Sero-prevalence and sero-monitoring of Pestes des petit ruminants (PPR) disease in small ruminants in Oromia Region, Ethiopia

Sero-prevalence and sero-monitoring of Pestes des petit ruminants (PPR) disease in small ruminants in Oromia Region, Ethiopia | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Sero-prevalence and sero-monitoring of Pestes des petit ruminants (PPR) disease in small ruminants in Oromia Region, Ethiopia Fikru Gizaw Gurmessa, Gonfa Shankute Erecho, Demeke Sibhatu Lobago, and 3 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-9205108/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 12 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Global PPR (goat plague) eradication efforts are ongoing, mainly through vaccination programs. The disease causes substantial economic losses in sheep and goats because of its high morbidity and mortality. Integrated assessment of epidemiological status and immune responses in vaccinated animals is essential for effective control and eradication. This study consisted of two components conducted in the Oromia Region, Ethiopia. First, a cross-sectional study was conducted from January 2024 to November 2024 in three districts (Goba, Sinana, and Dinsho) of the Bale Zone to assess the seroprevalence of PPR infection in non-vaccinated area and to evaluate the immune response status (seromonitoring) in vaccinated area, along with associated risk factors. Second, a retrospective study was conducted using data obtained from the Oromia Agriculture Office to describe the extent of PPR disease outbreaks, the distribution of PPR cases, and vaccination activities in sheep and goats across the Oromia Region from 2016 to 2022. Zone and districts were selected purposively based on predefined criteria, while kebeles , villages, and farms were sampled using random sampling. Finally, Goats and sheep were sampled using random sampling after stratifying by species. Blood samples were collected from 420 non-vaccinated and 246 vaccinated sheep and goats, and 75 household owners were interviewed to assess potential risk factors. Retrospective data on PPR disease in the Oromia Region were also reviewed. Antibodies against PPR in vaccinated and non-vaccinated animals were detected using a competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay at the Asella Regional Veterinary Laboratory and the Sebeta Animal Health Institute. The overall true seroprevalence among non-vaccinated animals level was 15.9% (12.6% in sheep and 28.2% in goats), whereas true antibody seroprevalence in vaccinated animals was reached 80.5% (80.3% in goats and 80.0% in sheep). Logistic regression showed that goats were significantly more likely to be infected (OR = 2.76, 95% CI: 1.5, 5.0, P = 0.001). Species, sex, age, and herd size were significant risk factors among non-vaccinated animals (p < 0.05), whereas only age was associated with antibody development in vaccinated animals. The interview results showed that all respondents (100%) indicated that their animals had the chance to contact other herds at watering points and/or during seasonal grazing, and 32% reported that their flocks had opportunities to encounter wildlife. In Oromia Region, a total of 347 active surveillance activities were conducted from 2017 to 2022, and 131 PPR outbreaks were confirmed, representing an overall positivity rate of 37.8% (131/347). A total of 2,266 PPR-positive cases were identified through passive surveillance, and 1,859,263 individuals at risk were vaccinated. In the region, a total of 21,338,935 small ruminants were vaccinated from 2017–2022, resulting in an overall vaccine coverage of 19.1%. These findings indicate ongoing PPRV circulation in the study area, underscoring the need to expand vaccination campaigns, assess vaccine efficacy and diagnostic tests, and strengthen surveillance to achieve PPR eradication. Bale Zone Eradication Oromia Region Outbreak PPR Sero-prevalence Sero-monitoring Small ruminants Vaccination Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 1. INTRODUCTION Animal rearing is an integral part of agricultural production. A total of 2.1 billion heads of small ruminants are found worldwide, and they are the primary livestock resource for many poor rural families around the globe, including subsistence farmers, landless villagers, and pastoralists [ 1 ]. Ethiopia has one of the largest livestock inventories in Africa, supporting the livelihoods of an estimated 80% of the rural poor in the country. According to the Ethiopia Statistical Service [ 2 ], the total small ruminant population in Ethiopia is estimated at 52.5 million goats and 42.9 million sheep. The Oromia Region has a total of 7.6 million goats and 9.3 million sheep [ 2 ]. Small ruminant can be raised in arid and semi-arid areas and around households due to low investment requirements, minimal feed needs, and a short period to generate output and income [ 3 ]. Although the populations of sheep and goats are large in the country, their production and productivity are low. Among the limiting factors, infectious diseases are the primary constraint. Among the different infectious diseases, Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is a major problem affecting small ruminant production and productivity [ 4 ]. The PPR virus (PPRV), which causes PPR, is the prototype member of the genus Morbillivirus in the family Paramyxoviridae and the order Mononegavirales [ 5 ]. The disease is highly contagious disease, and once newly introduced, the virus can infect up to 90% of sheep and goats in the area, with mortality reaching up to 70% of infected animals [ 6 ]. Peste des petits ruminants is characterized by fever, anorexia, necrotic stomatitis, diarrhea, mucopurulent nasal and ocular discharges, enteritis, and pneumonia [ 4 ]. The risk factors that increase the prevalence and incidence of infection include variation in small ruminant breeds, geographical differences, and farmers’ husbandry practices [ 7 ]. Mortality is higher in young animals compared to adults, and goats are more severely affected than sheep [ 8 ]. Climatic conditions are also a risk factor, with outbreaks most frequent during the rainy season or the cold dry season [ 9 ]. Peste des petits ruminants is currently considered one of the main transboundary and notifiable diseases, representing an emerging or re-emerging threat in many countries. It causes estimated economic losses of USD 1.45 billion to USD 2.1 billion annually worldwide [ 10 ]. Studies in Ethiopia show that the financial loss due to mortality in affected animal farms averaged 2,146,875.00 birr ( $ 92,140.56) in both sheep and goat farms [ 11 ]. Considering the disease impact, in March 2015, PPR was targeted as a high-priority disease for progressive control and eradication by 2030, using vaccination as a key tool, conducted in response to outbreaks (ring vaccination). However, only a few countries, such as Morocco and Somalia, have implemented mass vaccination combined with intensified surveillance or other control measures [ 1 ]. In Ethiopia, vaccination campaigns currently use a ring vaccination strategy with a risk-based surveillance approach to control PPR disease, recognizing that effectively vaccinated animals develop lifelong immunity, aiding eradication [ 12 ]. The PPR eradication movement is ongoing. Recent epidemiological assessments and evaluations of animal immunity clarify the effects of PPR control in various countries. Global PPR studies show that 22 countries experienced more than 100 outbreaks between 2015 and 2019, including 15 in Africa and 7 in Asia. In Africa, reported outbreaks increased in 2018 and 2019 in Algeria, Ethiopia, and Guinea, presenting significant challenges for successful eradication. Eradicating PPR by 2030 requires substantial effort in countries where the disease occurs. The eradication strategy involves strengthening veterinary health services, improving disease surveillance, conducting vaccination campaigns, and promoting awareness and capacity building [ 13 ]. Strengthening surveillance and post-vaccination sero-monitoring is essential for achieving PPR eradication [ 14 ]. Dereje [ 15 ] states that PPR is now a widespread viral disease affecting small ruminant in various production systems in Ethiopia. Studies from different regions report frequent outbreaks and high prevalence in sheep and goats: Benishangul Gumuz region, 75% [ 16 ]; Afar region, 60.15% [ 17 ]; East Shewa and Arsi Zones, 48.43% [ 18 ]; and Silte and Guraghe Zones, 29.2% [ 19 ]. Additional studies by Gizaw et al . [ 11 ] in Ada’ar and Mile (40.2%) in Afar region, and by Abesha et al . [ 20 ] in Benishangul Gumuz region (32.5%), indicate that PPR is widely prevalent in small ruminants in these areas. Since there is no general Differentiating Infected from Vaccinated Animals (DIVA) test available, the current data on PPR are ambiguous, as antibodies detected in blood may result from either infection or vaccination. Niedbalski et al . [ 13 ] note that, in the absence of DIVA tests, interpreting positive samples remains challenging in several countries. Therefore, surveillance strategies that account for vaccination history are essential. Although the eradication program is ongoing, integrated studies on sero-prevalence and post-vaccination sero-monitoring are key strategies for successful control and eradication, yet they remain scarce. Specifically, no information exists on PPR antibody status in unvaccinated and vaccinated animals in agro-pastoral districts of Bale Zone, Oromia, Southeastern Ethiopia. World organization for Animal Health (WOAH) and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO-UN) experts designing the recommended PPR control strategy agreed that vaccination campaigns should aim for a post-vaccination population immunity of at least 70%, a threshold used to evaluate campaign success through post-vaccination monitoring at epidemiological unit level [ 21 ] by international technical experts. This study aimed to support ongoing control and eradication efforts by identifying the current disease status in unvaccinated animals and the immunity developed in vaccinated small ruminants. It also assessed the regional status of the disease using retrospective data. Based on the findings, recommendations were made regarding vaccination strategies and vaccine effectiveness. This is particularly important because the FAO-UN and the Ethiopian Ministry of Agriculture have reaffirmed their commitment to eradicating PPR throughout Ethiopia. Therefore, the aim of this study was to estimate sero-prevalence, and conduct sero-monitoring of PPR and its associated risk factors in small ruminant in selected districts of Bale Zone, southeastern Ethiopia. Additionally, the study assessed retrospective data on PPR outbreaks, case distribution, and vaccination trends in the Oromia Region. 