Comparative field efficacy of synthetic insecticides and plant extracts against Tuta absoluta (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) in Lubumbashi, DR Congo

Comparative field efficacy of synthetic insecticides and plant extracts against Tuta absoluta (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) in Lubumbashi, DR Congo | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article Comparative field efficacy of synthetic insecticides and plant extracts against Tuta absoluta (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) in Lubumbashi, DR Congo Sylvain Mbuya Ntambo, Onesime M. Kankonda, Nyumah Fallah, Komivi S. Akutse, and 1 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-9113639/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 10 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract The invasive tomato leafminer, Tuta absoluta (Meyrick), is a very destructive pest that poses a major threat to tomato ( Solanum lycopersicum L.) production in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), causing extensive yield losses through larval feeding on leaves, stems, and fruits. Chemical insecticides remain the primary control method, but resistance development, biodiversity loss and environmental concerns necessitate alternative strategies. This study aimed at evaluating the efficacy of synthetic and botanical insecticides against T. absoluta during two consecutive cropping seasons 2023–2024 in Lubumbashi, DRC, under both dry and rainy season conditions. Two tomato seedling varieties (Tanya F1 and Tovi Star F1) were treated with four synthetic insecticides (Dudu acelamectin, cypermethrin, lambda-cyhalothrin and Occasion Star® 200SC) and two botanical treatments ( Tephrosia vogelii extract and Nimbecidine®) at the recommended doses in a randomized complete block design. Pest incidence, larval density, leaf damage, and yield were assessed over multiple intervals. Results showed that synthetic insecticides, particularly Dudu acelamectin, lambda-cyhalothrin, and Occasion Star® 200SC, significantly reduced T. absoluta larval infestations compared to cypermethrin, which failed to control the pest due to suspected potential resistance. Botanical insecticides were also proved effective, with T. vogelii extract reducing leaf damage by 48% and Nimbecidine® by 37%. The Tovi Star F1 variety exhibited inherent resistance, with lower pest incidence and higher yields than Tanya F1. Yield losses were strongly correlated with pest incidence and larval density, emphasizing the need for timely interventions. These findings highlight the potential of integrating synthetic and botanical insecticides with resistant tomato varieties for sustainable T. absoluta management in Lubumbashi. Future research should explore long-term resistance monitoring, cost-benefit analyses for smallholder farmers, and synergetic combinations of biopesticides to enhance efficacy while minimizing environmental impacts. Biological sciences/Ecology Earth and environmental sciences/Ecology Biological sciences/Plant sciences Biological sciences/Zoology Tuta absoluta botanicals synthetic insecticides Solanum lycopersicum integrated pest management Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Introduction Tomato ( Solanum lycopersicum ) is one of the best fresh market and processing vegetable crops belonging to the Solanaceae family. As an economic crop, tomato is grown by both small and commercial vegetable growers throughout the year in the fields or greenhouses 1 . The tomato fruit is a well-balanced and healthy food for human consumption, as it is rich in vitamins, minerals, essential amino acids, dietary fiber, and sugar 2 . In addition, tomato production plays a vital role in improving livelihoods, particularly for smallholder farmers, through employment and household income generation 3 , 4 . In the DR Congo, tomato production has grown by an average of 0.4% yearly since 1966. By 2026, it is predicted to reach 51,410 metric tons, compared with world-leading countries such as India and China 5 . Despite its importance, tomato cultivation in the DR Congo is severely constrained by several biotic stresses, particularly insect pests and diseases, which substantially reduce both yields and the quality of marketable fruits 6 . The quantitative and qualitative yield losses have been aggravated by the invasion of the tomato leafminer, Tuta absoluta (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), an invasive pest of South American origin now established in Africa 7 . The invasive and highly destructive T. absoluta , is one of the most serious insect pests restraining tomato production and productivity globally 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 . The pest feeds on solanaceous crops such as potato, sweet pepper, eggplant, but with a high preference for tomato, on which it causes the greatest economic damage 12 , 13 , 14 . It is originally from Peru, South America, but it has started spreading to other continents, including Europe, Asia and Africa during the last decades 15 , 7 . It has since become a major constraint to global tomato production. In central Africa, the pest emerged as a serious threat following its initial outbreaks in Rwanda in 2015 16 , from where it has continued to spread into neighboring countries, including the DR Congo 6 . In the DR Congo, T. absoluta was detected for the first time in 2016 in Kinshasa province, based on morphological identification of adult insect individuals. Its presence was further confirmed using molecular identification with primers targeting the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase subunit I (COI) gene sequences 6 . Since then, the pest rapidly invaded other provinces within the country, inflicting significant damage and yield losses in both open field and greenhouse tomato production systems. A significant reason for its rapid spread is the popularity of tomatoes and their export to many countries without robust phytosanitary quarantine procedures/measures to monitor its occurrence in the producing countries and prevent its entry into the importing countries 17 , 6 . The economic losses caused by T. absoluta are mainly due to damage by larval feeding inside leaves, stems and fruits 10 , 13 , 18 . Females lay approximately 260 eggs on the underside of leaves and stems of the tomato plant. After hatching, neonate larvae penetrate leaves and feed on the mesophyll tissues at any phenological stage of host plant development, creating irregular mines that progressively become necrotic with time 12 , 19 . These irregular mines reduce the photosynthetic capacity of the plant, induce leaf necrosis, and may compromise the plant’s ability to resist other biotic stresses 20 . Besides, larval feeding also reduces fruit quality by creating pin holes prone to secondary fungal infections, reducing the quality of tomatoes and rendering them unmarketable 21 , 22 . Through cryptic feeding in the stem, the larvae can create extensive galleries that weaken the stem and affect the development of the host plant. Severe damage to the tomato plant by the larvae results in complete defoliation and drying of the plant 17 . Potential yield loss in terms of quality and quantity is highly significant and can reach 100% if the pest is not adequately controlled 23 . The use of chemical insecticides is the primary control approach against T. absoluta , which could provide up to 95% control of the pest at 14–21 days after treatment 24 , 11 . A range of synthetic insecticides has been employed in many locations in the management of the pest in order to boost tomato productivity 25 . However, repeated and excessive sprays of insecticides of the same type result in the emergence of resistant pest populations due to continuous selection pressure in the field, making T. absoluta control very challenging 26 , 27 . Besides, the endophytic behavioral feeding and cryptic nature of the pest larvae render the widely used contact insecticides ineffective. Because of this concealed feeding behavior, the pest could escape from most of the synthetic insecticides currently being applied, hindering effective management of T. absoluta 28 . Furthermore, the abusive use of these synthetic pesticides causes significant adverse environmental, biodiversity and human health effects and increased resistance development in T. absoluta 24 , 28 . It is therefore paramount to develop and promote environmentally friendly control strategies to overcome these challenges. As a viable alternative to the misuse of synthetic insecticides, the development of biological control approaches using botanicals such as Neem-based products could be explored to sustainably tackle T. absoluta . Plant extracts or botanicals can be effectively used as an alternative to chemical insecticides as they offer a more sustainable means in tackling this offensive and invasive pest 24 , 29 . In the DR Congo, information on the efficacy of both synthetic insecticides and plant extracts against T. absoluta is lacking. Therefore, the present study aimed to assess and compare the efficacy of some selected bio- and synthetic insecticides in the control of T. absoluta under experimental field conditions. Materials and methods Study site and period The experiments were established at the Garden of Hope, Glen Hill Farm, Lubumbashi (11.6876° S, 27.5026° E), and Mutonkole farm, Mimbulu village (11.6904° S, 27.4555° E), DR Congo. The two field trial sites were approximately 5 km and were established in areas where tomato is highly cultivated in open fields in rainy and dry seasons with remarkable natural infestation of T. absoluta . The climate in Lubumbashi is of climate with dry winters (Cwa) type following the Köppen classification 30 . The average annual temperature and rainfall are 25.5°C and 1238 mm, respectively. The rainy season starts in November and ends in March and the dry season from May to September, with April and October being transitional months between the two seasons 31 . The field experiments were conducted over two consecutive cropping seasons during 2023–2024. In 2023, the two trials were established during the rainy season at the Mutonkole farm, whereas in 2024, the trials were conducted during the dry season at Glen Hill. Plant materials and treatments Two tomato varieties (Tanya F1 and Tovi Star) were chosen as plant materials in this study based on their preference by farmers. The seeds of these two varieties were obtained from the local Agrochemical shop “New Semences” in Lubumbashi, DRC. Seven treatments were evaluated against the occurrence of T. absoluta : four synthetic insecticides (Dudu-acelamectin 5% EC, Cypermethrin, Lambda-cyhalothrin and Occasion Star® 200SC), one botanical insecticide (Azadirachtin), one plant extract ( Tephrosia vogelii ) and the control (sterile distilled water). These pesticides were also obtained from the Agrochemical shop “New Semences” in Lubumbashi, DRC. The leaves of T. vogelii were obtained from Sun city neighborhood (11°4149 S, 27.3125° E) in Lubumbashi, DRC. Detailed information on these insecticides are provided in Table 1 below. Table 1 Synthetic and botanical insecticides used Synthetic insecticide Chemical family Active ingredients Mode of action Dosage/20L Dudu acelamectin 5% EC Oxadiazine and Avermectin Abamectine 20g/L + Acetamiprid 3% Larvicide 30 ml Cypermethrin Pyrethroid Alpha-cypermethrin Larvicide/adulticide 20 ml Lambda-cyhalothrin Pyrethroid Gamma-cyhalothrin + lambda-cyhalothrin 20 ml Occasion Star® 200SC Avermectin and Indoxacarb Emanmectin benzoate + Indoxacarb Larvicide/adulticide 3 ml Botanical insecticide Azadirachtin 0.03% EC (Nimbecidine®) Meliaceae Azadirachtin Larvicide 100 ml Tephrosia vogelii extract Fabaceae Deguelin Larvicide 15% w/v Sterile distilled water - - - - Tephrosia vogelii material collection and extraction procedure The plant extract was obtained from the leaves of T. vogelii collected from the Sun City neighborhood (11°4149 S, 27.3125° E) in Lubumbashi, DR Congo. The plant material was taxonomically identified and authenticated at the Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, University of Lubumbashi, Lubumbashi, DR Congo. The specimen has also been deposited in the Herbarium repository of the Faculty of Agricultural Sciences under the reference number UNILU/FACAGRO/SNN/051/2023. The leaves were collected in the dry season (September-October, 2023 and 2024) because of the seasonal variation in plant secondary metabolites 32 . The collected leaves were neither very old nor very fresh and were chosen because of their high concentration in active compounds 33 , 32 , 34 . Upon collection, the leaves were thoroughly washed using tap water to remove dust and debris. The washed leaves were air-dried in a well-ventilated room at an ambient temperature around 24–28 o C for two weeks. The dried leaves were grinded and sieved into fine powder using a local wooden mortar and a 0.2 mm wire mesh. The obtained powder was weighed, packed and sealed in biodegradable plastic bags and kept under room temperature until further use. Prior to field treatment, the extraction of the plant was carried out by adding 150 g of powder to one liter (1 L) of sterile distilled cold water and soaked in a clean plastic bucket at room temperature (24–30 o C). Generally, cold water (25 o C) was chosen as opposed to hot water to evade reabsorption during cooling and that may affect the active ingredients in the leaves of T. vogelii 35 . The resulting solution was stirred constantly for about 5 minutes and left to stand for 12 hours and later filtered with a clean muslin cloth before application in the field. Finally, the filtered solution was diluted into one liter (1 L) using cold water to obtain a concentration of 15% weight volume (w/v) 36 . The incorporation of 0.01% soap early in the process of extraction also helped to ensure that the active ingredients in the plant materials are well extracted and dispersed. Rotenoids are less soluble in water; hence, soap was used to increase the extraction procedure 32 . Land preparation and trials set-up The experimental field was meticulously cleared of weeds, crop residues, and other debris to reduce biotic stress and interspecific competition. Subsequently, the soil underwent deep tillage to a depth of 20–30 cm, improving soil aeration, water infiltration, and root system development. Raised ridges, measuring 30 cm in height and 1–1.2 m in width, were constructed in each season to enhance surface drainage, mitigate waterlogging, and facilitate efficient irrigation and other cultural operations. Basal application of a balanced compound fertilizer (17-17-17 NPK) was applied to ensure adequate nutrient availability during early vegetative growth stage of the tomato plants. A drip irrigation system was installed and operated for four hours daily (two hours in the morning and two hours in the evening) to maintain optimal soil moisture, avoiding the high susceptibility of tomato plants to water stress. The experiment was conducted in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) consisting of six treatments and the control as described above. Each experimental unit area was 9 m 2 and consisted of four rows. For each experiment in each season, a total of 28 plots were established for a total area of 252 m 2 . The plots were separated by a 1.5 m wide path from each other to reduce the drift effect of the treatments. Transplanting was carried out using twenty-two-day old seedlings in March 2023 and June 2023 and March 2024 and June 2024 in the field plots in the evening to prevent too much water loss and wilting in the newly transplanted seedlings. Drip irrigation was applied every 2–3 days during early growth and daily during flowering and fruiting. The seedlings were spaced at 50 cm x 60 cm, equivalent to 33,333.33 plants per hectare. The total density of the entire experimental field was 216 plants, at the rate of 12 plants per plot for each variety. Each treatment was replicated four times within each block. In each treatment, 10 plants were randomly selected and labelled for periodical inspection and data recording. Apart from insecticide applications, all experimental units received uniformly regular agricultural practices (e.g., weeding, seedling thinning, fungicide application, etc.). Natural pest incidences were monitored by visual observation soon after transplanting until the final harvest. Insecticides application The insecticides used in these trials were purchased from the local Agricultural products store “New Semences” in Lubumbashi, DRC. The application of treatments started one week after transplanting the tomato seedlings that were not showing any visible symptoms of T. absoluta and continued at 20-day intervals until the final harvest. Each treatment had a separate knapsack sprayer, and insecticides were applied in evening hours (5 pm) to evade the damaging effects of sunlight 37 , 38 , 39 . The spray volume for each treatment was 1000 L ha − 1 using a knapsack sprayer. The dosages used were 1.5 ml L − 1 for Dudu acelamectin 5% EC, 200 g L − 1 for Cypermethrin 200 EC, 1 ml L − 1 for Lambda-cyhalothrin, 0.15 ml L − 1 for Occasion Star® 200 SC, 5 ml L − 1 for Azadirachtin 0.03% EC, 15% weight volume (w/v) for T. vogelii and 1 ml L − 1 of sterile water for the control. Continuous agitation was maintained during each treatment application to prevent precipitations and ensure a homogenous suspension. Assessment of infestation parameters and yield Leaves and stems showing typical symptoms of the pest were assessed on five randomly selected plants of each variety from each experimental plot before and after application at 1, 3, 5, 7 and 10 days post-treatment. Another sample of non-treated infested plants were sampled in the control plots. The number of larvae per plant and the number of larvae in each treatment plot were determined by counting. An average of the number of larvae per plot was determined based on the larval density in each sampled plant. The incidence was determined solely in each treatment from the 20 randomly selected plants per treatment based on the irregular mines and galleries observed on tomato leaves, stems and fruits. Leaf damage was evaluated as the percentage of leaves mined by T. absoluta ; whereas leaflet damage was evaluated as the percentage of leaflets mined by T. absoluta from three randomly selected leaves located in the middle canopy of each plant 40 . The number of damaged leaflets and the total number of leaflets were recorded. In addition, the number of mine blotches per leaf were counted from each sampled plant. The yield recorded during each harvest was pooled for the entire season, and the total fruit yield of each treatment was derived from the replicated treatment. During harvesting, the number of damaged and healthy fruits were separated and counted as the number of marketable and unmarketable fruits. The ratio was calculated as follow: Ratio \(\:\:=\frac{Number\:of\:marketable\:fruits}{Number\:of\:unmarketable\:fruits\:+\:1}\) Three yield parameters such as the number of marketable and unmarketable of fruits, fruit weight, and yield were collected in the manner outlined by Liu et al. 41 , where the total number of fruits per plant and the individual fruit weight were obtained by counting and weighing each marketable fruit. The yield (kg plant − 1 ) was obtained by totalling the weight of all fruits harvested from each treatment plant and plot. The yield estimation in tons per ha was calculated using the formula described by Ali et al. 42 : $$\:\text{Y}\text{i}\text{e}\text{l}\text{d}\:\left(\text{T}\:{\text{h}\text{a}}^{-1}\right)=\:\frac{\text{Y}\text{i}\text{e}\text{l}\text{d}\:\text{p}\text{e}\text{r}\:\text{p}\text{o}\text{t}\:\left(\text{k}\text{g}\right)\:\text{x}\:\text{10,000}}{\text{A}\text{r}\text{e}\text{a}\:\text{o}\text{c}\text{c}\text{u}\text{p}\text{i}\text{e}\text{d}\:\text{b}\text{y}\:\text{p}\text{o}\text{t}\:\left({\text{m}}^{2}\right)\:\text{x}\:\text{1,000}}$$ Statistical analysis All statistical analyses were conducted in R version 4.4.1 43 . Prior to analysis, all the data collected were subjected to normality and homogeneity test of variances using Shapiro-Wilk 44 and Levene test respectively (at p < 0.05 significance level). Due to significant deviations from parametric assumptions, non-parametric tests were implemented. Aligned rank transform (ART) analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to analyse pest infestation (incidence and larval density) in the tomato crop using the ARTool package 45 . The full factorial model (treatment × season × variety) was applied to rank-transformed data aligned by experimental blocks (Rep), with Type III SS F-tests for fixed effects. Significant effects were followed by ART-contrasts using Holm-Bonferroni-adjusted pairwise comparisons of aligned ranks. Treatment efficacy was quantified through median differences with 95% confidence intervals. Kruskal-Wallis test was used to evaluate the effects of treatment, variety and season on the ratio, number of marketable and unmarketable fruits, and yield per plant variables. For significant Kruskal-Wallis results, post-hoc pairwise comparisons were performed using Dunn's test with Benjamini-Hochberg adjustment for multiple comparisons. Leaf damage count data (representing the number of galleries) were analysed using a Poisson generalized linear mixed model (GLMM) fitted by maximum likelihood using the package lme4 46 . Treatment, variety, season, and day were incorporated as fixed effects and replicate as a random effect (1|Rep) to account for experimental blocking. Model assumptions were verified using the package DHARMa for residual diagnostics, and significant effects were evaluated by type III analysis of deviance. Mean comparisons were further examined via Sidak-adjusted pairwise comparisons of estimated marginal means using the package emmeans . The relationship between incidence and yield and larval density and yield was assessed using Spearman’s rank correlation stratified by season and tomato variety. A linear regression model assessed yield prediction from incidence and larval density, with season and variety included as an interaction term to test for differential effects. All tests were set at a significance level of 5%. All plots were generated using the ggplot2 R package 47 . Results Differential effectiveness of control methods against Tuta absoluta in tomato The ART-ANOVA analysis revealed significant effects of treatment, variety, and season on tomato leaf-miner infestation (Fig. 1 ). Pest incidence varied strongly by treatment ( F (6) = 235.72; p < 0.001), with controls showing the highest infestation, while synthetic (e.g., λ-cyhalothrin) and botanical (e.g., T. vogelii ) treatments were most effective with low infestation levels. Variety had a major influence ( F (1) = 1234.43; p < 0.001), as Tovi star F1 consistently exhibited lower pest incidence than Tanya F1. Season differences were also significant ( F (1) = 101.68; p < 0.001), with higher pest incidence in the dry season than in the rainy season. A strong treatment × variety interaction ( F (6) = 304.8; p < 0.001) revealed that synthetic pyrethroids (e.g., Cypermethrin) reduced incidence more in Tovi star F1 than Tanya F1. The treatment × season interaction ( F (6) = 20.84; p < 0.001) further indicated season-dependent efficacy. For example, Dudu acelamectin performed equally well for both seasons, whereas Occasion Star® 200SC was more effective in the rainy season than dry season. The three-way interaction (treatment × season × variety, F (6) = 5.93; p < 0.001) highlighted complex dynamics, such as Nimbecidine®’s greater suppression of the pest on Tovi star F1 versus Tanya F1 in the rainy season, but not in the dry season. For larval density, treatment effects were significant ( F (6) = 102.37; p < 0.001), with controls averaging six larvae/plant versus one larva for Occasion Star® 200SC, T. vogelii and Nimbecidine®. Similarly, Tovi star F1 again outperformed Tanya F1 ( F (6) = 105.22; p < 0.001), though season had no significant effect ( F (1) = 1.17; p = 0.278). The treatment × variety interaction ( F (6) = 26.16; p < 0.001) showed that synthetic treatments (e.g., Cypermethrin) significantly reduced the larval density more in Tovi star F1 than in Tanya F1. Other interactions (season × variety, three-way) were not significant. Overall, integrating synthetic chemicals with resistant varieties (e.g., Tovi star F1) provided the most robust pest suppression, with efficacy modulated by season-specific factors. Modelling the leaf damage by the tomato leaf miner The Poisson GLMM (Table S1 ), supported by Type III analysis of deviance, revealed highly significant main effects of Treatment (GLMM: χ 2 (6) = 31.02; p < 0.001), Variety (GLMM: χ 2 (1) = 78.99; p < 0.001), and Day (GLMM: χ 2 (1) = 34.5; p < 0.001), confirming these factors' strong overall effect on leaf damage. While season showed marginal significance (GLMM: χ 2 (1) = 15.69; p < 0.001), its effect was most pronounced in interactions. The botanical insecticide T. vogelii showed superior efficacy, reducing damage by approximately 48% compared to controls, followed by synthetic treatments Occasion Star® 200SC and Nimbecidine®, while Cypermethrin was least effective (Fig. 2 ). The Tovi star F1 variety demonstrated inherent resistance, equivalent to 37% lower damage, though this advantage has diminished/reduced in the rainy season. The ANOVA's significance for treatment × Variety interaction (GLMM: χ 2 (6) = 2.71, p = 0.012) aligns with GLMM estimates, showing Nimbecidine®'s enhanced efficacy on Tovi star F1, while the significance of variety × season interaction (GLMM: χ 2 (1) = 14.56; p < 0.01) corroborates with the GLMM's finding of reduced Tovi star F1 resistance in rainy season. Notably, the non-significant three-way interaction (GLMM: χ 2 (6) = 1.87; p = 0.082) in ANOVA corresponds to the GLMM's season-specific treatment failures (e.g., Lambda cyhalothrin's effect on Tovi star F1 in the rainy season). Temporal analysis showed increased damage, with protection degrading significantly after day 7 post-treatment, corroborated by the strong day effect. Tomato yield in response to Tuta absoluta control treatments The Kruskal-Wallis test results indicated highly significant differences in crop yield across pest control treatments and varieties, but no significant effect was observed with regard to season (Fig. 3 ). When considering the treatment effect (Fig. 3 a), Dudu acelamectin and Occasion Star® 200SC had the highest yield, while control and Cypermethrin recorded the lowest yields ( H (6) = 46.2; p < 0.001). T. vogelli botanical recorded intermediate yields, serving as a viable organic alternative to synthetic insecticides. Tovi star F1 consistently outperformed Tanya F1 ( H (1) = 81.4; p < 0.001) (Fig. 3 c). However, no significant difference in yield was found as regard to the seasons ( H (1) = 0.1; p < 0.138) (Fig. 3 c). The Kruskal-Wallis tests and subsequent post-hoc pairwise comparisons revealed significant treatment, variety, and season effects across all measured yield components (Fig. 4 ). For the ratio, measuring the effectiveness of pest control approaches or their impact on fruit yield, treatments formed three efficacy tiers. Occasion Star® 200SC significantly outperformed both Dudu acelamectin/Nimbecidine®/ T. vogelii as the intermediate group and the control/Cypermethrin as the lowest group ( H (6) = 200; p < 0.001). Number of marketable fruits results mirrored this pattern, with Dudu acelamectin/ T. vogelii and Occasion Star® 200SC surpassing Lambda cyhalothrin, Nimbecidine® and the control ( H (6) = 110; p < 0.001), though pairwise tests revealed nuanced differences. For the number of unmarketable tomato fruits, all the treatments equally reduced damage versus the control ( H (6) = 186; p < 0.001). When considering varietal effects, Tanya F1 had a lower number of marketable ( H (1) = 15.4; p < 0.001) and unmarketable fruits ( H (1) = 3.92; p = 0.044) than Tovi star F1, suggesting a trade-off between total yield and quality. Season effects further modified the yield outcomes: Rainy season had a higher number of marketable fruits ( H (1) = 4.05; p = 0.05) than dry season, implying environmental or management influences on fruit quality consistency (Fig. 4 a). These stratified results underscore that Occasion Star® 200SC and Dudu acelamectin were top-performing treatments, but variety and season critically modulate their effectiveness, recommending Tovi star F1 for maximum yield (despite quality risks) in the rainy season, and Tanya F1 for quality-focused production in the dry season (Fig. 4 b). The results demonstrated robust negative associations between pest incidence and yield, as well as between larval density and yield, supported by both correlation and regression analyses (Fig. 5 ). The linear regression model ( R² = 0.136, F (3,556) = 29.24, p < 0.001) showed 13.6% of yield variation from season, considering the incidence (Fig. 5 d). In the dry season, each unit increased in incidence reduced yield by 7.15 folds ( t = -8.57; p < 0.001), while in the dry season, the effect was attenuated to 3.75 folds (interaction t = 2.59; p = 0.009). The variety analysis revealed Tovi star F1's higher baseline yield ( t = 5.85, p < 0.001) but greater sensitivity to the pest incidence (Fig. 5 c) (interaction t = -1.81; p = 0.070), with the model explaining 21.1% of variance ( R² = 0.21, F (3,556) = 49.45, p < 0.001). These results suggested the need for season-specific management, particularly in the dry season, and showed that Tovi star F1 performed better in low-incidence conditions. The larval density-yield relationship, while significant, showed less variance than incidence when considering the season effect ( R² = 0.08; F (3,556) = 16.42; p < 0.001) (Fig. 5 b). Dry season showed a 61.94-fold yield reduction per larval density increase ( t = -6.57; p < 0.001), substantially greater than the rainy season's 22.42-fold reduction (interaction t = 2.95, p = 0.003). The variety-specific model ( R² = 0.17, F (3,556) = 38.72, p < 0.001) (Fig. 5 a) indicated significant main effects for both larval density ( t = -3.96; p < 0.001) and variety ( t = 4.03; p < 0.001), but no significant interaction ( t = 0.65, p = 0.515) was observed. Tovi star F1 maintained higher baseline yields with comparable larval sensitivity to Tanya F1. Discussion In Africa, the introduction and spread of alien species has been accelerated in recent decades, posing significant threats to agriculture, biodiversity, and ecological stability 48 , 49 . In the DR Congo, tomatoes are seen as a highly promising crop for horticultural expansion; however, its production is currently threatened by invasive insect pests such as T. absolut a which puts the future of this cash crop in jeopardy. While the study provides valuable insights for the Lubumbashi region, the findings are derived from only two sites over two seasons. Further validation across broader agroecological zones and longer timeframes would strengthen their generalizability. Chemical insecticides are one of the most common and widely used methods for controlling T. absolut a around the world because they have rapid action and strong toxicity against the target pest. Among the synthetic insecticides used in this study, Dudu- acelamectin, Lambda cyhalothrin and Occasion Star® 200 SC showed better insecticidal efficacy than cypermethrin against T. absolut a. The effectiveness of Dudu-acelamectin stems from its quick action and ability to control a wide range of pests on crops through disruption of their nervous systems, leading to paralysis and ultimately death 50 . However, Dudu acelamectin should be used with caution because of its non-target effects and the risk of resistance development. The results of the current study are consistent with a previous study conducted in Uganda, where Dudu-acelametin outperformed other treatments in controlling T. absolut a on tomato under field conditions 51 . Lambda-cyhalothrin is a synthetic pyrethroid insecticide widely used to control many insect pests, including T . absoluta , by disrupting the nervous system. It interferes with the sodium channels in nerve cells, causing overstimulation, paralysis, and ultimately, death of the insect 52 . Lambda-cyhalothrin exerts both contact and stomach poisoning effects, and has no internal absorption effect. It is mainly used to control pests with chewing or piercing and sucking mouthparts 53 , 54 . In this study, lambda-cyhalothrin significantly reduced T . absoluta infestation, making it one of the most effective chemical insecticides tested against the pest. These findings align with previous reports indicating that lambda-cyhalothrin effectively controlled T. absolut a both inside and outside mined leaves, achieving high larval mortality rates 55 , 56 , 57 . In this study, cypermethrin exhibited complete failure against T. absolut a populations in both studied seasons, suggesting that the tomato leafminer populations in the current region may have developed resistance to this insecticide, making it unsuitable for effective control 58 , 59 . However, because resistance mechanisms were not confirmed through molecular or biochemical assays, this interpretation remains inferential and should be validated in future studies. Cypermethrin-treated plots showed higher pest incidence compared to other tested synthetic insecticides. This possible resistance is likely a result of extensive and repeated use of cypermethrin by local tomato growers in the region, which may have exerted strong selection pressure favoring resistant individuals within T. absolut a populations. Similar findings have been reported in Brazil, where cypermethrin completely failed to control T. absolut a populations 59 . Although cypermethrin may not effectively control T. absoluta larvae in both seasons, it can still cause sublethal effects like reduced lifespan and egg-laying in surviving insects 60 . Insecticides resistance in T. absolut a has been reported for various chemical classes including organophospahtes, spinosyns, cartap, pyrethroids, diamides, indoxacarb, avemermectins and benzoylureas 61 , 62 , 63 , 64 . Novel insecticides, with their unique modes of action and specific targeting of pests, offer promising solutions for effective and environmentally sound pest management. They can be particularly useful in integrated pest management strategies, offering alternatives to older, broad-spectrum insecticides 65 , 66 . In this study, the novel insecticide Occasion Star® 200SC was effective in controlling T. absolut a populations with lower pest incidence in both studied seasons. It is a unique brand-new insecticide combination of emamectin benzoate and indoxacarb with contact and stomach action for broad spectrum control of chewing insect pests. This insecticide was recently introduced to the field of plant protection with novel modes of action that prevent, or delay build up resistance against different insect pests including T. absoluta 66 . Indoxacarb, an oxadiazine insecticide group, disrupts nerve function by blocking sodium channels, while emamectin benzoate, an avermectin compound, interferes with neurotransmission of the pests by acting as an agonist for gamma-aminobutyric acid and glutamate-gated chloride channels, leading to disruption of nerve impulses and subsequent pest mortality 67 , 68 . The observed efficacy of Occasion Star® 200 SC aligns with previous studies demonstrating the superior performance of emamectin benzoate against T. absolut a compared to cypermethrin 69 . Roby and Hussein 70 reported that emamectin benzoate exhibited high toxic effect against T. absoluta , among tested insecticides for second-instar larvae. Similarly, Simmons et al. 22 documented over 90% mortality of T . absoluta with emamectin benzoate and spinosad treatments. Beyond tomato leafminer, emamectin benzoate has demonstrated efficacy against other lepidopteran pests, including Helicoverpa zea (Boddie) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) on maize 71 and Spodoptera littoralis (Boisduval) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) on cotton 72 . Notably, the persistence of these treatment effects beyond the 10-day assessment period was not evaluated, and longer-term efficacy studies would be beneficial to inform application schedules. In this study, the tomato Tovi Star variety demonstrated inherent resistance to T. absoluta . Such resistance or tolerance is often associated with specific traits, including high trichome density on leaves and the presence of particular allelochemicals. These findings are in harmony with previous studies showing that type VI glandular trichomes in tomato deter herbivory by producing high concentrations of toxic specialized metabolites within their glandular fluid 73 . When insects like T. absoluta interact with these trichomes, the glands rupture, releasing the toxic fluid, which deters or kills the pests 74 , 75 , 73 . Apart from its morphological defenses against T. absoluta , Tovi Star is also resistant to several common tomato diseases including early/late blight, Fusarium crown and root knot, Fusarium oxysporum , Tomato Mosaic Virus, Tomato yellow leaf curl virus Verticillium wilt and various nematodes including Meloidogyne arenaria , M. incognita and M. javanita 76 . In contrast, Tanya F1 exhibits resistance only to Alternaria stem cancer, gray leaf spot and Verticillium wilt 77 . The specific mechanisms conferring resistance in Tovi Star F1 were not investigated in this study, and further research exploring the physiological or genetic basis would help clarify the traits involved. Botanical insecticides are widely used in various countries to control T. absolut a, one of the most destructive pests of tomato. In the current study, T. vogelii and Nimbecidine® demonstrated strong efficacy in suppressing T. absoluta populations due to their insecticidal properties. The potency of T. vogelii is attributed to its rotenoid compounds, a group of flavonoids known to be strongly toxic to leaf-eating insects 32 . Compounds such as rotenone act by inhibiting mitochondrial electron transport, disrupting cellular respiration, and ultimately causing insect death 78 . The finding of the current study congruent with earlier research showing the effectiveness of T. vogelii against bean aphid, Aphis fabae Scopoli (Hemiptera: Aphididae) on common bean 79 and in protecting stored legume seeds from bruchids damage 80 . Similarly, previous studies reported high efficacy of other botanical extracts against T. absolut a. For instance, leaf extract of Thymus vulgaris and seed extracts of Ricinus communis were shown to cause up to 95% and 58% larval mortality, respectively 81 . More recently, the efficacy of neem and garlic extracts against T. absoluta was demonstrated, with the neem extract causing 93.8% larval mortality with an LT 50 value of 1.21 days 82 . The toxicity of plant extracts, however, can vary significantly even against a single insect species. Such variation is influenced by the type and concentration of secondary metabolites, the origin of the plant, application timing, extraction methods, solvents used, and bioactive compound stability 83 , 84 . Unlike many synthetic pesticides, T. vogelii does not leave residue on crops, as the rotenone it contains breaks down within 3 to 5 days after application, reducing environmental and food safety risks. Similarly, azadirachtin, the active ingredient in neem-based insecticides such as Nimbecidine®, functions as an anti-feedant, repellent, and has feeding induction effect over the instars of T. absoluta . It interferes with vital life processes of the pest like ovi-position, molting, and feeding resulting in growth disorders of T. absoluta . However, its application is relatively more effective in the early two instars larva than during the later stages of T. absolut a 85 . Notably, azadirachtin is most effective against early larval instars compared to later developmental stages of T. absoluta . In this study Nimbecidine® showed low infestation and enhanced efficacy when applied to the Tovi Star F1 variety. The secondary metabolites present in these plants exhibit broad biological activity against insect pests, thereby supporting their role in integrated pest management. In addition to their efficacy, biologically active plant materials provide environmentally sustainable alternatives, as they degrade more rapidly than synthetic pesticides and reduce risks to human health, non-target organisms, and ecosystems. Thus, T. vogelii and Nimbecidine® represent promising alternatives for tomato growers, particularly in regions where synthetic pesticide resistance is prevalent, chemical inputs are costly, or environmental and health concerns are paramount 86 , 87 . Importantly, because they are generally compatible with beneficial arthropods, botanicals can be integrated with biological control agents such as parasitoids ( Telenomus remus , Trichogramma spp., Coccygidium luteum , Chelenus curvimaculatus ) and predators ( Nesidiocoris tenuis , Macrolophus pygmaeus ) that naturally regulate T. absoluta populations 88 , 89 , 90 . However, while many botanical products are relatively compatible with biological control agents, some may still produce species-specific lethal or sublethal effects depending on the formulation, dose, and exposure conditions 91 . Therefore, careful selection and evaluation of botanical products are necessary to ensure minimal impact on beneficial organisms. Such integration enhances the sustainability of control strategies while reducing reliance on synthetic insecticides, making botanical- based approaches a cornerstone in the development of ecologically sound IMP packages for tomato growers. In the present study, the compatibility of the tested botanical insecticides with local natural enemies was not assessed, representing a gap that should be addressed by future research to fully support IPM recommendations. The management of T. absolut a has become a challenging task due to its high capacity to develop resistance to synthetic insecticides and its concealed feeding behaviors 92 , 19 . The constant application of pesticides against the pest is a common practice with farmers in Lubumbashi region 93 . These farmers predominantly rely on the extensive use of synthetic pesticides rather than integrating alternative control strategies. Nevertheless, T. absoluta has demonstrated a relatively rapid development of resistance to several conventional insecticides 94 , 95 . Resistance cases have been documented across multiple continents, including in Africa, where reduced efficacy of commonly used active ingredients such as pyrethroids, organophosphates, and spinosyns has been reported 58 , 96 , 27 . The findings of the study revealed that the high efficiency of some of the insecticides such as Occasion Star® 200SC and Dudu Acalamectin, may be attributed to several factors. These products are relatively new in the field of crop protection and exhibit novel or distinct modes of actions, which may delay or prevent the development of resistance compared to conventional insecticides that have been intensively applied for years 11 , 66 . In the present study, pest incidence was significantly higher during the dry season than the rainy season, indicating a strong seasonal influence on the population dynamics of P absoluta . This pattern is consistent with earlier reports, which showed that T. absoluta populations peak during the dry season and decline significantly during periods of high rainfall 97 , 98 . The dry season provides favorable conditions for the pest’s survival and reproduction, including higher temperatures, lower relative humidity, and reduced larval mortality from rainfall and fungal pathogens. In contrast, heavy rains can physically dislodge eggs and larvae from host plants and create unfavorable microclimate conditions that suppress population growth of the pest 99 . Generally, seasonal dynamics of T. absoluta are regulated by a combination of climatic conditions, host plant development stage, and pest control practices 10 . For example, in South-Kivu, early maize planting has been shown to reduce infestation by Spodoptera frugiperda , while late plating increases larval density and crop damage, highlighting planting date as an important cultural strategy for sustainable pest management 101 . Understanding these seasonal population dynamics is therefore essential for designing and implementing effective integrated pest management strategies. Adjusting planting schedules to coincide with periods of lower pest pressure, combined with appropriate pest management practices, can help farmers optimize tomato production while minimizing crop losses and maximizing yield. The current study did not include a cost-benefit analysis of season-specific management strategies, which would be particularly valuable for smallholder farmers, who constitute the majority of tomato growers in the region. The dissemination of T. absoluta can be favored by international trade and commerce, particularly for African countries where phytosanitary and quarantine procedures are not robust, and in some cases absent 6 , 102 . In Lubumbashi, for instance, farmers frequently import agricultural inputs such as seeds, seedlings, fruits and containers from neighboring countries including Zambia, Tanzania and Kenya. Interestingly, previous studies have documented that the spread of this invasive pest to new areas is primarily driven by the movement of infested seedlings, tomato fruits, and associated parking materials, as well as by contaminated agricultural equipment and vehicles 7 . The high invasion success of T. absolut a in the Lubumbashi region may also be attributed to the abundance of suitable solanaceous host crops combined with favorable climatic conditions, which together provide an ideal environment for the pest’s establishment and proliferation 16 . Importantly, T. absolut a is listed as a quarantine pest 25 , leading to trade restrictions on tomato, reduced market value of infested fruits, increased crop protection costs, and ultimately higher consumer prices for tomatoes 103 . Conclusion Tuta abs oluta is an invasive cosmopolitan threat to sustainable tomato production worldwide with a tremendous capacity of acquiring resistance to most pesticides used for its management. In this study, the potency of both synthetic and botanical insecticides in the management of T. absoluta was documented under field conditions. Synthetic insecticides such as Dudu acelamectin, Lambda-cyhalothrin and Occasion Star® 200SC exhibited significantly higher control efficacy against T . absoluta compared to cypermethrin, which showed relatively low efficacy. Botanical insecticides including Nimbecidine and T. vogelii extract, also demonstrated promising insecticidal activity, highlighting their potential as alternative management options. Integrating chemical and botanical insecticides offers a sustainable strategy to maintain Tuta absoluta infestations below economic damage thresholds, thereby supporting consistent tomato yields in Lubumbashi, DR Congo. Declarations Acknowledgement The authors are grateful to the individuals who assisted with the establishment of the trials and data collection at both locations. The authors also thank Glen Hill farm and Mutonkole farm for hosting the experiments during the dry and rainy seasons, respectively. Credit authorship contribution statement S.N. Mbuya : conceptualization, data curation, methodology, visualization, writing original draft, O.M. Kankonda : methodology, writing-review & editing, N. Fallah : Data curation, writing-review & editing, K.S. Akutse : methodology, writing-review & editing, M.C. Cokola : methodology, visualization, formal analysis, data curation, writing – review & editing. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Funding This research was funded by the program ARES-CCD COOP-CONV-21-519 (Belgium) Ethics approval The research reported here was conducted in strict accordance with ethical guidelines and regulations outlined in the standard operating procedures of the University of Lubumbashi (UNILU/Lubumbashi-DR Congo). The collection of Tephrosia vogelii plant material was approved under authorization reference number UNILU/VDR/AGRO/025/2223. Data availability The data used and/or analyzed in this study are available within the paper and its supplementary materials. References Padmanabhan, P. et al. Solanaceous fruits including tomato, eggplant, and peppers. In: Encyclopedia of Food and Health;, (). Academic Press Oxford 24–32 (2016). Hall, R. D., Brouwer, I. D. & Fitzgerald, M. A. Plant metabolomics and its potential application for human nutrition. Physiol. Plant. 132 , 162–175 (2008). Akutse, K. S. et al. Entomopathogenic fungus isolates for adult Tuta absoluta (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) management and their compatibility with Tuta pheromone. J. App Entomol. 144 , 777–787 (2020). Muhorakeye, M. C. et al. Biostimulant and antagonistic potential endophytic fungi against furasarium wilt pathogen of tomato Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici . Sci. rep. 14 , 1536 (2024). ReportLinker. The Democratic Republic of the Congo. Tomato Industry outlook 2022–2026. (2025). https://www.reportlinker.com/clp/country/484797/726330#block-data-catalogue Mukwa, L. F. T. et al. First report of the South American tomato pinworm Tuta absoluta (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) and its damage in the Democratic Republic of Congo. BioInvasions Rec . 10 , 33–44 (2021). Tonnang, H. E., Mohamed, S. A., Khamis, F. & Ekesi, S. Identification and risk assessment for worldwide invasion and spread of Tuta absoluta with a focus on Sub-Saharan Africa: Implication for phytosanitary measures and management. PLoS One 10,e0138319 (2015). EPPO. Annual report 2011. Bulletin OEPP/EPPO 42930,595–605. (2012). Mansour, R. et al. Occurrence, biology, natural enemies and management of Tuta absoluta in Africa. Entomol. Gen. 38 , 83–112 (2018). Han, P. et al. Bottom-up effects of irrigation, fertilization and plant resistance on Tuta absoluta : implications for integrated pest management. J. Pest Sci. 92 , 1359–1370 (2019). Kandil et al. Comparative toxicity of new insecticides generations against tomato leaf miner Tuta absoluta and their biochemical effects on tomato plants. Bull. Natl. Res. Cent. 44 , 126 (2020). Desneux, N. et al. Biological invasion of European tomato crops by Tuta absoluta : ecology, geographic expansion and prospects for biological control. J. Pest Sci. 83 , 197–215 (2010). Garzia, G. T., Siscaro, G., Biondi, A. & Zappalà, L. Tuta asboluta , a South American pest of tomato now in the EPPO region: biology, distribution and damage. EPPO Bull. 42 , 205–210 (2012). Brévault, T. et al. ‘ Tuta absoluta Meyrick (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae): A new threat to tomato production in Sub-Saharan Africa. Afri Entomol. 22 , 441–444 (2014). Desneux, N., Luna, M. G., Guillemaud, T. & Urbaneja, A. The invasive American tomato pinworm, Tuta absoluta , continues to spread in Afro-Eurasia and beyond: The new threat to tomato world production. J. Pest Sci. 48 , 403–408 (2011). Mawcha, K. T. et al. An overview of sustainable management strategies for Tuta absoluta . Int J. Pest Manag 1–24 (2025). Biondi, A., Guedes, R. N. C., Wan, F. H., Desneux, N. & Ecology world-wide spread, and management of the invasive South American tomato pinworm, Tuta absoluta : Past, present, and future. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 63 , 239–258 (2018). Ahmed, S. S., Abdel Kader, M., Fahmy, M. A. M. & Abdelgawad, K. F. Control of Tuta absoluta (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) by the new trend of photosensitizer and nanocomposites and their effects on productivity and storability of tomato. Int. J. Trop. Insect Sci. 44 , 273–296 (2024). Guedes, R. N. C. & Picanҫo, M. C. The tomato borer Tuta absoluta in South America: Pest status, management and insecticide resistance. EPPO Bull. 42 , 211–216 (2012). Rostami, E. et al. Pest density influence on tomato pigment contents: the south American tomato pinworm scenario. Entomol. Gen. 40 , 195–205 (2020). Kaoud, H. A. Alternative methods for the control of Tuta absoluta . GJMAS 2 , 41–46 (2014). Simmons, A. M. et al. Lepidopterous pests: Biology, Ecology, and Management. In: Sustainable Management of Arthropod Pests of Tomato, Edited by W. Wakil, Brust G.E and Perring T, 131–162. Oxford Academic Press. 372 (2018). IRAC. Tuta absoluta on the move. IRAC & Newsletter (2009). http://www.irac-online.org/documents/eConnection_issue20a.pdf Guedes, R. N. C. et al. Insecticide resistance in the tomato pinworm Tuta absoluta : patterns, spread, mechanisms, management and outbreak. J. Pest Sci. 92 , 1329–1342 (2019). Rwomushana, I. et al. Evidence Note. Tomato leafminer ( Tuta absoluta ): impacts and coping strategies for Africa. CABI Working paper 12, 56 (2019). Campos, M. R. et al. Susceptibility of Tuta absoluta (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) Brazilian populations to ryanodine receptor modulators. Pest Manag Sci. 71 , 537–544 (2015). Roditakis, E. et al. A four-year survey on insecticide resistance and likelihood of chemical control failure for tomato leaf miner Tuta absoluta in the European/Asia region. J. Pest Sci. 91 , 421–435 (2018). Agbessenou, A. et al. Endophytic fungi protect tomato and nightshade plants against Tuta absoluta (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) through a hidden friendship and cryptic battle. Sci. Rep. 10 , 22195 (2020). Tarusikirwa, V. L. et al. Tuta absoluta (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) on the Offensive in Africa: Prospects for integrated Pest management initiatives. Insects 11 , 764 (2020). Peel, M. C., Finlayson, B. L. & McMahon, T. A. Updated world map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. 11 , 1633–1644 (2007). Assani, A. A. Analyse de la variabilité temporelle des précipitations (1916–1996) à Lubumbashi (Congo-Kinshasa) en relation avec certains indicateurs de la circulation atmosphériques (oscillation australe) et océanique (El Niño/La Niña). Sècheresse 10, 245–252 (1999). Stevenson, P. C. et al. Distinct chemotypes of Tephrosia vogelii and implications for their use in pest control and soil enrichment. Phytochemistry 78 , 135–146 (2012). Gaskins, M. H. Tephrosia vogelii : a source of rotenoids for insecticidal and pesticidal use. Technical Bulletin 1445: US Department of Agriculture, 1–38 (1972). Stevenson, P. C. & Belmain, S. R. Pesticidal plants in African agriculture: local uses and global perspective. Pestic. Outlook . 10 , 226–229 (2016). Henry, M. C. & Yonker, C. R. Supercritical fluid chromatography. Pressurized liquid extraction, and supercritical fluid extraction. Anal. Chem. 78 , 3909–3916 (2006). Nderevimana, A., Nyalala, S., Murerwa, P. & Gaidashova, S. Field Efficacy of entomolopathogens and plant extracts on Tuta absoluta Meyrick (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) infesting tomato in Rwanda. Crop Prot. 134 , 105183 (2020). Onunkun, O. Evaluation of aqueous extracts of five plants in the control of flea beetles on okra. J. Biopestic . 5 , 62–67 (2012). Gözel, Ҫ. & Kasap, I. Efficacy of entomopathogenic nematodes against the tomato leafminer, Tuta absoluta (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) in tomato field. Turk. J. Entomol. 39 , 229–237 (2015). Ahmad, M. F. et al. Pesticides impacts on human health and the environment with their mechanisms of action and possible countermeasures. Heliyon 10 , e29128 (2024). Cocco, A., Deliperi, S. & Delrio, G. Control of Tuta absoluta (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) in greenhouse tomato crops using mating disruption technique. J. Appl. Entomol. 137 , 16–28 (2013). Liu, J. et al. Tomato yield and water use efficiency change with various soil moisture and potassium levels during different growth stages. PLoS One . 14 , 1–14 (2019). Ali, A. et al. Evaluation of various tomato ( Lycopersicon esculentum Mill) cultivars for quality, yield and yield components under agroclimatic condition of Peshawar. ARPN J. Agric Biol. Sci . 11 , 59–62 (2016). R Core Team. R: A language and environment for statistical computing. Vienna, Austria: R Foundation for Statistical Computing. (2024). https://www.R-project.org/.( Shapiro, S. S. & Wilk, M. B. An analysis of variance test for normality (complete samples). Biometrika 52 , 591–611 (1965). Elkin, L. A., Kay, M., Higgins, J. J. & Wobbrock, J. O. An Aligned Rank Transform Procedure for Multifactor Contrast Tests. In: The 34th Annual ACM Symposium on User Interface Software and Technology (UIST '21). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 754–768 (2021). Harrison, X. A. et al. A brief introduction to mixed effects modelling and multi-model inference in ecology. PeerJ 6 , e4794 (2018). Wickham, H. ggplot2: Elegant graphics for data analysis Vol. 260 (Springer, 2009). Cokola, M. C. et al. First report of Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) on onion ( Allium cepa L.) in South Kivu, Eastern DR Congo. Rev Bras. Entomol 65 , (2021). e20200083.2021. Ntambo, M. S., Cokola, M. C., Chiona, M. & Kankonda, M. O. Occurrence of the sweet potato hornworm Agrius convolvuli (Lepidoptera: Sphingidae) in Haut-Katanga province, Democratic Republic of the Congo. J. Entomol. Acarol Res. 54 , 10424 (2022). Rafiki Pest Control. Dudu acelamectin Tuta absoluta insecticide 5%-500ml. (2025). https://shop.rafikipestcontrol.com/products/dudu-acelamectin-tatu-absoluta-insecticide-5-500ml Kabaale, F. P. et al. First report of field efficacy and economic viability of Metarhizium anisopliae- ICIPE 20 for Tuta absoluta (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) management on tomato. Sustainability 14 , 14846 (2022). Zhang, H. et al. Lambda-cyhalothrin induces heart injury in chickens by regulating cytochrome P450 enzyme system and inhibiting Nrf2/HO-1 pathway. Poult. Sci. 103 , 104154 (2024). Keyhanian, A. A., Barari, H. & Mobasheri, M. T. Comparison of the efficacy of insecticides, alphacypermethrin and lambda-cyhalothrin, against canola flea beetles. Appl. Entomol. Phytopathol. 44 , 113–122 (2021). Li, J. Y. et al. Sublethal effects of lambda-cyhalothrin on the biological characteristics, detoxification enzymes, and genes of the papaya mealybug, Paracoccus marginatus . J. Pest Sci. 98 , 783–797 (2025). Mahmoud, Y. A. et al. Effect of certain low toxicity insecticides against tomato leaf miner ( Tuta absoluta ) with reference to their residues in harvested tomato fruits. Int. J. Agric. Res. 9 , 210–218 (2014). El-Ghany, N. M. A., Abdel-Razek, A. S., Abadah, I. M. A. & Mahmoud, Y. A. Evaluation of some microbial agents, natural and chemical compounds for controlling tomato leaf miner, Tuta absoluta (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae). J. Plant. Prot. Res. 56 , 373–379 (2016). Khan, G. et al. Assessment of different synthetic insecticides for the management of tomato leaf miner ( Tuta abosluta ). J. Xi’an ShiyouUniv (Nat Sci. Ed) . 19 , 47–57 (2023). Haddi, K. et al. Identification of mutations associated with pyrethroid resistance in the voltage-gated sodium channel of the tomato leaf miner ( Tuta absoluta ). Insect Biochem. Mol. Biol. 42 , 506–513 (2012). Silva, W. M. et al. Status of pyrethroid resistance and mechanisms in Brazilian populations of Tuta absoluta . Pestic Biochem. Physiol. 122 , 8–14 (2015). Biondi, A. et al. Potential toxicity of α-Cypermethrin-treated nets on Tuta absoluta (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae). J. Econ. Entomol. 108 , 1191–1197 (2015). Siqueira, H. A. A., Guedes, R. N. C. & Picanco, M. C. Cartap resistance and synergism in population of Tuta absoluta (Lep., Gelechiidae). J. Appl. Entomol. 124 , 233–238 (2000). Siqueira, H. A. A., Guedes, R. N. C., Fragoso, D. B. & Magalhaes, L. C. Abamectin resistance and synergism in Brazilian populations of Tuta absoluta (Meyrick) (Lepidootera: Gelechiidae). Int. J. Pest Manag . 47 , 247–251 (2001). Silva, W. M. et al. Mutation (G275E) of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor α6 subunit is associated with high levels of resistance to spinosyns in Tuta absoluta (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae). Pestic Biochem. Physiol. 131 , 1–8 (2016). Roditakis, E. et al. Ryanodine receptor point mutations confer diamide insecticide resistance in tomato leafminer, Tuta absoluta (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae). Insect Biochem. Mol. Biol. 80 , 11–20 (2017). Sparks, T. C. & Nauen, R. I. R. A. C. Mode of action classification and insecticide resistance management. Pestic Biochem. Physiol. 121 , 122–128 (2015). Greenlife Occasion Star® 200 SC. (2025). https://www.greenlife.co.ke/product/occasion-star-200sc/ Lapied, B., Grolleau, F. & Sattelle, D. B. Indoxacarb, an oxadiazine insecticide, blocks insect neuronal sodium channels. Br J. Pharmacol (2001). 132,587 – 95. Bengochea, P. et al. Is emamectin benzoate effective against the different stages of Spodoptera exigua (Hübner) (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae)? Ir. J. Agric. Food Res. 53 , 37–49 (2014). Roditakis, E., Skarmoutsou, C. & Staurakaki, M. Toxicity of insecticides to populations of tomato borer Tuta absoluta (Meyrick) from Greece. Pest Manag Sci. 69 , 834–840 (2013). Roby, A. E. & Hussein, S. Behavior of bio-and chemical insecticides in tomato ecosystem in Minia Governorate. Acta Ecol. Sin . 39 , 152–159 (2019). López Jr, J. D., Latheef, M. A. & Hoffman, W. C. Effect of emamectin benzoate on mortality, proboscis extension, gustation and reproduction of the corn earworm, Helicoverpa zea . J. Insect Sci. 10 , 89 (2010). Talib, A., Hamdi, H., Abd al-Rahman, S. M. & Sherby, S. M. Efficacy of some natural oils on the residual toxicity of emamectin benzoate, spinosad and spinetoram against Egyptian cotton leafworm. J. Pest Control Envrion Sci. 16 , 37–56 (2008). Popowski, J. et al. Glandular trichome rupture in tomato plants is an ultra-fast and sensitive defense mechanism against insects. J. Exp. Bot. 76 , 6508–6519 (2025). Bar, M. & Shtein, I. Plant trichomes and the biomechanics of defense in various systems, with Solanaceae as a model. Botany 97 , 651–660 (2019). Bleeker, P. M. et al. Improved herbivore resistance in cultivated tomato with the sesquiterpene biosynthetic pathway from a wilt relative. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A 109, 20124–20129 (2012). Syngenta. Tovi Star, F. I. (2025). https://www.syngenta.co.zm/product/seed/tomatoes/tovi-star Semena. Tomatoes Tanya, F. 1. (2025). http://semenaopt.com/en/Tomatoes/Tanya_F1/602904/ Lazo, C. R. et al. Academic Press: UK 74–75 (2014). Kayange, C. D. M., Njera, D., Nyirenda, S. P. & Mwamlima, L. Effectiveness of Tephrosia vogelii and Tephrosia candida extract against common ben aphid ( Aphid fabae ) in Malawi. Adv. Agric. 2019 , 6704834 (2019). Stevenson, P. C., Isman, M. B. & Belmain, S. R. Pesticidal plants in Africa: a global vision of new biological control products from local uses. Ind. Crops Prod. 110 , 2–9 (2017). Nilahyane, A., Bouharroud, R., Hormatallah, A. & Taadaouit, A. Larvicidal effect of plant extract on Tuta absoluta (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae). Working group integrated control in protected crops Mediterranean climate. IOBC-WPRS Bulletin 80,305–310 (2012). Ochieng, T. A. et al. Interactions between Bacillus thuringiensis and selected plant extracts for sustainable management of Phthorimaea absoluta . Sci. rep. 14 , 9299 (2024). Aynalem, B. Empirical review of Tuta absoluta Meyrick effect on the tomato production and their protection attempts. Adv Agric ID2595470, 9 pages (2022). (2022). Saleem, U. et al. Determination of insecticidal potential of selected plant extracts against fall armyworm ( Spodoptera frugiperda ) larvae. Heliyon 10 , e39593 (2024). Kona, N. E. M., Taha, A. K. & Mahmoud, M. E. E. Effects of botanical extracts of neem ( Azadirachta indica ) and Jatropha ( Jatropha curcus ) on eggs and larvae of tomato leaf miner, Tuta absoluta (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae). PGCP 3 , 41–46 (2014). Kamanula, J. et al. Farmers’insect pest management practices and pesticidal plant use in the protection of stored maize and bean in Southern Africa. Int. J. Pest Manag . 57 , 41–49 (2011). Mafongoya, P. L. & Kuntashula, E. Participatory evaluation of Tephrosia species and provenances for soil fertility improvement and other uses using farmer’s criteria in eastern Zambia. Exp. Agric. 41 , 69–80 (2005). Cabello, T. et al. Selection of Trichogramma spp. (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) for biological control of Tuta abosulta (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) in greenhouses by an entomo-ecological simulation model. IOBC/WPRS Bull. 80 , 171–176 (2012). Sisay, B. et al. The efficacy of selected synthetic insecticides and botanicals against Tuta abosulta (Meyrick) under laboratory and field conditions. Crop Prot. 110 , 202–208 (2018). Kenis, M. et al. Telenomus remus , a candidate parasitoid for the biological control of Spodoptera frugiperda in Africa, is already present on the continent. Insect 10 , 92 (2019). Lisi, F. et al. Non-target effects of bioinsecticides on natural enemies of arthropod pests. Curr. Opin. Environ. Sci. Health . 45 , 100624 (2025). IRAC. Tuta absoluta - the Tomato leaf miner or Tomato Borer. Recommendations for sustainable and Effective Resistance Management. (2011). https://irac-online.org/content/uploads/2009/12/Tuta_brochure_print-version_11Oct11.pdf Balasha, A. M. & Nsele, M. K. Pesticide use practices by Chinese cabbage growers in Suburban environment of Lubumbashi (DR Congo): main pests, costs and Risks. JAAEPA 2 , 56–64 (2019). Lietti, M. M. M., Botto, E. & Alzogaray, R. A. Insecticide resistance in Argentine populations of Tuta absoluta (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae). Neotrop. Entomol. 34 , 113–119 (2005). Domínguez, A. et al. Influence of age, host plant and mating status in pheromone production and new insights on perception plasticity in Tuta absoluta . Insects 10 , 256 (2019). Campos, M. R. et al. Spinosad and the Tomato Borer Tuta absoluta : A Bioinsecticide, an Invasive Pest Threat, and High Insecticide Resistance. PLoS One . 9 , e103235 (2014). Sylla, S., Seydi, O., Diarra, K. & Brevault, T. Seasonal decline of the tomato leafminer, Tuta absoluta , in the shifting landscape of a vegetative-growing area. Ent Exp. Appl. 166 , 638–647 (2018). Sylla, S. et al. Seasonal abundance and role of host plant on the tomato leaf miner populations dynamics, Tuta absoluta , in Senegal. Acta Hortic 1348 (2022). Subedi, B., Poudel, A. & Aryal, B. The impact of climate change on insect pest biology and ecology: implications for pest management strategies, crop production, and food security. J. Agric. Food Res. 14 , 100733 (2023). Bacci, L. et al. The seasonal dynamic of Tuta absoluta in Solanum lycopersicon cultivation: contributions of climate, plant phenology, and insecticide spraying. Pest Manag Sci. 77 , 3187–3197 (2021). Cokola, M. C. et al. Planting data in South Kivu, eastern DR Congo: A real challenge for the sustainable management of Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) by smallholder farmers. PLos One . 19 , e0314615 (2024). Niassy, S. et al. An African perspective for harmonized policies framework on plant protection products (PPPs). AFJRD 10,2025 (2025). Retta, A. & Berhe, D. Tomato leafminer– Tuta absoluta (Meyrick), a devastating pest of tomatoes in the highlands of Northern Ethiopia: A call for attention and action. RJAES 4 , 264–269 (2015). Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files Supplementaryfile.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 22 Apr, 2026 Reviews received at journal 19 Apr, 2026 Reviews received at journal 16 Apr, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 15 Apr, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 15 Apr, 2026 Reviewers invited by journal 01 Apr, 2026 Editor assigned by journal 01 Apr, 2026 Editor invited by journal 30 Mar, 2026 Submission checks completed at journal 24 Mar, 2026 First submitted to journal 24 Mar, 2026 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-9113639","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":616683737,"identity":"5dece4ff-01ec-48ae-a938-348a8c51e37c","order_by":0,"name":"Sylvain Mbuya Ntambo","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"","institution":"University of Kolwezi","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Sylvain","middleName":"Mbuya","lastName":"Ntambo","suffix":""},{"id":616683738,"identity":"81570f31-7361-41d8-ab1f-4cdbf260fa2e","order_by":1,"name":"Onesime M. Kankonda","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Kisangani","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Onesime","middleName":"M.","lastName":"Kankonda","suffix":""},{"id":616683739,"identity":"ac6822af-ddb5-44c7-9d15-2408434d449b","order_by":2,"name":"Nyumah Fallah","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Nanjing Normal University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Nyumah","middleName":"","lastName":"Fallah","suffix":""},{"id":616683740,"identity":"640eb024-f614-41c9-91be-f0bd192ef593","order_by":3,"name":"Komivi S. Akutse","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Komivi","middleName":"S.","lastName":"Akutse","suffix":""},{"id":616683741,"identity":"7c3b4875-e22a-4d85-bb78-e2a0bb5b549e","order_by":4,"name":"Marcellin C. Cokola","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Université Evangélique en Afrique","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Marcellin","middleName":"C.","lastName":"Cokola","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-03-13 10:27:55","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9113639/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9113639/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":106250078,"identity":"b5f5e31e-357e-4244-967f-44a957ffd9d0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-06 17:02:15","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":228248,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTomato leaf-miner infestation in response to the application of treatments, stratified by season and tomato variety.