Specifying the Protective Role of Mindfulness: Nonjudging Buffers the Association between Posttraumatic Cognitions and PTSD Symptoms

Specifying the Protective Role of Mindfulness: Nonjudging Buffers the Association between Posttraumatic Cognitions and PTSD Symptoms | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Specifying the Protective Role of Mindfulness: Nonjudging Buffers the Association between Posttraumatic Cognitions and PTSD Symptoms Craig Polizzi, Fiona Sleight, Charlie McDonald, Damla Aksen, Michael Shaw, and 1 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8165575/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 14 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background: Research supports the relation between posttraumatic cognitions and symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Mindfulness and emotional dysregulation have theoretical and empirical links to both posttraumatic cognitions and PTSD symptoms, and may moderate the association between them. Thus, evaluating mindfulness and emotional dysregulation as moderators may inform strategies for buffering the impact of negative posttraumatic cognitions on PTSD symptoms. Methods: We conducted an online cross-sectional study with a sample of 274 trauma-exposed undergraduate students with clinically elevated PTSD symptoms. Participants completed the PTSD Checklist for DSM-5 , Posttraumatic Cognitions Inventory, Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire, and Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale. Results: Multiple regression analyses utilizing a model-building approach revealed that the mindfulness facet of nonjudging moderated the relation between posttraumatic cognitions and PTSD symptoms. An exploratory analysis indicated that nonjudging specifically moderated the association of PTSD symptoms with negative cognitions about the world. In both cases, greater nonjudging weakened the relation between negative cognition and PTSD symptoms. A sensitivity analysis adjusting for sex demonstrated that greater nonjudging buffered the association between posttraumatic cognitions and PTSD symptoms in females but not males. Conclusions: Findings imply that future research should leverage nonjudging as a possible strategy for mitigating the impact of negative cognitions on PTSD symptoms, particularly among females. mindfulness emotional dysregulation posttraumatic cognitions PTSD symptoms Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Introduction Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a psychiatric condition involving intrusions, hyperarousal, avoidance, negative mood and cognition, and other distressing symptoms after exposure to death, serious bodily harm, or sexual violence (American Psychiatric Association [APA], 2013). Clinically significant PTSD symptoms have been observed in civilian populations with lifetime prevalence estimates from 3.4% to 26.9% (Kang et al., 2021; Schein et al., 2021). PTSD symptoms frequently co-occur with other symptomatology (e.g., depression, generalized anxiety) and are related to suicidality and substance misuse (Kratovic et al., 2021; Price et al., 2019; Rappaport et al., 2021). PTSD symptoms also negatively impact functioning and quality of life (Artime et al., 2019; Rutter et al., 2013). Negative beliefs about oneself, others, and the world are core symptoms of PTSD (APA, 2013). These posttraumatic cognitions are identified by individuals with PTSD as among their most prominent symptoms (Foa et al., 2016; LoSavio et al., 2017), and are central to the cognitive model of PTSD (Ehlers & Clark, 2000). In this model, a traumatic event disrupts existing beliefs, leading to overly negative self-perceptions and views of the world (Park et al., 2012; Fedroff et al., 2000; Horowitz, 1986). The cognitive model also encompasses self-blame as individuals often attribute the cause of a trauma to themselves regardless of fault (APA, 2013; Ehlers & Clark, 2000; Massad & Hulsey, 2006). These negative posttraumatic cognitions can contribute to the onset and maintenance of PTSD symptomatology (e.g., Bailey & Morris, 2021; Shahar et al., 2013). These cognitions produce distressing emotions and motivate avoidance of stressors that reinforce a pervasive over-interpretation of threat in daily life (e.g., Brown et al., 2019; Ehlers & Clark, 2000). The cognitive model has informed clinical interventions, such as cognitive processing therapy (CPT; Resick et al., 2024), that alleviate PTSD by reducing negative posttraumatic cognitions (Gobin et al., 2018; Held et al., 2020). Examining factors that moderate the relation between posttraumatic cognitions and PTSD symptoms can enhance the benefits of trauma-focused treatments (Kraemer et al., 2001). The cognitive model of PTSD is supported by evidence showing strong positive associations between maladaptive thoughts and PTSD symptoms (Gómez de La Cuesta et al., 2019), as well as longitudinal research demonstrating that posttraumatic cognitions predict subsequent PTSD symptoms (Brown et al., 2019; Bailey & Morris, 2021; Shahar et al., 2013). Evaluating potential moderators of this relation may help identify individual differences that increase risk for or promote resilience to trauma-related sequelae. In sum, a cross-sectional investigation of variables impacting the association between posttraumatic cognitions and PTSD symptoms may provide valuable insights for personalizing trauma-focused treatment and refining case conceptualizations. Mindfulness may be a moderator of the association between negative cognition and PTSD symptoms (e.g., Shipherd & Salters-Pedneault, 2017). Mindfulness is defined as purposeful, nonjudgmental attention that fosters awareness of inner experiences in the present moment (Kabat-Zinn, 2003). It is also conceptualized as a coping process that lessen the impact of maladaptive beliefs on PTSD by counterbalancing stressors through distress tolerance, nonjudgmental awareness, and confronting difficult emotions (Ford et al., 2023; Thompson et al., 2011). Cognitive theories of mindfulness propose that it enhances awareness of the connection between thoughts and emotions, promoting acceptance and self-compassion (Segal et al., 2018; Sipe & Eisendrath, 2012). This awareness can mitigate negative cognitions contributing to psychological disorders, including PTSD (Owens et al., 2011; Shipherd & Salters-Pedneault, 2017; Tang et al., 2016). Indeed, mindfulness, whether measured at the state or trait level, is consistently negatively associated with maladaptive thinking patterns and PTSD symptoms (Ford et al., 2023; Harper et al., 2022; Jovanovic & Garfin, 2024). Mindfulness is theorized to encompass five facets: observing thoughts and feelings, describing inner experiences with words, nonreactivity to inner experiences, nonjudging of experience, and acting with awareness (Baer et al., 2006). Nonjudging and acting with awareness have garnered the most empirical support for their negative associations with PTSD symptoms (e.g., Arnaudova & Amaro, 2020; Carpenter et al., 2019; Fitzgerald & Lundt, 2023). These two facets may serve as adaptive coping skills that buffer the impact of maladaptive cognitions on PTSD symptoms (Martin et al., 2018; Thompson et al., 2011). Rather than evaluating mindfulness as a global construct, focusing on the facets of nonjudging and acting with awareness may provide targeted avenues for optimizing interventions for negative cognitions and PTSD symptoms. Although trait mindfulness assessed using a total score may weaken the relation between maladaptive thoughts and PTSD symptoms (Shipherd & Salters-Pedneault, 2017), no study, to our knowledge, has directly tested nonjudging and acting with awareness moderate the association between posttraumatic cognitions and PTSD symptoms. Emotional dysregulation has emerged as another potential moderator of the relation between negative thinking and PTSD symptoms that, in contrast to mindfulness, may serve as a vulnerability factor exacerbating this association (e.g., Limowski et al., 2023). Emotional dysregulation is defined as difficulty with recognizing and adapting internal affective states to adjust to situations (Chambers et al., 2009; Tull & Aldao, 2015). Theories postulate that emotional dysregulation is related to negative cognition as individuals prone to emotional dysregulation appraise themselves, situations, or even their own emotions in an overly negative manner, which worsens psychological stress (Gross & Jazaieri, 2014). Emotional dysregulation can contribute to PTSD symptoms either as an outcome of fear conditioning or as a vulnerability factor for distressing thoughts and/or feelings (Lanius et al., 2010). Research has supported positive associations among maladaptive trauma-related cognitions, emotional dysregulation, and PTSD symptoms (e.g., Cox et al., 2018; McLean et al., 2019; Ouhmad et al., 2023; Pugach et al., 2020). Like mindfulness, emotional dysregulation is theorized to be composed of multiple components. Gratz and Roemer (2004) proposed that the construct consists of six dimensions: nonacceptance of emotional reactions, difficulty with goal-directed behavior, impulse control problems, lack of emotional awareness, limited access to emotion regulation strategies, and lack of emotional clarity. Greater nonacceptance, impulsivity, limited access to regulation strategies, and lack of emotional clarity are most consistently related to greater PTSD symptoms (e.g., Forbes et al., 2020; Paltell et al., 2019; Powers et al., 2021; Weiss et al., 2013). These dimensions may represent vulnerability factors that exacerbate the association between negative posttraumatic cognitions and PTSD symptoms (e.g., Lanius et al., 2010; Tull et al., 2015). To our knowledge, no study has directly evaluated these dimensions as moderators of the relation between maladaptive thinking and PTSD symptoms. There is likely conceptual overlap and intercorrelation among mindfulness, emotional dysregulation, and their components (e.g., Vujanovic et al., 2010). Yet, they exhibit unique associations with PTSD symptoms (e.g., Powers et al., 2021; Reffi et al., 2019). Investigating the mindfulness facets and emotional dysregulation dimensions together in the same statistical model will help to disentangle which aspects are uniquely relevant to the association between posttraumatic cognitions and PTSD symptoms. Evidence supports sex differences in PTSD symptoms, posttraumatic cognitions, mindfulness, and emotional dysregulation, which may affect the associations and interactions among these constructs. Females tend to have more internalizing PTSD symptoms, including psychophysiological reactivity and avoidance, while males report more externalizing symptoms, such as risky behaviors (Guina et al., 2019; Murphy et al., 2019). Males exhibit higher levels of overall posttraumatic cognitions, especially about the self, compared to females (Tannahill et al., 2023). Although males show greater trait mindfulness, females demonstrate greater levels of specific mindfulness facets, such as acting with awareness (Newman Kingery et al., 2023; Vitale, 2021). Females use emotion regulation strategies more often, but overall emotional dysregulation and its link to psychopathology are similar across sexes (Gouveia et al., 2022; Nolen-Hoeksema, 2012). Females report more nonacceptance of emotions, feeling shame about their emotions, but sex differences in access to regulation strategies are inconsistent (Anderson et al., 2016). Females have more difficulty accessing regulation strategies (Gouveia et al., 2022), while males take longer to cope due to less access to regulation skills (Anderson et al., 2016). In sum, sex differences in these constructs may explain varied study findings and point to different pathways for coping with posttraumatic cognitions and PTSD symptoms. To extend previous research on the potential unique and interactive effects of mindfulness and emotional dysregulation on PTSD symptoms (e.g., Limowski et al., 2023; Reffi et al., 2019; Shipherd & Salters-Pedneault, 2017), the present study aims to explore discrete mindfulness facets and emotional dysregulation dimensions as moderators of the relation between negative posttraumatic cognitions and PTSD symptoms. Based on theory and prior research (e.g., Ford et al., 2023; Lanius et al., 2010; Reffi et al., 2019; Thompson et al., 2011), we focused specifically on evaluating the mindfulness facets of nonjudging and acting with awareness, as well as the emotional dysregulation dimensions of nonacceptance, impulsivity, limited access to regulation strategies, and lack of emotional clarity as potential moderators (e.g., Fitzgerald & Lundt, 2023; Forbes et al., 2020). We hypothesized that mindfulness facets would buffer the relation between negative cognition and PTSD symptoms, whereas dimensions of emotional dysregulation would exacerbate this association. Analyses of mindfulness facets, emotional dysregulation dimensions, and posttraumatic cognitions in relation to PTSD symptoms were conducted in a data-driven manner to identify variables of primary relevance. Methods Participants We recruited 911 psychology undergraduate students from (BLINDED FOR REVIEW) using an online participant pool for course credit. We excluded 23 participants deemed to be random responders (i.e., scored two or below on the Conscientious Responders Scale [CRS]; Marjanovic et al., 2014). We excluded another 115 participants who exceeded 20% missing data. The resulting sample of 773 participants was then assessed for clinically elevated PTSD symptoms. Participants first completed the Life Events Checklist for DSM-5 (LEC-5; Weathers et al., 2013a) to determine the presence of potential Criterion A traumatic events. We allowed participants to endorse as many events as they deemed relevant to them. If participants endorsed at least one event as “ Happened to me ” on the LEC-5, then they were administered the PTSD Checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5; Weathers et al., 2013b) and the Posttraumatic Cognitions Inventory. Participants were deemed to have clinically elevated PTSD symptoms if their PCL-5 total score was at or above 33, a widely used and reliable cutoff for clinically significant PTSD symptom severity (Bovin et al., 2016). The final sample consisted of 274 trauma-exposed participants with clinically elevated PTSD symptoms. Table 1 presents the Criterion A events reported by participants in the final sample. The sample was 73.7% female ( n = 202) and 26.3% male ( n = 72). No participants reported being intersex. The mean age was 18.9 ( SD = .99, range: 17-25). Participants self-identified as White (69.3%, n = 190), Black or African American (4.4%, n = 12), Asian (16.4%, n = 45), Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander (0.4%, n = 1), Biracial or Mixed-Race (7.3%, n = 20), and race not listed (2.2%, n = 6). Measures Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS; Gratz & Roemer, 2004). The DERS is a 36-item self-report measure of emotional dysregulation operationalized across six dimensions: nonacceptance of emotional responses, difficulty engaging in goal-directed behavior, impulse control problems, lack of emotional awareness, limited access to emotion regulation strategies, and lack of emotional clarity. Participants rate how often an item applies to them on a Likert scale from 1 (“ Almost Never [0-10%]” ) to 5 (“ Almost Always [91-100%]” ). We used the DERS subscales of nonacceptance (DERS-Nonacceptance), impulse control problems (DERS-Impulsivity), limited access to regulation strategies (DERS-Limited Access), and lack of emotional clarity (DERS-Emotional Clarity). The DERS and its subscales exhibit excellent validity and reliability (e.g., Burton et al., 2022; Gratz & Roemer, 2004). The internal consistencies of the DERS subscales ranged from α = .842 (DERS-Emotional Clarity) to α = .91 (DERS-Nonacceptance). Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ; Baer et al., 2006). The FMMQ is a 39-item self-report measure of trait mindfulness operationalized across five facets: observing thoughts and feelings, describing inner experiences with words, nonreactivity to inner experiences, nonjudging of experience, and acting with awareness. Participants rate how well each item describes them using a Likert scale from 1 (“ Never or very rarely true” ) to 5 (“ Very often or always true” ). We used the FFMQ subscales of acting with awareness (FFMQ-Acting with Awareness) and nonjudging (FFMQ-Nonjudging). The FFMQ and its subscales are widely used and possess good psychometric properties (Gherardi-Donato et al., 2020). The internal consistencies of FFMQ-Acting with Awareness and FFMQ-Nonjudging were α = .81 and α = .87, respectively. Life Events Checklist for DSM-5 (LEC-5; Weathers et al., 2013a). The LEC-5 is a self-report measure assessing lifetime exposure to 16 potentially traumatic events. We used the LEC-5 to establish the presence of Criterion A events. Respondents indicate whether (a) each event happened to them personally, (b) they witnessed the event happen to someone else, (c) they learned about the event happening to a close family member or friend, (d) they were exposed to the event as a part of their job, (e) they are not sure if it applies to them, or (f) it does not apply to them. Posttraumatic Cognitions Inventory (PTCI; Foa et al., 1999). The PTCI is a 33-item self-report scale assessing trauma-related thoughts. Participants rate their agreement with each item on a Likert-type scale from 1 (“ Totally disagree” ) to 7 (“ Totally agree” ). The PTCI encompasses three subscales: negative cognitions about the self (PTCI-Negative Self), negative cognitions about the world (PTCI-Negative World), and self-blame (PTCI-Self-Blame). We used the PTCI total scale and the three subscales. The PTCI and its subscales exhibit adequate-to-good psychometric properties (e.g., Beck et al., 2004; Lu et al., 2023). The internal consistency of the PTCI full scale was α = .96. For the PTCI subscales, internal consistencies ranged from α = .82 (PTCI-Self-Blame) to α = .95 (PTCI-Negative Self). PTSD Checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5; Weathers et al., 2013b). The PCL-5 is a self-report measure of PTSD symptoms from the DSM-5 . Using a Likert scale from 0 (“ Not at all” ) to 4 (“ Extremely” ), participants rate how much they have been bothered by 20 symptoms (e.g., “ Repeated, disturbing dreams of the stressful experience. ”) over the past month due to a very stressful experience. The PCL-5 is a gold-standard measure of self-reported PTSD symptoms with strong psychometric properties (Forkus et al., 2023). The internal consistency of the PCL-5 was α = .82. Conscientious Responders Scale (CRS; Marjanovic et al., 2014) . The CRS was designed to identify random or careless responding in survey data. Five CRS items are inserted randomly within a battery of questionnaires and require participants to respond in a certain way (e.g., “ Choose the first option – ‘strongly disagree’ – in answering this question. ”). Participants receive a score of one for each correctly answered item. A score of two or less accurately identifies 93% of random responders and thus we used it as the cutoff for random responding (Marjanovic et al., 2014). Procedure The (BLINDED FOR REVIEW) Institutional Review Board approved all study procedures. The study was advertised to undergraduate students as an investigation of mood, personality, beliefs, and past experiences (titled: “ Exploring My Experiences ”). After online informed consent was obtained (students under the age of 18 could participate if they had a signed parental assent form), participants completed a demographic survey followed by a randomized battery of self-report questionnaires. We administered the consent form, demographic survey, and self-report questionnaires via a secure survey distribution website (Qualtrics.com). Participants were then debriefed online once they completed the study. Data Analyses We computed total scores for all study variables and used expectation maximization to estimate missing data (Schafer & Graham, 2002) in SPSS. We then performed statistical analyses and generated plots using R . We examined skewness (cutoff: 1) and kurtosis (cutoff: 2) for all variables. Next, we calculated descriptive statistics and zero-order correlations between the PCL-5 and other variables. We used Cohen’s (1988) cutoffs (.10 = weak, .30 = moderate, .50 = strong) to interpret the strength of correlations. To test moderation effects, we employed a model-building multiple regression approach. First, we conducted an initial multiple regression model to identify which FFMQ and DERS subscales were significantly related to the PCL-5. We then selected significant subscales from this model to test as potential moderators in a follow-up regression model, which included two-way interaction terms between those subscales and the PTCI full scale. To further examine associations among the study variables, we performed an exploratory analysis using a similar model-building approach. We conducted a multiple regression model to first assess which PTCI subscales significantly related to the PCL-5 followed by a second regression model evaluating moderation effects with two-way interaction terms for significant PTCI subscales with significant FFMQ and DERS subscales identified previously. Finally, we performed a sensitivity analysis to examine if the effects differed by sex (coded: 0 = female, 1 = male, 2 = intersex; no participants reported being intersex). We conducted a multiple regression model that included three-way interaction terms among sex, the PTCI, and significant FFMQ and DERS subscales identified in the initial analysis. Due to model complexity and power limitations, we did not conduct a sensitivity analysis using the PTCI subscales. We mean centered candidate moderator variables to facilitate interpretations. We inspected variance inflation factor (VIF; .10) estimates to check for multicollinearity. We also plotted significant interaction terms at low (i.e., one SD below the mean), medium (i.e., mean), and high (i.e., one SD above the mean) levels of the moderator variable to visualize and interpret effects. We only plotted interaction terms at the highest level; specifically, if both a two-way and a three-way interaction term were significant, then we plotted only the three-way interaction term. Results Preliminary Analyses The outcome, PCL-5, exhibited marginal skewness (1.05), which was expected given that the sample consisted of trauma-exposed participants with clinically elevated PCL-5 scores. For this reason and interpretation purposes, we decided not to transform PCL-5 scores to address skewness. Table 2 presents the descriptive statistics for the study variables and zero-order correlations between the PCL-5 and other variables. The PCL-5 was significantly correlated with all FFMQ and DERS subscales in the expected directions (see Table 2). Moderation Analysis To test our moderation hypotheses, we conducted multiple regression analyses using a model-building approach (see Table 3). The initial regression model that included only the FFMQ and DERS subscales was significant, F (6, 267) = 11.57, p < .001, and explained 20.64% of the variance in PCL-5 scores. This model revealed that FFMQ-Nonjudging, sr = .23, p = .002, and DERS-Impulsivity, sr = .18, p = .008, significantly related to the PCL-5 while accounting for other subscales. Accordingly, FFMQ-Nonjudging and DERS-Impulsivity were tested as potential moderators. The same model was tested again except with two-way interactions for FFMQ-Nonjudging by PTCI and DERS-Impulsivity by PTCI terms to test moderation effects. This multiple regression model was significant, F (9, 264) = 12.89, p < .001, and explained 30.53% of the variance in PCL-5 scores. The model indicated that the PTCI, sr = .27, p < .001, and the FFMQ-Nonjudging by PTCI interaction term, sr = .16, p = .01, significantly related to the PCL-5 while controlling for other variables. The plot (see Figure 1) of the FFMQ-Nonjudging by PTCI interaction term demonstrated that the association between the PTCI and PCL-5 was weaker at higher levels of FFMQ-Nonjudging compared to lower levels. At greater levels of the PTCI, participants with high FFMQ-Nonjudging demonstrated significantly lower PCL-5 scores than those with low FFMQ-Nonjudging as evidenced by non-overlapping confidence intervals. In sum, FFMQ-Nonjudging was a significant moderator, such that higher levels buffered the relation between the PTCI and PCL-5. Exploratory Analysis Next, we conducted an exploratory analysis using a similar model-building approach to examine potential moderation effects with the PTCI subscales (see Table 3). The multiple regression model with only the three PTCI subscales was significant, F (3, 270) = 20.45, p < .001, and explained 18.52% of the variance in PCL-5 scores. This model revealed that PTCI-Negative Self, sr = .41, p = .002, and PTCI-Negative Word, sr = .11, p = .049, significantly related to the PCL-5 while accounting for all PTCI subscales. Thus, we then tested whether FFMQ-Nonjudging and DERS-Impulsivity moderated the relations of PTCI-Negative Self and PTCI-Negative World with the PCL-5. The follow-up model consisted of all FFMQ, DERS, and PTCI subscales, as well as the following four two-way interaction terms: FFMQ-Nonjudging by PTCI-Negative Self, FFMQ-Nonjudging by PTCI-Negative Word, DERS-Impulsivity by PTCI-Negative Self, and DERS-Impulsivity by PTCI-Negative World. This model was significant, F (13, 260) = 8.90, p < .001, and explained 30.79% of the variance in PCL-5 scores. The model indicated that PTCI-Negative World, sr = .11, p = .04, and the FFMQ-Nonjudging by PTCI-Negative Word interaction term, sr = .12, p = .02, significantly related to the PCL-5 while accounting for other variables. The plot (see Figure 2) of the FFMQ-Nonjudging by PTCI-Negative World interaction term displayed that the relation between PTCI-Negative World and PCL-5 was weaker at higher levels of FFMQ-Nonjudging relative to lower levels. At greater levels of PTCI-Negative World, participants with high FFMQ-Nonjudging exhibited significantly lower PCL-5 scores than those with low FFMQ-Nonjudging as evidenced by non-overlapping confidence intervals. At high levels of FFMQ-Nonjudging, there was a slight negative association between PTCI-Negative World and PCL-5. The moderating effect of FFMQ-Nonjudging was specific to PTCI-Negative World, such that higher levels buffered the relation between PTCI-Negative World and the PCL-5. Sensitivity Analysis For the sensitivity analysis of sex (see Table 3), we conducted a multiple regression model with two three-way interactions—FFMQ-Nonjudging by PTCI by sex and DERS-Impulsivity by PTCI by sex—as well as their component two-way interactions and main effects. This model also accounted for other FFMQ and DERS subscales. The model was significant, F (15, 258) = 8.93, p < .001, and explained 34.17% of the variance in PCL-5 scores. It revealed a significant FFMQ-Nonjudging by PTCI by sex three-way interaction term, sr = .11, p = .03. The two-way interaction terms of FFMQ-Nonjudging by PTCI, sr = .14, p = .002, and FFMQ-Nonjudging by sex, sr = .001, p = .04, significantly related to the PCL-5. FFMQ-Nonjudging, sr = .16, p = .04, and the PTCI, sr = .27, p < .001, were also significantly associated with the PCL-5. Thus, the moderating effect of FFMQ-Nonjudging on the relation between the PTCI and PCL-5 differed by sex. The plot (see Figure 3) of FFMQ-Nonjudging by PTCI by sex interaction term demonstrated that, for females, the association between the PTCI and PCL-5 was weaker at higher levels of FFMQ-Nonjudging compared to lower levels. At greater levels of the PTCI, females with high FFMQ-Nonjudging demonstrated significantly lower PCL-5 scores