3. MATERIALS AND METHODS 3.1. Description of study areas The cross-sectional and retrospective study was conducted in Oromia Region, Ethiopia (Fig. 1 ). The small ruminant population in the region is larger than in other regions. The Oromia Region is the largest state in Ethiopia, with an estimated small ruminant population of 7.6 million goats and 9.3 million sheep [ 2 ]. The Bale Zone has 11 districts and is located in the southeastern part of Ethiopia, between 40.0276° E longitude and 7.1185° N latitude (Fig. 1 ). According to animal population data from the Zonal Agriculture Office, the Bale Zone holds about 2,574,072 cattle, 877,524 sheep, 1,359,815 goats, 132,452 horses, 68,973 mules, 233,212 donkeys, 89,612 camels, and 1,946,199 poultry [ 22 ]. Goba district is one of the administrative districts of the Bale Zone and is located south of Bale Robe town. About 45% of this district is rugged or mountainous. Mount Tullu Demtu and part of the Bale Mountains National Park are found in this district. These features account for about 27.6% of the district being pasture land, which is favorable for animal rearing. The district comprises 219,950 cattle, 180,688 sheep, 21,650 goats, 86,100 equines, and 135,831 poultry [ 23 ]. Sinana district has favorable climatic conditions for farming livelihoods and human settlement. It consists of 90% plain land and 10% highland, with an elevation of 2,492 m above sea level. The district has an annual temperature ranging from a minimum of 5°C to a maximum of 25°C. It experiences bimodal rainfall, with a mean annual rainfall of 1,400–2,800 mm. Crop production and animal rearing are the common agricultural activities of the local communities. The livestock population of the district comprises 272,001 cattle, 135,101 sheep, 28,700 goats, 45,500 equines, and 75,426 poultry [ 24 ]. Dinsho district also has favorable climatic conditions for farming, with annual temperatures ranging from a minimum of 5°C to a maximum of 25°C. The mean annual rainfall ranges from 1,100 to 1,500 mm. The district consists of 5% midland and 95% highland areas, with an altitude of 3,079 m above sea level. The livestock population of the district includes 110,414 cattle, 248,640 sheep, 18,815 goats, 45,595 equines, and 401,990 poultry [ 25 ]. Summary of the study area by topography, climate, and livestock population: Category Bale Zone Goba District Sinana District Dinsho District Location 40.0276° E longitude & 7.1185° N latitude; 45% rugged/mountainous; Bale Mountains National Park & 90% plain land, 10% highland; 2,492 m a.s.l 5% midland, 95% highland; 3,079 m a.s.l Climate — Tullu Demtu 27.6% Pasture land Temp: 5–25°C; Rainfall 1,400-2,800 mm Temp: 5–25°C; Rainfall 1,100-1,500 mm Cattle 2,574,072 219,950 272,001 110,414 Sheep 877,524 180,688 135,101 248,640 Goats 1,359,815 21,650 28,700 18,815 Horses 132,452 86,100 Equines 45,500 Equines 45,595 Equines Donkeys 233,212 Mules 68,973 Camels 89,612 — — — Poultry 1,946,199 135,831 75,426 401,990 3.2. Study animals and exclusion and inclussion criterea For sero-prevalence, the study populations were indigenous breeds of both male and female sheep and goats aged over six months and under three years, kept under an extensive farming system with no history of PPR vaccination for the past three years. Moreover, small ruminants younger than six months and older than three years and brought in from other herds were excluded from sampling to avoid seropositivity due to maternal antibodies and vaccination, as a confounder. Maternal antibodies in kids are detectable up to six months [ 26 ]. For sero-monitoring, the study population consisted of vaccinated animals aged between six months and three years. Sheep and goats were sampled from those that had been vaccinated at least three months earlier, since the PPR vaccine is known to provide protective immunity as early as 21 days post-vaccination (dpv) [ 26 ]. During sampling animals entered to herd after vaccination were excluded based on owners histories. In this study, age of sheep and goats included was categorized in to young and adults based on teeth eruption according to ESGPIP [ 27 ]. For retrospective study, the study population consisted of all reported data on PPR outbreaks, PPR cases, and PPR vaccination coverages. Data were obtained from both active and passive surveillance systems. Active surveillance data were collected through Participatory Disease Surveillance (PDS) and Outbreak Investigations (OBI). In addition, passive surveillance data were obtained from the Disease Outbreak and Vaccination Activity Report (DOVAR) system, which compiles monthly reports submitted to the Oromia Agricultural Office. 3.3. Study design The study consisted of two components. A cross-sectional study was conducted from January to November 2024 in three districts of Bale Zone (Goba, Sinana, and Dinsho), Oromia Region, to assess the seroprevalence of PPR infection in non-vaccinated small ruminants and to evaluate the immune response status in vaccinated animals. In addition, a retrospective study was performed using secondary data obtained from the Oromia Agriculture Office to analyze PPR outbreak reports, case distribution, and vaccination activities in small rumminats across the Oromia Region from 2016 to 2022. Since it is serologically difficult to distinguish PPR-vaccinated animals from those that have recovered from natural PPR infection (due to the absence of a DIVA test), questionnaires were used as a source of information for seroprevalence and seromonitoring during serum collection. In the absence of DIVA tests, and as reported in several studies from different countries, interpretation of positive samples remains challenging. Therefore, a careful surveillance strategy that takes vaccination history into account should be considered [ 13 ]. 3.4. Sample size determination For sero-prevalence, sample size was determined using the formula described by Thrusfield [ 28 ] considering an expected previous prevalence of 50% in the Zone and absolute precision of 5% with 95% confidence interval (CI). Where: N= sample size; d=Desired Absolute Precision P exp = Expected Prevalence Accordingly, 420 serum samples were collected from sheep and goats in the study areas. For seromonitoring, the sample size was determined using an expected seropositivity of 80% among field-level vaccinated small ruminants, as per the Global Control and Eradication Strategy [ 10 ]. Based on the above formula, with 5% absolute precision and a 95% confidence interval, a sample size of 246 was calculated. 3.5. Sampling method The Zone and three districts were purposively selected for the study. Goba and Sinana districts were chosen for sero-prevalence investigation due to the absence of PPR outbreak reports during the past three years, no history of PPR vaccination, no previous PPR surveys, and large sheep and goat populations. In each district, five representative kebeles and three villages per kebele were selected using simple random sampling. Kebele is the smallest official administrative unit in Ethiopia. From each village, two to three herds (households) were selected, and an average of six sheep and goats per herd were sampled using stratification. Depending on herd size, a minimum of two and a maximum of 10 animals were sampled per farm that was privately owned by an individual. In total, 420 animals were sampled from 10 kebeles , 30 villages, and 75 herds. Villages were defined as flocks sharing common grazing areas and watering points. Sampling of small ruminant was proportionally allocated by species, herd, and district. Herds were classified as small (5–15), medium (16–30), and large (≥ 31 animals). Of the 420 animals sampled, 190 from Sinana and 230 were from Goba; 90 were goats and 330 sheep, comprising 143 males and 277 females. Age distribution showed 251 animals aged > 0.6 to 2 years and 169 aged > 2 to 3 years. Dinsho district was purposively selected for sero-monitoring due to frequent PPR cases. Records from Asela Regional Veterinary Laboratory (ARVL) and the district agriculture office indicated outbreaks in late 2023, followed by ring vaccination of 92,600 animals in five kebeles . Three kebeles and three villages per kebele were randomly selected, and 246 animals were sampled, excluding those introduced into the herds after vaccination. Individual animal history was collected using a structured questionnaire administered through face-to-face interviews in Afan Oromo or Amharic, ensuring all sampled herds contributed questionnaire data. Source of data for a retrospective study PPR is a notifiable disease in Ethiopia, and all cases must be reported to the National Epidemiology Department of the Federal Ministry of Agriculture. For this study, data were obtained from disease outbreak, surveillance, and vaccination activity reports submitted to the Oromia Agricultural Office between 2016 and 2022 by the Regional Veterinary Laboratory Centers of Oromia Region. 