Cognitive and Metacognitive Skills in Writing Planning in Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Cognitive and Metacognitive Skills in Writing Planning in Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Cognitive and Metacognitive Skills in Writing Planning in Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder Fátima-Zahra Rakdani-Arif-Billah, Ana-Isabel Invernón-Gómez, Jennifer Serrano-García, and 1 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7614060/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 12 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract If writing is a complex process that requires the coordination of multiple mental operations for students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), it represents a significant challenge. Due to the specific characteristics associated with their diagnosis, it is essential to understand these traits in order to adapt instruction and support their development. Therefore, this study aims to examine the cognitive and metacognitive skills that students with ASD employ when planning written texts. This research follows a primarily qualitative approach, conducted through a collective case study involving eight students with ASD, aged between 16 and 19 years. Data were collected using a semi-structured cognitive interview, and content analysis techniques were applied to extract information. The findings enabled the identification of the writing planning skills activated by students with ASD during text production, as well as the main difficulties they encounter in this process. Finally, appropriate intervention strategies are proposed to support and enhance writing planning. Based on these findings, the study highlights the need for further longitudinal and context-based research to understand how these skills evolve and which methodological approaches are most effective in fostering their development. Autism Spectrum Disorder literacy cognitive processes educational intervention text planning Figures Figure 1 Introduction Writing is not only a complex cognitive skill but also a crucial competency for the holistic development of individuals. It requires the integration of cognitive, social, and linguistic processes to meet the specific demands of writing tasks (Gallego & Rodríguez, 2016 ; Zajic et al., 2020 ), such as short-term memory, affectivity, social context, and motivation (Gallego et al., 2013). During the composition of a text, individuals engage in three core processes: writing planning (setting goals, generating, and organizing content), transcription (transforming ideas into written form), and revision (correcting spelling, coherence, and other errors). This complexity has captured scholarly attention in recent decades (Rodgers & Loveall, 2022 ). However, most existing research has primarily focused on students with typical development, with particular emphasis on the processes of text production and revision. In contrast, there is a notable scarcity of studies examining the role of executive functions in writing—an evident gap, especially among students with developmental disabilities such as autism spectrum disorder (ASD), compared to their typically developing peers (Finnegan & Accardo, 2018 ; Graham et al., 2016 ; Mayes & Calhoun, 2006). For instance, previous research suggests that there is no clear relationship between writing performance and prewriting planning in elementary students (Aznárez-Mauleón et al., 2022 ) and that upper elementary students seldom employ planning and revision strategies (Mazumdar et al., 2021 ). Additionally, the time spent on writing processes does not appear to affect text quality significantly (López et al., 2019 ). Nonetheless, Herder et al. ( 2018 ) revealed that elementary students do play a key role in making decisions about content and presentation, as well as in managing spelling, grammar, and punctuation accuracy. Among secondary school students, van Drie et al. ( 2021 ) found that they tend to spend more time writing and producing longer texts due to increased writing proficiency (Troia et al., 2019 ). Nevertheless, other studies (Caro et al., 2018 ; Fernández et al., 2019 ) have reported limited progress in language competence among many secondary students, potentially due to underuse of resources that enhance written composition or insufficient application of cohesion and coherence elements in their writing (Baddeley et al., 1998 ; Remzi, 2015 ). It is also widely recognized that many students with disabilities are inadequately prepared for the increasing complexity of writing tasks (McClure et al., 2024 ). Students with disabilities tend to write with less fluency and produce significantly less text than their typically developing peers (Finnegan & Accardo, 2018 ; Graham et al., 2017 ). Research indicates that these students generally underperform in key writing skills, including text generation (Graham et al., 2016 , 2017 ). These deficits may be even more pronounced in students with intellectual and developmental disabilities, who often experience significant challenges in areas such as working memory, organization, and self-regulation (Gargiulo & Bouk, 2018; Menyuk & Quill, 1985 ; Rodgers & Datchuk, 2020 ). In the case of students with ASD, research has highlighted considerable heterogeneity in academic skills related to writing (Bauminger-Zviely, 2013 ; Keen et al., 2016 ). Although relatively few studies have specifically focused on writing skills in this population (Zajic & Wilson, 2020 ), available evidence suggests that students with ASD experience difficulties in written composition quality, word production, and handwriting (Finnegan & Accardo, 2018 ; Kushki et al., 2011). Findings from Mayes and Calhoun (2007) and Zajic et al. ( 2018 ) are reported below. These writing difficulties have been explored about cognitive, linguistic, and attentional skills (Brown et al., 2013 ; Dockrell et al., 2014 ; Hilvert et al., 2019 ; Mayes & Calhoun, 2007; Zajic et al., 2018 ). Hilvert et al. ( 2019 ) found that students with ASD experience more difficulty initiating and sustaining attention to writing tasks compared to their typically developing peers. They also tend to produce less written output, exhibit spelling errors, and create less structured compositions. Individual differences in the theory of mind, executive functioning, fine motor skills, and speech/language abilities are likely contributing factors to these writing challenges (Asaro-Saddler, 2016 ; Finnegan & Accardo, 2018 ; Zajic et al., 2020 ). Several authors have indicated that students with ASD struggle with executive functions and self-regulation skills essential for planning (Geurts et al., 2014 ; Weyandt & Gudmundsdottir, 2015 ). Cognitive weaknesses in individuals with ASD often affect working memory, generalization, and executive functions such as attention and the ability to formulate and execute plans—all of which are implicated in the writing process. Related abilities such as coherence and theory of mind have also been found to be impaired, posing challenges to clear written discourse and audience awareness (Price et al., 2020 ). The ability to express thoughts in writing is essential for academic success, making it crucial for students to share their opinions, convey ideas, and demonstrate critical thinking. Writing, as a tool for communication, has a social context, adheres to conventions, and relies on inference and ambiguous meaning—elements that often pose difficulties for individuals with ASD (Accardo et al., 2020 ). Deficits in the theory of mind can hinder the ability of individuals with ASD to write persuasively (Asaro-Saddler et al., 2015 ) or to develop narrative skills (Brown & Klein, 2011). A tendency toward literal thinking may interfere with planning and creative writing (Asaro-Saddler, 2009), necessitating the use of executive function strategies that support planning, organisation, and self-monitoring of writing output (Delano, 2007 ). Difficulties in letter formation and handwriting have also been identified in some students with ASD, likely stemming from fine motor impairments and/or perceptual differences (Ashburner et al., 2012 ; Finnegan & Accardo, 2018 ). Additionally, some individuals with ASD experience severe language and/or speech impairments alongside poor narrative writing skills (Bedrosian et al., 2003 ; Pijnacker et al., 2017 ), making the development of functional writing abilities a priority. Nevertheless, most studies on writing in ASD have focused primarily on the final written products to infer the cognitive and metacognitive processes involved in planning and transcription (Arfè & Boscolo, 2006 ). These studies often reveal significantly lower performance in various aspects of writing, such as transcription-related components (e.g., length, speed, spelling) and planning indicators like text structure (Accardo et al., 2020 ). Against this backdrop, the present study aims to analyse one of the most critical cognitive processes in writing—planning—in order to identify the cognitive and metacognitive strategies employed by students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in constructing texts. This focus is justified by the lack of research specifically addressing the psychological processes involved in writing among students with ASD. Furthermore, the emphasis on planning is especially relevant, as it represents one of the most fundamental components of the writing process (Hayes & Nash, 1996 ; McCutchen, 2006 ). Theoretical Framework and Research Approaches While spoken language is naturally acquired, written language is a more complex and less intuitive process for those who have not taught it, requiring guided instruction and mediation (van den Bos et al., 2022 ). Composing written texts involves not only knowledge of the written code of the language but also its appropriate use (Brady et al., 2021 ). Thus, mastery of grammar is essential, along with the application of psychomotor, cognitive, and affective strategies that directly impact text quality (Gallego et al., 2013; Teubert, 2007 ). Theories of discourse production are primarily developed independently from theories of reading comprehension even though both processes rely on multiple strategies and knowledge sources to be fully understood and effectively applied. At a basic level, written discourse production involves transcribing one's thoughts and ideas with minimal mechanical and orthographic errors. However, high-quality writing goes beyond mere transcription; it requires transforming those ideas into a coherent and reader-oriented discourse (Graham, 2018 ; McCarthy et al., 2022 ). Current models of writing are informative in identifying predictors of writing skills. However, they often lack specificity regarding the relationship between text quality and productivity, as well as related skills such as spelling, working memory, oral language, and reading (Dockrell et al., 2019 ). Writing is a complex task that involves the coordination of various mental operations. It cannot be conceptualised as a linear sequence of phases; instead, it is a dynamic and integrated process that combines multiple skills and resources (Arias & García, 2006 ). Executive-function-based theoretical models describe writing as occurring through three recursive stages: planning, which involves retrieving and organizing ideas from memory; transcription, which transforms mental representations into written output; and revision, which encompasses multiple recursive operations such as reviewing, evaluating, identifying problems, correcting, and re-evaluating. Interpretation also requires reading, evaluating the text, and engaging in rewriting (Flower & Hayes, 1980 ; Hayes, 1996 , 2012 ). Flower and Hayes ( 1980 ) conceptualise writing as an independent process in which the writer makes decisions based on prior goals, applying mental operations (planning, translating, and revising) by the text's communicative purpose (Gallego et al., 2013). Later, Hayes ( 1996 ) expanded this model by emphasizing the role of working memory, sociocultural influences, and motivation. He also underscored the recursive nature of writing and the interconnectedness between the physical context (produced text and writing medium) and the social context (audience and collaborators) in the act of writing. In Hayes's (1996) revised model, two core components are highlighted: the writer, which includes effect, working memory, motivation, long-term memory (LTM), and cognitive processes; and the task environment, encompassing both the social context (audience and people involved) and the physical context (texts read/written by the individual and the writing tool used). Nonetheless, the writer remains the central element—particularly their working memory, ability to encode and decode information efficiently, and other subject-specific elements such as effect, motivation, cognitive processes, and LTM (Gallego & Rodríguez, 2011 ; Gallego et al., 2013). Given the theoretical framework that informs our study (Flower & Hayes, 1980 ; Hayes, 1996 ), this research focuses specifically on planning as a strategic component of the writing process. Planning enables individuals to access relevant knowledge from memory and generate ideas for transcription. It is perceived as a mental representation of the composition that integrates all textual elements: textual meaning, communicative intent, and both content and structure (Flower & Hayes, 1980 ; Hayes, 1996 ). The writer initiates planning by understanding the task or prompt and then develops goals and subgoals to achieve the overall objective. Self-regulation allows for adaptation of strategies to achieve these goals. The cognitive processes of planning involve generating ideas and determining what content will be included in the written text (Marschark et al., 1996 ). The writer must then decide how to represent this content linguistically and in what sequence, engaging multiple operations. The planning process includes the following sub-processes: Idea generation, involving information retrieval; Organization and structuring of content, which entails organizing ideas to create coherence; Goal setting, which guides the act of writing (Agha et al., 2022 ; Flower & Hayes, 1980 ; Gallego et al., 2013; Hayes, 1996 ). Experienced writers typically have an organized system of primary and subordinate goals, along with strategies that help them retrieve and apply this system via short-term memory (Hidi & Boscolo, 2006 ). In contrast, inexperienced writers tend not to set defined goals and may lack strategies for retrieving or translating them into ideas. This often results in low self-efficacy beliefs and heightened writing anxiety (Hidi & Boscolo, 2006 ). Most writers, however, tend to construct one or more "pre-texts" before the final version, as the written text reflects an evolving discursive action driven by communicative intent (Gallego et al., 2013). In terms of research approaches, writing studies have historically followed three complementary methodological perspectives (Berninger & Whitaker, 1993 ), differing mainly in their focus: product, process, and contextual/ecological (Castelló & Monereo, 1996 ; Salvador, 2008 ; Torrance et al., 2000 ). The product-oriented approach is the most traditional and focuses on observable and measurable behaviour, namely the written product. It emphasizes formal elements (spelling and handwriting) and structural features (textual cohesion and meaning). This perspective is primarily concerned with linguistic aspects. The process-oriented approach investigates the cognitive processes involved in writing—an inherently complex endeavour due to the intricacy of both the writing task and the mental processes involved. Key components in this approach (Marinkovich, 2002 ) include the discovery of the writer's thinking, Goal-driven writing composition, with planning as a central feature, and Feedback mechanisms throughout the writing process, including prewriting and drafting stages. This perspective values writing about topics meaningful to the student, treating writing as a contextualized task with a specific purpose. It highlights the importance of prewriting activities, drafts, writing for an audience, and the relationship between content and grammatical accuracy. This approach aligns with mediational-cognitive or interpretive research paradigms. Finally, the contextual (ecological) approach is grounded in an ethnographic perspective that views writing as a socially and contextually bound process (Camps, 1997 ). Writing is seen as a situated act influenced by a specific communicative context (Camps & Castelló, 1996 ; Pereira & di Stefano, 2007 ). This approach emphasizes understanding the processes students engage in during text production to design tasks that foster literacy development (Vygotsky, 1986 ). Through social interaction, students acquire writing-related knowledge and develop new ways of representing internal knowledge (Sperling & Freedman, 2001 ). The goal of this approach is to analyze educational contexts in depth, focusing on the social and communicative dimensions of writing to propose alternative teaching models that align with these dimensions. Specifically, based on the aforementioned considerations, the objectives of this study were: To understand how students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) perceive their text planning abilities; To uncover the cognitive and metacognitive processes they employ; To identify potential dysfunctions in these processes; To propose strategies to improve the planning of written compositions. Given the exploratory nature of this research and in line with the stated objectives, the initial hypotheses were formulated as basic questions regarding the cognitive operations involved in text planning: Do students with ASD recognize