than females with low FFMQ-Nonjudging as indicated by non-overlapping confidence intervals. For males, the relation between the PTCI and PCL-5 was weaker at lower levels of FFMQ-Nonjudging compared to higher levels, but there were no significant differences across levels of FFMQ-Nonjudging as demonstrated by overlapping confidence intervals. Greater FFMQ-Nonjudging buffered the association between the PTCI and PCL-5 in females, while lower FFMQ-Nonjudging weakened this association in males; yet, this moderation effect in males may be less impactful given non-significant differences across FFMQ-Nonjudging levels. Discussion The present study evaluated discrete facets of mindfulness and dimensions of emotional dysregulation as moderators of the relation between posttraumatic cognitions and PTSD symptoms. Results partially supported our hypotheses, as only the mindfulness facet of nonjudging buffered the association between posttraumatic cognitions and PTSD symptoms. Our findings replicate previous studies supporting the protective role of nonjudging against PTSD symptoms (e.g., Arnaudova & Amaro, 2020; Carpenter et al., 2019; Fitzgerald & Lundt, 2023; Martin et al., 2018) and extend this research by documenting a mitigating effect of nonjudging on the relation between posttraumatic cognitions and PTSD symptoms, particularly among females. We also provided preliminary evidence that nonjudging may specifically moderate the effect of negative cognitions about the world on PTSD symptoms. Our primary finding that greater nonjudging weakens the association between negative posttraumatic cognitions and PTSD symptoms aligns with prior research supporting nonjudging as a key mindfulness facet negatively related to PTSD symptoms and trauma-related thoughts (e.g., Martin et al., 2018). Greater mindful nonjudgment may reduce the potency of posttraumatic thoughts, creating psychological distance and allowing for a more balanced view (Ito et al., 2023; Nitzan-Assayag et al., 2017). This process may help individuals interpret posttraumatic cognitions as just thoughts rather than truths about themselves or the world (Bailey & Morris, 2021; Nitzan-Assayag et al., 2017). Nonjudging fosters curiosity towards distressing thoughts without applying labels or criticism, which may limit emotional over- or under-engagement and enhance coping (Ford et al., 2023; Moshier et al., 2025; Thompson et al., 2011). By remaining aware and non-evaluative of their posttraumatic cognitions, individuals practicing nonjudgment may experience less severe PTSD symptoms due to approaching and tolerating trauma-related stimuli (Ito et al., 2023; Thompson et al., 2011). We also found that the moderating effect of nonjudging was specific to negative cognitions about the world. Extending nonjudgment toward one’s experiences can improve relationships with both oneself and the environment (Zhang et al., 2020; Zhao et al., 2024). Nonjudgmental awareness of negative cognitions about the world, instead of avoidance or suppression, may enhance interpersonal trust and social connections (Adair et al., 2018; Blackwell & Swickert, 2025; Gerhart et al., 2014). This awareness may result in less PTSD symptomatology, such as reduced hypervigilance and fewer intrusive memories (Fitzgerald et al., 2024; Kircanski et al., 2008; Reffi et al., 2019). Additionally, being mindfully nonjudging of negative world-related cognitions may be particularly relevant for females, who are more likely to utilize social support networks to cope with stress (Ptacek et al., 1992; Tamres et al., 2002). Greater nonjudging may thus be associated with fewer negative cognitions and more adaptive social connections, helping to defend against PTSD symptoms. Further studies are needed to directly test this notion. Results indicated that the buffering effect of nonjudging on the relation between posttraumatic cognitions and PTSD symptoms was more pronounced in females than males. This sex difference may be due to the type of trauma experienced, as females are more likely to encounter interpersonal trauma (e.g., physical, sexual, or emotional) compared to males (Gatov et al., 2020; Tannahill et al., 2023). Interpersonal trauma is linked to greater self-conscious emotions, such as shame and guilt, which may underpin the relation between negative posttraumatic cognitions and PTSD symptoms in females (Badour et al., 2020; Faber et al., 2025; Kip et al., 2022; Tran et al., 2019). Nonjudging, which is negatively associated with self-conscious emotions, may reduce the impact of posttraumatic cognitions on PTSD symptoms by encouraging acceptance without criticism of these feelings and thoughts (Chopko et al., 2022; Dutton et al., 2023; Reffi et al., 2019). In contrast, males typically experience less interpersonal trauma and associated self-conscious emotions, which may limit the buffering effect of nonjudging (Aakvaag et al., 2016). Moreover, females report higher mental health literacy and are more likely to recognize problematic symptoms and seek mindfulness-based approaches than males (Cotton et al., 2006; Furnham & Swami, 2018; Katz & Toner, 2013). Thus, females may be more willing to engage in and benefit from mindful nonjudging as a coping strategy (Katz & Toner, 2013). Future studies investigating sex differences in mindfulness facets and their associations with trauma-related processes are needed. Additionally, regression models revealed that, compared to other subscales, impulse control problems (DERS-Impulsivity) and negative cognitions about the world (PTCI-Negative World) were robustly positive associated with PTSD symptoms. The positive relation between impulse control problems and PTSD symptomatology may be due to the hyperarousal symptom cluster of PTSD, which includes impulsive behaviors like aggression, risk-taking, and substance use (APA, 2013). While previous research highlighted the significance of negative self-cognitions to PTSD symptoms in community samples (Foa et al., 1999; Beck et al., 2004), our study found that negative cognitions about the world significantly contributed to PTSD symptoms. This finding implies that negative world cognitions may particularly influence PTSD symptoms in our predominantly female undergraduate sample, who are more likely to experience interpersonal traumas (Majeed et al., 2021; Tannahill et al., 2023). Overall, our findings support the use of mindful nonjudging as an adaptive coping strategy for managing negative posttraumatic cognitions and PTSD symptoms (Martin et al., 2018; Thompson et al., 2011). Nonjudging may be useful in addressing negative cognitions about the world, as our results indicated that its moderating effect is specific to this type of cognition in relation to PTSD symptoms. Clinicians may benefit from incorporating nonjudgmental awareness as a strategy to mitigate the impact of negative cognitions about the world on PTSD symptoms. Nonjudgmental awareness might optimize trauma-focused interventions, such as CPT or exposure-based treatments, either by being integrated into existing therapies or used as an adjunctive treatment (e.g., Curreri et al., 2022). This approach may be especially relevant for female patients, given that the buffering effect of nonjudging on the relation between posttraumatic cognitions and PTSD symptoms was observed in females rather than males. Our study has some limitations. First, we used self-report measures, which are susceptible to biases. The study design was cross-sectional, limiting our ability to draw causal inferences and highlighting the need for future longitudinal research. Although we used LEC-5 endorsement of a Criterion A traumatic event and an empirically supported PCL-5 cutoff to determine clinically elevated PTSD symptoms (Bovin et al., 2016), we did not confirm PTSD diagnoses with a clinical interview. The PCL-5 was not anchored to a specific traumatic event and thus may gauge general distress rather than PTSD symptoms. Accordingly, we described the sample as trauma-exposed participants with clinically elevated PTSD symptoms, as findings may only partially generalize to individuals diagnosed with PTSD. Most of our sample were White female college students, which may limit the generalizability of our findings to more diverse community samples. We did not collect data on pre-trauma levels of the study variables, so it is unknown to what extent these constructs changed due to a traumatic event. Result revealed that the mindfulness facet of nonjudging weakened the relation between posttraumatic cognitions and PTSD symptoms. Exploratory analyses indicated that this moderating effect was specific to negative cognitions about the world. Moreover, the buffering effect of nonjudging was more pronounced in females than males. Further longitudinal research is needed to investigate the temporal associations among nonjudging, posttraumatic cognitions, and PTSD symptoms, as well as to examine potential sex differences. It may also be beneficial to explore nonjudging as an avenue for optimizing trauma-focused therapy. Ultimately, the present study provides support for mindful nonjudging as a viable coping strategy for negative posttraumatic cognitions and their impact on PTSD symptoms, particularly among females. Declarations Author Contribution Craig P. Polizzi: Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal Analysis, Data Curation, Writing - Original Draft, Writing - Review & Editing, Visualization, Supervision, and Project Administration. Fiona G. Sleight: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation, Data Curation, Writing - Original Draft, Writing - Review & Editing, and Project Administration. Charlie W. McDonald: Writing - Original Draft, Writing - Review & Editing, and Visualization. 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The Journal of Psychology , 158 (3), 215-237. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.2023.2283474 Tables Table 1 Criterion A Traumatic Events Reported by Participants in the Final Sample (n = 274) Event Happened to Me Witnessed It Learned About It Part of My Job Natural disaster 143 101 123 3 Fire or explosion 23 72 133 5 Transportation accident 123 105 121 6 Serious accident at work, home, or during recreational activity 45 79 104 9 Exposure to toxic substance 17 21 91 8 Physical assault 83 99 125 4 Assault with a weapon 16 38 123 2 Sexual assault 61 29 148 8 Other unwanted or uncomfortable sexual experience 142 48 127 3 Combat or exposure to a warzone 2 4 119 2 Captivity 2 4 98 2 Life-threatening illness or injury 26 90 140 6 Severe human suffering 23 49 107 3 Sudden violent death 8 28 147 3 Sudden accidental death 7 35 129 5 Serious injury, harm, or death you caused to someone else 8 18 48 1 Note. Participants completed the Life Events Checklist for DSM-5 to determine the presence of Criterion A traumatic events. They were allowed to endorse as many events as they deemed relevant to them. Table 2 Descriptive Statistics for Study Variables and Correlations with the PCL-5 M (SD) Correlation with PCL-5 PCL-5 46.60 (10.51) - PTCI 11.69 (3.19) .43* PTCI-Negative Cognitions about Self 3.62 (1.25) .41* PTCI-Negative Cognitions about the World 4.59 (1.19) .31* PTCI-Self-Blame 3.48 (1.40) .34* FFMQ-Acting with Awareness 20.90 (5.04) -.32* FFMQ-Nonjudging of Experience 20.76 (5.94) -.36* DERS-Nonacceptance of Emotional Responses 19.04 (6.44) .30* DERS-Impulse Control Difficulties 16.65 (5.51) .30* DERS-Limited Access to Emotion Regulation Strategies 26.07 (7.16) .29* DERS-Lack of Emotional Clarity 14.68 (4.36) .23* * p < .001. Abbreviations: DERS = Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale; FFMQ = Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire; PCL-5 = PTSD Checklist for DSM-5 ; PTCI = Posttraumatic Cognitions Inventory Table 3 Multiple Regression Models with PCL-5 as the Outcome b SE t Moderation Analysis Model 1: FFMQ-Acting with Awareness -.23 .14 -1.68 FFMQ-Nonjudging -.40 .13 -3.19** DERS-Nonacceptance .10 .12 .80 DERS-Impulsivity .34 .13 2.67** DERS-Limited Access .03 .11 .26 DERS-Emotional Clarity .12 .15 .81 Model 2: FFMQ-Acting with Awareness -.23 .13 -1.72 FFMQ-Nonjudging .51 .32 1.61 DERS-Nonacceptance .12 .11 1.07 DERS-Impulsivity -.11 .42 -.26 DERS-Limited Access -.02 .11 -.21 DERS-Emotional Clarity -.02 .15 -.17 PTCI .89 .19 4.63*** FFMQ-Nonjudging × PTCI -.06 .03 -2.54* DERS-Impulsivity × PTCI .03 .03 1.04 Exploratory Analysis Model 1: PTCI-Negative Self 2.12 .69 3.07** PTCI-Negative World 1.14 .58 1.98* PTCI-Self-Blame .94 .56 1.69 Model 2: FFMQ-Acting with Awareness -.25 .14 -1.85 FFMQ-Nonjudging .69 .36 1.90 DERS-Nonacceptance .12 .11 1.04 DERS-Impulsivity -.01 .45 -.02 DERS-Limited Access -.01 .11 -.12 DERS-Emotional Clarity -.04 .15 -.25 PTCI-Negative Self .65 .73 .89 PTCI-Negative World 1.15 .57 2.02* PTCI-Self-Blame .87 .55 1.58 FFMQ-Nonjudging × PTCI-Negative Self .01 .09 .07 DERS-Impulsivity × PTCI-Negative Self .09 .09 1.01 FFMQ-Nonjudging × PTCI-Negative World -.20 .09 -2.28* DERS-Impulsivity × PTCI-Negative World .001 .10 .01 Sensitivity Analysis FFMQ-Acting with Awareness -.22 .14 -1.59 FFMQ-Nonjudging .74 .35 2.12* DERS-Nonacceptance .10 .12 .87 DERS-Impulsivity -.02 .47 -.05 DERS-Limited Access -.07 .11 -.69 DERS-Emotional Clarity .05 .15 .31 PTCI .73 .22 3.35*** Sex (male) -5.62 5.80 -.97 FFMQ-Nonjudging × PTCI -.09 .03 -3.18** DERS-Impulsivity × PTCI .02 .04 .54 FFMQ-Nonjudging × Sex (male) -1.92 .93 -2.06* DERS-Impulsivity × Sex (male) -.40 1.00 -.40 PTCI × Sex (male) .27 .48 .56 FFMQ-Nonjudging × PTCI × Sex (male) .16 .08 2.16* DERS-Impulsivity × PTCI × Sex (male) .06 .08 .74 * p < .05. ** p < .01. *** p < .001. Abbreviations: DERS = Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale; DERS-Emotional Clarity = DERS-Lack of Emotional Clarity; DERS-Impulsivity = DERS-Impulse Control Difficulties; DERS-Limited Access = DERS-Limited Access to Emotion Regulation Strategies; DERS-Nonacceptance = DERS-Nonacceptance of Emotional Responses; FFMQ = Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire; FFMQ-Nonjudging = FFMQ-Nonjudging of Experience; PCL-5 = PTSD Checklist for DSM-5 ; PTCI = Posttraumatic Cognitions Inventory; PTCI-Negative Self = PTCI-Negative Cognitions about Self; PTCI-Negative World = PTCI-Negative Cognitions about the World Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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17:16:13","extension":"html","order_by":20,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":281993,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8165575/v1/f988d00d5434579c71532a3f.html"},{"id":98820356,"identity":"509db33c-6a39-46d3-9a31-b2d746c013a4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-22 17:16:12","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":128079,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eModerating Effect of Nonjudging on the Relation Between Posttraumatic Cognitions and PTSD Symptoms\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eShaded regions represent 95% confidence intervals.