3.6. Data collection method A structured questionnaire was designed to collect data on outbreak experience, clinical signs, vaccination status, common diseases, possible risk factors, and surveillance history of PPR through interviews with the herds owners from which blood samples were taken. For serum collection, approximately 7 mL of blood was aseptically collected from the jugular vein of each small ruminants using sterile plain vacutainer tubes and needles. The samples were properly labeled, and allowed to clot at room temperature for 24 hours. The separated sera were gently transferred into sterile cryovials, labeled with animal identification numbers, and stored at -20°C until testing [ 20 ]. During this study, the geographic coordinates (GPS) of each Kebele were recorded and geo-referenced using a GIS to represent the location of the sampled herd. Retrospective data on PPR disease outbreaks, case distribution, and the number of vaccinated animals in the Oromia Region were obtained from the Oromia Agriculture office vaccination campaign records. Specifically, data were obtained from the PDS, OBI, and DOVAR reports covering a six-year period. These data were used to analyze trends in disease outbreak and vaccination coverage, providing a snapshot of the regional PPR situation to inform future control and eradication strategies. Operational definition Temporal PPR outbreak events were categorized by year. The spatial distribution of PPR outbreaks was determined using the longitude and latitude coordinates of each outbreak location. Confirmed outbreaks were reported through DOVAR when cases were examined and diagnosed by regional laboratories using rapid PPR tests and ELISA, with positive results. Suspected outbreaks were reported through DOVAR based on presumptive diagnoses without laboratory confirmation. The total number of vaccinated animals included animals vaccinated to control disease outbreaks (ring vaccination) and animals vaccinated for preventive purposes before an outbreak occurred (prophylactic vaccination). 3.7. Sample transportation and laboratory procedures The collected serum samples used to detect antibodies due to natural infection were shipped in an icebox to the ARVL and kept at -20°C until tested. Samples collected from vaccinated animals were shipped to the Animal Health Institute (former NAHDIC, Sebeta, Ethiopia) and stored in a refrigerator until tested. Competitive or blocking enzyme linked immunosorbant assay(c-ELISA) A c-ELISA was used to detect antibodies against PPR in serum samples from non-vaccinated and vaccinated animals for sero-prevalence and sero-monitoring, respectively, following the manufacturer’s instructions (ID Vet, rue Louis Pasture-Grabels France). Competitive ELISA PPR kit has sensitivity (Se) of 94.4% and specificity (Sp) of 99.8% [ 29 ]. Briefly, 25µL of dilution buffer-13 (supplied kit) was added to each well, followed by 25µL of positive control into A1 and B1, 25µL negative control into C1 and D1, and 25µL test samples in the remaining wells. The plate was then incubated at 37°C for 45 minutes and washed three times with 300 µL of wash solution. Then, 100µL of 1X conjugate was added to each well and incubated at room temperature for 30 minutes. After 3 times washing, 100 µL substrate solutions were added to each well and incubated for 15 minutes in the dark. Lastly, the reaction was stopped with 100 µL stop solution, and optical density (OD) was read using ELISA micro plate reader with an inference filter of 450 nm. Check the annex 3 for brief procedures and result interpretation. 3.8. Data management and analysis All collected data obtained from laboratory, field and retrospective data, were entered into Microsoft Excel spreadsheets and analyzed using Epi-info software (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, version 3.5.1., Atlanta, USA) and SPSS software (IBM Corp., IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version 24.0. Armonk, NY, USA). Descriptive analysis was used to summarize the characteristics of the data. This included seroprevalence and seromonitoring data (proportions of serologically positive samples in relation to each potential risk factor); questionnaire data (distribution of responses and related categorical variables); and retrospective study data (outbreaks, case distribution, and number of animals vaccinated) were summarized over time and by location to identify trends and patterns beyond spatial mapping. The apparent prevalence (AP) was adjusted to true prevalence (TP) using the Rogan–Gladen correction formula TP=(AP + Sp−1)/(Se + Sp−1) [ 30 ], considering the sensitivity (94.4%) and specificity (99.8%) of the c-ELISA test. Associations between potential risk factors (geographical location, age, sex, species, and herd size) and sample positivity were screened using the univariable analysis (logistic regression analyses and chi-square tests). Variables with p-value ≤ 0.25 in bivariable logistic regression were entered into the multivariable logistic regression analysis [ 31 ]. Adjusted odds ratios (OR) with 95% confidence intervals were used to determine the strength of association, and statistical significance was considered at P < 0.05. The maps of the study area and spatial distribution of the disease in the region were generated by Arc GIS (Geographical information system) version 3.3 using GPS (Global Positioning System) coordinates [ 32 ]. 4. RESULTS 4.1. Overall sero- prevalence and distribution of PPR sero-positivity in Bale Zone In this study, out of 420 sera collected from sheep and goats, 15.2% (64/420) (95%CI: 12.0%,19.1%) were found positive for antibodies against PPRV infection. The sero-prevalence of PPR virus in small ruminants was 12.2% (28/230) (95%CI: 8.2%,17.1%) in Goba and 19% (36/190) (95%CI: 13.6,25.3%) in Sinana districts of the Bale Zone. By species, 12.1% (40/330) (95%CI: 8.9%, 16.3%) of sheep and 26.7% (24/90) (95%CI: 17.9%,37%) of goats tested positive. After adjusting for test sensitivity and specificity, the overall true prevalence in small ruminants was 15.9%, with 12.6% in sheep and 28.1% in goats. Similarly, the true prevalence of PPRV in Goba and Sinana districts was 12.7% and 20%, respectively (Table 1 ). Table 1 Seroprevalence of PPR disease in non-vaccinated animals in Bale Zone, Oromia Region, Ethiopia Risk factor Category N Apparent prevalence True prevalence (%) n (%) 95%CI Districts Goba 230 28(12.2) 8.2,17.1 12.7 Sinana 190 36(18.9) 13.6,25.3 20.0 Species Sheep 330 40(12.1) 8.9,16.3 12.6 Goat 90 24(26.7) 17.9,37 28.1 Sex Male 143 14 (9.8) 5.5,15.9 10.2 Female 277 50(18.0) 13.7,23.1 18.9 Age Adult 169 17(10.1) 16.0,15.6 10.5 Young 251 47(18.7) 14.1,24.1 19.6 Herd size Small 164 15 (9.2) 5.2,14.6 9.6 Medium 141 23(16.3) 10.6,23.5 17.1 Large 115 26(22.6) 15.3,31.3 23.8 Over all 230 64(15.2) 12.0,19.1 15.9 Key : CI-confidence interval; N- number examined; n-number with positive result 4.2. Association between some of the risk factors with occurrence of PPR sero-positivity In this study, hypothesized risk factors for PPR sero-prevalence were initially screened using bivariable analysis (chi-square and logistic regression). The results revealed that sex, age, species, and herd size were statistically significantly associated with PPR virus seropositivity (P < 0.05), whereas geographical area did not. However, all variables (geographical area, sex, age, species, and herd size) were entered into the multivariable logistic regression model because their p-values were < 0.25 in bivariable logistic regression (Table 2 ). Table 2 Chi-square and Univariable logistic regression model of risk factors associated with PPR occurrences in Bale Zone, Oromia region, Ethiopia, January to November 2024 Risk factor Category N Prevalence X 2 Df P-value OR 95% CI P-value n (%) 95%CI Districts Goba 230 28(12.2) 8.2,17.1 3.7 1 0.055 Ref Sinana 190 36(18.9) 13.6,25.3 1.7 1, 2.9 0.056 Species Sheep 330 40(12.1) 8.9,16.3 11.6 1 < 0.001 Ref Goat 90 24(26.7) 17.9,37 2.6 1.5,4.7 0.001 Sex Male 143 14 (9.8) 5.5,15.9 5 1 0.026 Ref Female 277 50(18.0) 13.7,23.1 2.03 1.1,3.8 0.028 Age Adult 169 17(10.1) 16.0,15.6 5.9 1 0.015 Ref Young 251 47(18.7) 14.1,24.1 2.06 1.1,3.7 0.017 Herd size Small 164 15 (9.2) 5.2,14.6 9.6 2 0.008 Ref Medium 141 23(16.3) 10.6,23.5 1.9 1,3.9 0.062 Large 115 26(22.6) 15.3,31.3 2.9 1.5,5.8 0.002 Over all 230 64(15.2) 12.0,19.1 Key : Df-degrees of freedom; CI-confidence interval; N- number examined; n-number with positive result; OR-odds ratio In the final multivariable logistic regression model, age, area, species, and herd size were significantly associated with the occurrence of PPR disease (p < 0.05). Animals in the younger age group were 2.54 times more likely to be seropositive than older animals (OR = 2.54; 95%CI: 1.4,4.8; p = 0.004). Regarding herd size, animals from medium-sized herds were 2.34 times more likely to be positive than those from small herds (OR = 2.34; 95%CI: 1.1,4.8; p = 0.021). Similarly, animals from large herds had 2.85 times higher odds of being positive compared with animals from small herds (OR = 2.85, 95%CI: 1.4,5.8; p = 0.004). Sex was also significantly associated with the disease. Female animals were 2.57 times more likely than adults (OR = 2.57; 1.3,5; p = 0.006). Species also showed a significant association with the outcome. Goats were 2.76 times more affected than sheep (OR = 2.76; 95% CI: 1.5, 5.0; P = 0.001). District was excluded from the final model because it was not statistically significant and did not act as a confounder (Table 3 ). Table 3 Multivariable logistic regression model of risk factors associated with PPR occurrences in Bale zone, Oromia, Ethiopia, January to November 2024 Risk factor Category N n (%) OR 95% CI P-value Species Sheep 330 40 (12.1) Ref Goat 90 24 (26.7) 2.76 1.5,5.0 0.001 Sex Male 143 14 (9.8) Ref Female 277 50 (18.0) 2.57 1.3,5.0 0.006 Age Adult 169 17 (10.0) Ref Young 251 47 (18.7) 2.54 1.4,4.8 0.004 Herd Size Small 164 15 (9.2) Ref Medium 141 23 (16.3) 2.34 1.1,4.8 0.021 Large 115 26 (22.6) 2.85 1.4,5.8 0.004 Key : CI-confidence interval; OR-odds ratio; N-number examined; n-number with positive result 4.3. Sero monitoring of PPR vaccinated small ruminants in Bale Zone The overall antibody presence after immunization was 76% (187/246) (95%CI: 70.2,81.2) in the Dinsho district of Bale Zone. In the study area, the prevalence of antibodies developed in goats was 77.55% (38/49) (95%CI: 69.0,81.5) and in sheep 75.6% (149/197) (95%CI: 63.4,88.2) after three months of field vaccination. After adjusting for test sensitivity and specificity, the overall true prevalence of antibodies developed in small ruminants was 80.5%, with 80% in sheep and 82.2% in goats (Table 4 ). Table 4 Anti-body prevalence in vaccinated animals in Dinsho district, Bale Zone, Oromia region, Ethiopia Risk factor Category N Apparent prevalence True antibody prevalence (%) n(%) 95%CI Kebele Hora Saba 81 58 (71.6) 69.8,85.8 75.8 Dinsho 01 53 41(77.4) 60.5,81.1 82.0 Gojera 112 88 (78.6) 63.8,87.7 83.2 Species Ovine 197 149 (75.6) 63.4,88.2 80.0 Caprine 49 38 (77.6) 69.0,81.5 82.2 Sex Female 143 105 (73.4) 65.4,80.5 77.7 Male 103 82 (79.6) 70.5,86.9 84.3 Age Young 103 69 (67.0) 57.0,75.9 70.9 Adult 143 118 (82.5) 75.3,88.4 87.4 Over all 246 187(76.0) 70.2,81.2 80.5 Key : CI-confidence interval; N- number examined; n-number with positive result 4.4. Some of the risk factors for anti-body prevalence in vaccinated animals in Bale Zone All risk factors were initially evaluated using bivariable analysis. The bivariable logistic regression results indicated that only age was statistically significantly associated with anti-body prevalence in vaccinated animals (OR = 2.33; 95%CI:1.3,4.2; P = 0.005). Other variables (geographical area, sex, and species) were not entered into the multivariable logistic regression model because their p-values were > 0.25 in bivariable logistic regression (Table 5 ). Table 5 Chi-square and Univariable logistic regression model of risk factors associated with PPR occurrences in Bale zone, Oromia region, Ethiopia Risk factor Category N n (%) 95%CI X 2 Df P-value OR 95% CI P-value Kebele Hora Saba 81 58 (71.6) 69.8,85.8 1.3 2 0.517 Dinsho 01 53 41(77.4) 60.5,81.1 1.45 0.8,2.8 0.267 Gojera 112 88 (78.6) 63.8,87.7 1.07 0.5,2.4 0.860 Species Ovine 197 149 (75.6) 63.4,88.2 0.1 1 0.779 Caprine 49 38 (77.6) 69.0,81.5 1.11 0.5,2.3 0.779 Sex Female 143 105 (73.4) 65.4,80.5 1.3 1 0.262 Male 103 82 (79.6) 70.5,86.9 1.41 0.8,2.6 0.264 Age Young 103 69 (67.0) 57.0,75.9 7.9 1 0.005 Adult 143 118 (82.5) 75.3,88.4 2.33 1.3,4.2 0.005 Over all 246 187(76.0) 70.2,81.2 Key : Df-degrees of freedom; CI-confidence interval; N- number examined; n-number with positive result; OR-odds ratio Multivariable logistic regression analysis showed age was the only significant factor (P < 0.05). Vaccinated adults were 2.35 times more likely to develop antibodies than young animals (OR = 2.35; 95% CI: 1.28,4.2; P = 0.006) (Table 6 ). Species, area, and sex were excluded from the final model because they were not statistically significant and did not act as a confounder. Table 6 Multivariable logistic regression model of the risk factors associated with antibody development in vaccinated small ruminants in Bale Zone, Oromia Region, Ethiopia Risk factor Category N n (%) OR 95% CI P-value Age Young 103 69 (67) 1 Ref - Adult 143 118 (82.5) 2.35 1.3,4.3 0.006 Key : CI-confidence interval; N- number examined; n-number with positive result; OR-odds ratio 4.5. Questionnaire survey results analysis Majority (62.6%) of the owners reported no small ruminant disease surveillance and that ovine pasteurellosis was more common than PPR as reported by 38.7% and 12.0% of respondents respectively. Outbreaks of PPR were reported by a minority (28.0%) with most outbreaks occurring more than two years ago (47.6% respondents). Disease symptoms that were PPR-like were reported by only about one third (33.3%) of the respondents with goats reported as being most affected (57.1% respondents). About half (47.6%) of those who responded did not know the origin of PPR outbreaks, and that all herds (100% respondents) mixed at watering/grazing points and also a considerable proportion of herds had contact with wildlife (32% respondents). Almost all respondents (90.7%) reported that their small ruminants were vaccinated with vaccination against ovine pasteurellosis being the most commonly administered (54.4%respondents). The majority of the owners (81.3%) responded that they did not introduce new shoats in to their herds, and all small ruminant flocks (100% respondents) do not migrate outside their village (Table 7 ). Table 7 Descriptive statistics of questionnaire survey on outbreaks and vaccination trends in Oromia Region, Ethiopia Variables Categories N n Percent (%) Small ruminant disease surveillance Yes 75 10 13.4 No 75 47 62.6 I do not know 75 18 24.0 Common disease of sheep and goat Ovine Pasteurellosis 75 29 38.7 SGP 75 18 24.0 PPR 75 9 12.0 Parasite 75 13 17.3 Other 75 6 8.0 Occurrence of disease outbreak(s) Yes 75 21 28.0 No 75 54 72.2 Time outbreaks occurred 2 years 21 10 47.6 Nasal discharge, anorexia, and diarrhoea, Enteritis-stomatitis Yes 21 7 33.3 No 21 14 66.7 More affected small ruminants Sheep 21 4 19.0 Goat 21 12 57.1 Both 21 5 23.8 Common source/origin of the outbreak Neighbouring herds 21 6 28.6 New introducing 21 2 9.5 Wild animals 21 3 14.3 I do not know 21 10 47.6 History of vaccination Vaccinated 75 68 90.7 No 75 7 9.3 Types of vaccine SGP 68 13 19.1 Ovine Pasteurellosis 68 37 54.4 PPR 68 13 19.1 I do not know 68 5 7.4 Contact of herd with other herds Yes 75 75 100.0 No 75 0 0.0 Contact of herd with wildlife Yes 75 24 32.0 No 75 51 68.0 Movement/migration Yes 75 0 0.0 No 75 75 100 Introduced new shoats Yes 75 14 18.7 No 75 61 81.3 Key : N-Number of respondent; n-number of respondents; SGP-sheep and goat pox 4.6. A retrospective analysis of PPR outbreaks and vaccine trends in Oromia Region From 2016 to 2022, a total of 181 outbreaks, 13,710 cases, and 3,162 deaths were reported from different agro-ecological regions of Oromia, giving an overall case fatality of 23.1% (3162/13710). The number of outbreaks, cases, and deaths varied across the years. The highest number of outbreaks (46) and cases (4765) reported in 2019, while 2018 recorded the highest number of deaths (1179). In contrast, 2017 and 2022 had the lowest number of outbreaks (10 each). The case fatality also varied, with the highest case fatality in 2022 (50.4%; 142/282) despite relatively few cases (282), and the lowest case fatality reported in 2020 (16%; 309/1929) (Fig. 2 ). In Oromia Region, a total of 347 PDS and OBI active surveillances were conducted by vaccination campaign from 2017 to 2022 and 131 PPR outbreaks were recorded. In areas where PDS and OBI conducted, 2266 PPR positive cases were identified and 1,859,263 populations at risk were vaccinated. The distributions of these occurrences were highest in Borena, East Shewa, and Bale zones and moderate in the other zones of Oromia Region (Fig. 3 ). A total of 2266 PPR cases were reported between 2017 and 2022 from a population at risk of 1859263 animals. Of the total cases, 1952 (86.1%) were reported through OBI, while 314 (13.9%) were identified and confirmed through PDS, indicating that OBI surveillance contributed the majority of reported cases during the study period. The number of reported PPR cases varied considerably by year. The lowest number of cases was recorded in 2019 with only 66 cases, while the highest number occurred in 2021 with 778 cases. A sharp increase in cases was observed between 2019 and 2020, rising from 66 to 618 cases, and the number remained high in 2021 before declining to 388 cases in 2022. The population at risk also fluctuated across the years, increasing from 95795 animals in 2017 to a peak of 609368 animals in 2021, before decreasing to 269459 animals in 2022. PDS reports data were not available in 2017 and 2019, but their contribution increased in later years, particularly in 2021 when 237 cases were reported, representing the highest PDS contribution during the study period(Table 8 ). Table 8 Number of PPR cases, Oromia Region, Ethiopia, 2017–2022 Year OBI PDS Total Cases Population at risk Cases Population at risk Cases Population at risk 2017 256 95795 - - 256 95795 2018 150 132710 10 2987 160 135697 2019 66 180433 0 31245 66 211678 2020 606 444157 12 93109 618 537266 2021 541 396920 237 212448 778 609368 2022 333 205935 55 63524 388 269459 Total 1952 1455950 314 403313 2266 1859263 Note : Participatory Disease Surveillance (PDS) and Outbreak Investigation (OBI) are active surveillance methods used to collect animal health data such as PPR disease outbreaks, number of cases, and vaccinated animals through campaigns led by regional veterinary laboratory staff. Data are collected directly by veterinarians or investigators using participatory approaches, field investigation and questionnaires surveys and other appropriate data collection methods. The overall vaccination coverage against PPR in small ruminants in Oromia Region increased progressively from 8.5% (1529442/17,995,956) in 2017 to 36.7% (6774578/18472610) in 2022, with goats consistently showing higher coverage (23.2%) than sheep (15.7%). A total of 20,840,010 small ruminants were vaccinated, containing 9,173,318 sheep and 11,666,692 goats. A temporal trend analysis showed that vaccination coverage was very low in the early years (20017 to 2019), with total coverage ranging from 8.5% in 2017 to 11.5% in 2019. Coverage began to improve in 2020, reaching 15.7%, with vaccination rates for sheep and goats nearly equal, 15.7% and 15.8%, respectively. In 2021, vaccination coverage increased to 32.3%, and in 2022, it peaked at 36.7%, with goats achieving 47.5% coverage. Especially, the total number of vaccinated animals was greatest in 2022, 6774578 animals. Vaccine coverage was estimated approximately as the total number of animals vaccinated divided by the total population. This method may underestimate true coverage, as not all animals may have been targeted or accessible (Fig. 4 ). 