\u003cstrong\u003e a:\u003c/strong\u003e Median pest incidence across treatments; \u003cstrong\u003eb:\u003c/strong\u003e Median number of larvae across treatments. Bars represent median values with interquartile ranges. Points represent raw data. Orange data points/bars represent Tanya F1 variety, while blue data points/bars represent Tovi star F1 variety.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9113639/v1/5f0f72ebdc63f1dbbe050fe0.png"},{"id":106403351,"identity":"92d5ffa6-c87b-4c37-ae75-1d56ec3b6abe","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-08 09:14:08","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":165870,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEvolution of leaf damage caused by \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e on tomato according to treatment stratified by season and variety across time. Damage score represents the number of galleries in the leaf. Means ± standard error for each treatment followed by identical letters in each graph are not statistically different at the significance level considered (α = 0.05), according to Sidak-adjusted pairwise comparisons of estimated marginal means.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9113639/v1/d4f93a56207e93bef70629b9.png"},{"id":106402893,"identity":"60bed4ab-d205-4ddb-9a6b-c5afbf1b5106","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-08 09:13:09","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":145940,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eRain cloud plot illustrates the variation of tomato yield. \u003cstrong\u003ea:\u003c/strong\u003e Yield variation across pest control treatments; \u003cstrong\u003eb:\u003c/strong\u003e Yield variation across crop varieties; \u003cstrong\u003ec:\u003c/strong\u003e Yield variation across seasons. The plot shows the raw data, probability density and summary statistics. Colors represent treatment types (magenta for \u003cem\u003eTephrosia vogelii\u003c/em\u003e; purple for Occasion Star\u003csup\u003e®\u003c/sup\u003e 200SC; blue for Nimbecidine\u003csup\u003e®\u003c/sup\u003e; teal for Lambda cyhalothrin; green for Dudu acelamectin; olive for Cypermethrin; pink for Control), cultivars (pink for Tanya F1 and turquoise for Tovi star F1) and seasons (sand for dry season and cherry rose for rainy season). Median and interquartile values followed by the same letter are not statistically different at the significance level considered (α = 0.05), according to the Dunn post-hoc pairwise comparisons test.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9113639/v1/20831718fabde0f623c64d29.png"},{"id":106250079,"identity":"70405c55-d759-4743-a62b-1f6462a6806e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-06 17:02:15","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":255373,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDifferential effects of \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e control on marketable fruit yield in the two cropping seasons. \u003cstrong\u003ea:\u003c/strong\u003e Comparison of tomato marketability (marketable and unmarketable fruits) across treatment efficacy for the two varieties. \u003cstrong\u003eb:\u003c/strong\u003e Efficacy ratios calculated as the number of marketable fruits divided by the number of unmarketable fruits plus one for each treatment and variety.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9113639/v1/2bd718c4d28026e6f8fb0db9.png"},{"id":106403471,"identity":"775a685c-48bb-43ea-b720-6510f8fe3bae","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-08 09:14:20","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":255989,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eScatter plot illustrating the impacts of larval density and incidence of \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e on tomato yield. \u003cstrong\u003ea:\u003c/strong\u003eVarietal differences in yield response to increasing in number of larvae; \u003cstrong\u003eb:\u003c/strong\u003e Season-specific yield losses associated with the number of larvae; \u003cstrong\u003ec:\u003c/strong\u003eVarietal differences in yield response to increasing incidence; \u003cstrong\u003ed:\u003c/strong\u003e Season-specific yield losses associated with the incidence of the pest. R in each plot represents the Spearman’s rho coefficient.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9113639/v1/9cef051320153cf96e8bdb09.png"},{"id":106405821,"identity":"5b4dada1-2752-4d4f-b440-f6d44fc628aa","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-08 09:28:42","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2320994,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9113639/v1/2cbd9b2c-8178-4257-9215-b0d43a44423b.pdf"},{"id":106250077,"identity":"98453f78-96a9-48b1-9d64-141b643b13a1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-06 17:02:15","extension":"docx","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":48385,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Supplementaryfile.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9113639/v1/a5cc7e6fed42d554f714fbdd.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Comparative field efficacy of synthetic insecticides and plant extracts against Tuta absoluta (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) in Lubumbashi, DR Congo","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eTomato (\u003cem\u003eSolanum lycopersicum\u003c/em\u003e) is one of the best fresh market and processing vegetable crops belonging to the Solanaceae family. As an economic crop, tomato is grown by both small and commercial vegetable growers throughout the year in the fields or greenhouses \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The tomato fruit is a well-balanced and healthy food for human consumption, as it is rich in vitamins, minerals, essential amino acids, dietary fiber, and sugar \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. In addition, tomato production plays a vital role in improving livelihoods, particularly for smallholder farmers, through employment and household income generation \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. In the DR Congo, tomato production has grown by an average of 0.4% yearly since 1966. By 2026, it is predicted to reach 51,410 metric tons, compared with world-leading countries such as India and China \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Despite its importance, tomato cultivation in the DR Congo is severely constrained by several biotic stresses, particularly insect pests and diseases, which substantially reduce both yields and the quality of marketable fruits \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The quantitative and qualitative yield losses have been aggravated by the invasion of the tomato leafminer, \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), an invasive pest of South American origin now established in Africa \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe invasive and highly destructive \u003cem\u003eT. absoluta\u003c/em\u003e, is one of the most serious insect pests restraining tomato production and productivity globally \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The pest feeds on solanaceous crops such as potato, sweet pepper, eggplant, but with a high preference for tomato, on which it causes the greatest economic damage \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. It is originally from Peru, South America, but it has started spreading to other continents, including Europe, Asia and Africa during the last decades \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. It has since become a major constraint to global tomato production. In central Africa, the pest emerged as a serious threat following its initial outbreaks in Rwanda in 2015 \u003csup\u003e16\u003c/sup\u003e, from where it has continued to spread into neighboring countries, including the DR Congo \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the DR Congo, \u003cem\u003eT. absoluta\u003c/em\u003e was detected for the first time in 2016 in Kinshasa province, based on morphological identification of adult insect individuals. Its presence was further confirmed using molecular identification with primers targeting the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase subunit I (COI) gene sequences \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Since then, the pest rapidly invaded other provinces within the country, inflicting significant damage and yield losses in both open field and greenhouse tomato production systems. A significant reason for its rapid spread is the popularity of tomatoes and their export to many countries without robust phytosanitary quarantine procedures/measures to monitor its occurrence in the producing countries and prevent its entry into the importing countries \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe economic losses caused by \u003cem\u003eT. absoluta\u003c/em\u003e are mainly due to damage by larval feeding inside leaves, stems and fruits \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Females lay approximately 260 eggs on the underside of leaves and stems of the tomato plant. After hatching, neonate larvae penetrate leaves and feed on the mesophyll tissues at any phenological stage of host plant development, creating irregular mines that progressively become necrotic with time \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. These irregular mines reduce the photosynthetic capacity of the plant, induce leaf necrosis, and may compromise the plant\u0026rsquo;s ability to resist other biotic stresses \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Besides, larval feeding also reduces fruit quality by creating pin holes prone to secondary fungal infections, reducing the quality of tomatoes and rendering them unmarketable \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Through cryptic feeding in the stem, the larvae can create extensive galleries that weaken the stem and affect the development of the host plant. Severe damage to the tomato plant by the larvae results in complete defoliation and drying of the plant \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Potential yield loss in terms of quality and quantity is highly significant and can reach 100% if the pest is not adequately controlled \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe use of chemical insecticides is the primary control approach against \u003cem\u003eT. absoluta\u003c/em\u003e, which could provide up to 95% control of the pest at 14\u0026ndash;21 days after treatment \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. A range of synthetic insecticides has been employed in many locations in the management of the pest in order to boost tomato productivity \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. However, repeated and excessive sprays of insecticides of the same type result in the emergence of resistant pest populations due to continuous selection pressure in the field, making \u003cem\u003eT. absoluta\u003c/em\u003e control very challenging \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Besides, the endophytic behavioral feeding and cryptic nature of the pest larvae render the widely used contact insecticides ineffective. Because of this concealed feeding behavior, the pest could escape from most of the synthetic insecticides currently being applied, hindering effective management of \u003cem\u003eT. absoluta\u003c/em\u003e \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Furthermore, the abusive use of these synthetic pesticides causes significant adverse environmental, biodiversity and human health effects and increased resistance development in \u003cem\u003eT. absoluta\u003c/em\u003e \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. It is therefore paramount to develop and promote environmentally friendly control strategies to overcome these challenges. As a viable alternative to the misuse of synthetic insecticides, the development of biological control approaches using botanicals such as Neem-based products could be explored to sustainably tackle \u003cem\u003eT. absoluta\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePlant extracts or botanicals can be effectively used as an alternative to chemical insecticides as they offer a more sustainable means in tackling this offensive and invasive pest \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. In the DR Congo, information on the efficacy of both synthetic insecticides and plant extracts against \u003cem\u003eT. absoluta\u003c/em\u003e is lacking. Therefore, the present study aimed to assess and compare the efficacy of some selected bio- and synthetic insecticides in the control of \u003cem\u003eT. absoluta\u003c/em\u003e under experimental field conditions.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials and methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStudy site and period\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe experiments were established at the Garden of Hope, Glen Hill Farm, Lubumbashi (11.6876\u0026deg; S, 27.5026\u0026deg; E), and Mutonkole farm, Mimbulu village (11.6904\u0026deg; S, 27.4555\u0026deg; E), DR Congo. The two field trial sites were approximately 5 km and were established in areas where tomato is highly cultivated in open fields in rainy and dry seasons with remarkable natural infestation of \u003cem\u003eT. absoluta\u003c/em\u003e. The climate in Lubumbashi is of climate with dry winters (Cwa) type following the K\u0026ouml;ppen classification \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The average annual temperature and rainfall are 25.5\u0026deg;C and 1238 mm, respectively. The rainy season starts in November and ends in March and the dry season from May to September, with April and October being transitional months between the two seasons \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The field experiments were conducted over two consecutive cropping seasons during 2023\u0026ndash;2024. In 2023, the two trials were established during the rainy season at the Mutonkole farm, whereas in 2024, the trials were conducted during the dry season at Glen Hill.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003ePlant materials and treatments\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTwo tomato varieties (Tanya F1 and Tovi Star) were chosen as plant materials in this study based on their preference by farmers. The seeds of these two varieties were obtained from the local Agrochemical shop \u0026ldquo;New Semences\u0026rdquo; in Lubumbashi, DRC. Seven treatments were evaluated against the occurrence of \u003cem\u003eT. absoluta\u003c/em\u003e: four synthetic insecticides (Dudu-acelamectin 5% EC, Cypermethrin, Lambda-cyhalothrin and Occasion Star\u0026reg; 200SC), one botanical insecticide (Azadirachtin), one plant extract (\u003cem\u003eTephrosia vogelii\u003c/em\u003e) and the control (sterile distilled water). These pesticides were also obtained from the Agrochemical shop \u0026ldquo;New Semences\u0026rdquo; in Lubumbashi, DRC. The leaves of \u003cem\u003eT. vogelii\u003c/em\u003e were obtained from Sun city neighborhood (11\u0026deg;4149 S, 27.3125\u0026deg; E) in Lubumbashi, DRC. Detailed information on these insecticides are provided in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e below.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSynthetic and botanical insecticides used\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSynthetic insecticide\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChemical family\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eActive ingredients\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMode of action\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDosage/20L\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDudu acelamectin 5% EC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOxadiazine and Avermectin\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAbamectine 20g/L\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;Acetamiprid 3%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLarvicide\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30 ml\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCypermethrin\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePyrethroid\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlpha-cypermethrin\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLarvicide/adulticide\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20 ml\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLambda-cyhalothrin\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePyrethroid\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGamma-cyhalothrin\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;lambda-cyhalothrin\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20 ml\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOccasion Star\u0026reg; 200SC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAvermectin and Indoxacarb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmanmectin benzoate\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;Indoxacarb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLarvicide/adulticide\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3 ml\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBotanical insecticide\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAzadirachtin 0.03% EC (Nimbecidine\u0026reg;)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMeliaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAzadirachtin\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLarvicide\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100 ml\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTephrosia vogelii\u003c/em\u003e extract\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFabaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDeguelin\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLarvicide\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15% w/v\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSterile distilled water\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eTephrosia vogelii material collection and extraction procedure\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe plant extract was obtained from the leaves of \u003cem\u003eT. vogelii\u003c/em\u003e collected from the Sun City neighborhood (11\u0026deg;4149 S, 27.3125\u0026deg; E) in Lubumbashi, DR Congo. The plant material was taxonomically identified and authenticated at the Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, University of Lubumbashi, Lubumbashi, DR Congo. The specimen has also been deposited in the Herbarium repository of the Faculty of Agricultural Sciences under the reference number UNILU/FACAGRO/SNN/051/2023. The leaves were collected in the dry season (September-October, 2023 and 2024) because of the seasonal variation in plant secondary metabolites \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The collected leaves were neither very old nor very fresh and were chosen because of their high concentration in active compounds \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Upon collection, the leaves were thoroughly washed using tap water to remove dust and debris. The washed leaves were air-dried in a well-ventilated room at an ambient temperature around 24\u0026ndash;28 \u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC for two weeks. The dried leaves were grinded and sieved into fine powder using a local wooden mortar and a 0.2 mm wire mesh. The obtained powder was weighed, packed and sealed in biodegradable plastic bags and kept under room temperature until further use. Prior to field treatment, the extraction of the plant was carried out by adding 150 g of powder to one liter (1 L) of sterile distilled cold water and soaked in a clean plastic bucket at room temperature (24\u0026ndash;30 \u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC). Generally, cold water (25 \u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC) was chosen as opposed to hot water to evade reabsorption during cooling and that may affect the active ingredients in the leaves of \u003cem\u003eT. vogelii\u003c/em\u003e \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The resulting solution was stirred constantly for about 5 minutes and left to stand for 12 hours and later filtered with a clean muslin cloth before application in the field. Finally, the filtered solution was diluted into one liter (1 L) using cold water to obtain a concentration of 15% weight volume (w/v) \u003csup\u003e36\u003c/sup\u003e. The incorporation of 0.01% soap early in the process of extraction also helped to ensure that the active ingredients in the plant materials are well extracted and dispersed. Rotenoids are less soluble in water; hence, soap was used to increase the extraction procedure \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eLand preparation and trials set-up\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe experimental field was meticulously cleared of weeds, crop residues, and other debris to reduce biotic stress and interspecific competition. Subsequently, the soil underwent deep tillage to a depth of 20\u0026ndash;30 cm, improving soil aeration, water infiltration, and root system development. Raised ridges, measuring 30 cm in height and 1\u0026ndash;1.2 m in width, were constructed in each season to enhance surface drainage, mitigate waterlogging, and facilitate efficient irrigation and other cultural operations. Basal application of a balanced compound fertilizer (17-17-17 NPK) was applied to ensure adequate nutrient availability during early vegetative growth stage of the tomato plants. A drip irrigation system was installed and operated for four hours daily (two hours in the morning and two hours in the evening) to maintain optimal soil moisture, avoiding the high susceptibility of tomato plants to water stress. The experiment was conducted in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) consisting of six treatments and the control as described above. Each experimental unit area was 9 m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e and consisted of four rows. For each experiment in each season, a total of 28 plots were established for a total area of 252 m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e. The plots were separated by a 1.5 m wide path from each other to reduce the drift effect of the treatments. Transplanting was carried out using twenty-two-day old seedlings in March 2023 and June 2023 and March 2024 and June 2024 in the field plots in the evening to prevent too much water loss and wilting in the newly transplanted seedlings. Drip irrigation was applied every 2\u0026ndash;3 days during early growth and daily during flowering and fruiting. The seedlings were spaced at 50 cm x 60 cm, equivalent to 33,333.33 plants per hectare. The total density of the entire experimental field was 216 plants, at the rate of 12 plants per plot for each variety. Each treatment was replicated four times within each block. In each treatment, 10 plants were randomly selected and labelled for periodical inspection and data recording. Apart from insecticide applications, all experimental units received uniformly regular agricultural practices (e.g., weeding, seedling thinning, fungicide application, etc.). Natural pest incidences were monitored by visual observation soon after transplanting until the final harvest.