and utilize the process of text planning? What planning skills do they possess about writing? What are their main writing difficulties? What intervention strategies would be most effective in improving their writing? Method This method enables a contextualised and specific exploration of the studied reality, prioritising the relevance, impact, and effectiveness of the contextual particularities over the pursuit of broad generalisations typical of naturalistic approaches. Thus, the validity of the research is grounded in the richness and depth of interpretation rather than in statistical replicability (McKernan, 2008 ; Stake, 2020 ; Walker, 1983 ). Participants Participants were selected intentionally, as the study aimed to include students best suited to provide relevant information about its objectives. To this end, information about the students was first requested from their tutors, specifically seeking individuals with sufficient communicative competencies who were capable of expressing themselves both orally and in writing. This criterion is justified by the fact that many individuals with ASD also present intellectual and/or language impairments (DSM-5-TR, 2022). A total of eight students with autism spectrum disorder (six males and two females) were interviewed (Talli et al., 2016 ). They were enrolled in different educational institutions and/or autism-related associations. Their ages ranged from 16 to 19 years, with a mean age of 16.38. More specifically, participants in this study were diagnosed by psychoeducational professionals as individuals with ASD (Kanner's autism) who also have an associated intellectual developmental disorder. However, the primary diagnosis remains ASD rather than Intellectual Disability, given that their communication and social interaction are significantly impaired relative to their level of nonverbal developmental skills (DSM-5-TR, 2022, p. 67). It is important to note that treating this group as a single case does not preclude the identification of intra-case differences. These differences may be reflected in writing styles, as well as in the participants' competencies, skills, and knowledge related to writing. In this sense, the case is considered a unique and integrated unit, bounded by temporal, physical, or social limits that define its identity. Thus, it is regarded as a bounded system (Ceballos, 2009 ). Procedure The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Office of the Vice-Rector for Research and Knowledge Transfer at the University of Granada (Spain). Student participation was strictly voluntary and required prior informed consent from both families and tutors. Individual interviews were conducted in rooms provided by the participating educational centres and/or autism associations. Each session lasted approximately two hours per participant and was conducted on a one-on-one basis. COVID-19 safety measures were implemented during the data collection process, including physical distancing, proper ventilation, and disinfection protocols. Prior to the interviews, the researcher engaged with participants to build a climate of trust and comfort. During the interviews, participants were encouraged to freely share their perceptions and opinions regarding the strategies they use when faced with writing tasks. All interviews were audio-recorded with permission and fully transcribed for content analysis (Bardin, 1996 ; Krippendorff, 2004 ). Each transcript was carefull y reviewed prior to analysis to enhance accuracy and reliability (MacLean et al., 2004 ). Instrument The data collection technique selected for this research was a semi-structured cognitive interview (Rodríguez et al., 2017), which provides cues to participants about the operations involved in text production. It also facilitates reflection and encourages participants to articulate their actions, allowing them to infer writing processes and potential interrelations. This semi-structured interview (Table 1 ) is designed to gather pragmatic information on how individuals behave and reconstruct social representations through their practices, to construct a social understanding of individual or group behaviour (Taylor & Bogdan, 1992 ; Toscano, 2009 ). In this context, the purpose is to explore students' knowledge about writing and the psychological processes involved in text construction (Guasch & Ribas, 2013 ). Table 1 Summary of the Interview Guide on Planning. Idea Generation Goal Setting Content Organization Before writing a text, do you think about what you're going to write? Why do you usually write a text? Before writing, do you classify and organize your ideas? When you are going to write, do you think of words related to the topic? Before writing, do you think about who will read it? How do you manage to write a text? How do you organize the ideas? What do you do? Where do the ideas come from: from your head…? When you write, do you do it so others can understand you? Why do you organize them that way and not differently? When you are going to write a text, do you look for the words or do you recall them? What do you want to achieve when writing a text? Do you use any method to organize your ideas? Do you write down the words somewhere? What do you do to achieve that? Before writing, do you think about the type of text? Note. Rodríguez et al. (2017, p.16). Data Analysis To organize and reduce the data, a deductive system of categories was applied based on the theoretical writing model that supports this study (Hayes & Flower, 1980 ; Hayes, 1996 ). These categories were specifically defined to meet the research objectives (Table 2 ). Each category—for example, "idea organization"—was coded using a capital letter (P), a number (5), and a symbol (±). A positive sign (+) was used when a student indicated that they correctly performed the planning operation in writing. Conversely, a negative sign (-) was assigned when the student reported not performing the operation, doing it incorrectly, or being unaware of whether it had been done (Table 3 ). The category system was validated through expert judgment and data triangulation (Denzin, 2009 ; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016 ; Rodríguez et al., 2005 ). Three experts in written expression reviewed and evaluated the system based on the following exclusive criteria (Bardin, 1996 ): Exhaustiveness, ensuring the categories cover the entire writing planning process; Mutual exclusivity so that each data unit is assigned to only one category; Homogeneity, where all categories are defined using the same principle; Objectivity, ensuring neutral and consistent category naming; Relevance regarding the usefulness of each category for interpreting interview data. Productivity, in terms of the analytical value each category provides. To determine the inter-rater reliability of expert judgments, Cohen's kappa coefficient was calculated, yielding a result of κ = 0.97, indicating excellent reliability. In addition, a cyclical and recursive process was used to triangulate the interview data with insights from three expert researchers, providing greater consistency and depth to the findings (Albertini, 1990 ; Parameswaran et al., 2019 ; Yin, 2011 ). The number of responses per category was also quantified according to their assigned values (±), allowing for a quantitative analysis of the data. Table 2 Category System for Text Planning Analysis CATEGORIES CODES DEFINITION Idea Generation (± P1) Student’s ability to generate ideas that support text construction. Audience (± P2) Student’s ability to consider the intended readers of the text. Objectives (± P3) Student’s ability to formulate the purposes or intentions of a text. Idea Selection (± P4) Student’s ability to selectively identify the main ideas of a text. Idea Sequencing (± P5) Student’s ability to organize and sequence ideas appropriately within a text. Source of Ideas (± P6) Student’s ability to identify and select sources for extracting the content of a text. Idea Recording (± P7) Student’s ability to use tools to record ideas for later transcription. Textual Organization (± P1) Ability to structure a text appropriately according to its type. Note. Gallego et al. (2022, p. 836) Table 3 Category System for Analyzing Interview Protocols CATEGORIES CODES DEFINITION Idea Generation (± P1) The student’s ability to generate ideas that support the construction of a text. Audience (± P2) The student’s ability to consider the target audience who will read the text. Objectives (± P3) The student’s ability to formulate the purposes or intentions of a text. Idea Selection (± P4) The student’s ability to selectively identify the main ideas in a text. Idea Sequencing (± P5) The student’s ability to organize and sequence ideas effectively within a text. Source of Ideas (± P6) The student’s ability to identify and select resources from which to extract text content. Idea Recording (± P7) The student’s ability to use tools to capture ideas for later transcription. Textual Organization (± P8) The ability to properly structure a text based on its type. Note. Gallego et al. (2022, p. 836). Results Once the interview responses were coded, an initial descriptive analysis was conducted. This analysis enabled the organisation and synthesis of the collected information, facilitating the identification of patterns, trends, and key aspects related to the study's objectives. Based on this initial phase, the following results were obtained, which will serve as the foundation for more in-depth analysis in subsequent stages. As shown in Table 4 , positive responses outnumbered negative ones across most categories. Specifically, the following preliminary findings can be inferred: The students with ASD interviewed carried out writing planning operations in 59.20% of the cases. In 40.80% of cases, these students either did not perform some planning operations or did so inadequately. The most frequently used operation was goal setting, followed by source of ideas, sequencing, selection, and idea generation. The planning operations that presented the greatest difficulties were idea sequencing, idea recording, and textual organization. Table 4 Frequencies of Text Planning Categories Categories Codes Positive Frequencies Negative Frequencies Total (±) Percentage % Idea Generation (+ P1/-P1) 17 1 18 7.2 Audience (+ P2/-P2) 13 7 20 8 Objectives (+ P3/-P3) 36 8 44 17.6 Idea Selection (+ P4/-P4) 17 3 20 8 Idea Sequencing (+ P5/-P5) 19 27 46 18.4 Source of Ideas (+ P6/-P6) 23 6 29 11.6 Idea Recording (+ P7/-P7) 12 25 37 14.8 Textual Organization (+ P8/-P8) 11 25 36 14.4 Total Frequencies 148 102 250 100 Note. Author's work. On the other hand, since this is a collective case study, it is important to emphasize that the frequency counts (Fig. 1 ) refer to the total number of responses from the eight students who participated in the research. However, to derive meaningful insights, a fundamental aspect of case study research, an individual interpretation of each participant's data was conducted, followed by an integrated analysis to explain better the phenomenon under study (Stake, 2020 ). Nonetheless, the primary focus of this work is not on quantifying the data, which is why several verbatim responses from the students are included below, along with an interpretation of the results for each specific operation involved in the writing planning process. Idea Generation (± P1) The qualitative analysis of the interviews revealed that most of the interviewed students with ASD take time to think about the content they are going to write before beginning to draft a text, except one participant who stated that they did not engage in this process. Q: Before writing a text or composition, do you think about what you are going to write? A: "I think first, I think slowly" (E1, E3, E4, E5, E7); "Yes, before writing a text or a little story or a composition, I think about what I am going to write" (E2); "Yes, I have to think a lot" (E6); "No, I do not think about what I am going to write" (E8). On the other hand, all participants stated that, when composing a written text, they try to use concepts related to the topic of writing. Q: When you are going to write a text or composition, do ideas related to the topic come to mind? A: "Yes, ideas related to the topic come to mind [...] to the text when I am going to write a text [...] but sometimes they do not" (E1, E2, E3, E4, E5, E6, E7, E8). Audience (± P2) The students' responses reveal that, for the most part, when they engage in written composition, they do not consider the recipients of their written productions. However, immediately afterwards, they affirm that they do think about the audience of their compositions. Q: Before writing a text or composition, do you think about the person who will read it? A: "No, I do not think about the person who will read it" (E1, E7, E8); "Yes, I think about the person who will read my text before writing it" (E2, E3); "No, when I write a text, I do not think about anyone" (E4); "No, I write the same for everyone" (E5); "Yes, I think about how to write so that the person who reads it will like it" (E6). In contrast to the above, the majority of participants stated that, before drafting a text, they do think about making it understandable to another person—except for one participant. Q: Before writing a text or composition, do you think about writing it in a way that someone else can understand? A: "Before writing a text or composition, I think about doing it in a way that someone else can understand me" (E1, E2, E3, E4, E5, E6, E8); "I do not write so that someone else understands me, I write what I like" (E7). Goals (± P3) The qualitative analysis of the interviews reveals that students are guided by a variety of goals when engaging in written composition tasks, resulting in a diversity of intentions behind their writing. Additionally, for various reasons, some students reported writing for entertainment, while others did so due to teacher instruction. Q: Why do you usually write a text or composition? A: "I write because the teacher tells me to" (E1); "I write because I like it" (E2, E7, E8); "I do not know why I write a composition or a text" (E3, E4, E5); "I do not write texts, only when the teacher tells me to" (E6). Moreover, the interviewees identified different goals that guide their written production. Specifically, some students write to make the teacher happy or to feel happy themselves, while others do so to earn a good grade. However, one participant admitted not knowing their intentions when writing a composition and, therefore, is not guided by specific goals. Q: What do you want to achieve when you write a text or composition? A: "I want the teacher to be happy" (E1); "When I write a text, I want to get a story and feel happy" (E2); "I do not know what I want to achieve when I write a story or a text—maybe a smiley face or for the teacher to smile at me" (E3, E4); "When I write a text, I want the teacher to smile at me" (E5); "When I write a text, I am aiming for a passing grade" (E6, E8); "When I write, I just want to have fun" (E7). These goals may be reflected in different aspects of their writing. Participants reported that to achieve their goals, they write neatly, think before writing, ask the teacher, or "do it well," although they often do not specify how they do so. One participant stated that they do not know how they achieve their goals. Q: What do you do to achieve that? A: "I write with neat handwriting" (E1, E5, E6); "When I write to be happy, I think first" (E2); "To get a smiley face, I have to think" (E3); "I do not know what I do to make the teacher smile at me" (E4); "To achieve it, I ask the teacher" (E7); "I do it well to get a good grade" (E8). Finally, regarding the part of the text where their goals become apparent, the students stated it can be noticed in the neat handwriting, at the end, or throughout the entire composition. However, one student said they did not know where in the text it could be noticed. Q: In what part of the text can it be noticed? A: "It can be noticed in the handwriting" (E1, E3); "In the text, you can tell I am happy because of the pretty handwriting" (E2); "I do not know, it is not noticeable in any part of the text" (E4); "You can see it at the end of my story" (E6, E7); "It is noticeable throughout the whole text" (E8). Idea Selection (± P4) During the process of writing a text or composition, some participants reported that they think before writing, while others stated that they write down everything that comes to mind. Q: When you are writing a text or composition, do you write whatever comes to mind, or do you think first? A: "I think before writing" (E1, E2, E3, E8); "When I am going to write a text, I write whatever comes to mind" (E4, E5, E6, E7). On the other hand, five interviewees said that they write down all the ideas that come to mind, while the rest reported selecting only some of them. Q: Of all the ideas that come to your mind, do you write them all or choose some? A: "Yes, I write all the ideas that come to mind" (E1, E4, E5, E6, E7); "No, I do not write all the ideas, I only choose some" (E2, E3, E8). Idea Sequencing (± P5) The interview analysis reveals that most students do not organise the ideas they express in their writing, either due to a lack of knowledge or by choice. In general, they reported not paying attention to this aspect of textual planning. Surprisingly, some students do organize their compositions, with only two participants explaining how they do so. Q: How do you manage to organize the ideas in what you write? What do you do first? And then? A: "No, I do not organize the ideas" (E1, E4, E5, E6, E8); "I organize the ideas" (E2); "I do not know why I organize the ideas" (E3); "I organize my ideas on paper" (E7); "To organize the ideas, first we say first, second, third" (E2, E7); "I