5. DISCUSSIONS Despite that FAO-UN and WOAH intends to eradicate PPR by 2030, studies in the country continue to report seropositivity in unvaccinated sheep and goats. In the present study, an overall seroprevalence of 15.2% was recorded in unvaccinated animals from Goba and Sinana districts of Bale Zone. Seroprevalence was higher in goats (26.7%) than in sheep (12.1%), indicating greater exposure among goats. This finding highlight the ongoing importance of PPR in the study areas and the need for intensified control measures. The result aligns with reports by Fentie et al . [ 33 ], who reported 18.3% from three Zones of the Amahara region, and Ejigu et al. [ 34 ], who reported 10.3% from North Shewa, Oromia Region. The seroprevalence detected in the current study was higher than previously reported by Gelana et al . [ 35 ] in the Horo Guduru Zone of the Oromia Region (5.71%), Yitagesu [ 36 ] in the Buno Bedele Zone of the Oromia Region (4.7%), Gebre et al . [ 37 ] in southwest Ethiopia (2.1%), Abraham et al. [ 38 ] in the Afar Region and Borena Zone (6.8%), and Waret-Szkuta et al. [ 39 ] in different regions of Ethiopia: Oromia (1.7%), Amhara (4.6%), and the Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples’ Region (1.8%). However, it was lower than the reports of Hirut et al. [ 40 ] in the Adama District of the Oromia Region (30.2%), Gari et al . [ 18 ] in East Shewa and Arsi Zones of the Oromia Region (48.43%), Abesha et al. [ 20 ] in the Benishangul-Gumuz Region (32.5%), Wondemagegn [ 41 ] in the Somali Region (41%), Kifle and Tsegaw [ 42 ] in the Metema District of the Amhara Region (26.3%), Berihun et al. [ 43 ] in the Tigray Region (47.5%), Gizaw et al . [ 11 ] in the Adar and Mille Zones of the Afar Region (40.2%), Hailegebreal [ 19 ] in the Silte and Guraghe Zones (29.2%), Dubie et al . [ 17 ] in Afar (Adar and Mille) (60.15%), and Yalew et al . [ 16 ] in the Asosa Zone of the Benishangul-Gumuz Region (75%). The findings of the current study were also lower than reports from other African and Asian countries, including 45.0% in the Republic of Niger [ 44 ], 67.9% in India [ 45 ], 45.6% in Sudan [ 46 ], 23.2% in Nigeria [ 47 ], 38.2% in Saudi Arabia [ 48 ], and 61.8% in Sudan [ 49 ]. The difference prevalence of PPR observed in current and previous studies in different parts in Ethiopia and other countries could be attributed to the differences in surveillance strategies, management practices, vaccination status, uncontrolled animals movement and agro ecological differences. Agroecology and vegetation determine the spread of the virus during an outbreak of PPR [ 50 ]. In current study, the multivariable logistic regression model revealed that species was significantly associated with the sero-prevalence of PPR, with prevalence in goats being higher (26.7%) than in sheep (12.1%). Similar findings have been reported from different geographical areas of Ethiopia, showing a higher prevalence of PPR in goats than in sheep: Fentie et al . [ 33 ] (21.57% in goats and 14.89% in sheep); Delil et al . [ 51 ] (42.6% in goats and 7.3% in sheep); Wondimagegn [ 41 ] (42% in goats and 39% in sheep); Yitagesu [ 36 ] (6% in goats and 2.6% in sheep); [ 37 ] (2.3% in goats and 1.8% in sheep); and Dubie et al. [ 17 ] (68.18% in goats and 38.18% in sheep). Abubakar et al. [ 29 ] also reported similar findings (56.3% in goats and 49.5% in sheep) in Pakistan. Goats were generally more severely affected by PPR virus than sheep, showing pronounced clinical signs, while sheep often develop mild disease [ 52 ]. However, studies from Ethiopia have reported higher sero-prevalence in sheep than goats, including findings by Abraham et al. [ 38 ] in Afar and Borena (13% in sheep and 9% in goats) and Gelana et al . [ 35 ] in Horo Guduru, Oromia (6.98% in sheep and 4.53% in goats). Similar patterns were reported elsewhere, including in Sudan [[ 49 ] (62.9% in sheep and 59.7% in goats); [ 53 ] (68.1% in sheep and 43.5% in goats)], Pakistan [[ 54 ] (24.9% in sheep and 15.36% in goats); [ 55 ] (51.5% in sheep and 46.5% in goat)], and Nigeria [[ 45 ] (57% in sheep and 44% in goats)]. Variations in prevalence in current finding and previous study may reflect differences in management systems and geospatial locations. The sero-prevalence of PPR was higher in females (18.0%) than males (9.8%), with a statistically significant difference, indicating females are more likely to be infected. This finding agrees with reports by Afera et al . [ 56 ], who reported 47.5% in female and 43.75% in male; Gebre et al. [ 37 ], who reported 2.2% in males and 1.8% in females and Megersa et al. [ 57 ], who report 32.2% in males and 22.1% in males from Ethiopia. It is also consistent with findings by Senthilkumar et al . [ 58 ] from India (75% in females and 53% in males) and WOAH [ 59 ]. The higher prevalence in females may be due to longer retention for breeding and production or reproduction-related stress. However, this contrasts with studies by Abesha et al . [ 20 ] and Alemu et al . [ 60 ] from Ethiopia; Nizamani et al . [ 61 ] from Pakistan, and Swai et al . [ 62 ] from Tanzania, which reported higher seroprevalence in males. Peste des petits ruminants antibody prevalence showed a significant age-related difference among small ruminants. Young animals aged 6 months to 2 years had higher sero-prevalence (18.7%) than adults aged 2 to 3 years (10.1%). Young animals were about twice as likely to be infected compared to adults, indicating greater susceptibility. This may be due to declining maternal antibodies and nutritional factors. Similar findings were reported by Gebre et al . [ 37 ] and Waret-Szkuta et al . [ 39 ] from Ethiopia, Bello et al . [ 63 ] from Nigeria, but contrast with Dubie et al . [ 17 ] and Wondimagegn [ 41 ] from Ethiopia; Nizamani et al . [ 61 ] from Pakistan; and De et al . [ 64 ] from India. Peste des petits ruminants sero-prevalence studies were limited in the Ethiopian highlands compared with the lowlands, where lowland agro-ecology has been widely reported as a risk factor for PPR outbreak. Infection varies by geographical location [ 65 ]. In Ethiopia, free-range grazing and seasonal animal movement, especially in low-altitude dry areas, facilitate PPR transmission [ 34 ]. Similar findings were reported in Sudan [ 49 ] and Nigeria [ 63 ]. Lower risk is associated with higher altitudes [ 41 , 37 ]. However, the current study revealed notable sero-prevalence (15.2%) in highland areas (Goba and Sinana), indicating endemic viral circulation despite limited animal movement. This study indicated that PPR outbreak was significantly affected by herd size. Animals in large herds were 2.9 times more likely to develop PPR virus infection than those in small herds. This finding agrees with reports by Gelana et al. [ 35 ] and Gari et al. [ 18 ] from Ethiopia, WOAH [ 59 ], but contrasts with Saeed et al. [ 66 ] from Sudan. The higher prevalence in large herds may result from overcrowding and increased contact, which facilitate virus transmission. Despite vaccination efforts in Bale Zone, no sero-monitoring studies had been conducted in the Zone in general, and specifically none in Dinsho District, even though PPR outbreaks are frequently reported and vaccination has been implemented in the district. During recent outbreaks in the last quarter of 2023, risk-based vaccination was conducted in villages near the outbreak areas, covering 92,600 small ruminants in five kebeles of Dinsho district. Based on this, a sero-monitoring study was conducted in three vaccinated kebeles of the district to assess the immunity developed in sheep and goat against PPRV; consequently, the level of population immunity following vaccination estimated. Balamurugan et al . [ 67 ] reported that prevalence studies assessing PPRV antibodies and immunity status are crucial for PPR eradication, including post-vaccination evaluation or sero-monitoring to determine vaccine efficacy and vaccination effectiveness. Similarly, Abesha et al. [ 20 ] emphasized that herd immunity detection and epidemiological surveys help to understand disease status and to design effective disease control programs. In the current study, the overall post-vaccination antibody prevalence was 76.0%, with seropositivity of 71.6% in Hora Sobba, 77.4% in Dinsho 01, and 78.6% in Gojera kebeles of Dinsho district, Bale Zone, Oromia Region, Ethiopia. This finding suggests that a significant proportion of animals developed detectable antibodies