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eInsecticides application\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe insecticides used in these trials were purchased from the local Agricultural products store \u0026ldquo;New Semences\u0026rdquo; in Lubumbashi, DRC. The application of treatments started one week after transplanting the tomato seedlings that were not showing any visible symptoms of \u003cem\u003eT. absoluta\u003c/em\u003e and continued at 20-day intervals until the final harvest. Each treatment had a separate knapsack sprayer, and insecticides were applied in evening hours (5 pm) to evade the damaging effects of sunlight \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The spray volume for each treatment was 1000 L ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e using a knapsack sprayer. The dosages used were 1.5 ml L\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e for Dudu acelamectin 5% EC, 200 g L\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e for Cypermethrin 200 EC, 1 ml L\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e for Lambda-cyhalothrin, 0.15 ml L\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e for Occasion Star\u0026reg; 200 SC, 5 ml L\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e for Azadirachtin 0.03% EC, 15% weight volume (w/v) for \u003cem\u003eT. vogelii\u003c/em\u003e and 1 ml L\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e of sterile water for the control. Continuous agitation was maintained during each treatment application to prevent precipitations and ensure a homogenous suspension.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eAssessment of infestation parameters and yield\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eLeaves and stems showing typical symptoms of the pest were assessed on five randomly selected plants of each variety from each experimental plot before and after application at 1, 3, 5, 7 and 10 days post-treatment. Another sample of non-treated infested plants were sampled in the control plots. The number of larvae per plant and the number of larvae in each treatment plot were determined by counting. An average of the number of larvae per plot was determined based on the larval density in each sampled plant. The incidence was determined solely in each treatment from the 20 randomly selected plants per treatment based on the irregular mines and galleries observed on tomato leaves, stems and fruits. Leaf damage was evaluated as the percentage of leaves mined by \u003cem\u003eT. absoluta\u003c/em\u003e; whereas leaflet damage was evaluated as the percentage of leaflets mined by \u003cem\u003eT. absoluta\u003c/em\u003e from three randomly selected leaves located in the middle canopy of each plant \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The number of damaged leaflets and the total number of leaflets were recorded. In addition, the number of mine blotches per leaf were counted from each sampled plant.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe yield recorded during each harvest was pooled for the entire season, and the total fruit yield of each treatment was derived from the replicated treatment. During harvesting, the number of damaged and healthy fruits were separated and counted as the number of marketable and unmarketable fruits. The ratio was calculated as follow:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRatio\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\:=\\frac{Number\\:of\\:marketable\\:fruits}{Number\\:of\\:unmarketable\\:fruits\\:+\\:1}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThree yield parameters such as the number of marketable and unmarketable of fruits, fruit weight, and yield were collected in the manner outlined by Liu et al. \u003csup\u003e41\u003c/sup\u003e, where the total number of fruits per plant and the individual fruit weight were obtained by counting and weighing each marketable fruit. The yield (kg plant\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e) was obtained by totalling the weight of all fruits harvested from each treatment plant and plot. The yield estimation in tons per ha was calculated using the formula described by Ali et al. \u003csup\u003e42\u003c/sup\u003e:\u003cdiv id=\"Equa\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equa\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:\\text{Y}\\text{i}\\text{e}\\text{l}\\text{d}\\:\\left(\\text{T}\\:{\\text{h}\\text{a}}^{-1}\\right)=\\:\\frac{\\text{Y}\\text{i}\\text{e}\\text{l}\\text{d}\\:\\text{p}\\text{e}\\text{r}\\:\\text{p}\\text{o}\\text{t}\\:\\left(\\text{k}\\text{g}\\right)\\:\\text{x}\\:\\text{10,000}}{\\text{A}\\text{r}\\text{e}\\text{a}\\:\\text{o}\\text{c}\\text{c}\\text{u}\\text{p}\\text{i}\\text{e}\\text{d}\\:\\text{b}\\text{y}\\:\\text{p}\\text{o}\\text{t}\\:\\left({\\text{m}}^{2}\\right)\\:\\text{x}\\:\\text{1,000}}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStatistical analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll statistical analyses were conducted in R version 4.4.1 \u003csup\u003e43\u003c/sup\u003e. Prior to analysis, all the data collected were subjected to normality and homogeneity test of variances using Shapiro-Wilk \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and Levene test respectively (at p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05 significance level). Due to significant deviations from parametric assumptions, non-parametric tests were implemented. Aligned rank transform (ART) analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to analyse pest infestation (incidence and larval density) in the tomato crop using the \u003cem\u003eARTool\u003c/em\u003e package \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The full factorial model (treatment \u0026times; season \u0026times; variety) was applied to rank-transformed data aligned by experimental blocks (Rep), with Type III SS F-tests for fixed effects. Significant effects were followed by ART-contrasts using Holm-Bonferroni-adjusted pairwise comparisons of aligned ranks. Treatment efficacy was quantified through median differences with 95% confidence intervals. Kruskal-Wallis test was used to evaluate the effects of treatment, variety and season on the ratio, number of marketable and unmarketable fruits, and yield per plant variables. For significant Kruskal-Wallis results, post-hoc pairwise comparisons were performed using Dunn's test with Benjamini-Hochberg adjustment for multiple comparisons. Leaf damage count data (representing the number of galleries) were analysed using a Poisson generalized linear mixed model (GLMM) fitted by maximum likelihood using the package \u003cem\u003elme4\u003c/em\u003e \u003csup\u003e46\u003c/sup\u003e. Treatment, variety, season, and day were incorporated as fixed effects and replicate as a random effect (1|Rep) to account for experimental blocking. Model assumptions were verified using the package \u003cem\u003eDHARMa\u003c/em\u003e for residual diagnostics, and significant effects were evaluated by type III analysis of deviance. Mean comparisons were further examined via Sidak-adjusted pairwise comparisons of estimated marginal means using the package \u003cem\u003eemmeans\u003c/em\u003e. The relationship between incidence and yield and larval density and yield was assessed using Spearman\u0026rsquo;s rank correlation stratified by season and tomato variety. A linear regression model assessed yield prediction from incidence and larval density, with season and variety included as an interaction term to test for differential effects. All tests were set at a significance level of 5%. All plots were generated using the \u003cem\u003eggplot2\u003c/em\u003e R package \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eDifferential effectiveness of control methods against\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003ein tomato\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe ART-ANOVA analysis revealed significant effects of treatment, variety, and season on tomato leaf-miner infestation (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). Pest incidence varied strongly by treatment (\u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e(6)\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;235.72; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), with controls showing the highest infestation, while synthetic (e.g., λ-cyhalothrin) and botanical (e.g., \u003cem\u003eT. vogelii\u003c/em\u003e) treatments were most effective with low infestation levels. Variety had a major influence (\u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e(1)\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1234.43; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), as Tovi star F1 consistently exhibited lower pest incidence than Tanya F1. Season differences were also significant (\u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e(1)\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;101.68; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), with higher pest incidence in the dry season than in the rainy season. A strong treatment \u0026times; variety interaction (\u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e(6)\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;304.8; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001) revealed that synthetic pyrethroids (e.g., Cypermethrin) reduced incidence more in Tovi star F1 than Tanya F1. The treatment \u0026times; season interaction (\u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e(6)\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;20.84; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001) further indicated season-dependent efficacy. For example, Dudu acelamectin performed equally well for both seasons, whereas Occasion Star\u0026reg; 200SC was more effective in the rainy season than dry season. The three-way interaction (treatment \u0026times; season \u0026times; variety, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e(6)\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5.93; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001) highlighted complex dynamics, such as Nimbecidine\u0026reg;\u0026rsquo;s greater suppression of the pest on Tovi star F1 versus Tanya F1 in the rainy season, but not in the dry season.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor larval density, treatment effects were significant (\u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e(6)\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;102.37; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), with controls averaging six larvae/plant versus one larva for Occasion Star\u0026reg; 200SC, \u003cem\u003eT. vogelii\u003c/em\u003e and Nimbecidine\u0026reg;. Similarly, Tovi star F1 again outperformed Tanya F1 (\u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e(6)\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;105.22; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), though season had no significant effect (\u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e(1)\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.17; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.278). The treatment \u0026times; variety interaction (\u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e(6)\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;26.16; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001) showed that synthetic treatments (e.g., Cypermethrin) significantly reduced the larval density more in Tovi star F1 than in Tanya F1. Other interactions (season \u0026times; variety, three-way) were not significant. Overall, integrating synthetic chemicals with resistant varieties (e.g., Tovi star F1) provided the most robust pest suppression, with efficacy modulated by season-specific factors.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eModelling the leaf damage by the tomato leaf miner\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Poisson GLMM (Table \u003cspan refid=\"MOESM1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS1\u003c/span\u003e), supported by Type III analysis of deviance, revealed highly significant main effects of Treatment (GLMM: \u003cem\u003eχ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003csub\u003e(6)\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;31.02; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), Variety (GLMM: \u003cem\u003eχ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003csub\u003e(1)\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;78.99; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), and Day (GLMM: \u003cem\u003eχ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003csub\u003e(1)\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;34.5; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), confirming these factors' strong overall effect on leaf damage. While season showed marginal significance (GLMM: \u003cem\u003eχ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003csub\u003e(1)\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;15.69; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), its effect was most pronounced in interactions. The botanical insecticide \u003cem\u003eT. vogelii\u003c/em\u003e showed superior efficacy, reducing damage by approximately 48% compared to controls, followed by synthetic treatments Occasion Star\u0026reg; 200SC and Nimbecidine\u0026reg;, while Cypermethrin was least effective (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). The Tovi star F1 variety demonstrated inherent resistance, equivalent to 37% lower damage, though this advantage has diminished/reduced in the rainy season. The ANOVA's significance for treatment \u0026times; Variety interaction (GLMM: \u003cem\u003eχ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003csub\u003e(6)\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.71, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.012) aligns with GLMM estimates, showing Nimbecidine\u0026reg;'s enhanced efficacy on Tovi star F1, while the significance of variety \u0026times; season interaction (GLMM: \u003cem\u003eχ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003csub\u003e(1)\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;14.56; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01) corroborates with the GLMM's finding of reduced Tovi star F1 resistance in rainy season. Notably, the non-significant three-way interaction (GLMM: \u003cem\u003eχ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003csub\u003e(6)\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.87; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.082) in ANOVA corresponds to the GLMM's season-specific treatment failures (e.g., Lambda cyhalothrin's effect on Tovi star F1 in the rainy season). Temporal analysis showed increased damage, with protection degrading significantly after day 7 post-treatment, corroborated by the strong day effect.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eTomato yield in response to\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003econtrol treatments\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Kruskal-Wallis test results indicated highly significant differences in crop yield across pest control treatments and varieties, but no significant effect was observed with regard to season (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). When considering the treatment effect (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003ea), Dudu acelamectin and Occasion Star\u0026reg; 200SC had the highest yield, while control and Cypermethrin recorded the lowest yields (\u003cem\u003eH\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e(6)\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;46.2; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). \u003cem\u003eT. vogelli\u003c/em\u003e botanical recorded intermediate yields, serving as a viable organic alternative to synthetic insecticides. Tovi star F1 consistently outperformed Tanya F1 (\u003cem\u003eH\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e(1)\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;81.4; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003ec). However, no significant difference in yield was found as regard to the seasons (\u003cem\u003eH\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e(1)\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.1; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.138) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003ec).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Kruskal-Wallis tests and subsequent post-hoc pairwise comparisons revealed significant treatment, variety, and season effects across all measured yield components (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). For the ratio, measuring the effectiveness of pest control approaches or their impact on fruit yield, treatments formed three efficacy tiers. Occasion Star\u0026reg; 200SC significantly outperformed both Dudu acelamectin/Nimbecidine\u0026reg;/\u003cem\u003eT. vogelii\u003c/em\u003e as the intermediate group and the control/Cypermethrin as the lowest group (\u003cem\u003eH\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e(6)\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;200; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). Number of marketable fruits results mirrored this pattern, with Dudu acelamectin/ \u003cem\u003eT. vogelii\u003c/em\u003e and Occasion Star\u0026reg; 200SC surpassing Lambda cyhalothrin, Nimbecidine\u0026reg; and the control (\u003cem\u003eH\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e(6)\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;110; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), though pairwise tests revealed nuanced differences. For the number of unmarketable tomato fruits, all the treatments equally reduced damage versus the control (\u003cem\u003eH\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e(6)\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;186; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). When considering varietal effects, Tanya F1 had a lower number of marketable (\u003cem\u003eH\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e(1)\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;15.4; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001) and unmarketable fruits (\u003cem\u003eH\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e(1)\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.92; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.044) than Tovi star F1, suggesting a trade-off between total yield and quality. Season effects further modified the yield outcomes: Rainy season had a higher number of marketable fruits (\u003cem\u003eH\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e(1)\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.05; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.05) than dry season, implying environmental or management influences on fruit quality consistency (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003ea). These stratified results underscore that Occasion Star\u0026reg; 200SC and Dudu acelamectin were top-performing treatments, but variety and season critically modulate their effectiveness, recommending Tovi star F1 for maximum yield (despite quality risks) in the rainy season, and Tanya F1 for quality-focused production in the dry season (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eb).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results demonstrated robust negative associations between pest incidence and yield, as well as between larval density and yield, supported by both correlation and regression analyses (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). The linear regression model (\u003cem\u003eR\u0026sup2;\u003c/em\u003e = 0.136, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(3,556)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;29.24, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001) showed 13.6% of yield variation from season, considering the incidence (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003ed). In the dry season, each unit increased in incidence reduced yield by 7.15 folds (\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e = -8.57; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), while in the dry season, the effect was attenuated to 3.75 folds (interaction \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.59; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.009). The variety analysis revealed Tovi star F1's higher baseline yield (\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5.85, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001) but greater sensitivity to the pest incidence (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003ec) (interaction \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e = -1.81; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.070), with the model explaining 21.1% of variance (\u003cem\u003eR\u0026sup2;\u003c/em\u003e = 0.21, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(3,556)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;49.45, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). These results suggested the need for season-specific management, particularly in the dry season, and showed that Tovi star F1 performed better in low-incidence conditions. The larval density-yield relationship, while significant, showed less variance than incidence when considering the season effect (\u003cem\u003eR\u0026sup2;\u003c/em\u003e = 0.08; \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(3,556)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;16.42; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003eb). Dry season showed a 61.94-fold yield reduction per larval density increase (\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e = -6.57; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), substantially greater than the rainy season's 22.42-fold reduction (interaction \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.95, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.003). The variety-specific model (\u003cem\u003eR\u0026sup2;\u003c/em\u003e = 0.17, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(3,556)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;38.72, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003ea) indicated significant main effects for both larval density (\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e = -3.96; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001) and variety (\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.03; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), but no significant interaction (\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.65, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.515) was observed. Tovi star F1 maintained higher baseline yields with comparable larval sensitivity to Tanya F1.