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFFMQ-Nonjudging was a significant moderator, such that higher levels buffered the association between PTCI and PCL-5.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAbbreviations\u003c/em\u003e: FFMQ = Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire; FFMQ-Nonjudging = FFMQ-Nonjudging of Experience; PCL-5 = PTSD Checklist for DSM-5; PTCI = Posttraumatic Cognitions Inventory; PTSD = Posttraumatic Stress Disorder\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8165575/v1/f837dffface4a2446000b91b.png"},{"id":99307408,"identity":"c5535742-59a2-45be-8248-c127b9837d3f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-31 16:06:13","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":117653,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eModerating Effect of Nonjudging on the Relation Between Negative Cognitions about the World and PTSD Symptoms\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eShaded regions represent 95% confidence intervals. FFMQ-Nonjudging was a significant moderator, such that higher levels buffered the association between PTCI-Negative Cognitions about the World and the PCL-5.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAbbreviations\u003c/em\u003e: FFMQ = Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire; FFMQ-Nonjudging = FFMQ-Nonjudging of Experience; PCL-5 = PTSD Checklist for DSM-5; PTCI = Posttraumatic Cognitions Inventory; PTSD = Posttraumatic Stress Disorder\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8165575/v1/ec6eeac6cc3e7249e6b6907a.png"},{"id":99307311,"identity":"9600622a-e12e-4a3d-92d0-0c196456c421","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-31 16:05:57","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":132567,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ederating Effect of Nonjudging on the Relation Between Posttraumatic Cognitions and PTSD Symptoms by Sex\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eShaded regions represent 95% confidence intervals.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGreater FFMQ-Nonjudging buffered the association between PTCI and PCL-5 in females, and lower FFMQ-Nonjudging weakened this association in males. The moderation effect in males may be less impactful due to overlapping confidence intervals across FFMQ-Nonjudging levels.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8165575/v1/9eb2a9dbab3adc1f0779ebd0.png"},{"id":100421973,"identity":"ae50b4ca-2903-449b-9968-b240edbf7c2a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-16 14:04:22","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1368496,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8165575/v1/9326ee54-c13e-4616-a55d-35a8058a8732.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Specifying the Protective Role of Mindfulness: Nonjudging Buffers the Association between Posttraumatic Cognitions and PTSD Symptoms","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003ePosttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a psychiatric condition involving intrusions, hyperarousal, avoidance, negative mood and cognition, and other distressing symptoms after exposure to death, serious bodily harm, or sexual violence (American Psychiatric Association [APA], 2013). Clinically significant PTSD symptoms have been observed in civilian populations with lifetime prevalence estimates from 3.4% to 26.9% (Kang et al., 2021; Schein et al., 2021). PTSD symptoms frequently co-occur with other symptomatology (e.g., depression, generalized anxiety) and are related to suicidality and substance misuse (Kratovic et al., 2021; Price et al., 2019; Rappaport et al., 2021). PTSD symptoms also negatively impact functioning and quality of life (Artime et al., 2019; Rutter et al., 2013).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNegative beliefs about oneself, others, and the world are core symptoms of PTSD (APA, 2013). These posttraumatic cognitions are identified by individuals with PTSD as among their most prominent symptoms (Foa et al., 2016; LoSavio et al., 2017), and are central to the cognitive model of PTSD (Ehlers \u0026amp; Clark, 2000). In this model, a traumatic event disrupts existing beliefs, leading to overly negative self-perceptions and views of the world (Park et al., 2012; Fedroff et al., 2000; Horowitz, 1986). The cognitive model also encompasses self-blame as individuals often attribute the cause of a trauma to themselves regardless of fault (APA, 2013; Ehlers \u0026amp; Clark, 2000; Massad \u0026amp; Hulsey, 2006). These negative posttraumatic cognitions can contribute to the onset and maintenance of PTSD symptomatology (e.g., Bailey \u0026amp; Morris, 2021; Shahar et al., 2013). These cognitions produce distressing emotions and motivate avoidance of stressors that reinforce a pervasive over-interpretation of threat in daily life (e.g., Brown et al., 2019; Ehlers \u0026amp; Clark, 2000).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe cognitive model has informed clinical interventions, such as cognitive processing therapy (CPT; Resick et al., 2024), that alleviate PTSD by reducing negative posttraumatic cognitions (Gobin et al., 2018; Held et al., 2020). Examining factors that moderate the relation between posttraumatic cognitions and PTSD symptoms can enhance the benefits of trauma-focused treatments (Kraemer et al., 2001). The cognitive model of PTSD is supported by evidence showing strong positive associations between maladaptive thoughts and PTSD symptoms (G\u0026oacute;mez de La Cuesta et al., 2019), as well as longitudinal research demonstrating that posttraumatic cognitions predict subsequent PTSD symptoms (Brown et al., 2019; Bailey \u0026amp; Morris, 2021; Shahar et al., 2013). Evaluating potential moderators of this relation may help identify individual differences that increase risk for or promote resilience to trauma-related sequelae. In sum, a cross-sectional investigation of variables impacting the association between posttraumatic cognitions and PTSD symptoms may provide valuable insights for personalizing trauma-focused treatment and refining case conceptualizations.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMindfulness may be a moderator of the association between negative cognition and PTSD symptoms (e.g., Shipherd \u0026amp; Salters-Pedneault, 2017). Mindfulness is defined as purposeful, nonjudgmental attention that fosters awareness of inner experiences in the present moment (Kabat-Zinn, 2003). It is also conceptualized as a coping process that lessen the impact of maladaptive beliefs on PTSD by counterbalancing stressors through distress tolerance, nonjudgmental awareness, and confronting difficult emotions (Ford et al., 2023; Thompson et al., 2011). Cognitive theories of mindfulness propose that it enhances awareness of the connection between thoughts and emotions, promoting acceptance and self-compassion (Segal et al., 2018; Sipe \u0026amp; Eisendrath, 2012). This awareness can mitigate negative cognitions contributing to psychological disorders, including PTSD (Owens et al., 2011; Shipherd \u0026amp; Salters-Pedneault, 2017; Tang et al., 2016). Indeed, mindfulness, whether measured at the state or trait level, is consistently negatively associated with maladaptive thinking patterns and PTSD symptoms (Ford et al., 2023; Harper et al., 2022; Jovanovic \u0026amp; Garfin, 2024).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMindfulness is theorized to encompass five facets: observing thoughts and feelings, describing inner experiences with words, nonreactivity to inner experiences, nonjudging of experience, and acting with awareness (Baer et al., 2006). Nonjudging and acting with awareness have garnered the most empirical support for their negative associations with PTSD symptoms (e.g., Arnaudova \u0026amp; Amaro, 2020; Carpenter et al., 2019; Fitzgerald \u0026amp; Lundt, 2023). These two facets may serve as adaptive coping skills that buffer the impact of maladaptive cognitions on PTSD symptoms (Martin et al., 2018; Thompson et al., 2011). Rather than evaluating mindfulness as a global construct, focusing on the facets of nonjudging and acting with awareness may provide targeted avenues for optimizing interventions for negative cognitions and PTSD symptoms. Although trait mindfulness assessed using a total score may weaken the relation between maladaptive thoughts and PTSD symptoms (Shipherd \u0026amp; Salters-Pedneault, 2017), no study, to our knowledge, has directly tested nonjudging and acting with awareness moderate the association between posttraumatic cognitions and PTSD symptoms. \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Emotional dysregulation has emerged as another potential moderator of the relation between negative thinking and PTSD symptoms that, in contrast to mindfulness, may serve as a vulnerability factor exacerbating this association (e.g., Limowski et al., 2023). Emotional dysregulation is defined as difficulty with recognizing and adapting internal affective states to adjust to situations (Chambers et al., 2009; Tull \u0026amp; Aldao, 2015). Theories postulate that emotional dysregulation is related to negative cognition as individuals prone to emotional dysregulation appraise themselves, situations, or even their own emotions in an overly negative manner, which worsens psychological stress (Gross \u0026amp; Jazaieri, 2014). Emotional dysregulation can contribute to PTSD symptoms either as an outcome of fear conditioning or as a vulnerability factor for distressing thoughts and/or feelings (Lanius et al., 2010). Research has supported positive associations among maladaptive trauma-related cognitions, emotional dysregulation, and PTSD symptoms (e.g., Cox et al., 2018; McLean et al., 2019; Ouhmad et al., 2023; Pugach et al., 2020). \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLike mindfulness, emotional dysregulation is theorized to be composed of multiple components. Gratz and Roemer (2004) proposed that the construct consists of six dimensions: nonacceptance of emotional reactions, difficulty with goal-directed behavior, impulse control problems, lack of emotional awareness, limited access to emotion regulation strategies, and lack of emotional clarity. Greater nonacceptance, impulsivity, limited access to regulation strategies, and lack of emotional clarity are most consistently related to greater PTSD symptoms (e.g., Forbes et al., 2020; Paltell et al., 2019; Powers et al., 2021; Weiss et al., 2013). These dimensions may represent vulnerability factors that exacerbate the association between negative posttraumatic cognitions and PTSD symptoms (e.g., Lanius et al., 2010; Tull et al., 2015). To our knowledge, no study has directly evaluated these dimensions as moderators of the relation between maladaptive thinking and PTSD symptoms.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThere is likely conceptual overlap and intercorrelation among mindfulness, emotional dysregulation, and their components (e.g., Vujanovic et al., 2010). Yet, they exhibit unique associations with PTSD symptoms (e.g., Powers et al., 2021; Reffi et al., 2019). Investigating the mindfulness facets and emotional dysregulation dimensions together in the same statistical model will help to disentangle which aspects are uniquely relevant to the association between posttraumatic cognitions and PTSD symptoms.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEvidence supports sex differences in PTSD symptoms, posttraumatic cognitions, mindfulness, and emotional dysregulation, which may affect the associations and interactions among these constructs. Females tend to have more internalizing PTSD symptoms, including psychophysiological reactivity and avoidance, while males report more externalizing symptoms, such as risky behaviors (Guina et al., 2019; Murphy et al., 2019). Males exhibit higher levels of overall posttraumatic cognitions, especially about the self, compared to females (Tannahill et al., 2023). Although males show greater trait mindfulness, females demonstrate greater levels of specific mindfulness facets, such as acting with awareness (Newman Kingery et al., 2023; Vitale, 2021). Females use emotion regulation strategies more often, but overall emotional dysregulation and its link to psychopathology are similar across sexes (Gouveia et al., 2022; Nolen-Hoeksema, 2012). Females report more nonacceptance of emotions, feeling shame about their emotions, but sex differences in access to regulation strategies are inconsistent (Anderson et al., 2016). Females have more difficulty accessing regulation strategies (Gouveia et al., 2022), while males take longer to cope due to less access to regulation skills (Anderson et al., 2016). In sum, sex differences in these constructs may explain varied study findings and point to different pathways for coping with posttraumatic cognitions and PTSD symptoms.