following vaccination. The present antibody prevalence was higher than reports by Faris et al . [ 68 ] in Ethiopia (61.13%) using the Nigeria 75/1 strain PPR vaccine, the vaccine currently using for eradication, Luka et al . [ 69 ] in Uganda (55.26%), and Kumbe et al . [ 70 ] in Ethiopia’s Borena Region (68.8%)(88/128). Such variations may be attributed to differences in sample size, sampling methods, vaccine type, animal management, and environmental factors, as well as cold chain maintenance, which is critical for live-attenuated PPR vaccines. The findings were consistent with reports by Kabir et al . [ 71 ] in Bangladesh (75%), Balamurugan et al . [ 67 ] in India (73.4%), and Regmi et al. [ 72 ] in Nepal (75.2%). However, they are lower than the 97% seroprevalence reported by Iqbal et al . [ 73 ] in Pakistan, possibly reflecting superior vaccine handling and delivery. Adopting as similar vaccination strategies as in Pakistan could improve seroconversion and enhance PPR eradication efforts in Ethiopia. It has been estimated that achieving a minimum of 75–80% herd immunity is essential for controlling rinderpest and related diseases [ 74 ]. According to FAO-UN and WOAH [ 10 ], attaining 80% herd immunity is sufficient to reduce PPR virus transmission and eliminate the disease. In Morocco, veterinary services controlled PPR through three consecutive annual nationwide mass vaccination campaigns that reached about 85% of the national sheep and goat population, with more than 20 million small ruminant vaccinated. Despite this coverage, the estimated post-vaccination seroprevalence of antibodies against PPRV was 69% in sheep and goat [ 75 ]. These and the current study findings are consistent with previous expert recommendations suggesting that achieving a post-vaccination population immunity of around 70% is considered critical for evaluating the success of PPR vaccination campaigns [ 21 ]. Based on these considerations, vaccinated animals in the study villages developed adequate protective antibodies against PPRV, supporting vaccination of unvaccinated villages. However, a seropositivity of 76% indicates that 24% remained susceptible. This may result from poor cold chain maintenance, prolonged use of reconstituted vaccines, nature of the vaccine, genetics of the vaccinated animals, vaccinator skill, animal health status, and inadequate animal handling or incomplete vaccination coverage. In this study, among sex, species, and age, only age was significantly associated with antibody development. Seropositivity was 67.0% in young (6 months–2 years) and 82.5% in adults (> 2–3 years). Adults were 2.3s times more likely to develop antibodies. This agrees with Regmi et al. [ 72 ] regarding sex and species in Nepal, but not age. Vaccinated caprines showed slightly higher antibody prevalence than ovines, but the difference was insignificant, consistent with Iqbal et al. [ 73 ], who also reported no significant post-vaccination difference. Respondents in Goba and Sinana ranked major small-ruminant diseases as ovine pasteurellosis (38.7%), SGP (24%), parasitic (17.3%), PPR (12%), and others (8%). Most reported no disease outbreaks in the past three years and confirmed vaccination against several diseases, except PPR. Although 19.1% claimed PPR vaccination, this reflected misunderstanding, as only recent in 2023 campaigns provided PPR vaccines. About 12% recognized PPR and its clinical signs, aligning with the current seroprevalence (15.2%), indicating PPR remains an important disease in both districts. All respondents (100%) reported that their animals had contact with other herds during watering and/or grazing, and 68% indicated contact with wildlife. During the study period, different herds and species, including wildlife at Goba and Dinsho National Parks, were observed sharing grazing areas and water points, which likely facilitated virus transmission among small ruminants and other animals. Salih et al. [ 46 ] noted that communal grazing contaminates pastures and water sources. Although sheep and goats are primary PPR hosts, sero-conversion has been reported in other domestic (camel, cattle and pigs) and wild species [ 76 , 77 ]. In Dinsho district, the current sero-monitoring study area, sheep and goats have frequent contact with wild animals from Dinsho National Park due to the absence of a physical fence separating domestic livestock from wildlife. In addition, disease outbreaks have been experienced in the district within a single year. Studies conducted in Saudi Arabia reported that PPR can affect several wild ungulates, including Dorcas gazelles, Thomson’s gazelles, Nubian ibex, Laristan sheep, and gemsbok [ 78 ]. Based on these reports, wildlife may represent a recurrent source of PPR outbreaks in Dinsho district, although this assumption requires further investigation. PPRV circulating in domestic ruminants can act as a source of infection for wildlife [ 78 ]; however, the reverse scenario is also possible, whereby wildlife could serve as a source of infection for sheep and goats. Nevertheless, the role of wildlife in the epidemiology of PPR remains poorly investigated and not well understood, including its contribution to disease persistence, transmission challenges, and outbreak, all of which are important considerations for global eradication efforts [ 3 ]. Conversely, there is no clear evidence to suggest that PPRV circulates sustainably in wild animals or that they act as a significant source of infection for domestic species [ 79 ]. The Oromia Region possesses the largest proportion of the national livestock population. PPR has a major negative impact on sheep and goats production and continues to hamper international trade in live small ruminants and their products. Considering its significant impact, a control and eradication program is being implemented in the region under the national strategy, aligned with the global strategy, with the objective of eradicating the disease by 2030. Despite ongoing control and eradication efforts prior to the global PPR program, outbreaks continued. Between 2016 and 2022, a total of 181 PPR outbreaks were reported, with the highest number occurring in 2019. Kumbe et al . [ 70 ] noted that 53 outbreaks were recorded in Borena Zone in Ethiopia between 2018 and 2022, peaking in 2019. Similarly, Niedbalski et al . [ 13 ] reported increased PPR outbreaks in 2018–2019 in Algeria, Ethiopia, and Guinea, highlighting challenges to successful disease eradication, consistent with data from Oromia Region. The Regional Veterinary Laboratories (RVL), through the regional veterinary laboratories campaign, conducted participatory diseases surveillance and outbreak investigation, which were employed based on existing risk, disease notification, reporting, or any rumor in order to detect the disease. Between 2017 and 2022, a total of 347 active surveillance activities were conducted in the Oromia Region, confirming 131 PPR outbreaks with an overall positivity rate of 37.8%. Despite vaccinating 1,859,263 animals at risk, 2,266 PPR positive cases were still identified in the surveyed areas, indicating that PPR continued to circulate. The vaccination trends over the last six years in Oromia Region, from 8.5% in 2017 to 36.7% in 2022, show that the lowest number of vaccinations occurred in 2017, gradually increasing to reach the highest level in 2022, with a total of 21,338,935 small ruminants vaccinated. Despite improvements, overall coverage ( 19.1%) remained moderate relative to the total population of the region, highlighting the need for expanded vaccination campaigns. Additionally, small ruminants have high turnover, and after three years, the exiting herd is replaced by new herds susceptible to PPR virus. FAO-UN and WOAH [ 10 ] reported that once necessary herd immunity is achieved, vaccination may focus primarily on young animals to address the high turnover in small ruminant populations. For effective control and eventual eradication of PPR, timely vaccination of susceptible populations is recommended [ 80 ], although achieving eradication by 2030 remains a significant challenge in endemic countries [ 13 ]. The current findings suggest that, despite ongoing surveillance and vaccination efforts, PPR continued to circulate within the region, indicating potential gaps in vaccine effectiveness, coverage, or implementation. The persistence of outbreaks despite large-scale vaccination highlights the need to strengthen surveillance systems, improve vaccination coverage, and enhance overall disease control strategies. Over all, these results underscore the importance of expanding vaccination campaigns, assessing of vaccine efficacy and diagnostic test; conducting repeated surveillance (including PDS and OBI); and building capacity in both surveillance and immunization programs to reduce virus circulation and support the timely eradication of PPR across the region. 6. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS The present study found an overall PPR seroprevalence of 15.2%, indicating active circulation of PPR virus among unvaccinated sheep and goats in the study area, suggesting endemic infection in these areas. Species, sex, age, and herd size were identified as significant risk factors for PPR outbreaks and distribution. In contrast, a 76% antibody prevalence was recorded among vaccinated small ruminants, indicating that immunized animals in the villages developed sufficient immunity against PPRV. By species, area, and sex, vaccinated animals revealed no significant difference in antibody development, though age was significantly associated. Despite ongoing control efforts, PPR continued to circulate in the Oromia Region, with 181 reported outbreaks between 2016 and 2022 and a 37.8% positivity rate from active surveillance. Although vaccination coverage increased over time, reaching 36.7% in 2022, overall coverage remained moderate (19.1%), indicating insufficient immunization to interrupt disease transmission. All interviewed owners reported herd contact during grazing or watering, and 32% reported wildlife contact. Circulating virus and unimmunized animals indicate epidemic risk. Generally, regional-level serological investigations and sero-monitoring should be strengthened, and mass vaccination programs should be mandatory for successful PPR eradication. Strengthening veterinary services and improving stakeholder engagement as well as awareness through awareness creation, alongside vaccination efforts and conducting repeated surveillance, are also essential for effective disease control and eradication. Further studies on other animal species are needed to determine their role as potential sources of infection. In addition, studies on vaccine efficacy and diagnostic test assessment and immunity should be conducted. In addition, studies on vaccine efficacy, diagnostic test performance, and comprehensive immune responses should be conducted. Abbreviations cELISA ARVL:Asella Regional Veterinary Laboratories Competitive enzyme-linked immunesorbent assay DIVA Differentiation between infected and vaccinated DOVAR Disease Outbreak and Vaccination Activity Report ESGPIP Ethiopian Sheep and Goat Productivity Improvement Program FAO-UN Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations RVL Regional Veterinary Laboratories OBI Outbreak investigation PDS Participatory Disease Surveillance PDV Porpoise distemper virus PPR Peste des petits ruminants PPRV Peste des petits ruminants Virus WOAH World organization for Animal Health. Declarations Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to ARVL, Animal Health Institute (former NAHDIC, Sebeta, Ethiopia); Ministry of Agriculture Ethiopia for providing the necessary reagents, consumables, and laboratory facilities. The authors would like to extend special thanks to all study participants and research assistants. Funding This research was not funded by any organization or institution. Availability of data and materials Data are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request under ethical guidelines and the policies of the journal. All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in the "Result". Author contribution Fikru Gizaw: Conceptualized the initial idea and designed the experiments; coordinated the data collection activities; performed the experiments; analyzed and interpreted the data; wrote the paper. Gonfa Shankute: Contributed to collecting the materials; performed the experiments; analyzed and interpreted the data; wrote the paper. Demeke Sibhatu: Conducted laboratory investigations Fasil Aklilu: Conducted laboratory investigations, validation, resource and wrote the paper Dimshesha Tolera and Abdi Yesuf: data collection; performed the experiments; analyzed and interpreted the data Fikru Gizaw Gurmessa and Gonfa Shankute: are contributed equally All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Ethics approval and consent to participate The current study was conducted according to the ethical guide lines of Arsi University. Prior to the initiation of this work, Ethical approval was obtained from the Institutional Research Ethics Review Committee (IRERC) of Arsi University. The purpose of the study was clearly explained to animal owners, and best practices in veterinary care were strictly observed. The verbal informed consent procedure and the study protocols were approved by the Arsi University Research Ethics and Review Committee. Oral informed consent was obtained from all animal owners prior to data collection and serum sample collection. The questionnaire survey was conducted with the voluntary participation of animal owners. Informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to data collection, and confidentiality and anonymity were strictly maintained. All methods were conducted in accordance with relevant institutional guidelines and the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. Consent for publication Not applicable. Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Clinical trial number Not applicable. References FAO. WOAH. Partnering and investing for a peste des petits ruminants-free world. Global position paper. 2018. Central Statistical Agency (CSA). Report on livestock and livestock characteristics. Agricultural Sample Survey. Statistical Bulletin 589, Volume II. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: CSA; 2021. pp. 1–199. Nour HSH. Challenges and opportunities for global eradication of peste des petits ruminants. J Trop Dis. 2020;8:349. Abubakar M, Manzoor S, Wensman JJ, Torsson E, Qurban A, Munir M. Molecular and epidemiological features of peste des petits ruminants outbreak during endemic situation. Hosts Viruses. 2016;3(4):123–9. Gibbs PJ, Taylor WP, Lawman MJ, Bryant J. Classification of peste des petits ruminants virus as the fourth member of the genus Morbillivirus. J Intervirol. 1979;11(5):268–74. 10.1159/000149044 . Albina E, Kwiatek O, Minet C, Lancelot R, de Almeida RS, Libeau G. Peste des petits ruminants, the next eradicated animal disease. Vet Microbiol. 2013;165(1–2):38–44. Abubakar M, Irfan M, Manzoor S. Peste des petits ruminants in Pakistan; past, present and future perspectives. J Vet Sci Technol. 2015;6:257. Mdetele DP, Komba E, Seth MD, Misinzo G, Kock R, Jones BA. Review of peste des petits ruminants occurrence and spread in Tanzania. Animals. 2021;11(6):1698. 10.3390/ani11061698 . Kinne J, Kreutzer R, Kreutzer M, Wernery U, Wohlsein P. Peste des petits ruminants in Arabian wildlife. Epidemiol Infect. 2010;138:1211–14. 10.1017/S0950268809991638 . FAO-UN WOAH. Global strategy for the control and eradication of peste des petits ruminants. Rome: FAO; 2015. Gizaw F, Merera O, Zeru F, Bedada H, Gebru M. Seroprevalence and socioeconomic impacts of peste des petits ruminants in small ruminants of selected districts of Afar, Ethiopia. J Vet Sci Technol. 2018;9:513. Demeke S. Review of PPR in Ethiopian context. J Glob Sci. 2022;10(12). Niedbalski W. Eradication of peste des petits ruminants: application of new research to guide and facilitate the global elimination of the disease. Med Weter. 2022;76(4):206–11. Zhao H, Njeumi F, Parida S, Benfield CTO. Progress towards eradication of peste des petits ruminants through vaccination. Viruses. 2021;13(6):1143. 10.3390/v13061143 . Dereje TR. Epidemiology of peste des petits ruminants in sheep and goats in Ethiopia. Acad Res J Agric Sci. 2019;7(7):503–12. Yalew S, Woldemichal G, Mamo M. Seroprevalence of peste des petits ruminants virus antibody in Assosa zone, Benishangul-Gumuz region, Ethiopia. ARC J Anim Vet Sci. 2019;5(3):29–33. Dubie T, Dagnew B, Gelo E, Negash W, Hussein F, Woldehana M. Seroprevalence and associated risk factors of peste des petits ruminants among ovine and caprine in selected districts of Afar region, Ethiopia. BMC Vet Res. 2022;18:429. 10.1186/s12917-022-03429-3 . Gari G, Serda B, Negesa D, Lemma F, Asgedom H. Serological investigation of peste des petits ruminants in East Shewa and Arsi zones, Oromia, Ethiopia. Int J Vet Med. 2017:1–5. Hailegebreal G. Seroprevalence of peste des petits ruminants in selected districts of Siltie and Gurage zones, southern Ethiopia. J Vet Sci Technol. 2018;9(2). Abesha H, Teshome Y, Alemu YF, Dejene H, Tarekegn ZS, Assefa A. Sero epidemiology of peste des petits ruminant’s virus in small ruminants in selected districts in Northwest Ethiopia. Vet Med Sci. 2022;9(2):884–90. 10.1002/vms3.994 . Hammami P, Lancelot R, Lesnoff M. Modelling the dynamics of post-vaccination immunity rate in a population of Sahelian sheep after a vaccination campaign against peste des petits ruminants virus. PLoS ONE. 2016;11(9):e0161769. 10.1371/journal.pone.0161769 . Bale Zone Agriculture Office. Bale Zone statistics. Bale, Oromia, Ethiopia; 2022. Goba District Agriculture Office. Goba district statistics, Bale, Oromia, Ethiopia. 2022. Sinana District Agriculture Office. Sinana district statistics, Bale, Oromia, Ethiopia. 2022. Dinsho District Agriculture Office. Dinsho district statistics, Bale, Oromia, Ethiopia. 2022. Balamurugan V, Saravanan P, Sen A, Rajak KK, Venkatesan G, Krishnamoorthy P, Bhanuprakash V, Singh RK. Prevalence of peste des petits ruminants among sheep and goats in India. J Vet Sci. 2012;13(3):279–85. Ethiopian Sheep and Goat Productivity Improvement Program (ESGPIP). Estimation of weight and age of sheep and goats. Technical Bulletin No. 23. Ethiopia; 2009. Thrusfield M. Veterinary epidemiology. 4th ed. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell; 2018. Abubakar M, Rajput ZI, Javed M, Sarwar G, Qurban A. Evidence of peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV) infection in Sindh Ibex (Capra aegagrus blythi) in Pakistan as confirmed by detection of antigen and antibody. Trop Anim Health Prod. 2011;43(4):745–7. Rogan WJ, Gladen BC. Estimating prevalence from the results of a screening test. Am J Epidemiol. 1978;107(1):71–6. 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a112510 . Sun GW, Shook TL, Kay GL. Inappropriate use of bivariable analysis to screen risk factors for use in multivariable analysis. J Clin Epidemiol. 1996;49(8):907–16. 10.1016/0895-4356(96)00025-X . Esri. ArcGIS Pro. Version 3.3. Redlands: Environmental Systems Research Institute; 2024. Fentie T, Teshome Y, Ayele B, et al. Sero-epidemiological study of peste des petits ruminants in small ruminants in Amhara region, Ethiopia. Comp Clin Pathol. 