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn Africa, the introduction and spread of alien species has been accelerated in recent decades, posing significant threats to agriculture, biodiversity, and ecological stability \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. In the DR Congo, tomatoes are seen as a highly promising crop for horticultural expansion; however, its production is currently threatened by invasive insect pests such as \u003cem\u003eT. absolut\u003c/em\u003ea which puts the future of this cash crop in jeopardy. While the study provides valuable insights for the Lubumbashi region, the findings are derived from only two sites over two seasons. Further validation across broader agroecological zones and longer timeframes would strengthen their generalizability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eChemical insecticides are one of the most common and widely used methods for controlling \u003cem\u003eT. absolut\u003c/em\u003ea around the world because they have rapid action and strong toxicity against the target pest. Among the synthetic insecticides used in this study, Dudu- acelamectin, Lambda cyhalothrin and Occasion Star\u0026reg; 200 SC showed better insecticidal efficacy than cypermethrin against \u003cem\u003eT. absolut\u003c/em\u003ea. The effectiveness of Dudu-acelamectin stems from its quick action and ability to control a wide range of pests on crops through disruption of their nervous systems, leading to paralysis and ultimately death \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. However, Dudu acelamectin should be used with caution because of its non-target effects and the risk of resistance development. The results of the current study are consistent with a previous study conducted in Uganda, where Dudu-acelametin outperformed other treatments in controlling \u003cem\u003eT. absolut\u003c/em\u003ea on tomato under field conditions \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Lambda-cyhalothrin is a synthetic pyrethroid insecticide widely used to control many insect pests, including \u003cem\u003eT\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003eabsoluta\u003c/em\u003e, by disrupting the nervous system. It interferes with the sodium channels in nerve cells, causing overstimulation, paralysis, and ultimately, death of the insect \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Lambda-cyhalothrin exerts both contact and stomach poisoning effects, and has no internal absorption effect. It is mainly used to control pests with chewing or piercing and sucking mouthparts \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. In this study, lambda-cyhalothrin significantly reduced \u003cem\u003eT\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003eabsoluta\u003c/em\u003e infestation, making it one of the most effective chemical insecticides tested against the pest. These findings align with previous reports indicating that lambda-cyhalothrin effectively controlled \u003cem\u003eT. absolut\u003c/em\u003ea both inside and outside mined leaves, achieving high larval mortality rates \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e57\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this study, cypermethrin exhibited complete failure against \u003cem\u003eT. absolut\u003c/em\u003ea populations in both studied seasons, suggesting that the tomato leafminer populations in the current region may have developed resistance to this insecticide, making it unsuitable for effective control \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e58\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e59\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. However, because resistance mechanisms were not confirmed through molecular or biochemical assays, this interpretation remains inferential and should be validated in future studies. Cypermethrin-treated plots showed higher pest incidence compared to other tested synthetic insecticides. This possible resistance is likely a result of extensive and repeated use of cypermethrin by local tomato growers in the region, which may have exerted strong selection pressure favoring resistant individuals within \u003cem\u003eT. absolut\u003c/em\u003ea populations. Similar findings have been reported in Brazil, where cypermethrin completely failed to control \u003cem\u003eT. absolut\u003c/em\u003ea populations \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e59\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Although cypermethrin may not effectively control \u003cem\u003eT. absoluta\u003c/em\u003e larvae in both seasons, it can still cause sublethal effects like reduced lifespan and egg-laying in surviving insects \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e60\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Insecticides resistance in \u003cem\u003eT. absolut\u003c/em\u003ea has been reported for various chemical classes including organophospahtes, spinosyns, cartap, pyrethroids, diamides, indoxacarb, avemermectins and benzoylureas \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e61\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e62\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e63\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e64\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNovel insecticides, with their unique modes of action and specific targeting of pests, offer promising solutions for effective and environmentally sound pest management. They can be particularly useful in integrated pest management strategies, offering alternatives to older, broad-spectrum insecticides \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e65\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e66\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. In this study, the novel insecticide Occasion Star\u0026reg; 200SC was effective in controlling \u003cem\u003eT. absolut\u003c/em\u003ea populations with lower pest incidence in both studied seasons. It is a unique brand-new insecticide combination of emamectin benzoate and indoxacarb with contact and stomach action for broad spectrum control of chewing insect pests. This insecticide was recently introduced to the field of plant protection with novel modes of action that prevent, or delay build up resistance against different insect pests including \u003cem\u003eT. absoluta\u003c/em\u003e \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e66\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Indoxacarb, an oxadiazine insecticide group, disrupts nerve function by blocking sodium channels, while emamectin benzoate, an avermectin compound, interferes with neurotransmission of the pests by acting as an agonist for gamma-aminobutyric acid and glutamate-gated chloride channels, leading to disruption of nerve impulses and subsequent pest mortality \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e67\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e68\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The observed efficacy of Occasion Star\u0026reg; 200 SC aligns with previous studies demonstrating the superior performance of emamectin benzoate against \u003cem\u003eT. absolut\u003c/em\u003ea compared to cypermethrin \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e69\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Roby and Hussein \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e70\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e reported that emamectin benzoate exhibited high toxic effect against \u003cem\u003eT. absoluta\u003c/em\u003e, among tested insecticides for second-instar larvae. Similarly, Simmons et al. \u003csup\u003e22\u003c/sup\u003e documented over 90% mortality of \u003cem\u003eT\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003eabsoluta\u003c/em\u003e with emamectin benzoate and spinosad treatments. Beyond tomato leafminer, emamectin benzoate has demonstrated efficacy against other lepidopteran pests, including \u003cem\u003eHelicoverpa zea\u003c/em\u003e (Boddie) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) on maize \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e71\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and \u003cem\u003eSpodoptera littoralis\u003c/em\u003e (Boisduval) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) on cotton \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e72\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Notably, the persistence of these treatment effects beyond the 10-day assessment period was not evaluated, and longer-term efficacy studies would be beneficial to inform application schedules.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this study, the tomato Tovi Star variety demonstrated inherent resistance to \u003cem\u003eT. absoluta\u003c/em\u003e. Such resistance or tolerance is often associated with specific traits, including high trichome density on leaves and the presence of particular allelochemicals. These findings are in harmony with previous studies showing that type VI glandular trichomes in tomato deter herbivory by producing high concentrations of toxic specialized metabolites within their glandular fluid \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e73\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. When insects like \u003cem\u003eT. absoluta\u003c/em\u003e interact with these trichomes, the glands rupture, releasing the toxic fluid, which deters or kills the pests \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e74\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR75\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e75\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e73\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Apart from its morphological defenses against \u003cem\u003eT. absoluta\u003c/em\u003e, Tovi Star is also resistant to several common tomato diseases including early/late blight, Fusarium crown and root knot, \u003cem\u003eFusarium oxysporum\u003c/em\u003e, Tomato Mosaic Virus, Tomato yellow leaf curl virus Verticillium wilt and various nematodes including \u003cem\u003eMeloidogyne arenaria\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eM. incognita\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eM. javanita\u003c/em\u003e \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e76\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. In contrast, Tanya F1 exhibits resistance only to Alternaria stem cancer, gray leaf spot and Verticillium wilt \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e77\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The specific mechanisms conferring resistance in Tovi Star F1 were not investigated in this study, and further research exploring the physiological or genetic basis would help clarify the traits involved.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBotanical insecticides are widely used in various countries to control \u003cem\u003eT. absolut\u003c/em\u003ea, one of the most destructive pests of tomato. In the current study, \u003cem\u003eT. vogelii\u003c/em\u003e and Nimbecidine\u0026reg; demonstrated strong efficacy in suppressing \u003cem\u003eT. absoluta\u003c/em\u003e populations due to their insecticidal properties. The potency of \u003cem\u003eT. vogelii\u003c/em\u003e is attributed to its rotenoid compounds, a group of flavonoids known to be strongly toxic to leaf-eating insects \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Compounds such as rotenone act by inhibiting mitochondrial electron transport, disrupting cellular respiration, and ultimately causing insect death \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e78\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The finding of the current study congruent with earlier research showing the effectiveness of \u003cem\u003eT. vogelii\u003c/em\u003e against bean aphid, \u003cem\u003eAphis fabae\u003c/em\u003e Scopoli (Hemiptera: Aphididae) on common bean \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR79\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e79\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and in protecting stored legume seeds from bruchids damage \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR80\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e80\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Similarly, previous studies reported high efficacy of other botanical extracts against \u003cem\u003eT. absolut\u003c/em\u003ea. For instance, leaf extract of \u003cem\u003eThymus vulgaris\u003c/em\u003e and seed extracts of \u003cem\u003eRicinus communis\u003c/em\u003e were shown to cause up to 95% and 58% larval mortality, respectively \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR81\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e81\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. More recently, the efficacy of neem and garlic extracts against \u003cem\u003eT. absoluta\u003c/em\u003e was demonstrated, with the neem extract causing 93.8% larval mortality with an LT\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e value of 1.21 days \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR82\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e82\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe toxicity of plant extracts, however, can vary significantly even against a single insect species. Such variation is influenced by the type and concentration of secondary metabolites, the origin of the plant, application timing, extraction methods, solvents used, and bioactive compound stability \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR83\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e83\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR84\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e84\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Unlike many synthetic pesticides, \u003cem\u003eT. vogelii\u003c/em\u003e does not leave residue on crops, as the rotenone it contains breaks down within 3 to 5 days after application, reducing environmental and food safety risks. Similarly, azadirachtin, the active ingredient in neem-based insecticides such as Nimbecidine\u0026reg;, functions as an anti-feedant, repellent, and has feeding induction effect over the instars of \u003cem\u003eT. absoluta\u003c/em\u003e. It interferes with vital life processes of the pest like ovi-position, molting, and feeding resulting in growth disorders of \u003cem\u003eT. absoluta\u003c/em\u003e. However, its application is relatively more effective in the early two instars larva than during the later stages of \u003cem\u003eT. absolut\u003c/em\u003ea \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR85\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e85\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Notably, azadirachtin is most effective against early larval instars compared to later developmental stages of \u003cem\u003eT. absoluta\u003c/em\u003e. In this study Nimbecidine\u0026reg; showed low infestation and enhanced efficacy when applied to the Tovi Star F1 variety. The secondary metabolites present in these plants exhibit broad biological activity against insect pests, thereby supporting their role in integrated pest management. In addition to their efficacy, biologically active plant materials provide environmentally sustainable alternatives, as they degrade more rapidly than synthetic pesticides and reduce risks to human health, non-target organisms, and ecosystems. Thus, \u003cem\u003eT. vogelii\u003c/em\u003e and Nimbecidine\u0026reg; represent promising alternatives for tomato growers, particularly in regions where synthetic pesticide resistance is prevalent, chemical inputs are costly, or environmental and health concerns are paramount \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR86\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e86\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR87\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e87\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Importantly, because they are generally compatible with beneficial arthropods, botanicals can be integrated with biological control agents such as parasitoids (\u003cem\u003eTelenomus remus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eTrichogramma\u003c/em\u003e spp., \u003cem\u003eCoccygidium luteum\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eChelenus curvimaculatus\u003c/em\u003e) and predators (\u003cem\u003eNesidiocoris tenuis\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eMacrolophus pygmaeus\u003c/em\u003e) that naturally regulate \u003cem\u003eT. absoluta\u003c/em\u003e populations \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR88\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e88\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR89\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e89\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR90\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e90\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. However, while many botanical products are relatively compatible with biological control agents, some may still produce species-specific lethal or sublethal effects depending on the formulation, dose, and exposure conditions \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR91\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e91\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Therefore, careful selection and evaluation of botanical products are necessary to ensure minimal impact on beneficial organisms. Such integration enhances the sustainability of control strategies while reducing reliance on synthetic insecticides, making botanical- based approaches a cornerstone in the development of ecologically sound IMP packages for tomato growers. In the present study, the compatibility of the tested botanical insecticides with local natural enemies was not assessed, representing a gap that should be addressed by future research to fully support IPM recommendations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe management of \u003cem\u003eT. absolut\u003c/em\u003ea has become a challenging task due to its high capacity to develop resistance to synthetic insecticides and its concealed feeding behaviors \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR92\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e92\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The constant application of pesticides against the pest is a common practice with farmers in Lubumbashi region \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR93\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e93\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. These farmers predominantly rely on the extensive use of synthetic pesticides rather than integrating alternative control strategies. Nevertheless, \u003cem\u003eT. absoluta\u003c/em\u003e has demonstrated a relatively rapid development of resistance to several conventional insecticides \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR94\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e94\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR95\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e95\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Resistance cases have been documented across multiple continents, including in Africa, where reduced efficacy of commonly used active ingredients such as pyrethroids, organophosphates, and spinosyns has been reported \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e58\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR96\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e96\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The findings of the study revealed that the high efficiency of some of the insecticides such as Occasion Star\u0026reg; 200SC and Dudu Acalamectin, may be attributed to several factors. These products are relatively new in the field of crop protection and exhibit novel or distinct modes of actions, which may delay or prevent the development of resistance compared to conventional insecticides that have been intensively applied for years \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e66\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the present study, pest incidence was significantly higher during the dry season than the rainy season, indicating a strong seasonal influence on the population dynamics of \u003cem\u003eP absoluta\u003c/em\u003e. This pattern is consistent with earlier reports, which showed that \u003cem\u003eT. absoluta\u003c/em\u003e populations peak during the dry season and decline significantly during periods of high rainfall \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR97\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e97\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR98\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e98\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The dry season provides favorable conditions for the pest\u0026rsquo;s survival and reproduction, including higher temperatures, lower relative humidity, and reduced larval mortality from rainfall and fungal pathogens. In contrast, heavy rains can physically dislodge eggs and larvae from host plants and create unfavorable microclimate conditions that suppress population growth of the pest \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR99\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e99\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Generally, seasonal dynamics of \u003cem\u003eT. absoluta\u003c/em\u003e are regulated by a combination of climatic conditions, host plant development stage, and pest control practices \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. For example, in South-Kivu, early maize planting has been shown to reduce infestation by \u003cem\u003eSpodoptera frugiperda\u003c/em\u003e, while late plating increases larval density and crop damage, highlighting planting date as an important cultural strategy for sustainable pest management \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR101\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e101\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Understanding these seasonal population dynamics is therefore essential for designing and implementing effective integrated pest management strategies. Adjusting planting schedules to coincide with periods of lower pest pressure, combined with appropriate pest management practices, can help farmers optimize tomato production while minimizing crop losses and maximizing yield. The current study did not include a cost-benefit analysis of season-specific management strategies, which would be particularly valuable for smallholder farmers, who constitute the majority of tomato growers in the region.