do not know why I organize the ideas" (E3); "I do not know how I organize the ideas" (E4, E5); "I said I never organize my ideas" (E8). When asked specifically how they organise the ideas in their written compositions, most participants stated that they do not organise them in a particular way. As noted above, only two students reported actively organising the ideas they planned to write about. Furthermore, their responses also revealed a lack of categorization of the content that forms their written texts. Q: Before writing a text or composition, do you classify or organize the ideas you are going to write in any way? A: "I do not organize the ideas" (E1, E3, E6, E8); "I organize the ideas by numbering them" (E2); "I do not classify or organize the ideas I am going to write in my story" (E4, E5); "I write random words" (E7). These two students explained that they organize their ideas because it makes writing easier and more structured for them. Q: Why do you organize them that way and not differently? A: "I do not organize the ideas" (E1, E2, E3, E4, E5, E6, E8); "I organize the ideas by numbering them because that way they are clean and orderly" (E2); "I organize them that way because it is easier for me" (E7). None of the students use diagrams or charts to organise their ideas as they write a composition. One student noted that ideas do not just come to them—they have to think about them—while another was unsure whether they use such tools. Q: Do you use any diagram or chart to organize the ideas that come to mind when writing a text or composition? A: "No, I do not use any diagram to organize the ideas that come to mind" (E1, E4, E5, E6, E7, E8); "Ideas do not just come to me" (E2); "I do not know if I use a diagram or chart to organize my ideas" (E3). Additionally, six of the interviewees stated that they think through complete sentences before writing them, while the others reported writing sentences as they come to mind. Q: Do you think through complete sentences or write them as they come to you in the moment? A: "I think of the complete sentences first" (E1, E2, E4, E5, E6, E7); "I write the sentences as they come to me" (E3, E8). However, at times, students gave contradictory responses, as in the case of E5: "No, I do not organize the ideas"; "Yes, I organize the ideas." Source of Ideas (± P6) Based on the students' statements, they consistently seek ideas that help them compose their texts. However, they later indicate that they usually rely on a variety of sources. As such, we find that all of them draw ideas from their minds to create their written compositions, except two students who draw ideas from their surroundings. Q: Where do you get ideas from to write a text or composition? A: "I get my ideas from my surroundings" (E1, E7); "I get the ideas for writing a story from my head" (E2, E3, E5, E6); "I get ideas from my mind" (E4, E8). Additionally, there is a noticeable variety regarding how students search for new ideas. Some report that they look for ideas by imagining them, write down whatever comes to mind, or do not actively search for ideas at all, simply writing down the ones that occur to them during the writing process. Q: When you are going to write a text or composition, do you look for ideas or use the ones that come to mind? A: "I look for ideas in my head" (E1, E2); "I do not look for ideas, they are just the ones that come to mind" (E3); "I write the ideas that occur to me" (E4, E5, E7); "I look for ideas that I like" (E6); "I imagine the ideas" (E8). Likewise, we find that only four students know how and where to find new ideas to write an excellent text. They stated that they find ideas in books, on the playground, and by looking at what their classmates have written, although one participant, despite claiming to know where to find new ideas, did not specify how. The rest of the students reported not knowing how to find new ideas. Q: Do you know how and where to find new ideas to write an excellent text? A: "Yes, I know where to find new ideas" (E1); "I do not know where to find new ideas" (E2, E3, E8); "I do not know, I do not know how to find new ideas" (E4); "I know how to find new ideas—in the playground" (E5); "I find them in the books my mom reads to me" (E6); "Yes, I look at what my friend has written" (E7). However, there are also contradictory responses, such as the one given by participant E1: "Yes, I know... Yes... No... I do not know…"; "Yes, I know where to find new ideas." Idea Recording (± P7) In general, only four of the participants reported using any formula during the writing process. Although some stated that they use tricks, the majority do not apply any rules or strategies to help them with writing. Specifically, only one student mentioned using a note-taking tool. The rest said they do not use any tricks to collect and organize their ideas, either due to difficulty or lack of knowledge. Q: Do you use any formula or trick to collect and organize the ideas that come to you so you do not forget them while writing? A: "Yes, I have a trick to organize my ideas" (E1); "I use a trick to organize the ideas that come to me so I do not forget them" (E2, E3); "I do not use any trick to organize and collect the ideas so I do not forget them" (E4, E5, E8); "I do not have any trick to collect and organize the ideas that come to me—it is hard" (E6); "To collect my ideas, I write them in my planner" (E7). Additionally, seven of the interviewees said they do not make prior notes, while only one student reported writing on a separate sheet of paper before drafting their composition. Q: Do you write down what you want to include in your text on a separate sheet beforehand? What do you write down? A: "I do not write on a separate sheet" (E1); "I do not write down the ideas I look for" (E2, E3, E4, E5, E6, E8); "Before writing my story, I write on another piece of paper" (E7). Once again, as previously mentioned, only one student takes notes on another sheet of paper before starting to write their text. Q: When you look for ideas or when ideas come to mind, do you write them down anywhere? A: "I do not write the ideas down or record them anywhere" (E1, E2, E3, E4, E5, E6, E8); "I write everything down on paper before writing my story" (E7). Finally, seven out of the eight interviewees stated that they do not record anywhere how or where they found the words and ideas for their texts and compositions, with only one student reporting that they write this information in their planner. Q: Do you write down anywhere how and where you found the words and ideas for your texts and compositions? A: "I do not write down anywhere how and where I found the words" (E1, E2, E3, E4, E5, E6, E8); "Yes, the ideas I get from somewhere, I write them in my planner" (E7). Textual Organization (± P8) Based on the qualitative analysis of the interviews, it was found that the students are entirely unfamiliar with how to organize a written text according to its type, as well as with the existence of different textual genres. Q: Before writing a text or composition, do you think about what type of text you are going to write? For example, narrative, descriptive, argumentative, dialogue… A: "I do not think about the type of text I am going to write" (E1, E2, E3, E4, E5, E6, E7, E8); "I write everything the same way" (E1, E2, E3, E4, E5, E6, E7, E8). This lack of awareness or difficulty is also evident in organising temporal sequences (beginning-middle), except for the ending, as all participants stated that their compositions always have an ending. However, they did not specify how they start or develop their texts. Q: How do you manage to write a composition or a text? How do you organize your ideas? A: "My story has an ending" (E1, E2, E3, E4, E5, E6, E7, E8). In terms of describing objects, participants reported different ways of organising their descriptions. Five participants begin from the bottom left, while two begin from the top right. One student admitted not following any order at all. Q: When you describe an object or a scene, what order do you follow? A: "I start from the left and the bottom" (E1, E3, E5, E7, E8); "I start from the top and the right" (E2, E6); "I do not follow any order" (E4). Regarding the sequencing of ideas, when the goal of the text is to persuade someone, all students stated that they do not know how to convince another person. However, some mentioned that they would use reasons like happiness and fun to persuade. Q: When you write a text to convince someone of something, how do you organize your ideas? A: "I do not know how to convince someone of something" (E1, E2, E3, E4, E5, E6, E7, E8); "I would say that I like it […] that I have fun" (E3, E6, E7). Additionally, all the interviewed students reported that when they compare two objects or events, they only mention the aspects they have in common. Q: When you compare two objects or events, how do you do it? A: "I say the things that are the same" (E1, E2, E3, E4, E5, E6, E7, E8). Discussions The primary objective of this research project was to identify the cognitive and metacognitive skills employed by students with autism spectrum disorder during the planning of a written text. In this regard, this collective case study aims to answer the four initially proposed questions, detailed below, in order to establish the main contributions of this study. However, it is worth mentioning that the findings are not exclusive to students with ASD, as similar patterns have been observed in other populations, as shown in the previously cited research. 1) Do students with ASD understand and use the process of textual planning? The results confirm, in alignment with prior research (Accardo et al., 2020 ; Asaro-Saddler, 2016 ; Finnegan & Accardo, 2018 ; Hilvert et al., 2019 ; Zajic et al., 2020 ), that students with ASD have a basic understanding of how to approach the planning of written composition. The most significant difficulties were observed in sequencing ideas, recording ideas, and organising text. However, their responses revealed some contradictions that raise doubts about their effective use of planning strategies. These findings are consistent with previous research. A study by Gallego and Rodríguez ( 2016 ) found that students with Down syndrome also have a basic understanding of text planning. Furthermore, they demonstrated the use of basic operations that comprise this process, but were unable to apply many others. Their responses also revealed contradictions that suggest a lack of mastery of the strategies involved in the process. Similar findings were reported in studies involving students with ADHD and DLD (Developmental Language Disorder) (Andreou & Aslanoglou, 2022 ; Cheng et al., 2022 ; Cortés et al., 2019 ; DuPaul & Langberg, 2015 ; Lalioti et al., 2016 ; Mengisidou et al., 2019 ; Zendarski et al., 2021 ). 2) What writing planning skills do they possess? The study revealed that the students who participated in this research use some basic cognitive strategies when engaging in writing tasks: a) They usually take time to think about the content before writing and generate words related to the writing topic. This is consistent with what is observed in primary education students, who spend time thinking about the content of their composition, generating and selecting ideas according to the topic (Cortés et al., 2019 ; Herder et al., 2018 ); b) Most of them ignore their audience, meaning they do not consider the recipients of their written compositions, although they do care about making them understandable to the reader. This contrasts with students with intellectual disabilities, who tend to consider their audience (Gallego et al., 2022), but is similar to students with Down syndrome, who sometimes disregard their potential readers (Gallego & Rodríguez, 2016 ); c) In general, students with ASD write texts guided by a network of objectives: for fun, to feel happy, to please the teacher, or to obtain a good grade. Handwriting quality seems to be a priority for these students, a goal shared by other groups such as students with Down syndrome (Albertini et al., 2016 ; Gallego & Rodríguez, 2016 ) and typically developing students (Herder et al., 2018 ); d) During the writing process, some students think before writing, while others write whatever comes to mind. This finding is consistent with what has been reported about students with intellectual disabilities, who do not sufficiently think about the ideas they will include in their text and end up writing down anything that comes to mind (Gallego, 2008; Gallego et al., 2022); e) Students reported not organizing the content expressed in their written productions, nor using formulas or strategies to structure them; f) In general, they turn to a variety of information sources to generate ideas for their texts: their thoughts, books, and peers. This finding is consistent with what has been observed in other groups (Down syndrome and intellectual disabilities), who also rely on multiple sources to generate ideas for their texts (Gallego et al., 2022; Gallego & Rodríguez, 2016 ), whereas students with visual impairments are often unaware of the value of diverse information sources (Gallego & Rodríguez, 2011 ); g) Most participants do not take preliminary notes when preparing their compositions. This issue has also been observed in students with visual impairments, who tend to ignore the importance of drafting (Gallego & Rodríguez, 2011 ); h) The majority of students in our study do not know how to structure their compositions according to text type. This finding is similar to what has been observed in students with Down syndrome, who often lack awareness of the existence and structure of various text types (Gallego & Rodríguez, 2016 ). 3) What are their main writing difficulties? This study revealed the main difficulties this group faces during the planning phase of writing: They are unaware of the importance of using writing drafts to improve the final quality of a composition. They overlook the use of formulas or strategies for writing a well-structured text. They do not understand how a written composition should be structured according to its text type. They do not make preliminary notes before writing. These issues have also been observed in other groups, such as students with Down syndrome and intellectual disabilities (Gallego & Rodríguez, 2016 ; Gallego et al., 2022). 4) What intervention strategies would be appropriate to improve their writing? Based on the findings of this study and considering the theoretical framework that guides it, teaching strategies appear to be a practical approach to help students not only learn content meaningfully but also develop the ability to manage it autonomously and efficiently direct their learning process (Klimenko & Alvares, 2009 ; Monroe & Troia, 2006 ). In this sense, planning is considered a process that fosters cognitive and metacognitive skills activated during the production of written compositions (Gallego et al., 2013; Graham, 2006 ; Monroe & Troia, 2006 ; Salvador, 2008 ; Schunk, 2003 ). The following activities are proposed to support learning how to plan during text composition: Use a dictionary to promote lexical richness, including synonyms and antonyms. Conduct brainstorming sessions to facilitate access to students' prior knowledge—i.e., knowledge activation. Reflect on and think about the goals intended to be achieved during writing. Use templates to record ideas and topic-related vocabulary. Use any organizer (mind map, concept map, chart...) that helps differentiate main ideas and connect them with secondary ones. Create cards that summarize the structural rules for the parts a text must include, depending on its type. Use mnemonic strategies for guided planning, as they improve the structure of written production. Develop a written plan for the text. This allows students to represent their ideas in different ways (through picture sequences, concept maps, and timelines, among others). Conclusions This study has provided valuable insights into the cognitive and metacognitive strategies employed by students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) during the planning phase of written composition. The findings confirm that while these students possess a basic understanding of the text planning process, they often struggle with its more complex components—particularly in areas such as idea sequencing, note-taking, and textual organisation. The study also revealed that, although students employ some fundamental cognitive strategies, such as thinking critically about the content and generating topic-related ideas, their approach to writing is often inconsistent and lacks structure (Chilton et al., 2019 ). Most notably, the absence of audience awareness, limited goal setting, and the lack of prewriting strategies suggest that their planning abilities remain underdeveloped. These difficulties are not unique to students with ASD and have also been identified in other groups, such as those with Down syndrome, intellectual disabilities, and visual impairments. Furthermore, this research underscores the importance of explicitly teaching planning strategies that foster autonomy and structure in writing. The proposed interventions, such as the use of brainstorming, graphic organizers, writing templates, and mnemonic tools, are designed to strengthen both the cognitive and metacognitive dimensions of the writing process. These approaches align with evidence-based practices and have the potential to significantly improve the quality and coherence of students' written output. Ultimately, fostering planning skills in students with ASD not only enhances their ability to produce structured texts but also empowers them to take control of their learning process. Incorporating these strategies into educational practice is essential for supporting inclusive and effective writing instruction. Study limitations and future directions The main limitations of this study include the lack of prior research specifically focused on the metacognitive skills employed by students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in the production of written texts. This gap limits the possibility of a more comprehensive and robust comparison of the results obtained. Another limitation lies in the intrinsic characteristics of case studies, including their non-probabilistic nature and small sample size, which restricts the generalizability of the findings to a broader population. Additionally, selecting students from the same geographical context introduces a local bias that may influence the diversity and representativeness of the conclusions. Despite these limitations, this study offers a significant first step toward understanding the cognitive and metacognitive skills activated by students with ASD during written composition. In this regard, it opens the door for future research to replicate and expand upon these findings, delving not only into the analysis of the cognitive processes involved but also into other psychological processes related to writing. Furthermore, future studies are encouraged to include larger and more diverse samples, as well as complementary methodological approaches, to enhance the generalizability and practical application of the results in varied educational contexts. Declarations Declarations Ethics Statement All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the University of Granada (reference code: 4018/CEIH/2024). Consent to Participate Informed and voluntary consent was obtained from all participants included in this study. The participants, aged between 16 and 19 years, received clear and complete information regarding the objectives, procedures, potential benefits, and confidentiality aspects of the study before agreeing to participate. Participation was entirely voluntary, and participants retained the right to withdraw from the study at any time without any consequences. Clinical trial number Not applicable. Consent to Publish declaration Conflict of Interest Statement The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest. Funding Part of this work has been funded by the project Knowledge of inclusion and disability in prospective teachers: keys to achieving inclusive education. Reference: PPJIA2023-104. Author Contribution Author Contributions: Conceptualization, F. Z. R. A.