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo extend previous research on the potential unique and interactive effects of mindfulness and emotional dysregulation on PTSD symptoms (e.g., Limowski et al., 2023; Reffi et al., 2019; Shipherd \u0026amp; Salters-Pedneault, 2017), the present study aims to explore discrete mindfulness facets and emotional dysregulation dimensions as moderators of the relation between negative posttraumatic cognitions and PTSD symptoms. Based on theory and prior research (e.g., Ford et al., 2023; Lanius et al., 2010; Reffi et al., 2019; Thompson et al., 2011), we focused specifically on evaluating the mindfulness facets of nonjudging and acting with awareness, as well as the emotional dysregulation dimensions of nonacceptance, impulsivity, limited access to regulation strategies, and lack of emotional clarity as potential moderators (e.g., Fitzgerald \u0026amp; Lundt, 2023; Forbes et al., 2020). We hypothesized that mindfulness facets would buffer the relation between negative cognition and PTSD symptoms, whereas dimensions of emotional dysregulation would exacerbate this association. Analyses of mindfulness facets, emotional dysregulation dimensions, and posttraumatic cognitions in relation to PTSD symptoms were conducted in a data-driven manner to identify variables of primary relevance.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eParticipants\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe recruited 911 psychology undergraduate students from (BLINDED FOR REVIEW) using an online participant pool for course credit. We excluded 23 participants deemed to be random responders (i.e., scored two or below on the Conscientious Responders Scale [CRS]; Marjanovic et al., 2014). We excluded another 115 participants who exceeded 20% missing data. The resulting sample of 773 participants was then assessed for clinically elevated PTSD symptoms.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eParticipants first completed the Life Events Checklist for \u003cem\u003eDSM-5\u003c/em\u003e (LEC-5; Weathers et al., 2013a) to determine the presence of potential Criterion A traumatic events. We allowed participants to endorse as many events as they deemed relevant to them. If participants endorsed at least one event as \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eHappened to me\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo; on the LEC-5, then they were administered the PTSD Checklist for \u003cem\u003eDSM-5\u003c/em\u003e (PCL-5; Weathers et al., 2013b) and the Posttraumatic Cognitions Inventory. Participants were deemed to have clinically elevated PTSD symptoms if their PCL-5 total score was at or above 33, a widely used and reliable cutoff for clinically significant PTSD symptom severity (Bovin et al., 2016). The final sample consisted of 274 trauma-exposed participants with clinically elevated PTSD symptoms.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 1 presents the Criterion A events reported by participants in the final sample. The sample was 73.7% female (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e = 202) and 26.3% male (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e = 72). No participants reported being intersex. The mean age was 18.9 (\u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e = .99, range: 17-25). Participants self-identified as White (69.3%, \u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e = 190), Black or African American (4.4%, \u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e = 12), Asian (16.4%, \u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e = 45), Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander (0.4%, \u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e = 1), Biracial or Mixed-Race (7.3%, \u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e = 20), and race not listed (2.2%, \u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e = 6).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMeasures\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eDifficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e(DERS; Gratz \u0026amp; Roemer, 2004).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe DERS is a 36-item self-report measure of emotional dysregulation operationalized across six dimensions: nonacceptance of emotional responses, difficulty engaging in goal-directed behavior, impulse control problems, lack of emotional awareness, limited access to emotion regulation strategies, and lack of emotional clarity. Participants rate how often an item applies to them on a Likert scale from 1 (\u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eAlmost Never [0-10%]\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e) to 5 (\u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eAlmost Always [91-100%]\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e). We used the DERS subscales of nonacceptance (DERS-Nonacceptance), impulse control problems (DERS-Impulsivity), limited access to regulation strategies (DERS-Limited Access), and lack of emotional clarity (DERS-Emotional Clarity). The DERS and its subscales exhibit excellent validity and reliability (e.g., Burton et al., 2022; Gratz \u0026amp; Roemer, 2004). The internal consistencies of the DERS subscales ranged from\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u0026alpha;\u003c/em\u003e = .842 (DERS-Emotional Clarity) to \u003cem\u003e\u0026alpha;\u003c/em\u003e = .91 (DERS-Nonacceptance).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eFive Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e(FFMQ; Baer et al., 2006).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe FMMQ is a 39-item self-report measure of trait mindfulness operationalized across five facets: observing thoughts and feelings, describing inner experiences with words, nonreactivity to inner experiences, nonjudging of experience, and acting with awareness. Participants rate how well each item describes them using a Likert scale from 1 (\u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eNever or very rarely true\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e) to 5 (\u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eVery often or always true\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e). We used the FFMQ subscales of acting with awareness (FFMQ-Acting with Awareness) and nonjudging (FFMQ-Nonjudging). The FFMQ and its subscales are widely used and possess good psychometric properties (Gherardi-Donato et al., 2020). The internal consistencies of FFMQ-Acting with Awareness and FFMQ-Nonjudging were \u003cem\u003e\u0026alpha;\u003c/em\u003e = .81 and \u003cem\u003e\u0026alpha;\u003c/em\u003e = .87, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eLife Events Checklist for DSM-5 (LEC-5; Weathers et al., 2013a).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe LEC-5 is a self-report measure assessing lifetime exposure to 16 potentially traumatic events. We used the LEC-5 to establish the presence of Criterion A events. Respondents indicate whether (a) each event happened to them personally, (b) they witnessed the event happen to someone else, (c) they learned about the event happening to a close family member or friend, (d) they were exposed to the event as a part of their job, (e) they are not sure if it applies to them, or (f) it does not apply to them.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003ePosttraumatic Cognitions Inventory (PTCI; Foa et al., 1999).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe PTCI is a 33-item self-report scale assessing trauma-related thoughts. Participants rate their agreement with each item on a Likert-type scale from 1 (\u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eTotally disagree\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e) to 7 (\u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eTotally agree\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e). The PTCI encompasses three subscales: negative cognitions about the self (PTCI-Negative Self), negative cognitions about the world (PTCI-Negative World), and self-blame (PTCI-Self-Blame). We used the PTCI total scale and the three subscales. The PTCI and its subscales exhibit adequate-to-good psychometric properties (e.g., Beck et al., 2004; Lu et al., 2023). The internal consistency of the PTCI full scale was \u003cem\u003e\u0026alpha;\u003c/em\u003e = .96. For the PTCI subscales, internal consistencies ranged from \u003cem\u003e\u0026alpha;\u003c/em\u003e = .82 (PTCI-Self-Blame) to \u003cem\u003e\u0026alpha;\u003c/em\u003e = .95 (PTCI-Negative Self).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003ePTSD Checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5; Weathers et al., 2013b).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe PCL-5 is a self-report measure of PTSD symptoms from the \u003cem\u003eDSM-5\u003c/em\u003e. Using a Likert scale from 0 (\u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eNot at all\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e) to 4 (\u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eExtremely\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e), participants rate how much they have been bothered by 20 symptoms (e.g., \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eRepeated, disturbing dreams of the stressful experience.\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo;) over the past month due to a very stressful experience. The PCL-5 is a gold-standard measure of self-reported PTSD symptoms with strong psychometric properties (Forkus et al., 2023). The internal consistency of the PCL-5 was \u003cem\u003e\u0026alpha;\u003c/em\u003e = .82.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eConscientious Responders Scale (CRS; Marjanovic et al., 2014)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe CRS was designed to identify random or careless responding in survey data. Five CRS items are inserted randomly within a battery of questionnaires and require participants to respond in a certain way (e.g., \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eChoose the first option \u0026ndash; \u0026lsquo;strongly disagree\u0026rsquo; \u0026ndash; in answering this question.\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo;). Participants receive a score of one for each correctly answered item. A score of two or less accurately identifies 93% of random responders and thus we used it as the cutoff for random responding (Marjanovic et al., 2014).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eProcedure\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe (BLINDED FOR REVIEW) Institutional Review Board approved all study procedures. The study was advertised to undergraduate students as an investigation of mood, personality, beliefs, and past experiences (titled: \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eExploring My Experiences\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo;). After online informed consent was obtained (students under the age of 18 could participate if they had a signed parental assent form), participants completed a demographic survey followed by a randomized battery of self-report questionnaires. We administered the consent form, demographic survey, and self-report questionnaires via a secure survey distribution website (Qualtrics.com). Participants were then debriefed online once they completed the study.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Analyses\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe computed total scores for all study variables and used expectation maximization to estimate missing data (Schafer \u0026amp; Graham, 2002) in SPSS. We then performed statistical analyses and generated plots using \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e. We examined skewness (cutoff: \u0026lt;-1 or \u0026gt;1) and kurtosis (cutoff: \u0026lt;-2 or \u0026gt;2) for all variables. Next, we calculated descriptive statistics and zero-order correlations between the PCL-5 and other variables. We used Cohen\u0026rsquo;s (1988) cutoffs (.10 = weak, .30 = moderate, .50 = strong) to interpret the strength of correlations.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo test moderation effects, we employed a model-building multiple regression approach. First, we conducted an initial multiple regression model to identify which FFMQ and DERS subscales were significantly related to the PCL-5. We then selected significant subscales from this model to test as potential moderators in a follow-up regression model, which included two-way interaction terms between those subscales and the PTCI full scale. To further examine associations among the study variables, we performed an exploratory analysis using a similar model-building approach. We conducted a multiple regression model to first assess which PTCI subscales significantly related to the PCL-5 followed by a second regression model evaluating moderation effects with two-way interaction terms for significant PTCI subscales with significant FFMQ and DERS subscales identified previously. Finally, we performed a sensitivity analysis to examine if the effects differed by sex (coded: 0 = female, 1 = male, 2 = intersex; no participants reported being intersex). We conducted a multiple regression model that included three-way interaction terms among sex, the PTCI, and significant FFMQ and DERS subscales identified in the initial analysis. Due to model complexity and power limitations, we did not conduct a sensitivity analysis using the PTCI subscales.