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe dissemination of \u003cem\u003eT. absoluta\u003c/em\u003e can be favored by international trade and commerce, particularly for African countries where phytosanitary and quarantine procedures are not robust, and in some cases absent \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR102\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e102\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. In Lubumbashi, for instance, farmers frequently import agricultural inputs such as seeds, seedlings, fruits and containers from neighboring countries including Zambia, Tanzania and Kenya. Interestingly, previous studies have documented that the spread of this invasive pest to new areas is primarily driven by the movement of infested seedlings, tomato fruits, and associated parking materials, as well as by contaminated agricultural equipment and vehicles \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The high invasion success of \u003cem\u003eT. absolut\u003c/em\u003ea in the Lubumbashi region may also be attributed to the abundance of suitable solanaceous host crops combined with favorable climatic conditions, which together provide an ideal environment for the pest\u0026rsquo;s establishment and proliferation \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Importantly, \u003cem\u003eT. absolut\u003c/em\u003ea is listed as a quarantine pest \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, leading to trade restrictions on tomato, reduced market value of infested fruits, increased crop protection costs, and ultimately higher consumer prices for tomatoes \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR103\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e103\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eTuta abs\u003c/em\u003eoluta is an invasive cosmopolitan threat to sustainable tomato production worldwide with a tremendous capacity of acquiring resistance to most pesticides used for its management. In this study, the potency of both synthetic and botanical insecticides in the management of \u003cem\u003eT. absoluta\u003c/em\u003e was documented under field conditions. Synthetic insecticides such as Dudu acelamectin, Lambda-cyhalothrin and Occasion Star\u0026reg; 200SC exhibited significantly higher control efficacy against \u003cem\u003eT\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003eabsoluta\u003c/em\u003e compared to cypermethrin, which showed relatively low efficacy. Botanical insecticides including Nimbecidine and \u003cem\u003eT. vogelii\u003c/em\u003e extract, also demonstrated promising insecticidal activity, highlighting their potential as alternative management options. Integrating chemical and botanical insecticides offers a sustainable strategy to maintain \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e infestations below economic damage thresholds, thereby supporting consistent tomato yields in Lubumbashi, DR Congo.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgement\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors are grateful to the individuals who assisted with the establishment of the trials and data collection at both locations. The authors also thank Glen Hill farm and Mutonkole farm for hosting the experiments during the dry and rainy seasons, respectively.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCredit authorship contribution statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eS.N. Mbuya\u003c/strong\u003e: conceptualization, data curation, methodology, visualization, writing original draft, \u003cstrong\u003eO.M. Kankonda\u003c/strong\u003e: methodology, writing-review \u0026amp; editing, \u003cstrong\u003eN. Fallah\u003c/strong\u003e: Data curation, writing-review \u0026amp; editing, \u003cstrong\u003eK.S. Akutse\u003c/strong\u003e: methodology, writing-review \u0026amp; editing, \u003cstrong\u003eM.C. Cokola\u003c/strong\u003e: methodology, visualization, formal analysis, data curation, writing \u0026ndash; review \u0026amp; editing. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research was funded by the program ARES-CCD COOP-CONV-21-519 (Belgium)\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe research reported here was conducted in strict accordance with ethical guidelines and regulations outlined in the standard operating procedures of the University of Lubumbashi (UNILU/Lubumbashi-DR Congo). The collection of \u003cem\u003eTephrosia vogelii\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eplant material was approved under authorization reference number UNILU/VDR/AGRO/025/2223.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data used and/or analyzed in this study are available within the paper and its supplementary materials.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePadmanabhan, P. et al. Solanaceous fruits including tomato, eggplant, and peppers. In: Encyclopedia of Food and Health;, (). \u003cem\u003eAcademic Press Oxford\u003c/em\u003e 24\u0026ndash;32 (2016).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHall, R. D., Brouwer, I. D. \u0026amp; Fitzgerald, M. A. Plant metabolomics and its potential application for human nutrition. \u003cem\u003ePhysiol. Plant.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e132\u003c/b\u003e, 162\u0026ndash;175 (2008).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAkutse, K. S. et al. Entomopathogenic fungus isolates for adult \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) management and their compatibility with \u003cem\u003eTuta\u003c/em\u003e pheromone. \u003cem\u003eJ. App Entomol.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e144\u003c/b\u003e, 777\u0026ndash;787 (2020).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMuhorakeye, M. C. et al. Biostimulant and antagonistic potential endophytic fungi against furasarium wilt pathogen of tomato \u003cem\u003eFusarium oxysporum\u003c/em\u003e f. sp. \u003cem\u003elycopersici\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003eSci. rep.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e14\u003c/b\u003e, 1536 (2024).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eReportLinker. The Democratic Republic of the Congo. Tomato Industry outlook 2022\u0026ndash;2026. (2025). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.reportlinker.com/clp/country/484797/726330#block-data-catalogue\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.reportlinker.com/clp/country/484797/726330#block-data-catalogue\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMukwa, L. F. T. et al. First report of the South American tomato pinworm \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) and its damage in the Democratic Republic of Congo. \u003cem\u003eBioInvasions Rec\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cb\u003e10\u003c/b\u003e, 33\u0026ndash;44 (2021).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eTonnang, H. E., Mohamed, S. A., Khamis, F. \u0026amp; Ekesi, S. Identification and risk assessment for worldwide invasion and spread of \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e with a focus on Sub-Saharan Africa: Implication for phytosanitary measures and management. \u003cem\u003ePLoS One\u003c/em\u003e 10,e0138319 (2015).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eEPPO. Annual report 2011. Bulletin OEPP/EPPO 42930,595\u0026ndash;605. (2012).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMansour, R. et al. Occurrence, biology, natural enemies and management of \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e in Africa. \u003cem\u003eEntomol. Gen.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e38\u003c/b\u003e, 83\u0026ndash;112 (2018).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHan, P. et al. Bottom-up effects of irrigation, fertilization and plant resistance on \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e: implications for integrated pest management. \u003cem\u003eJ. Pest Sci.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e92\u003c/b\u003e, 1359\u0026ndash;1370 (2019).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKandil et al. Comparative toxicity of new insecticides generations against tomato leaf miner \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e and their biochemical effects on tomato plants. \u003cem\u003eBull. Natl. Res. Cent.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e44\u003c/b\u003e, 126 (2020).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDesneux, N. et al. Biological invasion of European tomato crops by \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e: ecology, geographic expansion and prospects for biological control. \u003cem\u003eJ. Pest Sci.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e83\u003c/b\u003e, 197\u0026ndash;215 (2010).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGarzia, G. T., Siscaro, G., Biondi, A. \u0026amp; Zappal\u0026agrave;, L. \u003cem\u003eTuta asboluta\u003c/em\u003e, a South American pest of tomato now in the EPPO region: biology, distribution and damage. \u003cem\u003eEPPO Bull.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e42\u003c/b\u003e, 205\u0026ndash;210 (2012).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBr\u0026eacute;vault, T. et al. \u0026lsquo;\u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e Meyrick (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae): A new threat to tomato production in Sub-Saharan Africa. \u003cem\u003eAfri Entomol.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e22\u003c/b\u003e, 441\u0026ndash;444 (2014).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDesneux, N., Luna, M. G., Guillemaud, T. \u0026amp; Urbaneja, A. The invasive American tomato pinworm, \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e, continues to spread in Afro-Eurasia and beyond: The new threat to tomato world production. \u003cem\u003eJ. Pest Sci.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e48\u003c/b\u003e, 403\u0026ndash;408 (2011).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMawcha, K. T. et al. An overview of sustainable management strategies for \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003eInt J. Pest Manag\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e1\u0026ndash;24\u003c/b\u003e (2025).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBiondi, A., Guedes, R. N. C., Wan, F. H., Desneux, N. \u0026amp; Ecology world-wide spread, and management of the invasive South American tomato pinworm, \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e: Past, present, and future. \u003cem\u003eAnnu. Rev. Entomol.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e63\u003c/b\u003e, 239\u0026ndash;258 (2018).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAhmed, S. S., Abdel Kader, M., Fahmy, M. A. M. \u0026amp; Abdelgawad, K. F. Control of \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) by the new trend of photosensitizer and nanocomposites and their effects on productivity and storability of tomato. \u003cem\u003eInt. J. Trop. Insect Sci.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e44\u003c/b\u003e, 273\u0026ndash;296 (2024).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGuedes, R. N. C. \u0026amp; Picanҫo, M. C. The tomato borer \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e in South America: Pest status, management and insecticide resistance. \u003cem\u003eEPPO Bull.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e42\u003c/b\u003e, 211\u0026ndash;216 (2012).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRostami, E. et al. Pest density influence on tomato pigment contents: the south American tomato pinworm scenario. \u003cem\u003eEntomol. Gen.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e40\u003c/b\u003e, 195\u0026ndash;205 (2020).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKaoud, H. A. Alternative methods for the control of \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003eGJMAS\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e2\u003c/b\u003e, 41\u0026ndash;46 (2014).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSimmons, A. M. et al. Lepidopterous pests: Biology, Ecology, and Management. In: Sustainable Management of Arthropod Pests of Tomato, Edited by W. Wakil, Brust G.E and Perring T, 131\u0026ndash;162. Oxford Academic Press. 372 (2018).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eIRAC. Tuta absoluta on the move. IRAC \u0026amp; Newsletter (2009). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttp://www.irac-online.org/documents/eConnection_issue20a.pdf\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"http://www.irac-online.org/documents/eConnection_issue20a.pdf\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGuedes, R. N. C. et al. Insecticide resistance in the tomato pinworm \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e: patterns, spread, mechanisms, management and outbreak. \u003cem\u003eJ. Pest Sci.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e92\u003c/b\u003e, 1329\u0026ndash;1342 (2019).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRwomushana, I. et al. Evidence Note. Tomato leafminer (\u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e): impacts and coping strategies for Africa. \u003cem\u003eCABI Working paper\u003c/em\u003e 12, 56 (2019).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCampos, M. R. et al. Susceptibility of \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) Brazilian populations to ryanodine receptor modulators. \u003cem\u003ePest Manag Sci.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e71\u003c/b\u003e, 537\u0026ndash;544 (2015).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRoditakis, E. et al. A four-year survey on insecticide resistance and likelihood of chemical control failure for tomato leaf miner \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e in the European/Asia region. \u003cem\u003eJ. Pest Sci.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e91\u003c/b\u003e, 421\u0026ndash;435 (2018).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAgbessenou, A. et al. Endophytic fungi protect tomato and nightshade plants against \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) through a hidden friendship and cryptic battle. \u003cem\u003eSci. Rep.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e10\u003c/b\u003e, 22195 (2020).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eTarusikirwa, V. L. et al. \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) on the Offensive in Africa: Prospects for integrated Pest management initiatives. \u003cem\u003eInsects\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e11\u003c/b\u003e, 764 (2020).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePeel, M. C., Finlayson, B. L. \u0026amp; McMahon, T. A. Updated world map of the K\u0026ouml;ppen-Geiger climate classification. \u003cem\u003eHydrol. Earth Syst. Sci.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e11\u003c/b\u003e, 1633\u0026ndash;1644 (2007).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAssani, A. A. Analyse de la variabilit\u0026eacute; temporelle des pr\u0026eacute;cipitations (1916\u0026ndash;1996) \u0026agrave; Lubumbashi (Congo-Kinshasa) en relation avec certains indicateurs de la circulation atmosph\u0026eacute;riques (oscillation australe) et oc\u0026eacute;anique (El Ni\u0026ntilde;o/La Ni\u0026ntilde;a). \u003cem\u003eS\u0026egrave;cheresse\u003c/em\u003e 10, 245\u0026ndash;252 (1999).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eStevenson, P. C. et al. Distinct chemotypes of \u003cem\u003eTephrosia vogelii\u003c/em\u003e and implications for their use in pest control and soil enrichment. \u003cem\u003ePhytochemistry\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e78\u003c/b\u003e, 135\u0026ndash;146 (2012).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGaskins, M. H. \u003cem\u003eTephrosia vogelii\u003c/em\u003e: a source of rotenoids for insecticidal and pesticidal use. Technical Bulletin 1445: US Department of Agriculture, 1\u0026ndash;38 (1972).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eStevenson, P. C. \u0026amp; Belmain, S. R. Pesticidal plants in African agriculture: local uses and global perspective. \u003cem\u003ePestic. Outlook\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cb\u003e10\u003c/b\u003e, 226\u0026ndash;229 (2016).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHenry, M. C. \u0026amp; Yonker, C. R. Supercritical fluid chromatography. Pressurized liquid extraction, and supercritical fluid extraction. \u003cem\u003eAnal. Chem.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e78\u003c/b\u003e, 3909\u0026ndash;3916 (2006).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNderevimana, A., Nyalala, S., Murerwa, P. \u0026amp; Gaidashova, S. Field Efficacy of entomolopathogens and plant extracts on \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e Meyrick (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) infesting tomato in Rwanda. \u003cem\u003eCrop Prot.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e134\u003c/b\u003e, 105183 (2020).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOnunkun, O. Evaluation of aqueous extracts of five plants in the control of flea beetles on okra. \u003cem\u003eJ. Biopestic\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cb\u003e5\u003c/b\u003e, 62\u0026ndash;67 (2012).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eG\u0026ouml;zel, Ҫ. \u0026amp; Kasap, I. Efficacy of entomopathogenic nematodes against the tomato leafminer, \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) in tomato field. \u003cem\u003eTurk. J. Entomol.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e39\u003c/b\u003e, 229\u0026ndash;237 (2015).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAhmad, M. F. et al. Pesticides impacts on human health and the environment with their mechanisms of action and possible countermeasures. \u003cem\u003eHeliyon\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e10\u003c/b\u003e, e29128 (2024).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCocco, A., Deliperi, S. \u0026amp; Delrio, G. Control of \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) in greenhouse tomato crops using mating disruption technique. \u003cem\u003eJ. Appl. Entomol.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e137\u003c/b\u003e, 16\u0026ndash;28 (2013).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLiu, J. et al. Tomato yield and water use efficiency change with various soil moisture and potassium levels during different growth stages. \u003cem\u003ePLoS One\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cb\u003e14\u003c/b\u003e, 1\u0026ndash;14 (2019).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAli, A. et al. Evaluation of various tomato (\u003cem\u003eLycopersicon esculentum\u003c/em\u003e Mill) cultivars for quality, yield and yield components under agroclimatic condition of Peshawar. \u003cem\u003eARPN J. Agric Biol. Sci\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cb\u003e11\u003c/b\u003e, 59\u0026ndash;62 (2016).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eR Core Team. R: A language and environment for statistical computing. Vienna, Austria: R Foundation for Statistical Computing. (2024). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.R-project.org/.(\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.R-project.org/.(\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eShapiro, S. S. \u0026amp; Wilk, M. B. An analysis of variance test for normality (complete samples). \u003cem\u003eBiometrika\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e52\u003c/b\u003e, 591\u0026ndash;611 (1965).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eElkin, L. A., Kay, M., Higgins, J. J. \u0026amp; Wobbrock, J. O. An Aligned Rank Transform Procedure for Multifactor Contrast Tests. In: The 34th Annual ACM Symposium on User Interface Software and Technology (UIST '21). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 754\u0026ndash;768 (2021).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHarrison, X. A. et al. A brief introduction to mixed effects modelling and multi-model inference in ecology. \u003cem\u003ePeerJ\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e6\u003c/b\u003e, e4794 (2018).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWickham, H. \u003cem\u003eggplot2: Elegant graphics for data analysis\u003c/em\u003e Vol. 260 (Springer, 2009).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCokola, M. C. et al. First report of \u003cem\u003eSpodoptera frugiperda\u003c/em\u003e (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) on onion (\u003cem\u003eAllium cepa\u003c/em\u003e L.) in South Kivu, Eastern DR Congo. \u003cem\u003eRev Bras. Entomol\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e65\u003c/b\u003e, (2021). e20200083.2021.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNtambo, M. S., Cokola, M. C., Chiona, M. \u0026amp; Kankonda, M. O. Occurrence of the sweet potato hornworm \u003cem\u003eAgrius convolvuli\u003c/em\u003e (Lepidoptera: Sphingidae) in Haut-Katanga province, Democratic Republic of the Congo. \u003cem\u003eJ. Entomol. Acarol Res.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e54\u003c/b\u003e, 10424 (2022).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRafiki Pest Control. Dudu acelamectin \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e insecticide 5%-500ml. (2025). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://shop.rafikipestcontrol.com/products/dudu-acelamectin-tatu-absoluta-insecticide-5-500ml\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://shop.rafikipestcontrol.com/products/dudu-acelamectin-tatu-absoluta-insecticide-5-500ml\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKabaale, F. P. et al. First report of field efficacy and economic viability of Metarhizium anisopliae- ICIPE 20 for \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) management on tomato. \u003cem\u003eSustainability\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e14\u003c/b\u003e, 14846 (2022).