-B., and A.I.I.-G.; methodology, F. Z. R. A.-B. and J.M.O.-M.; software, F. Z. R. A.-B.; formal analysis, F. Z. 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It requires the integration of cognitive, social, and linguistic processes to meet the specific demands of writing tasks (Gallego \u0026amp; Rodr\u0026iacute;guez, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Zajic et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR105\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), such as short-term memory, affectivity, social context, and motivation (Gallego et al., 2013). During the composition of a text, individuals engage in three core processes: writing planning (setting goals, generating, and organizing content), transcription (transforming ideas into written form), and revision (correcting spelling, coherence, and other errors). This complexity has captured scholarly attention in recent decades (Rodgers \u0026amp; Loveall, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR84\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHowever, most existing research has primarily focused on students with typical development, with particular emphasis on the processes of text production and revision. In contrast, there is a notable scarcity of studies examining the role of executive functions in writing\u0026mdash;an evident gap, especially among students with developmental disabilities such as autism spectrum disorder (ASD), compared to their typically developing peers (Finnegan \u0026amp; Accardo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Graham et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Mayes \u0026amp; Calhoun, 2006). For instance, previous research suggests that there is no clear relationship between writing performance and prewriting planning in elementary students (Azn\u0026aacute;rez-Maule\u0026oacute;n et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) and that upper elementary students seldom employ planning and revision strategies (Mazumdar et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, the time spent on writing processes does not appear to affect text quality significantly (L\u0026oacute;pez et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Nonetheless, Herder et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) revealed that elementary students do play a key role in making decisions about content and presentation, as well as in managing spelling, grammar, and punctuation accuracy.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAmong secondary school students, van Drie et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR98\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) found that they tend to spend more time writing and producing longer texts due to increased writing proficiency (Troia et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR96\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Nevertheless, other studies (Caro et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Fern\u0026aacute;ndez et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) have reported limited progress in language competence among many secondary students, potentially due to underuse of resources that enhance written composition or insufficient application of cohesion and coherence elements in their writing (Baddeley et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e; Remzi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR82\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIt is also widely recognized that many students with disabilities are inadequately prepared for the increasing complexity of writing tasks (McClure et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Students with disabilities tend to write with less fluency and produce significantly less text than their typically developing peers (Finnegan \u0026amp; Accardo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Graham et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Research indicates that these students generally underperform in key writing skills, including text generation (Graham et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). These deficits may be even more pronounced in students with intellectual and developmental disabilities, who often experience significant challenges in areas such as working memory, organization, and self-regulation (Gargiulo \u0026amp; Bouk, 2018; Menyuk \u0026amp; Quill, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR75\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1985\u003c/span\u003e; Rodgers \u0026amp; Datchuk, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR83\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the case of students with ASD, research has highlighted considerable heterogeneity in academic skills related to writing (Bauminger-Zviely, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Keen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Although relatively few studies have specifically focused on writing skills in this population (Zajic \u0026amp; Wilson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR103\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), available evidence suggests that students with ASD experience difficulties in written composition quality, word production, and handwriting (Finnegan \u0026amp; Accardo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Kushki et al., 2011). Findings from Mayes and Calhoun (2007) and Zajic et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR104\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) are reported below. These writing difficulties have been explored about cognitive, linguistic, and attentional skills (Brown et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Dockrell et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Hilvert et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Mayes \u0026amp; Calhoun, 2007; Zajic et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR104\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHilvert et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) found that students with ASD experience more difficulty initiating and sustaining attention to writing tasks compared to their typically developing peers. They also tend to produce less written output, exhibit spelling errors, and create less structured compositions. Individual differences in the theory of mind, executive functioning, fine motor skills, and speech/language abilities are likely contributing factors to these writing challenges (Asaro-Saddler, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Finnegan \u0026amp; Accardo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Zajic et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR105\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Several authors have indicated that students with ASD struggle with executive functions and self-regulation skills essential for planning (Geurts et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Weyandt \u0026amp; Gudmundsdottir, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR101\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCognitive weaknesses in individuals with ASD often affect working memory, generalization, and executive functions such as attention and the ability to formulate and execute plans\u0026mdash;all of which are implicated in the writing process. Related abilities such as coherence and theory of mind have also been found to be impaired, posing challenges to clear written discourse and audience awareness (Price et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR81\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The ability to express thoughts in writing is essential for academic success, making it crucial for students to share their opinions, convey ideas, and demonstrate critical thinking. Writing, as a tool for communication, has a social context, adheres to conventions, and relies on inference and ambiguous meaning\u0026mdash;elements that often pose difficulties for individuals with ASD (Accardo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDeficits in the theory of mind can hinder the ability of individuals with ASD to write persuasively (Asaro-Saddler et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) or to develop narrative skills (Brown \u0026amp; Klein, 2011). A tendency toward literal thinking may interfere with planning and creative writing (Asaro-Saddler, 2009), necessitating the use of executive function strategies that support planning, organisation, and self-monitoring of writing output (Delano, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDifficulties in letter formation and handwriting have also been identified in some students with ASD, likely stemming from fine motor impairments and/or perceptual differences (Ashburner et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Finnegan \u0026amp; Accardo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, some individuals with ASD experience severe language and/or speech impairments alongside poor narrative writing skills (Bedrosian et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e; Pijnacker et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR80\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), making the development of functional writing abilities a priority.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eNevertheless, most studies on writing in ASD have focused primarily on the final written products to infer the cognitive and metacognitive processes involved in planning and transcription (Arf\u0026egrave; \u0026amp; Boscolo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). These studies often reveal significantly lower performance in various aspects of writing, such as transcription-related components (e.g., length, speed, spelling) and planning indicators like text structure (Accardo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAgainst this backdrop, the present study aims to analyse one of the most critical cognitive processes in writing\u0026mdash;planning\u0026mdash;in order to identify the cognitive and metacognitive strategies employed by students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in constructing texts. This focus is justified by the lack of research specifically addressing the psychological processes involved in writing among students with ASD. Furthermore, the emphasis on planning is especially relevant, as it represents one of the most fundamental components of the writing process (Hayes \u0026amp; Nash, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e; McCutchen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Theoretical Framework and Research Approaches","content":"\u003cp\u003eWhile spoken language is naturally acquired, written language is a more complex and less intuitive process for those who have not taught it, requiring guided instruction and mediation (van den Bos et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR97\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Composing written texts involves not only knowledge of the written code of the language but also its appropriate use (Brady et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Thus, mastery of grammar is essential, along with the application of psychomotor, cognitive, and affective strategies that directly impact text quality (Gallego et al., 2013; Teubert, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR93\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTheories of discourse production are primarily developed independently from theories of reading comprehension even though both processes rely on multiple strategies and knowledge sources to be fully understood and effectively applied. At a basic level, written discourse production involves transcribing one's thoughts and ideas with minimal mechanical and orthographic errors. However, high-quality writing goes beyond mere transcription; it requires transforming those ideas into a coherent and reader-oriented discourse (Graham, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; McCarthy et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCurrent models of writing are informative in identifying predictors of writing skills. However, they often lack specificity regarding the relationship between text quality and productivity, as well as related skills such as spelling, working memory, oral language, and reading (Dockrell et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Writing is a complex task that involves the coordination of various mental operations. It cannot be conceptualised as a linear sequence of phases; instead, it is a dynamic and integrated process that combines multiple skills and resources (Arias \u0026amp; García, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eExecutive-function-based theoretical models describe writing as occurring through three recursive stages: planning, which involves retrieving and organizing ideas from memory; transcription, which transforms mental representations into written output; and revision, which encompasses multiple recursive operations such as reviewing, evaluating, identifying problems, correcting, and re-evaluating. Interpretation also requires reading, evaluating the text, and engaging in rewriting (Flower \u0026amp; Hayes, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1980\u003c/span\u003e; Hayes, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Flower and Hayes (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1980\u003c/span\u003e) conceptualise writing as an independent process in which the writer makes decisions based on prior goals, applying mental operations (planning, translating, and revising) by the text's communicative purpose (Gallego et al., 2013).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eLater, Hayes (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e) expanded this model by emphasizing the role of working memory, sociocultural influences, and motivation. He also underscored the recursive nature of writing and the interconnectedness between the physical context (produced text and writing medium) and the social context (audience and collaborators) in the act of writing.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn Hayes's (1996) revised model, two core components are highlighted: the writer, which includes effect, working memory, motivation, long-term memory (LTM), and cognitive processes; and the task environment, encompassing both the social context (audience and people involved) and the physical context (texts read/written by the individual and the writing tool used). Nonetheless, the writer remains the central element—particularly their working memory, ability to encode and decode information efficiently, and other subject-specific elements such as effect, motivation, cognitive processes, and LTM (Gallego \u0026amp; Rodríguez, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Gallego et al., 2013).