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe mean centered candidate moderator variables to facilitate interpretations. We inspected variance inflation factor (VIF; \u0026lt;5) and tolerance (\u0026gt;.10) estimates to check for multicollinearity. We also plotted significant interaction terms at low (i.e., one \u003cem\u003eSD\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003ebelow the mean), medium (i.e., mean), and high (i.e., one \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e above the mean) levels of the moderator variable to visualize and interpret effects. We only plotted interaction terms at the highest level; specifically, if both a two-way and a three-way interaction term were significant, then we plotted only the three-way interaction term.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePreliminary Analyses\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe outcome, PCL-5, exhibited marginal skewness (1.05), which was expected given that the sample consisted of trauma-exposed participants with clinically elevated PCL-5 scores. For this reason and interpretation purposes, we decided not to transform PCL-5 scores to address skewness. Table 2 presents the descriptive statistics for the study variables and zero-order correlations between the PCL-5 and other variables. The PCL-5 was significantly correlated with all FFMQ and DERS subscales in the expected directions (see Table 2).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eModeration Analysis\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo test our moderation hypotheses, we conducted multiple regression analyses using a model-building approach (see Table 3). The initial regression model that included only the FFMQ and DERS subscales was significant, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(6, 267) = 11.57, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .001, and explained 20.64% of the variance in PCL-5 scores. This model revealed that FFMQ-Nonjudging, \u003cem\u003esr\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= .23, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = .002, and DERS-Impulsivity,\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;sr\u003c/em\u003e = .18, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = .008, significantly related to the PCL-5 while accounting for other subscales. Accordingly, FFMQ-Nonjudging and DERS-Impulsivity were tested as potential moderators.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe same model was tested again except with two-way interactions for FFMQ-Nonjudging by PTCI and DERS-Impulsivity by PTCI terms to test moderation effects. This multiple regression model was significant, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(9, 264) = 12.89, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .001, and explained 30.53% of the variance in PCL-5 scores. The model indicated that the PTCI, \u003cem\u003esr\u003c/em\u003e = .27, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .001, and the FFMQ-Nonjudging by PTCI interaction term, \u003cem\u003esr\u003c/em\u003e = .16, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = .01, significantly related to the PCL-5 while controlling for other variables. The plot (see Figure 1) of the FFMQ-Nonjudging by PTCI interaction term demonstrated that the association between the PTCI and PCL-5 was weaker at higher levels of FFMQ-Nonjudging compared to lower levels. At greater levels of the PTCI, participants with high FFMQ-Nonjudging demonstrated significantly lower PCL-5 scores than those with low FFMQ-Nonjudging as evidenced by non-overlapping confidence intervals. In sum, FFMQ-Nonjudging was a significant moderator, such that higher levels buffered the relation between the PTCI and PCL-5.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eExploratory Analysis\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNext, we conducted an exploratory analysis using a similar model-building approach to examine potential moderation effects with the PTCI subscales (see Table 3). The multiple regression model with only the three PTCI subscales was significant, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(3, 270) = 20.45, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .001, and explained 18.52% of the variance in PCL-5 scores. This model revealed that PTCI-Negative Self, \u003cem\u003esr\u003c/em\u003e = .41, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = .002, and PTCI-Negative Word, \u003cem\u003esr\u003c/em\u003e = .11, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = .049, significantly related to the PCL-5 while accounting for all PTCI subscales. Thus, we then tested whether FFMQ-Nonjudging and DERS-Impulsivity moderated the relations of PTCI-Negative Self and PTCI-Negative World with the PCL-5.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe follow-up model consisted of all FFMQ, DERS, and PTCI subscales, as well as the following four two-way interaction terms: FFMQ-Nonjudging by PTCI-Negative Self, FFMQ-Nonjudging by PTCI-Negative Word, DERS-Impulsivity by PTCI-Negative Self, and DERS-Impulsivity by PTCI-Negative World. This model was significant, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(13, 260) = 8.90, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .001, and explained 30.79% of the variance in PCL-5 scores. The model indicated that PTCI-Negative World, \u003cem\u003esr\u003c/em\u003e = .11, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = .04, and the FFMQ-Nonjudging by PTCI-Negative Word interaction term, \u003cem\u003esr\u003c/em\u003e = .12, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = .02, significantly related to the PCL-5 while accounting for other variables. The plot (see Figure 2) of the FFMQ-Nonjudging by PTCI-Negative World interaction term displayed that the relation between PTCI-Negative World and PCL-5 was weaker at higher levels of FFMQ-Nonjudging relative to lower levels. At greater levels of PTCI-Negative World, participants with high FFMQ-Nonjudging exhibited significantly lower PCL-5 scores than those with low FFMQ-Nonjudging as evidenced by non-overlapping confidence intervals. At high levels of FFMQ-Nonjudging, there was a slight negative association between PTCI-Negative World and PCL-5. The moderating effect of FFMQ-Nonjudging was specific to PTCI-Negative World, such that higher levels buffered the relation between PTCI-Negative World and the PCL-5.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSensitivity Analysis\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFor the sensitivity analysis of sex (see Table 3), we conducted a multiple regression model with two three-way interactions\u0026mdash;FFMQ-Nonjudging by PTCI by sex and DERS-Impulsivity by PTCI by sex\u0026mdash;as well as their component two-way interactions and main effects. This model also accounted for other FFMQ and DERS subscales. The model was significant, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(15, 258) = 8.93, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .001, and explained 34.17% of the variance in PCL-5 scores. It revealed a significant FFMQ-Nonjudging by PTCI by sex three-way interaction term, \u003cem\u003esr\u003c/em\u003e = .11, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = .03. The two-way interaction terms of FFMQ-Nonjudging by PTCI, \u003cem\u003esr\u003c/em\u003e = .14, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = .002, and FFMQ-Nonjudging by sex, \u003cem\u003esr\u003c/em\u003e = .001, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = .04, significantly related to the PCL-5. FFMQ-Nonjudging, \u003cem\u003esr\u003c/em\u003e = .16, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = .04, and the PTCI, \u003cem\u003esr\u003c/em\u003e = .27, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .001, were also significantly associated with the PCL-5. Thus, the moderating effect of FFMQ-Nonjudging on the relation between the PTCI and PCL-5 differed by sex.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe plot (see Figure 3) of FFMQ-Nonjudging by PTCI by sex interaction term demonstrated that, for females, the association between the PTCI and PCL-5 was weaker at higher levels of FFMQ-Nonjudging compared to lower levels. At greater levels of the PTCI, females with high FFMQ-Nonjudging demonstrated significantly lower PCL-5 scores than females with low FFMQ-Nonjudging as indicated by non-overlapping confidence intervals. For males, the relation between the PTCI and PCL-5 was weaker at lower levels of FFMQ-Nonjudging compared to higher levels, but there were no significant differences across levels of FFMQ-Nonjudging as demonstrated by overlapping confidence intervals. Greater FFMQ-Nonjudging buffered the association between the PTCI and PCL-5 in females, while lower FFMQ-Nonjudging weakened this association in males; yet, this moderation effect in males may be less impactful given non-significant differences across FFMQ-Nonjudging levels.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe present study evaluated discrete facets of mindfulness and dimensions of emotional dysregulation as moderators of the relation between posttraumatic cognitions and PTSD symptoms. Results partially supported our hypotheses, as only the mindfulness facet of nonjudging buffered the association between posttraumatic cognitions and PTSD symptoms. Our findings replicate previous studies supporting the protective role of nonjudging against PTSD symptoms (e.g., Arnaudova \u0026amp; Amaro, 2020; Carpenter et al., 2019; Fitzgerald \u0026amp; Lundt, 2023; Martin et al., 2018) and extend this research by documenting a mitigating effect of nonjudging on the relation between posttraumatic cognitions and PTSD symptoms, particularly among females. We also provided preliminary evidence that nonjudging may specifically moderate the effect of negative cognitions about the world on PTSD symptoms.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOur primary finding that greater nonjudging weakens the association between negative posttraumatic cognitions and PTSD symptoms aligns with prior research supporting nonjudging as a key mindfulness facet negatively related to PTSD symptoms and trauma-related thoughts (e.g., Martin et al., 2018). Greater mindful nonjudgment may reduce the potency of posttraumatic thoughts, creating psychological distance and allowing for a more balanced view (Ito et al., 2023; Nitzan-Assayag et al., 2017). This process may help individuals interpret posttraumatic cognitions as just thoughts rather than truths about themselves or the world (Bailey \u0026amp; Morris, 2021; Nitzan-Assayag et al., 2017). Nonjudging fosters curiosity towards distressing thoughts without applying labels or criticism, which may limit emotional over- or under-engagement and enhance coping (Ford et al., 2023; Moshier et al., 2025; Thompson et al., 2011). By remaining aware and non-evaluative of their posttraumatic cognitions, individuals practicing nonjudgment may experience less severe PTSD symptoms due to approaching and tolerating trauma-related stimuli (Ito et al., 2023; Thompson et al., 2011).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe also found that the moderating effect of nonjudging was specific to negative cognitions about the world. Extending nonjudgment toward one\u0026rsquo;s experiences can improve relationships with both oneself and the environment (Zhang et al., 2020; Zhao et al., 2024). Nonjudgmental awareness of negative cognitions about the world, instead of avoidance or suppression, may enhance interpersonal trust and social connections (Adair et al., 2018; Blackwell \u0026amp; Swickert, 2025; Gerhart et al., 2014). This awareness may result in less PTSD symptomatology, such as reduced hypervigilance and fewer intrusive memories (Fitzgerald et al., 2024; Kircanski et al., 2008; Reffi et al., 2019). Additionally, being mindfully nonjudging of negative world-related cognitions may be particularly relevant for females, who are more likely to utilize social support networks to cope with stress (Ptacek et al., 1992; Tamres et al., 2002). Greater nonjudging may thus be associated with fewer negative cognitions and more adaptive social connections, helping to defend against PTSD symptoms. Further studies are needed to directly test this notion.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eResults indicated that the buffering effect of nonjudging on the relation between posttraumatic cognitions and PTSD symptoms was more pronounced in females than males. This sex difference may be due to the type of trauma experienced, as females are more likely to encounter interpersonal trauma (e.g., physical, sexual, or emotional) compared to males (Gatov et al., 2020; Tannahill et al., 2023). Interpersonal trauma is linked to greater self-conscious emotions, such as shame and guilt, which may underpin the relation between negative posttraumatic cognitions and PTSD symptoms in females (Badour et al., 2020; Faber et al., 2025; Kip et al., 2022; Tran et al., 2019). Nonjudging, which is negatively associated with self-conscious emotions, may reduce the impact of posttraumatic cognitions on PTSD symptoms by encouraging acceptance without criticism of these feelings and thoughts (Chopko et al., 2022; Dutton et al., 2023; Reffi et al., 2019). In contrast, males typically experience less interpersonal trauma and associated self-conscious emotions, which may limit the buffering effect of nonjudging (Aakvaag et al., 2016). Moreover, females report higher mental health literacy and are more likely to recognize problematic symptoms and seek mindfulness-based approaches than males (Cotton et al., 2006; Furnham \u0026amp; Swami, 2018; Katz \u0026amp; Toner, 2013). Thus, females may be more willing to engage in and benefit from mindful nonjudging as a coping strategy (Katz \u0026amp; Toner, 2013). Future studies investigating sex differences in mindfulness facets and their associations with trauma-related processes are needed.