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eZhang, H. et al. Lambda-cyhalothrin induces heart injury in chickens by regulating cytochrome P450 enzyme system and inhibiting Nrf2/HO-1 pathway. \u003cem\u003ePoult. Sci.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e103\u003c/b\u003e, 104154 (2024).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKeyhanian, A. A., Barari, H. \u0026amp; Mobasheri, M. T. Comparison of the efficacy of insecticides, alphacypermethrin and lambda-cyhalothrin, against canola flea beetles. \u003cem\u003eAppl. Entomol. Phytopathol.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e44\u003c/b\u003e, 113\u0026ndash;122 (2021).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLi, J. Y. et al. Sublethal effects of lambda-cyhalothrin on the biological characteristics, detoxification enzymes, and genes of the papaya mealybug, \u003cem\u003eParacoccus marginatus\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003eJ. Pest Sci.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e98\u003c/b\u003e, 783\u0026ndash;797 (2025).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMahmoud, Y. A. et al. Effect of certain low toxicity insecticides against tomato leaf miner (\u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e) with reference to their residues in harvested tomato fruits. \u003cem\u003eInt. J. Agric. Res.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e9\u003c/b\u003e, 210\u0026ndash;218 (2014).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eEl-Ghany, N. M. A., Abdel-Razek, A. S., Abadah, I. M. A. \u0026amp; Mahmoud, Y. A. Evaluation of some microbial agents, natural and chemical compounds for controlling tomato leaf miner, \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae). \u003cem\u003eJ. Plant. Prot. Res.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e56\u003c/b\u003e, 373\u0026ndash;379 (2016).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKhan, G. et al. Assessment of different synthetic insecticides for the management of tomato leaf miner (\u003cem\u003eTuta abosluta\u003c/em\u003e). \u003cem\u003eJ. Xi\u0026rsquo;an ShiyouUniv (Nat Sci. Ed)\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cb\u003e19\u003c/b\u003e, 47\u0026ndash;57 (2023).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHaddi, K. et al. Identification of mutations associated with pyrethroid resistance in the voltage-gated sodium channel of the tomato leaf miner (\u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e). \u003cem\u003eInsect Biochem. Mol. Biol.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e42\u003c/b\u003e, 506\u0026ndash;513 (2012).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSilva, W. M. et al. Status of pyrethroid resistance and mechanisms in Brazilian populations of \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003ePestic Biochem. Physiol.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e122\u003c/b\u003e, 8\u0026ndash;14 (2015).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBiondi, A. et al. Potential toxicity of α-Cypermethrin-treated nets on \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae). \u003cem\u003eJ. Econ. Entomol.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e108\u003c/b\u003e, 1191\u0026ndash;1197 (2015).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSiqueira, H. A. A., Guedes, R. N. C. \u0026amp; Picanco, M. C. Cartap resistance and synergism in population of \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e (Lep., Gelechiidae). \u003cem\u003eJ. Appl. Entomol.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e124\u003c/b\u003e, 233\u0026ndash;238 (2000).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSiqueira, H. A. A., Guedes, R. N. C., Fragoso, D. B. \u0026amp; Magalhaes, L. C. Abamectin resistance and synergism in Brazilian populations of \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e (Meyrick) (Lepidootera: Gelechiidae). \u003cem\u003eInt. J. Pest Manag\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cb\u003e47\u003c/b\u003e, 247\u0026ndash;251 (2001).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSilva, W. M. et al. Mutation (G275E) of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor α6 subunit is associated with high levels of resistance to spinosyns in \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae). \u003cem\u003ePestic Biochem. Physiol.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e131\u003c/b\u003e, 1\u0026ndash;8 (2016).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRoditakis, E. et al. Ryanodine receptor point mutations confer diamide insecticide resistance in tomato leafminer, \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae). \u003cem\u003eInsect Biochem. Mol. Biol.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e80\u003c/b\u003e, 11\u0026ndash;20 (2017).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSparks, T. C. \u0026amp; Nauen, R. I. R. A. C. Mode of action classification and insecticide resistance management. \u003cem\u003ePestic Biochem. Physiol.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e121\u003c/b\u003e, 122\u0026ndash;128 (2015).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGreenlife Occasion Star\u0026reg; 200 SC. (2025). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.greenlife.co.ke/product/occasion-star-200sc/\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.greenlife.co.ke/product/occasion-star-200sc/\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLapied, B., Grolleau, F. \u0026amp; Sattelle, D. B. Indoxacarb, an oxadiazine insecticide, blocks insect neuronal sodium channels. \u003cem\u003eBr J. Pharmacol\u003c/em\u003e (2001). 132,587\u0026thinsp;\u0026ndash;\u0026thinsp;95.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBengochea, P. et al. Is emamectin benzoate effective against the different stages of \u003cem\u003eSpodoptera exigua\u003c/em\u003e (H\u0026uuml;bner) (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae)? \u003cem\u003eIr. J. Agric. Food Res.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e53\u003c/b\u003e, 37\u0026ndash;49 (2014).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRoditakis, E., Skarmoutsou, C. \u0026amp; Staurakaki, M. Toxicity of insecticides to populations of tomato borer \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e (Meyrick) from Greece. \u003cem\u003ePest Manag Sci.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e69\u003c/b\u003e, 834\u0026ndash;840 (2013).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRoby, A. E. \u0026amp; Hussein, S. Behavior of bio-and chemical insecticides in tomato ecosystem in Minia Governorate. \u003cem\u003eActa Ecol. Sin\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cb\u003e39\u003c/b\u003e, 152\u0026ndash;159 (2019).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eL\u0026oacute;pez Jr, J. D., Latheef, M. A. \u0026amp; Hoffman, W. C. Effect of emamectin benzoate on mortality, proboscis extension, gustation and reproduction of the corn earworm, \u003cem\u003eHelicoverpa zea\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003eJ. Insect Sci.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e10\u003c/b\u003e, 89 (2010).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eTalib, A., Hamdi, H., Abd al-Rahman, S. M. \u0026amp; Sherby, S. M. Efficacy of some natural oils on the residual toxicity of emamectin benzoate, spinosad and spinetoram against Egyptian cotton leafworm. \u003cem\u003eJ. Pest Control Envrion Sci.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e16\u003c/b\u003e, 37\u0026ndash;56 (2008).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePopowski, J. et al. Glandular trichome rupture in tomato plants is an ultra-fast and sensitive defense mechanism against insects. \u003cem\u003eJ. Exp. Bot.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e76\u003c/b\u003e, 6508\u0026ndash;6519 (2025).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBar, M. \u0026amp; Shtein, I. Plant trichomes and the biomechanics of defense in various systems, with Solanaceae as a model. \u003cem\u003eBotany\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e97\u003c/b\u003e, 651\u0026ndash;660 (2019).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBleeker, P. M. et al. Improved herbivore resistance in cultivated tomato with the sesquiterpene biosynthetic pathway from a wilt relative. \u003cem\u003eProc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A\u003c/em\u003e 109, 20124\u0026ndash;20129 (2012).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSyngenta. Tovi Star, F. I. (2025). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.syngenta.co.zm/product/seed/tomatoes/tovi-star\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.syngenta.co.zm/product/seed/tomatoes/tovi-star\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSemena. Tomatoes Tanya, F. 1. (2025). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttp://semenaopt.com/en/Tomatoes/Tanya_F1/602904/\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"http://semenaopt.com/en/Tomatoes/Tanya_F1/602904/\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLazo, C. R. et al. Academic Press: UK 74\u0026ndash;75 (2014).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKayange, C. D. M., Njera, D., Nyirenda, S. P. \u0026amp; Mwamlima, L. Effectiveness of \u003cem\u003eTephrosia vogelii\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eTephrosia candida\u003c/em\u003e extract against common ben aphid (\u003cem\u003eAphid fabae\u003c/em\u003e) in Malawi. \u003cem\u003eAdv. Agric.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e2019\u003c/b\u003e, 6704834 (2019).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eStevenson, P. C., Isman, M. B. \u0026amp; Belmain, S. R. Pesticidal plants in Africa: a global vision of new biological control products from local uses. \u003cem\u003eInd. Crops Prod.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e110\u003c/b\u003e, 2\u0026ndash;9 (2017).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNilahyane, A., Bouharroud, R., Hormatallah, A. \u0026amp; Taadaouit, A. Larvicidal effect of plant extract on \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae). Working group integrated control in protected crops Mediterranean climate. \u003cem\u003eIOBC-WPRS Bulletin\u003c/em\u003e 80,305\u0026ndash;310 (2012).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOchieng, T. A. et al. Interactions between \u003cem\u003eBacillus thuringiensis\u003c/em\u003e and selected plant extracts for sustainable management of \u003cem\u003ePhthorimaea absoluta\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003eSci. rep.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e14\u003c/b\u003e, 9299 (2024).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAynalem, B. Empirical review of \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e Meyrick effect on the tomato production and their protection attempts. \u003cem\u003eAdv Agric\u003c/em\u003e ID2595470, 9 pages (2022). (2022).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSaleem, U. et al. Determination of insecticidal potential of selected plant extracts against fall armyworm (\u003cem\u003eSpodoptera frugiperda\u003c/em\u003e) larvae. \u003cem\u003eHeliyon\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e10\u003c/b\u003e, e39593 (2024).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKona, N. E. M., Taha, A. K. \u0026amp; Mahmoud, M. E. E. Effects of botanical extracts of neem (\u003cem\u003eAzadirachta indica\u003c/em\u003e) and Jatropha (\u003cem\u003eJatropha curcus\u003c/em\u003e) on eggs and larvae of tomato leaf miner, \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae). \u003cem\u003ePGCP\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e3\u003c/b\u003e, 41\u0026ndash;46 (2014).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKamanula, J. et al. Farmers\u0026rsquo;insect pest management practices and pesticidal plant use in the protection of stored maize and bean in Southern Africa. \u003cem\u003eInt. J. Pest Manag\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cb\u003e57\u003c/b\u003e, 41\u0026ndash;49 (2011).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMafongoya, P. L. \u0026amp; Kuntashula, E. Participatory evaluation of \u003cem\u003eTephrosia\u003c/em\u003e species and provenances for soil fertility improvement and other uses using farmer\u0026rsquo;s criteria in eastern Zambia. \u003cem\u003eExp. Agric.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e41\u003c/b\u003e, 69\u0026ndash;80 (2005).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCabello, T. et al. Selection of \u003cem\u003eTrichogramma\u003c/em\u003e spp. (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) for biological control of \u003cem\u003eTuta abosulta\u003c/em\u003e (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) in greenhouses by an entomo-ecological simulation model. \u003cem\u003eIOBC/WPRS Bull.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e80\u003c/b\u003e, 171\u0026ndash;176 (2012).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSisay, B. et al. The efficacy of selected synthetic insecticides and botanicals against \u003cem\u003eTuta abosulta\u003c/em\u003e (Meyrick) under laboratory and field conditions. \u003cem\u003eCrop Prot.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e110\u003c/b\u003e, 202\u0026ndash;208 (2018).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKenis, M. et al. \u003cem\u003eTelenomus remus\u003c/em\u003e, a candidate parasitoid for the biological control of \u003cem\u003eSpodoptera frugiperda\u003c/em\u003e in Africa, is already present on the continent. \u003cem\u003eInsect\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e10\u003c/b\u003e, 92 (2019).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLisi, F. et al. Non-target effects of bioinsecticides on natural enemies of arthropod pests. \u003cem\u003eCurr. Opin. Environ. Sci. Health\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cb\u003e45\u003c/b\u003e, 100624 (2025).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eIRAC. \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e- the Tomato leaf miner or Tomato Borer. Recommendations for sustainable and Effective Resistance Management. (2011). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://irac-online.org/content/uploads/2009/12/Tuta_brochure_print-version_11Oct11.pdf\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://irac-online.org/content/uploads/2009/12/Tuta_brochure_print-version_11Oct11.pdf\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBalasha, A. M. \u0026amp; Nsele, M. K. Pesticide use practices by Chinese cabbage growers in Suburban environment of Lubumbashi (DR Congo): main pests, costs and Risks. \u003cem\u003eJAAEPA\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e2\u003c/b\u003e, 56\u0026ndash;64 (2019).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLietti, M. M. M., Botto, E. \u0026amp; Alzogaray, R. A. Insecticide resistance in Argentine populations of \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae). \u003cem\u003eNeotrop. Entomol.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e34\u003c/b\u003e, 113\u0026ndash;119 (2005).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDom\u0026iacute;nguez, A. et al. Influence of age, host plant and mating status in pheromone production and new insights on perception plasticity in \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003eInsects\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e10\u003c/b\u003e, 256 (2019).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCampos, M. R. et al. Spinosad and the Tomato Borer \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e: A Bioinsecticide, an Invasive Pest Threat, and High Insecticide Resistance. \u003cem\u003ePLoS One\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cb\u003e9\u003c/b\u003e, e103235 (2014).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSylla, S., Seydi, O., Diarra, K. \u0026amp; Brevault, T. Seasonal decline of the tomato leafminer, \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e, in the shifting landscape of a vegetative-growing area. \u003cem\u003eEnt Exp. Appl.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e166\u003c/b\u003e, 638\u0026ndash;647 (2018).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSylla, S. et al. Seasonal abundance and role of host plant on the tomato leaf miner populations dynamics, \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e, in Senegal. \u003cem\u003eActa Hortic\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e1348\u003c/b\u003e (2022).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSubedi, B., Poudel, A. \u0026amp; Aryal, B. The impact of climate change on insect pest biology and ecology: implications for pest management strategies, crop production, and food security. \u003cem\u003eJ. Agric. Food Res.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e14\u003c/b\u003e, 100733 (2023).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBacci, L. et al. The seasonal dynamic of \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e in \u003cem\u003eSolanum lycopersicon\u003c/em\u003e cultivation: contributions of climate, plant phenology, and insecticide spraying. \u003cem\u003ePest Manag Sci.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e77\u003c/b\u003e, 3187\u0026ndash;3197 (2021).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCokola, M. C. et al. Planting data in South Kivu, eastern DR Congo: A real challenge for the sustainable management of \u003cem\u003eSpodoptera frugiperda\u003c/em\u003e (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) by smallholder farmers. \u003cem\u003ePLos One\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cb\u003e19\u003c/b\u003e, e0314615 (2024).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNiassy, S. et al. An African perspective for harmonized policies framework on plant protection products (PPPs). \u003cem\u003eAFJRD\u003c/em\u003e 10,2025 (2025).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRetta, A. \u0026amp; Berhe, D. Tomato leafminer\u0026ndash;\u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e (Meyrick), a devastating pest of tomatoes in the highlands of Northern Ethiopia: A call for attention and action. \u003cem\u003eRJAES\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e4\u003c/b\u003e, 264\u0026ndash;269 (2015).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Tuta absoluta, botanicals, synthetic insecticides, Solanum lycopersicum, integrated pest management","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9113639/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9113639/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThe invasive tomato leafminer, \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e (Meyrick), is a very destructive pest that poses a major threat to tomato (\u003cem\u003eSolanum lycopersicum\u003c/em\u003e L.) production in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), causing extensive yield losses through larval feeding on leaves, stems, and fruits. Chemical insecticides remain the primary control method, but resistance development, biodiversity loss and environmental concerns necessitate alternative strategies. This study aimed at evaluating the efficacy of synthetic and botanical insecticides against \u003cem\u003eT. absoluta\u003c/em\u003e during two consecutive cropping seasons 2023\u0026ndash;2024 in Lubumbashi, DRC, under both dry and rainy season conditions. Two tomato seedling varieties (Tanya F1 and Tovi Star F1) were treated with four synthetic insecticides (Dudu acelamectin, cypermethrin, lambda-cyhalothrin and Occasion Star\u0026reg; 200SC) and two botanical treatments (\u003cem\u003eTephrosia vogelii\u003c/em\u003e extract and Nimbecidine\u0026reg;) at the recommended doses in a randomized complete block design. Pest incidence, larval density, leaf damage, and yield were assessed over multiple intervals. Results showed that synthetic insecticides, particularly Dudu acelamectin, lambda-cyhalothrin, and Occasion Star\u0026reg; 200SC, significantly reduced \u003cem\u003eT. absoluta\u003c/em\u003e larval infestations compared to cypermethrin, which failed to control the pest due to suspected potential resistance. Botanical insecticides were also proved effective, with \u003cem\u003eT. vogelii\u003c/em\u003e extract reducing leaf damage by 48% and Nimbecidine\u0026reg; by 37%. The Tovi Star F1 variety exhibited inherent resistance, with lower pest incidence and higher yields than Tanya F1. Yield losses were strongly correlated with pest incidence and larval density, emphasizing the need for timely interventions. These findings highlight the potential of integrating synthetic and botanical insecticides with resistant tomato varieties for sustainable \u003cem\u003eT. absoluta\u003c/em\u003e management in Lubumbashi. Future research should explore long-term resistance monitoring, cost-benefit analyses for smallholder farmers, and synergetic combinations of biopesticides to enhance efficacy while minimizing environmental impacts.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Comparative field efficacy of synthetic insecticides and plant extracts against Tuta absoluta (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) in Lubumbashi, DR Congo","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-04-06 17:02:10","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9113639/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-04-22T20:33:05+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-04-20T02:06:11+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-04-16T07:09:49+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"67757469637663205866250054612951012973","date":"2026-04-16T01:06:50+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"219409712410315513203566991534575620492","date":"2026-04-15T11:10:23+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2026-04-01T11:46:04+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2026-04-01T11:43:14+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2026-03-30T09:41:50+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2026-03-24T04:34:39+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Scientific Reports","date":"2026-03-24T04:28:10+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"ce9a2ab2-9ea9-40b4-9b4e-5da6324dadcd","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 6th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[{"id":65624575,"name":"Biological sciences/Ecology"},{"id":65624576,"name":"Earth and environmental sciences/Ecology"},{"id":65624577,"name":"Biological sciences/Plant sciences"},{"id":65624578,"name":"Biological sciences/Zoology"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-08T06:38:54+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-04-06 17:02:10","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-9113639","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-9113639","identity":"rs-9113639","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}