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eGiven the theoretical framework that informs our study (Flower \u0026amp; Hayes, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1980\u003c/span\u003e; Hayes, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e), this research focuses specifically on planning as a strategic component of the writing process. Planning enables individuals to access relevant knowledge from memory and generate ideas for transcription. It is perceived as a mental representation of the composition that integrates all textual elements: textual meaning, communicative intent, and both content and structure (Flower \u0026amp; Hayes, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1980\u003c/span\u003e; Hayes, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e). The writer initiates planning by understanding the task or prompt and then develops goals and subgoals to achieve the overall objective. Self-regulation allows for adaptation of strategies to achieve these goals.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe cognitive processes of planning involve generating ideas and determining what content will be included in the written text (Marschark et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e). The writer must then decide how to represent this content linguistically and in what sequence, engaging multiple operations. The planning process includes the following sub-processes: Idea generation, involving information retrieval; Organization and structuring of content, which entails organizing ideas to create coherence; Goal setting, which guides the act of writing (Agha et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Flower \u0026amp; Hayes, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1980\u003c/span\u003e; Gallego et al., 2013; Hayes, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eExperienced writers typically have an organized system of primary and subordinate goals, along with strategies that help them retrieve and apply this system via short-term memory (Hidi \u0026amp; Boscolo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). In contrast, inexperienced writers tend not to set defined goals and may lack strategies for retrieving or translating them into ideas. This often results in low self-efficacy beliefs and heightened writing anxiety (Hidi \u0026amp; Boscolo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). Most writers, however, tend to construct one or more \"pre-texts\" before the final version, as the written text reflects an evolving discursive action driven by communicative intent (Gallego et al., 2013).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn terms of research approaches, writing studies have historically followed three complementary methodological perspectives (Berninger \u0026amp; Whitaker, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e), differing mainly in their focus: product, process, and contextual/ecological (Castelló \u0026amp; Monereo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e; Salvador, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR87\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Torrance et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR94\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe product-oriented approach is the most traditional and focuses on observable and measurable behaviour, namely the written product. It emphasizes formal elements (spelling and handwriting) and structural features (textual cohesion and meaning). This perspective is primarily concerned with linguistic aspects.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe process-oriented approach investigates the cognitive processes involved in writing—an inherently complex endeavour due to the intricacy of both the writing task and the mental processes involved. Key components in this approach (Marinkovich, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e) include the discovery of the writer's thinking, Goal-driven writing composition, with planning as a central feature, and Feedback mechanisms throughout the writing process, including prewriting and drafting stages.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis perspective values writing about topics meaningful to the student, treating writing as a contextualized task with a specific purpose. It highlights the importance of prewriting activities, drafts, writing for an audience, and the relationship between content and grammatical accuracy. This approach aligns with mediational-cognitive or interpretive research paradigms.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFinally, the contextual (ecological) approach is grounded in an ethnographic perspective that views writing as a socially and contextually bound process (Camps, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e). Writing is seen as a situated act influenced by a specific communicative context (Camps \u0026amp; Castelló, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e; Pereira \u0026amp; di Stefano, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR79\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). This approach emphasizes understanding the processes students engage in during text production to design tasks that foster literacy development (Vygotsky, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR99\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e). Through social interaction, students acquire writing-related knowledge and develop new ways of representing internal knowledge (Sperling \u0026amp; Freedman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR89\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e). The goal of this approach is to analyze educational contexts in depth, focusing on the social and communicative dimensions of writing to propose alternative teaching models that align with these dimensions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSpecifically, based on the aforementioned considerations, the objectives of this study were:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003col\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo understand how students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) perceive their text planning abilities;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo uncover the cognitive and metacognitive processes they employ;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo identify potential dysfunctions in these processes;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo propose strategies to improve the planning of written compositions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eGiven the exploratory nature of this research and in line with the stated objectives, the initial hypotheses were formulated as basic questions regarding the cognitive operations involved in text planning:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDo students with ASD recognize and utilize the process of text planning?\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003col\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhat planning skills do they possess about writing?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhat are their main writing difficulties?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhat intervention strategies would be most effective in improving their writing?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Method","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis method enables a contextualised and specific exploration of the studied reality, prioritising the relevance, impact, and effectiveness of the contextual particularities over the pursuit of broad generalisations typical of naturalistic approaches. Thus, the validity of the research is grounded in the richness and depth of interpretation rather than in statistical replicability (McKernan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Stake, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR90\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Walker, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR100\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1983\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eParticipants\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eParticipants were selected intentionally, as the study aimed to include students best suited to provide relevant information about its objectives. To this end, information about the students was first requested from their tutors, specifically seeking individuals with sufficient communicative competencies who were capable of expressing themselves both orally and in writing. This criterion is justified by the fact that many individuals with ASD also present intellectual and/or language impairments (DSM-5-TR, 2022). A total of eight students with autism spectrum disorder (six males and two females) were interviewed (Talli et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR91\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). They were enrolled in different educational institutions and/or autism-related associations. Their ages ranged from 16 to 19 years, with a mean age of 16.38.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMore specifically, participants in this study were diagnosed by psychoeducational professionals as individuals with ASD (Kanner's autism) who also have an associated intellectual developmental disorder. However, the primary diagnosis remains ASD rather than Intellectual Disability, given that their communication and social interaction are significantly impaired relative to their level of nonverbal developmental skills (DSM-5-TR, 2022, p. 67).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIt is important to note that treating this group as a single case does not preclude the identification of intra-case differences. These differences may be reflected in writing styles, as well as in the participants' competencies, skills, and knowledge related to writing. In this sense, the case is considered a unique and integrated unit, bounded by temporal, physical, or social limits that define its identity. Thus, it is regarded as a bounded system (Ceballos, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eProcedure\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Office of the Vice-Rector for Research and Knowledge Transfer at the University of Granada (Spain). Student participation was strictly voluntary and required prior informed consent from both families and tutors. Individual interviews were conducted in rooms provided by the participating educational centres and/or autism associations. Each session lasted approximately two hours per participant and was conducted on a one-on-one basis.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCOVID-19 safety measures were implemented during the data collection process, including physical distancing, proper ventilation, and disinfection protocols. Prior to the interviews, the researcher engaged with participants to build a climate of trust and comfort. During the interviews, participants were encouraged to freely share their perceptions and opinions regarding the strategies they use when faced with writing tasks. All interviews were audio-recorded with permission and fully transcribed for content analysis (Bardin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e; Krippendorff, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). Each transcript was carefull y reviewed prior to analysis to enhance accuracy and reliability (MacLean et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eInstrument\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e The data collection technique selected for this research was a semi-structured cognitive interview (Rodr\u0026iacute;guez et al., 2017), which provides cues to participants about the operations involved in text production. It also facilitates reflection and encourages participants to articulate their actions, allowing them to infer writing processes and potential interrelations.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis semi-structured interview (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e) is designed to gather pragmatic information on how individuals behave and reconstruct social representations through their practices, to construct a social understanding of individual or group behaviour (Taylor \u0026amp; Bogdan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR92\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e; Toscano, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR95\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). In this context, the purpose is to explore students' knowledge about writing and the psychological processes involved in text construction (Guasch \u0026amp; Ribas, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSummary of the Interview Guide on Planning.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIdea Generation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGoal Setting\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eContent Organization\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBefore writing a text, do you think about what you're going to write?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhy do you usually write a text?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBefore writing, do you classify and organize your ideas?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhen you are going to write, do you think of words related to the topic?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBefore writing, do you think about who will read it?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHow do you manage to write a text? How do you organize the ideas? What do you do?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhere do the ideas come from: from your head\u0026hellip;?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhen you write, do you do it so others can understand you?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhy do you organize them that way and not differently?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhen you are going to write a text, do you look for the words or do you recall them?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhat do you want to achieve when writing a text?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDo you use any method to organize your ideas?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDo you write down the words somewhere?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhat do you do to achieve that?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBefore writing, do you think about the type of text?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote.\u003c/em\u003e Rodr\u0026iacute;guez et al. (2017, p.16).\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo organize and reduce the data, a deductive system of categories was applied based on the theoretical writing model that supports this study (Hayes \u0026amp; Flower, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1980\u003c/span\u003e; Hayes, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e). These categories were specifically defined to meet the research objectives (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Each category\u0026mdash;for example, \"idea organization\"\u0026mdash;was coded using a capital letter (P), a number (5), and a symbol (\u0026plusmn;). A positive sign (+) was used when a student indicated that they correctly performed the planning operation in writing. Conversely, a negative sign (-) was assigned when the student reported not performing the operation, doing it incorrectly, or being unaware of whether it had been done (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). The category system was validated through expert judgment and data triangulation (Denzin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Merriam \u0026amp; Tisdell, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Rodr\u0026iacute;guez et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR86\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). Three experts in written expression reviewed and evaluated the system based on the following exclusive criteria (Bardin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e):\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eExhaustiveness, ensuring the categories cover the entire writing planning process;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eMutual exclusivity so that each data unit is assigned to only one category;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eHomogeneity, where all categories are defined using the same principle;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eObjectivity, ensuring neutral and consistent category naming;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eRelevance regarding the usefulness of each category for interpreting interview data.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eProductivity, in terms of the analytical value each category provides.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo determine the inter-rater reliability of expert judgments, Cohen's kappa coefficient was calculated, yielding a result of κ\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.97, indicating excellent reliability. In addition, a cyclical and recursive process was used to triangulate the interview data with insights from three expert researchers, providing greater consistency and depth to the findings (Albertini, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e; Parameswaran et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Yin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR102\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). The number of responses per category was also quantified according to their assigned values (\u0026plusmn;), allowing for a quantitative analysis of the data.