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAdditionally, regression models revealed that, compared to other subscales, impulse control problems (DERS-Impulsivity) and negative cognitions about the world (PTCI-Negative World) were robustly positive associated with PTSD symptoms. The positive relation between impulse control problems and PTSD symptomatology may be due to the hyperarousal symptom cluster of PTSD, which includes impulsive behaviors like aggression, risk-taking, and substance use (APA, 2013). While previous research highlighted the significance of negative self-cognitions to PTSD symptoms in community samples (Foa et al., 1999; Beck et al., 2004), our study found that negative cognitions about the world significantly contributed to PTSD symptoms. This finding implies that negative world cognitions may particularly influence PTSD symptoms in our predominantly female undergraduate sample, who are more likely to experience interpersonal traumas (Majeed et al., 2021; Tannahill et al., 2023).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOverall, our findings support the use of mindful nonjudging as an adaptive coping strategy for managing negative posttraumatic cognitions and PTSD symptoms (Martin et al., 2018; Thompson et al., 2011). Nonjudging may be useful in addressing negative cognitions about the world, as our results indicated that its moderating effect is specific to this type of cognition in relation to PTSD symptoms. Clinicians may benefit from incorporating nonjudgmental awareness as a strategy to mitigate the impact of negative cognitions about the world on PTSD symptoms. Nonjudgmental awareness might optimize trauma-focused interventions, such as CPT or exposure-based treatments, either by being integrated into existing therapies or used as an adjunctive treatment (e.g., Curreri et al., 2022). This approach may be especially relevant for female patients, given that the buffering effect of nonjudging on the relation between posttraumatic cognitions and PTSD symptoms was observed in females rather than males.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOur study has some limitations. First, we used self-report measures, which are susceptible to biases. The study design was cross-sectional, limiting our ability to draw causal inferences and highlighting the need for future longitudinal research. Although we used LEC-5 endorsement of a Criterion A traumatic event and an empirically supported PCL-5 cutoff to determine clinically elevated PTSD symptoms (Bovin et al., 2016), we did not confirm PTSD diagnoses with a clinical interview. The PCL-5 was not anchored to a specific traumatic event and thus may gauge general distress rather than PTSD symptoms. Accordingly, we described the sample as trauma-exposed participants with clinically elevated PTSD symptoms, as findings may only partially generalize to individuals diagnosed with PTSD. Most of our sample were White female college students, which may limit the generalizability of our findings to more diverse community samples. We did not collect data on pre-trauma levels of the study variables, so it is unknown to what extent these constructs changed due to a traumatic event.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eResult revealed that the mindfulness facet of nonjudging weakened the relation between posttraumatic cognitions and PTSD symptoms. Exploratory analyses indicated that this moderating effect was specific to negative cognitions about the world. Moreover, the buffering effect of nonjudging was more pronounced in females than males. Further longitudinal research is needed to investigate the temporal associations among nonjudging, posttraumatic cognitions, and PTSD symptoms, as well as to examine potential sex differences. It may also be beneficial to explore nonjudging as an avenue for optimizing trauma-focused therapy. Ultimately, the present study provides support for mindful nonjudging as a viable coping strategy for negative posttraumatic cognitions and their impact on PTSD symptoms, particularly among females.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCraig P. Polizzi: Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal Analysis, Data Curation, Writing - Original Draft, Writing - Review \u0026amp; Editing, Visualization, Supervision, and Project Administration. Fiona G. Sleight: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation, Data Curation, Writing - Original Draft, Writing - Review \u0026amp; Editing, and Project Administration. Charlie W. McDonald: Writing - Original Draft, Writing - Review \u0026amp; Editing, and Visualization. Damla iginal Draft and Writing - Review \u0026amp; Editing. Michael T. Shaw: Writing - Original Draft and Writing - Review \u0026amp; Editing. Richard E. Mattson: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation, Resources, Writing - Review \u0026amp; Editing, Supervision, and Project Administration.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author, Craig Polizzi, upon reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAakvaag, H. F., Thoresen, S., Wentzel-Larsen, T., Dyb, G., R\u0026oslash;ysamb, E., \u0026amp; Olff, M. (2016). 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The role of interpersonal responsibility. \u003cem\u003eThe Journal of Psychology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e158\u003c/em\u003e(3), 215-237. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.2023.2283474 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Tables","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 1\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003eCriterion A Traumatic Events Reported by Participants in the Final Sample (n = 274)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"100%\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 45px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEvent\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHappened to Me\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWitnessed It\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLearned About It\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePart of My Job\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 45px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNatural disaster\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e143\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e101\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e123\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 45px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFire or explosion\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e72\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e133\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 45px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTransportation accident\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e123\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e105\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e121\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 45px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSerious accident at work, home, or during recreational activity\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e79\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e104\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 45px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eExposure to toxic substance\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e91\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 45px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePhysical assault\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e83\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e99\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e125\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 45px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAssault with a weapon\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e123\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 45px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSexual assault\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e61\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e148\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 45px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOther unwanted or uncomfortable sexual experience\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e142\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e48\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e127\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 45px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCombat or exposure to a warzone\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e119\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 45px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCaptivity\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e98\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 45px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLife-threatening illness or injury\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e90\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e140\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 45px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSevere human suffering\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e49\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e107\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 45px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSudden violent death\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e147\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 45px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSudden accidental death\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e129\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 45px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSerious injury, harm, or death you caused to someone else\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e48\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"5\" style=\"width: 100px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eParticipants completed the\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eLife Events Checklist for \u003cem\u003eDSM-5\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eto determine the presence of Criterion A traumatic events. They were allowed to endorse as many events as they deemed relevant to them.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 2\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003eDescriptive Statistics for Study Variables and Correlations with the PCL-5\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"100%\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 22px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eM (SD)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCorrelation with PCL-5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePCL-5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 22px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e46.60 (10.51)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePTCI\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 22px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.69 (3.19)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.43*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePTCI-Negative Cognitions about Self\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 22px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.62 (1.25)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.41*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePTCI-Negative Cognitions about the World\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 22px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.59 (1.19)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.31*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePTCI-Self-Blame\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 22px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.48 (1.40)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.34*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFFMQ-Acting with Awareness\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 22px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20.90 (5.04)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.32*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFFMQ-Nonjudging of Experience\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 22px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20.76 (5.94)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.36*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDERS-Nonacceptance of Emotional Responses\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 22px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.04 (6.44)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.30*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDERS-Impulse Control Difficulties\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 22px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.65 (5.51)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.30*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDERS-Limited Access to Emotion Regulation Strategies\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 22px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26.07 (7.16)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.29*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDERS-Lack of Emotional Clarity\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 22px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.68 (4.36)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.23*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e*\u003cem\u003ep\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003cu\u003e\u0026lt;\u003c/u\u003e .001.