencing parental incarceration. Schools can serve as a critical intervention point, providing academic and emotional support from educators and peers. Policies that enhance school-based support systems \u0026ndash; such as increasing access to mental health counseling, establishing peer mentoring programs, and providing professional development for teachers on trauma-informed care \u0026ndash; could make a substantial difference in the lives of these students.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Furthermore, prioritizing resources for schools in communities disproportionately impacted by incarceration (e.g., funding for social-emotional learning programs; partnerships with local mental health providers) may help to create a more supportive and responsive environment for students. These policy implications highlight how physicians can support families through multi-sectoral advocacy efforts that increase the resources available to children exposed to parental incarceration.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFunding for this study was provided by the Bloomberg American Health Initiative Vanguard Award.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompliance with Ethical Standards\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eConflict of Interest.\u003c/em\u003e The authors declare they have no conflict of interest to disclose.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eConsent to Participate.\u003c/em\u003e Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEthical Approval.\u003c/em\u003e All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. The study was approved by the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health Institutional Review Board (#18323).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eContributors: D.J. conceptualized and designed the study, conducted the statistical analyses, wrote, edited and revised the manuscript. R.F., A.T. and J.K. wrote, edited and revised the manuscript. P.S., E.J., and R.S. edited and revised the manuscript. All authors interpreted the results and reviewed and approved the final manuscript as submitted.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data that support the findings of this study are not publicly available. The data can, however, be made available from the authors upon reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGarland, D. 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Do Pediatricians Ask About Adverse Childhood Experiences in Pediatric Primary Care? \u003cem\u003eAcademic Pediatric\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e16\u003c/em\u003e(2), 154\u0026ndash;160. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1016/j.acap.2015.08.002\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.acap.2015.08.002\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Parental Incarceration, Mental Health, Black Youth, Resources, Resilience","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6411858/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6411858/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eObjective:\u003c/strong\u003e To examine associations between parental incarceration and mental health outcomes among Black youth, and whether neighborhood and school assets moderate this relationship. We hypothesized that parental incarceration would be associated with worse mental health, but that this association would be significantly attenuated as neighborhood and school assets increased.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStudy Design:\u003c/strong\u003e Data come from the Survey of Police-Adolescent Contact Experiences (SPACE), a cross-sectional survey of a community-based sample of Black youth ages 12-21 in Baltimore City, Maryland (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e= 345) collected from August 2022-July 2023. Multivariable ordinary least squares regressions and product-term analysis were employed to test our hypotheses.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResults:\u003c/strong\u003e Findings indicate that, net of covariates, parental incarceration was associated with lower self-rated mental health and higher depressive and anxiety symptoms among youth. Both neighborhood social capital and perceived school supports significantly buffered associations between parental incarceration, lower self-rated mental health, and depressive symptoms.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConclusions:\u003c/strong\u003e Neighborhood and school assets can help close the mental health gap between Black youth with and without exposure to parental incarceration. Findings highlight how physicians can support families through multi-sectoral advocacy efforts that increase the resources available to children exposed to parental incarceration.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Parental Incarceration and Mental Health Among Black Youth: Do Neighborhood and School Assets Mitigate Harms?","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-05-16 12:04:18","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6411858/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"0b523015-03ae-40ea-92ca-49d8e9e16913","owner":[],"postedDate":"May 16th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-11-24T16:06:51+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-6411858","link":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-025-03213-w","journal":{"identity":"journal-of-child-and-family-studies","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Journal of Child and Family Studies"},"publishedOn":"2025-11-21 15:58:29","publishedOnDateReadable":"November 21st, 2025"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-05-16 12:04:18","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1007/s10826-025-03213-w","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-025-03213-w","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6411858","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6411858","identity":"rs-6411858","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}