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCategory System for Text Planning Analysis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCATEGORIES\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCODES\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDEFINITION\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIdea Generation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e(\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;P1)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStudent\u0026rsquo;s ability to generate ideas that support text construction.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAudience\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e(\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;P2)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStudent\u0026rsquo;s ability to consider the intended readers of the text.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eObjectives\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e(\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;P3)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStudent\u0026rsquo;s ability to formulate the purposes or intentions of a text.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIdea Selection\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e(\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;P4)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStudent\u0026rsquo;s ability to selectively identify the main ideas of a text.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIdea Sequencing\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e(\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;P5)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStudent\u0026rsquo;s ability to organize and sequence ideas appropriately within a text.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSource of Ideas\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e(\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;P6)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStudent\u0026rsquo;s ability to identify and select sources for extracting the content of a text.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIdea Recording\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e(\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;P7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStudent\u0026rsquo;s ability to use tools to record ideas for later transcription.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTextual Organization\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e(\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;P1)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAbility to structure a text appropriately according to its type.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote.\u003c/em\u003e Gallego et al. (2022, p. 836)\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCategory System for Analyzing Interview Protocols\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCATEGORIES\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCODES\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDEFINITION\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIdea Generation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e(\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;P1)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe student\u0026rsquo;s ability to generate ideas that support the construction of a text.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAudience\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e(\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;P2)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe student\u0026rsquo;s ability to consider the target audience who will read the text.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eObjectives\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e(\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;P3)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe student\u0026rsquo;s ability to formulate the purposes or intentions of a text.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIdea Selection\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e(\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;P4)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe student\u0026rsquo;s ability to selectively identify the main ideas in a text.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIdea Sequencing\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e(\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;P5)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe student\u0026rsquo;s ability to organize and sequence ideas effectively within a text.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSource of Ideas\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e(\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;P6)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe student\u0026rsquo;s ability to identify and select resources from which to extract text content.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIdea Recording\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e(\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;P7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe student\u0026rsquo;s ability to use tools to capture ideas for later transcription.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTextual Organization\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e(\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;P8)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe ability to properly structure a text based on its type.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote.\u003c/em\u003e Gallego et al. (2022, p. 836).\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eOnce the interview responses were coded, an initial descriptive analysis was conducted. This analysis enabled the organisation and synthesis of the collected information, facilitating the identification of patterns, trends, and key aspects related to the study's objectives. Based on this initial phase, the following results were obtained, which will serve as the foundation for more in-depth analysis in subsequent stages. As shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, positive responses outnumbered negative ones across most categories. Specifically, the following preliminary findings can be inferred:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe students with ASD interviewed carried out writing planning operations in 59.20% of the cases.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 40.80% of cases, these students either did not perform some planning operations or did so inadequately.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe most frequently used operation was goal setting, followed by source of ideas, sequencing, selection, and idea generation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe planning operations that presented the greatest difficulties were idea sequencing, idea recording, and textual organization.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eFrequencies of Text Planning Categories\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/caption\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCategories\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth colspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCodes\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePositive Frequencies\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNegative Frequencies\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTotal (\u0026plusmn;)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePercentage %\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd colspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIdea Generation\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(+\u0026thinsp;P1/-P1)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e7.2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd colspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAudience\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(+\u0026thinsp;P2/-P2)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd colspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eObjectives\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(+\u0026thinsp;P3/-P3)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e36\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e17.6\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd colspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIdea Selection\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(+\u0026thinsp;P4/-P4)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd colspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIdea Sequencing\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(+\u0026thinsp;P5/-P5)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e46\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e18.4\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd colspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSource of Ideas\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(+\u0026thinsp;P6/-P6)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e11.6\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd colspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIdea Recording\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(+\u0026thinsp;P7/-P7)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e37\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e14.8\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd colspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTextual Organization\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(+\u0026thinsp;P8/-P8)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e36\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e14.4\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTotal Frequencies\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd colspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e148\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e102\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e250\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003ctfoot\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd colspan=\"7\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote.\u003c/em\u003e Author's work.\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tfoot\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOn the other hand, since this is a collective case study, it is important to emphasize that the frequency counts (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e) refer to the total number of responses from the eight students who participated in the research. However, to derive meaningful insights, a fundamental aspect of case study research, an individual interpretation of each participant's data was conducted, followed by an integrated analysis to explain better the phenomenon under study (Stake, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Nonetheless, the primary focus of this work is not on quantifying the data, which is why several verbatim responses from the students are included below, along with an interpretation of the results for each specific operation involved in the writing planning process.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eIdea Generation (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;P1)\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe qualitative analysis of the interviews revealed that most of the interviewed students with ASD take time to think about the content they are going to write before beginning to draft a text, except one participant who stated that they did not engage in this process.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eQ: Before writing a text or composition, do you think about what you are going to write?\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eA:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\"I think first, I think slowly\" (E1, E3, E4, E5, E7); \"Yes, before writing a text or a little story or a composition, I think about what I am going to write\" (E2); \"Yes, I have to think a lot\" (E6); \"No, I do not think about what I am going to write\" (E8).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOn the other hand, all participants stated that, when composing a written text, they try to use concepts related to the topic of writing.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eQ: When you are going to write a text or composition, do ideas related to the topic come to mind?\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eA:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\"Yes, ideas related to the topic come to mind [...] to the text when I am going to write a text [...] but sometimes they do not\" (E1, E2, E3, E4, E5, E6, E7, E8).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eAudience (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;P2)\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe students' responses reveal that, for the most part, when they engage in written composition, they do not consider the recipients of their written productions. However, immediately afterwards, they affirm that they do think about the audience of their compositions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eQ: Before writing a text or composition, do you think about the person who will read it?\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eA:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\"No, I do not think about the person who will read it\" (E1, E7, E8); \"Yes, I think about the person who will read my text before writing it\" (E2, E3); \"No, when I write a text, I do not think about anyone\" (E4); \"No, I write the same for everyone\" (E5); \"Yes, I think about how to write so that the person who reads it will like it\" (E6).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn contrast to the above, the majority of participants stated that, before drafting a text, they do think about making it understandable to another person\u0026mdash;except for one participant.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eQ: Before writing a text or composition, do you think about writing it in a way that someone else can understand?\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eA:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\"Before writing a text or composition, I think about doing it in a way that someone else can understand me\" (E1, E2, E3, E4, E5, E6, E8); \"I do not write so that someone else understands me, I write what I like\" (E7).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eGoals (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;P3)\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe qualitative analysis of the interviews reveals that students are guided by a variety of goals when engaging in written composition tasks, resulting in a diversity of intentions behind their writing. Additionally, for various reasons, some students reported writing for entertainment, while others did so due to teacher instruction.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eQ: Why do you usually write a text or composition?\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eA:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\"I write because the teacher tells me to\" (E1); \"I write because I like it\" (E2, E7, E8); \"I do not know why I write a composition or a text\" (E3, E4, E5); \"I do not write texts, only when the teacher tells me to\" (E6).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMoreover, the interviewees identified different goals that guide their written production. Specifically, some students write to make the teacher happy or to feel happy themselves, while others do so to earn a good grade. However, one participant admitted not knowing their intentions when writing a composition and, therefore, is not guided by specific goals.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eQ: What do you want to achieve when you write a text or composition?\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eA:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\"I want the teacher to be happy\" (E1); \"When I write a text, I want to get a story and feel happy\" (E2); \"I do not know what I want to achieve when I write a story or a text\u0026mdash;maybe a smiley face or for the teacher to smile at me\" (E3, E4); \"When I write a text, I want the teacher to smile at me\" (E5); \"When I write a text, I am aiming for a passing grade\" (E6, E8); \"When I write, I just want to have fun\" (E7).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese goals may be reflected in different aspects of their writing. Participants reported that to achieve their goals, they write neatly, think before writing, ask the teacher, or \"do it well,\" although they often do not specify how they do so. One participant stated that they do not know how they achieve their goals.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eQ: What do you do to achieve that?\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eA:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\"I write with neat handwriting\" (E1, E5, E6); \"When I write to be happy, I think first\" (E2); \"To get a smiley face, I have to think\" (E3); \"I do not know what I do to make the teacher smile at me\" (E4); \"To achieve it, I ask the teacher\" (E7); \"I do it well to get a good grade\" (E8).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFinally, regarding the part of the text where their goals become apparent, the students stated it can be noticed in the neat handwriting, at the end, or throughout the entire composition. However, one student said they did not know where in the text it could be noticed.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eQ: In what part of the text can it be noticed?