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAbbreviations:\u003c/em\u003e DERS = Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale; FFMQ = Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire; PCL-5 = PTSD Checklist for \u003cem\u003eDSM-5\u003c/em\u003e; PTCI = Posttraumatic Cognitions Inventory\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cstrong\u003eTable 3\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003eMultiple Regression Models with PCL-5 as the Outcome\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"100%\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSE\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eModeration Analysis\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cu\u003eModel 1:\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;FFMQ-Acting with Awareness\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-1.68\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;FFMQ-Nonjudging\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.40\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-3.19**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;DERS-Nonacceptance\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;DERS-Impulsivity\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.34\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.67**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;DERS-Limited Access\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;DERS-Emotional Clarity\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.81\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cu\u003eModel 2:\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;FFMQ-Acting with Awareness\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-1.72\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;FFMQ-Nonjudging\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.51\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.32\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.61\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;DERS-Nonacceptance\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;DERS-Impulsivity\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.42\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;DERS-Limited Access\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;DERS-Emotional Clarity\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;PTCI\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.89\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.63***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;FFMQ-Nonjudging \u0026times; PTCI\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-2.54*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;DERS-Impulsivity \u0026times; PTCI\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eExploratory Analysis\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cu\u003eModel 1:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;PTCI-Negative Self\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.69\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.07**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;PTCI-Negative World\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.58\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.98*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;PTCI-Self-Blame\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.94\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.56\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.69\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cu\u003eModel 2:\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;FFMQ-Acting with Awareness\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-1.85\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;FFMQ-Nonjudging\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.69\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.36\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.90\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;DERS-Nonacceptance\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;DERS-Impulsivity\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;DERS-Limited Access\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;DERS-Emotional Clarity\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;PTCI-Negative Self\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.65\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.73\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.89\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;PTCI-Negative World\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.57\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.02*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;PTCI-Self-Blame\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.87\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.55\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.58\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;FFMQ-Nonjudging \u0026times; PTCI-Negative Self\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;DERS-Impulsivity \u0026times; PTCI-Negative Self\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;FFMQ-Nonjudging \u0026times; PTCI-Negative World\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-2.28*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;DERS-Impulsivity \u0026times; PTCI-Negative World\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSensitivity Analysis\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;FFMQ-Acting with Awareness\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-1.59\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;FFMQ-Nonjudging\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.74\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.12*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;DERS-Nonacceptance\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.87\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;DERS-Impulsivity\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.47\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;DERS-Limited Access\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.69\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;DERS-Emotional Clarity\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;PTCI\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.73\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.35***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;Sex (male)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-5.62\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.97\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;FFMQ-Nonjudging \u0026times; PTCI\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-3.18**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;DERS-Impulsivity \u0026times; PTCI\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.54\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;FFMQ-Nonjudging \u0026times; Sex (male)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-1.92\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.93\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-2.06*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;DERS-Impulsivity \u0026times; Sex (male)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.40\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.40\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;PTCI \u0026times; Sex (male)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.48\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.56\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;FFMQ-Nonjudging \u0026times; PTCI \u0026times; Sex (male)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.16 \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.08 \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.16*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;DERS-Impulsivity \u0026times; PTCI \u0026times; Sex (male)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.06 \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.08 \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 10px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.74\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e*\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u003cu\u003e\u0026lt;\u003c/u\u003e .05. **\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u003cu\u003e\u0026lt;\u003c/u\u003e .01. ***\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u003cu\u003e\u0026lt;\u003c/u\u003e .001.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAbbreviations:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eDERS = Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale; DERS-Emotional Clarity = DERS-Lack of Emotional Clarity; DERS-Impulsivity = DERS-Impulse Control Difficulties; DERS-Limited Access = DERS-Limited Access to Emotion Regulation Strategies; DERS-Nonacceptance = DERS-Nonacceptance of Emotional Responses; FFMQ = Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire; FFMQ-Nonjudging = FFMQ-Nonjudging of Experience; PCL-5 = PTSD Checklist for \u003cem\u003eDSM-5\u003c/em\u003e; PTCI = Posttraumatic Cognitions Inventory; PTCI-Negative Self = PTCI-Negative Cognitions about Self; PTCI-Negative World = PTCI-Negative Cognitions about the World\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"cognitive-therapy-and-research","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"cotr","sideBox":"Learn more about [Cognitive Therapy and Research](http://link.springer.com/journal/10608)","snPcode":"10608","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/cotr/default.aspx","title":"Cognitive Therapy and Research","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"mindfulness, emotional dysregulation, posttraumatic cognitions, PTSD symptoms","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8165575/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8165575/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBackground:\u003c/strong\u003eResearch supports the relation between posttraumatic cognitions and symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Mindfulness and emotional dysregulation have theoretical and empirical links to both posttraumatic cognitions and PTSD symptoms, and may moderate the association between them. Thus, evaluating mindfulness and emotional dysregulation as moderators may inform strategies for buffering the impact of negative posttraumatic cognitions on PTSD symptoms.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMethods:\u003c/strong\u003eWe conducted an online cross-sectional study with a sample of 274 trauma-exposed undergraduate students with clinically elevated PTSD symptoms. Participants completed the PTSD Checklist for \u003cem\u003eDSM-5\u003c/em\u003e, Posttraumatic Cognitions Inventory, Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire, and Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResults:\u003c/strong\u003e Multiple regression analyses utilizing a model-building approach revealed that the mindfulness facet of nonjudging moderated the relation between posttraumatic cognitions and PTSD symptoms. An exploratory analysis indicated that nonjudging specifically moderated the association of PTSD symptoms with negative cognitions about the world. In both cases, greater nonjudging weakened the relation between negative cognition and PTSD symptoms. A sensitivity analysis adjusting for sex demonstrated that greater nonjudging buffered the association between posttraumatic cognitions and PTSD symptoms in females but not males.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConclusions:\u003c/strong\u003e Findings imply that future research should leverage nonjudging as a possible strategy for mitigating the impact of negative cognitions on PTSD symptoms, particularly among females.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Specifying the Protective Role of Mindfulness: Nonjudging Buffers the Association between Posttraumatic Cognitions and PTSD Symptoms","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-12-22 17:16:08","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8165575/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-04-28T02:22:37+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-04-27T21:05:43+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-04-20T20:41:09+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-04-16T15:33:41+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"147019153152287829248092006203034797367","date":"2026-04-02T01:43:56+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"260262560989529222609369520935147796927","date":"2026-03-30T13:49:55+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"225974635515968969017169301332554217494","date":"2026-03-28T14:23:11+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-02-11T21:42:54+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"112157363207460502390314370784838621273","date":"2026-01-12T22:15:09+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"69831664626491086783743446055611711452","date":"2026-01-10T21:37:22+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-12-18T04:11:09+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-11-22T07:33:19+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-11-22T07:32:35+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Cognitive Therapy and Research","date":"2025-11-20T14:18:21+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"cognitive-therapy-and-research","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"cotr","sideBox":"Learn more about [Cognitive Therapy and Research](http://link.springer.com/journal/10608)","snPcode":"10608","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/cotr/default.aspx","title":"Cognitive Therapy and Research","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"c37178ac-ac05-4eab-b090-336458f9e7d2","owner":[],"postedDate":"December 22nd, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-20T15:08:35+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-12-22 17:16:08","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8165575","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8165575","identity":"rs-8165575","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}