\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eA:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\"It can be noticed in the handwriting\" (E1, E3); \"In the text, you can tell I am happy because of the pretty handwriting\" (E2); \"I do not know, it is not noticeable in any part of the text\" (E4); \"You can see it at the end of my story\" (E6, E7); \"It is noticeable throughout the whole text\" (E8).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eIdea Selection (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;P4)\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDuring the process of writing a text or composition, some participants reported that they think before writing, while others stated that they write down everything that comes to mind.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eQ: When you are writing a text or composition, do you write whatever comes to mind, or do you think first?\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eA:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\"I think before writing\" (E1, E2, E3, E8); \"When I am going to write a text, I write whatever comes to mind\" (E4, E5, E6, E7).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOn the other hand, five interviewees said that they write down all the ideas that come to mind, while the rest reported selecting only some of them.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eQ: Of all the ideas that come to your mind, do you write them all or choose some?\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eA:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\"Yes, I write all the ideas that come to mind\" (E1, E4, E5, E6, E7); \"No, I do not write all the ideas, I only choose some\" (E2, E3, E8).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eIdea Sequencing (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;P5)\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe interview analysis reveals that most students do not organise the ideas they express in their writing, either due to a lack of knowledge or by choice. In general, they reported not paying attention to this aspect of textual planning. Surprisingly, some students do organize their compositions, with only two participants explaining how they do so.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eQ: How do you manage to organize the ideas in what you write? What do you do first? And then?\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eA:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\"No, I do not organize the ideas\" (E1, E4, E5, E6, E8); \"I organize the ideas\" (E2); \"I do not know why I organize the ideas\" (E3); \"I organize my ideas on paper\" (E7); \"To organize the ideas, first we say first, second, third\" (E2, E7); \"I do not know why I organize the ideas\" (E3); \"I do not know how I organize the ideas\" (E4, E5); \"I said I never organize my ideas\" (E8).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhen asked specifically how they organise the ideas in their written compositions, most participants stated that they do not organise them in a particular way. As noted above, only two students reported actively organising the ideas they planned to write about. Furthermore, their responses also revealed a lack of categorization of the content that forms their written texts.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eQ: Before writing a text or composition, do you classify or organize the ideas you are going to write in any way?\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eA:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\"I do not organize the ideas\" (E1, E3, E6, E8); \"I organize the ideas by numbering them\" (E2); \"I do not classify or organize the ideas I am going to write in my story\" (E4, E5); \"I write random words\" (E7).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese two students explained that they organize their ideas because it makes writing easier and more structured for them.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eQ: Why do you organize them that way and not differently?\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eA:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\"I do not organize the ideas\" (E1, E2, E3, E4, E5, E6, E8); \"I organize the ideas by numbering them because that way they are clean and orderly\" (E2); \"I organize them that way because it is easier for me\" (E7).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNone of the students use diagrams or charts to organise their ideas as they write a composition. One student noted that ideas do not just come to them\u0026mdash;they have to think about them\u0026mdash;while another was unsure whether they use such tools.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eQ: Do you use any diagram or chart to organize the ideas that come to mind when writing a text or composition?\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eA:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\"No, I do not use any diagram to organize the ideas that come to mind\" (E1, E4, E5, E6, E7, E8); \"Ideas do not just come to me\" (E2); \"I do not know if I use a diagram or chart to organize my ideas\" (E3).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAdditionally, six of the interviewees stated that they think through complete sentences before writing them, while the others reported writing sentences as they come to mind.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eQ: Do you think through complete sentences or write them as they come to you in the moment?\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eA:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\"I think of the complete sentences first\" (E1, E2, E4, E5, E6, E7); \"I write the sentences as they come to me\" (E3, E8).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHowever, at times, students gave contradictory responses, as in the case of E5: \"No, I do not organize the ideas\"; \"Yes, I organize the ideas.\"\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eSource of Ideas (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;P6)\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBased on the students' statements, they consistently seek ideas that help them compose their texts. However, they later indicate that they usually rely on a variety of sources. As such, we find that all of them draw ideas from their minds to create their written compositions, except two students who draw ideas from their surroundings.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eQ: Where do you get ideas from to write a text or composition?\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eA:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\"I get my ideas from my surroundings\" (E1, E7); \"I get the ideas for writing a story from my head\" (E2, E3, E5, E6); \"I get ideas from my mind\" (E4, E8).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAdditionally, there is a noticeable variety regarding how students search for new ideas. Some report that they look for ideas by imagining them, write down whatever comes to mind, or do not actively search for ideas at all, simply writing down the ones that occur to them during the writing process.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eQ: When you are going to write a text or composition, do you look for ideas or use the ones that come to mind?\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eA:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\"I look for ideas in my head\" (E1, E2); \"I do not look for ideas, they are just the ones that come to mind\" (E3); \"I write the ideas that occur to me\" (E4, E5, E7); \"I look for ideas that I like\" (E6); \"I imagine the ideas\" (E8).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLikewise, we find that only four students know how and where to find new ideas to write an excellent text. They stated that they find ideas in books, on the playground, and by looking at what their classmates have written, although one participant, despite claiming to know where to find new ideas, did not specify how. The rest of the students reported not knowing how to find new ideas.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eQ: Do you know how and where to find new ideas to write an excellent text?\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eA:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\"Yes, I know where to find new ideas\" (E1); \"I do not know where to find new ideas\" (E2, E3, E8); \"I do not know, I do not know how to find new ideas\" (E4); \"I know how to find new ideas\u0026mdash;in the playground\" (E5); \"I find them in the books my mom reads to me\" (E6); \"Yes, I look at what my friend has written\" (E7).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHowever, there are also contradictory responses, such as the one given by participant E1: \"Yes, I know... Yes... No... I do not know\u0026hellip;\"; \"Yes, I know where to find new ideas.\"\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eIdea Recording (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;P7)\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn general, only four of the participants reported using any formula during the writing process. Although some stated that they use tricks, the majority do not apply any rules or strategies to help them with writing. Specifically, only one student mentioned using a note-taking tool. The rest said they do not use any tricks to collect and organize their ideas, either due to difficulty or lack of knowledge.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eQ: Do you use any formula or trick to collect and organize the ideas that come to you so you do not forget them while writing?\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eA:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\"Yes, I have a trick to organize my ideas\" (E1); \"I use a trick to organize the ideas that come to me so I do not forget them\" (E2, E3); \"I do not use any trick to organize and collect the ideas so I do not forget them\" (E4, E5, E8); \"I do not have any trick to collect and organize the ideas that come to me\u0026mdash;it is hard\" (E6); \"To collect my ideas, I write them in my planner\" (E7).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAdditionally, seven of the interviewees said they do not make prior notes, while only one student reported writing on a separate sheet of paper before drafting their composition.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eQ: Do you write down what you want to include in your text on a separate sheet beforehand? What do you write down?\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eA:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\"I do not write on a separate sheet\" (E1); \"I do not write down the ideas I look for\" (E2, E3, E4, E5, E6, E8); \"Before writing my story, I write on another piece of paper\" (E7).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOnce again, as previously mentioned, only one student takes notes on another sheet of paper before starting to write their text.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eQ: When you look for ideas or when ideas come to mind, do you write them down anywhere?\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eA:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\"I do not write the ideas down or record them anywhere\" (E1, E2, E3, E4, E5, E6, E8); \"I write everything down on paper before writing my story\" (E7).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFinally, seven out of the eight interviewees stated that they do not record anywhere how or where they found the words and ideas for their texts and compositions, with only one student reporting that they write this information in their planner.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eQ: Do you write down anywhere how and where you found the words and ideas for your texts and compositions?\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eA:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\"I do not write down anywhere how and where I found the words\" (E1, E2, E3, E4, E5, E6, E8); \"Yes, the ideas I get from somewhere, I write them in my planner\" (E7).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eTextual Organization (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;P8)\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBased on the qualitative analysis of the interviews, it was found that the students are entirely unfamiliar with how to organize a written text according to its type, as well as with the existence of different textual genres.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eQ: Before writing a text or composition, do you think about what type of text you are going to write? For example, narrative, descriptive, argumentative, dialogue\u0026hellip;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eA:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\"I do not think about the type of text I am going to write\" (E1, E2, E3, E4, E5, E6, E7, E8); \"I write everything the same way\" (E1, E2, E3, E4, E5, E6, E7, E8).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis lack of awareness or difficulty is also evident in organising temporal sequences (beginning-middle), except for the ending, as all participants stated that their compositions always have an ending. However, they did not specify how they start or develop their texts.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eQ: How do you manage to write a composition or a text? How do you organize your ideas?\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eA:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\"My story has an ending\" (E1, E2, E3, E4, E5, E6, E7, E8).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn terms of describing objects, participants reported different ways of organising their descriptions. Five participants begin from the bottom left, while two begin from the top right. One student admitted not following any order at all.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec23\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eQ: When you describe an object or a scene, what order do you follow?\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eA:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\"I start from the left and the bottom\" (E1, E3, E5, E7, E8); \"I start from the top and the right\" (E2, E6); \"I do not follow any order\" (E4).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRegarding the sequencing of ideas, when the goal of the text is to persuade someone, all students stated that they do not know how to convince another person. However, some mentioned that they would use reasons like happiness and fun to persuade.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eQ: When you write a text to convince someone of something, how do you organize your ideas?\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eA:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\"I do not know how to convince someone of something\" (E1, E2, E3, E4, E5, E6, E7, E8); \"I would say that I like it [\u0026hellip;] that I have fun\" (E3, E6, E7).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAdditionally, all the interviewed students reported that when they compare two objects or events, they only mention the aspects they have in common.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec24\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eQ: When you compare two objects or events, how do you do it?\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eA:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\"I say the things that are the same\" (E1, E2, E3, E4, E5, E6, E7, E8).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe primary objective of this research project was to identify the cognitive and metacognitive skills employed by students with autism spectrum disorder during the planning of a written text. In this regard, this collective case study aims to answer the four initially proposed questions, detailed below, in order to establish the main contributions of this study. However, it is worth mentioning that the findings are not exclusive to students with ASD, as similar patterns have been observed in other populations, as shown in the previously cited research.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e1) Do students with ASD understand and use the process of textual planning?\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe results confirm, in alignment with prior research (Accardo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Asaro-Saddler, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Finnegan \u0026amp; Accardo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Hilvert et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Zajic et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR105\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), that students with ASD have a basic understanding of how to approach the planning of written composition. The most significant difficulties were observed in sequencing ideas, recording ideas, and organising text. However, their responses revealed some contradictions that raise doubts about their effective use of planning strategies. These findings are consistent with previous research. A study by Gallego and Rodr\u0026iacute;guez (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) found that students with Down syndrome also have a basic understanding of text planning. Furthermore, they demonstrated the use of basic operations that comprise this process, but were unable to apply many others. Their responses also revealed contradictions that suggest a lack of mastery of the strategies involved in the process. Similar findings were reported in studies involving students with ADHD and DLD (Developmental Language Disorder) (Andreou \u0026amp; Aslanoglou, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Cheng et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Cort\u0026eacute;s et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; DuPaul \u0026amp; Langberg, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Lalioti et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Mengisidou et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Zendarski et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR106\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e2) What writing planning skills do they possess? The study revealed that the students who participated in this research use some basic cognitive strategies when engaging in writing tasks: a) They usually take time to think about the content before writing and generate words related to the writing topic. This is consistent with what is observed in primary education students, who spend time thinking about the content of their composition, generating and selecting ideas according to the topic (Cort\u0026eacute;s et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Herder et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e); b) Most of them ignore their audience, meaning they do not consider the recipients of their written compositions, although they do care about making them understandable to the reader. This contrasts with students with intellectual disabilities, who tend to consider their audience (Gallego et al., 2022), but is similar to students with Down syndrome, who sometimes disregard their potential readers (Gallego \u0026amp; Rodr\u0026iacute;guez, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e); c) In general, students with ASD write texts guided by a network of objectives: for fun, to feel happy, to please the teacher, or to obtain a good grade.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHandwriting quality seems to be a priority for these students, a goal shared by other groups such as students with Down syndrome (Albertini et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Gallego \u0026amp; Rodr\u0026iacute;guez, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) and typically developing students (Herder et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e); d) During the writing process, some students think before writing, while others write whatever comes to mind. This finding is consistent with what has been reported about students with intellectual disabilities, who do not sufficiently think about the ideas they will include in their text and end up writing down anything that comes to mind (Gallego, 2008; Gallego et al., 2022); e) Students reported not organizing the content expressed in their written productions, nor using formulas or strategies to structure them; f) In general, they turn to a variety of information sources to generate ideas for their texts: their thoughts, books, and peers. This finding is consistent with what has been observed in other groups (Down syndrome and intellectual disabilities), who also rely on multiple sources to generate ideas for their texts (Gallego et al., 2022; Gallego \u0026amp; Rodr\u0026iacute;guez, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), whereas students with visual impairments are often unaware of the value of diverse information sources (Gallego \u0026amp; Rodr\u0026iacute;guez, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e); g) Most participants do not take preliminary notes when preparing their compositions. This issue has also been observed in students with visual impairments, who tend to ignore the importance of drafting (Gallego \u0026amp; Rodr\u0026iacute;guez, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e); h) The majority of students in our study do not know how to structure their compositions according to text type. This finding is similar to what has been observed in students with Down syndrome, who often lack awareness of the existence and structure of various text types (Gallego \u0026amp; Rodr\u0026iacute;guez, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e3) What are their main writing difficulties?\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study revealed the main difficulties this group faces during the planning phase of writing:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eThey are unaware of the importance of using writing drafts to improve the final quality of a composition.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eThey overlook the use of formulas or strategies for writing a well-structured text.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eThey do not understand how a written composition should be structured according to its text type.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eThey do not make preliminary notes before writing.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese issues have also been observed in other groups, such as students with Down syndrome and intellectual disabilities (Gallego \u0026amp; Rodr\u0026iacute;guez, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Gallego et al., 2022).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e4) What intervention strategies would be appropriate to improve their writing?\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBased on the findings of this study and considering the theoretical framework that guides it, teaching strategies appear to be a practical approach to help students not only learn content meaningfully but also develop the ability to manage it autonomously and efficiently direct their learning process (Klimenko \u0026amp; Alvares, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Monroe \u0026amp; Troia, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn this sense, planning is considered a process that fosters cognitive and metacognitive skills activated during the production of written compositions (Gallego et al., 2013; Graham, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Monroe \u0026amp; Troia, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Salvador, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR87\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Schunk, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR88\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). The following activities are proposed to support learning how to plan during text composition:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eUse a dictionary to promote lexical richness, including synonyms and antonyms.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eConduct brainstorming sessions to facilitate access to students' prior knowledge\u0026mdash;i.e., knowledge activation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eReflect on and think about the goals intended to be achieved during writing.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eUse templates to record ideas and topic-related vocabulary.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eUse any organizer (mind map, concept map, chart...) that helps differentiate main ideas and connect them with secondary ones.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eCreate cards that summarize the structural rules for the parts a text must include, depending on its type.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eUse mnemonic strategies for guided planning, as they improve the structure of written production.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eDevelop a written plan for the text. This allows students to represent their ideas in different ways (through picture sequences, concept maps, and timelines, among others).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study has provided valuable insights into the cognitive and metacognitive strategies employed by students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) during the planning phase of written composition. The findings confirm that while these students possess a basic understanding of the text planning process, they often struggle with its more complex components\u0026mdash;particularly in areas such as idea sequencing, note-taking, and textual organisation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study also revealed that, although students employ some fundamental cognitive strategies, such as thinking critically about the content and generating topic-related ideas, their approach to writing is often inconsistent and lacks structure (Chilton et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Most notably, the absence of audience awareness, limited goal setting, and the lack of prewriting strategies suggest that their planning abilities remain underdeveloped. These difficulties are not unique to students with ASD and have also been identified in other groups, such as those with Down syndrome, intellectual disabilities, and visual impairments.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFurthermore, this research underscores the importance of explicitly teaching planning strategies that foster autonomy and structure in writing. The proposed interventions, such as the use of brainstorming, graphic organizers, writing templates, and mnemonic tools, are designed to strengthen both the cognitive and metacognitive dimensions of the writing process. These approaches align with evidence-based practices and have the potential to significantly improve the quality and coherence of students' written output.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eUltimately, fostering planning skills in students with ASD not only enhances their ability to produce structured texts but also empowers them to take control of their learning process. Incorporating these strategies into educational practice is essential for supporting inclusive and effective writing instruction.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec27\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eStudy limitations and future directions\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe main limitations of this study include the lack of prior research specifically focused on the metacognitive skills employed by students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in the production of written texts. This gap limits the possibility of a more comprehensive and robust comparison of the results obtained. Another limitation lies in the intrinsic characteristics of case studies, including their non-probabilistic nature and small sample size, which restricts the generalizability of the findings to a broader population. Additionally, selecting students from the same geographical context introduces a local bias that may influence the diversity and representativeness of the conclusions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDespite these limitations, this study offers a significant first step toward understanding the cognitive and metacognitive skills activated by students with ASD during written composition. In this regard, it opens the door for future research to replicate and expand upon these findings, delving not only into the analysis of the cognitive processes involved but also into other psychological processes related to writing. Furthermore, future studies are encouraged to include larger and more diverse samples, as well as complementary methodological approaches, to enhance the generalizability and practical application of the results in varied educational contexts.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eDeclarations\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEthics Statement\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the University of Granada (reference code: 4018/CEIH/2024).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003e Informed and voluntary consent was obtained from all participants included in this study. The participants, aged between 16 and 19 years, received clear and complete information regarding the objectives, procedures, potential benefits, and confidentiality aspects of the study before agreeing to participate. Participation was entirely voluntary, and participants retained the right to withdraw from the study at any time without any consequences.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ch2\u003eClinical trial number\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConsent to Publish\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003edeclaration\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConflict of Interest Statement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFunding\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003ePart of this work has been funded by the project Knowledge of inclusion and disability in prospective teachers: keys to achieving inclusive education. Reference: PPJIA2023-104.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAuthor Contributions: Conceptualization, F. Z. R. A.-B., and A.I.I.-G.; methodology, F. Z. R. A.-B. and J.M.O.-M.; software, F. Z. R. A.-B.; formal analysis, F. Z. R. A.-B., and J.M.O.-M.; investigation, F. Z. R. A.-B., A.I.I.-G, and.J.M.O.-M.; writing\u0026mdash;original draft preparation, A.I.I.-G.; writing\u0026mdash;review and editing, J.M.O.-M.; supervision, J.S.-G. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;Not applicable\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe data used in this study are available from the authors upon reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAccardo AL, Finnegan EG, Kuder SJ, Bomgardner EM. Writing Interventions for Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Research Synthesis. 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J Atten Disord. 2021;25(5):623\u0026ndash;35. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1087054719833167.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-education","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"diedu","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Education](https://www.springer.com/journal/44217)","snPcode":"44217","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/44217/3","title":"Discover Education","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Autism Spectrum Disorder, literacy, cognitive processes, educational intervention, text planning","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7614060/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7614060/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eIf writing is a complex process that requires the coordination of multiple mental operations for students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), it represents a significant challenge. Due to the specific characteristics associated with their diagnosis, it is essential to understand these traits in order to adapt instruction and support their development. Therefore, this study aims to examine the cognitive and metacognitive skills that students with ASD employ when planning written texts. This research follows a primarily qualitative approach, conducted through a collective case study involving eight students with ASD, aged between 16 and 19 years. Data were collected using a semi-structured cognitive interview, and content analysis techniques were applied to extract information. The findings enabled the identification of the writing planning skills activated by students with ASD during text production, as well as the main difficulties they encounter in this process. Finally, appropriate intervention strategies are proposed to support and enhance writing planning. Based on these findings, the study highlights the need for further longitudinal and context-based research to understand how these skills evolve and which methodological approaches are most effective in fostering their development.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Cognitive and Metacognitive Skills in Writing Planning in Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-12-08 10:27:19","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7614060/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-01-19T04:37:56+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-12-25T19:32:00+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-12-17T18:39:10+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"14419324777643047040093294690382972286","date":"2025-12-16T20:01:02+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-12-09T00:06:53+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"183414798964337685452757347031091947336","date":"2025-12-08T23:37:22+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"261123229111172280306577945239072424597","date":"2025-12-07T06:30:36+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"228729379391194292792360900338265691506","date":"2025-12-05T21:07:00+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-12-03T14:44:18+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-11-18T12:21:44+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-11-10T15:01:12+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Discover Education","date":"2025-11-10T14:57:02+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-education","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"diedu","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Education](https://www.springer.com/journal/44217)","snPcode":"44217","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/44217/3","title":"Discover Education","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"a8c34e45-dcdb-4f6d-bda0-412b6b29ebd5","owner":[],"postedDate":"December 8th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-19T13:53:33+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-12-08 10:27:19","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7614060","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7614060","identity":"rs-7614060","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}