2018;27(4):1029–36. 10.1007/s00580-018-2667-1 . Ejigu E, Tadele T, Feyissa B, Hailehizeb T. Seroprevalence and associated risk factors of peste des petits ruminants in Dera and Gerar Jarso districts of Oromia region, Ethiopia. Vet Med Int. 2023. Gelana M, Gebremedhin EZ, Gizaw D. Seroepidemiology of peste des petits ruminants in sheep and goats in the selected district of Horu Guduru zone, western Ethiopia. Res Vet Sci. 2020;132:527–34. 10.1016/j.rvsc.2020.07.006 . Yitagesu S. Sero-prevalence and risk factors of peste des petits ruminants in selected districts of Buno-Bedele zone, southwest Ethiopia. MSc thesis. Jimma: Jimma University; 2020. Gebre T, Deneke Y, Begna F. Seroprevalence and associated risk factors of peste des petits ruminants in sheep and goats in four districts of Bench Maji and Kafa zones, southwest Ethiopia. Glob Vet. 2018;20(6):260–70. Abraham G, Sintayehu A, Libeau G, et al. Antibody seroprevalences against peste des petits ruminants (PPR) virus in camels, cattle, goats and sheep in Ethiopia. Prev Vet Med. 2005;70(1–2):51–7. Waret-Szkuta A, Roger F, Chavernac D, et al. Peste des petits ruminants in Ethiopia: analysis of a national serological survey. BMC Vet Res. 2008;4:34. 10.1186/1746-6148-4-34 . Hirut GM, Mulate B, Belayneh R. Serological and molecular investigation of peste des petits ruminants in Adama district, eastern Shoa zone of Oromia, Ethiopia. Bull Anim Health Prod Afr. 2017;65(2). Wondimagegn D. Sero-epidemiology and spatial distribution of peste des petits ruminants virus antibodies in selected pastoral areas of Somali regional state, Ethiopia. MSc thesis. Addis Ababa: Addis Ababa University; 2016. Kifle N, Tsegaw F. Prevalence and causes of selected respiratory infections in indigenous Gumuz sheep in Metema district, northwest Ethiopia. Int J Sci Basic Appl Res. 2012;5(1):14–20. Berihun A, Daniel H, Kassaw A. Seroprevalence of peste des petits ruminants in goats of southern parts of Tigray Region. Glob Vet. 2014;12(4):512–6. Farougou S, Gagara M, Mensah GA. Prevalence of peste des petits ruminants in the arid zone in the Republic of Niger. Onderstepoort J Vet Res. 2013;80(1):1–6. 10.4102/ojvr.v80i1.544 . Saritha G, Shobhamani B, Sreedevi B. Seroprevalence of peste des petits ruminants in pastoral small ruminants with special reference to age and agro-climatic zones in India. Anim Sci Rep. 2014;8:3. Salih HAME, Elfadil AAM, Saeed IK, Ali YH. Seroprevalence and risk factors of peste des petits ruminants in sheep and goats in Sudan. J Adv Vet Anim Res. 2014;1(2):42–9. Woma TY, Ekong PS, Bwala DG, Ibu JO, Ta’ama L, Dyek DY. Sero-survey of peste des petits ruminants virus in small ruminants from different agro-ecological zones of Nigeria. Onderstepoort J Vet Res. 2016;83(1):1–9. 10.4102/ojvr.v83i1.1218 . Abdellatif M, Mahmoud AZ, Shazali L. Prevalence of PPR-virus antibodies in sheep, goats and camels in Hail, Saudi Arabia. Br J Virol. 2016;3(3):86–9. Abdalla AS, Majok AA, El Malik KH, et al. Sero-prevalence of peste des petits ruminant’s virus (PPRV) in small ruminants in Blue Nile, Gadaref and North Kordofan States of Sudan. J Public Health Epidemiol. 2012;4(3):59–64. Assefa A, Tibebu A, Bihon A, Yimana M. Global ecological niche modelling of current and future distribution of peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRv) with an ensemble modelling algorithm. Transbound Emerg Dis. 2021;68:3601–10. Delil F, Asfaw Y, Gebreegziabher B. Prevalence of antibodies to peste des petits ruminants virus before and during outbreaks of the disease in Awash Fentale district, Afar, Ethiopia. Trop Anim Health Prod. 2012;44(7):1329–30. Taylor WP. The distribution and epidemiology of peste des petits ruminants. Prev Vet Med. 1984;2(1–4):157–66. Saeed FA, Abdel-Aziz SA, Gumaa MM. Seroprevalence and associated risk factors of peste des petits ruminants among sheep and goats in Kassala state, Sudan. Open J Anim Sci. 2018;8(4):381–95. Mehmood A, Qurban A, Javaid AG, Salman AM, Syed IS. Detection of peste des petits ruminants virus antibodies in sheep and goat populations of the North West Frontier Province of Pakistan by competitive ELISA. Vet World. 2009;2(9):333–36. Jalees MM, Hussain I, Arshad M, Muhammad G, Khan QM, Mahmood MS. Occurrence of peste des petits ruminants in five districts of Punjab, Pakistan. Pak Vet J. 2013;33(2):165–69. Afera B, Hussien D, Amsalu K. Seroprevalence of Peste Des Petits Ruminants in Goats of Southern Parts of Tigray Region. Glob Vet. 2014;12(4):512–6. Megersa B, Biffa D, Belina T, Debela E, Regassa A, Abunna F, Rufael T, Stubsjøen SM, Skjerve E. Serological investigation of peste des petits ruminants in small ruminants managed under pastoral and agro-pastoral systems in Ethiopia. Small Rumin Res. 2011;97:134–38. 10.1016/j.smallrumres.2011.02.011 . Senthilkumar A, Balamurugan P, Sribalaji N, Srinivasan G, Murugesan S. Outbreak of peste des petits ruminants in an organised goat farm in Theni district of Tamil Nadu. Chem Environ Sci J. 2018;6:64–7. WOAH. Peste des petits ruminants (infection with peste des petits ruminants virus). Terrestrial manual. World Organisation for Animal Health; 2019. pp. 1–16. Alemu B, Gari G, Libeau G, et al. Molecular detection and phylogenetic analysis of Peste des petits ruminants virus circulating in small ruminants in eastern Amhara region, Ethiopia. BMC Vet Res. 2019;15(1):1–9. Nizamani AR, Nizamani ZA, Umrani AP, Dewani P, Vandiar MA, Gandahi JA, Soomro NM. Prevalence of peste des petits ruminants virus antibodies in small ruminants in Sindh, Pakistan. J Anim Plant Sci. 2015;25(6):1515–19. Swai ES, Kapaga A, Kivaria F, et al. Prevalence and distribution of peste des petits ruminants virus antibodies in various districts of Tanzania. Vet Res Commun. 2009;33(8):927–36. 10.1007/s11259-009-9317-1 . Bello AM, Lawal J, Dauda Y, Wakil YM, et al. Research for peste des petits ruminants (PPR) virus antibodies in goats, sheep and gazelle from Bauchi and Gombe States, North Eastern Nigeria. Direct Res J Agric Food Sci. 2016;4(8):193–8. De A, Debnath B, Dutta TK, Shil S, Bhadouriya S, Chaudhary D, Rajak KK, Pachauri R, Ramakrishnan MA, Muthuchelvan D. Seroepidemiology of peste des petits ruminants in goats of Tripura state of North East India. Adv Anim Vet Sci. 2016;4(5):215–7. Abubakar M, Jamal MS, Arshed MJ, Hussain M, Ali Q. Peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV) infection: Its association with species, seasonal variations and geography. Trop Anim Health Prod. 2009;41:1197–202. Saeed IK, Ali YH, Khalafalla AI, Rahman-Mahasin EA. Current situation of peste des petits ruminants (PPR) in the Sudan. Trop Anim Health Prod. 2010;42:89–93. 10.1007/s11250-009-9396-y . Balamurugan V, Ojha R, Kumar KV, Asha A, Ashraf S, Dsouza AH, Pal A, Bokade PP, Harshitha SK, Deshpande R, et al. Post-vaccination sero-monitoring of peste des petits ruminants in sheep and goats in Karnataka: progress towards PPR eradication in India. Viruses. 2024;16:333. Faris D, Yilkal A, Berhe G, Kelay B. Seroprevalence and seroconversion after vaccination against peste des petits ruminants in sheep and goats from Awash Fentale district, Afar, Ethiopia. Prev Vet Med. 2012;103:157–62. 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2011.09.013 . Luka PD, Erume J, Mwiine FN, Ayebazibwe C. Seroprevalence of peste des petits ruminants antibodies in sheep and goats after vaccination in Karamoja, Uganda: implication on control. Adv Int Vet J. 2011;3(1):18–22. Kumbe A, Negussie H, Getachew Y, Alemu B, Alemayehu G, et al. Epidemiology of peste des petits ruminants in selected districts of Borena zone. Ethiopia. 2024;20:451. Kabir ME, Hossain MM, Ershaduzzaman M. Sero-surveillance and sero-monitoring of locally produced PPR vaccine at field and experimental levels. Asian J Med Biol Res. 2016;2(1):33–7. Regmi B, Dhakal I, Shah MK, Pande KR. Monitoring of serological status in response to PPR vaccination in the goat population of Parbat, Baglung and Myagdi districts of Nepal. Nepal Vet J. 2020;36:157–62. Iqbal ZR, Zahur AB, Soomro NA, Rajput IR, Lakho SA, Leghari A. PPR sero-prevalence and sero-monitoring after vaccination in field. Sci Int (Lahore). 2016;28(6):5259–61. Rossiter PB, James AD. An epidemiological model of rinderpest: II. Simulations of the behavior of rinderpest virus in populations. Trop Anim Health Prod. 1989;21:69–84. Ettair M. PPR surveillance and control strategy in Morocco. In: REMESA; 2012. Available from: http://www.remesanetwork.org/fileadmin/user_upload/remesa/docs/RESEPSA/Atelier_2012-July_REPIVET_RESPSA/PPR_MAROC.pdf Adel AA, Abu-Elzein E, Al-Naeem AM, Amin M. Sero surveillance for peste des petits ruminants (PPR) and rinderpest antibodies in naturally exposed Saudi sheep and goats. Vet Arhiv. 2004;74(6):459–65. Abraham G, Berhan A. The use of antigen-capture enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for the diagnosis of rinderpest and peste des petits ruminants in Ethiopia. Trop Anim Health Prod. 2001;33:423–30. Hamed EL, Samadi K, Mohammad A. Peste des petits ruminants (PPR): a serious threat for wildlife. Adv Biosci Clin Med. 2016;4(2):49–50. Munir M. PPRV: wild ruminants, epidemiology, phylogenetic analysis, clinical assessment, diagnosis and control. Uppsala: Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences; 2012. Baron MD, Diallo A, Lancelot R, Libeau G. Peste des petits ruminants virus. Adv Virus Res. 2016;95:1–42. Libeau G, Prehaud C, Lancelot R, Colas F, Guerre L, et al. Development of a competitive ELISA for detecting antibodies to the peste des petits ruminants virus using a recombinant nucleoprotein. Res Vet Sci. 1995;58:50–5. 10.1016/0034-5288(95)90088-8 . Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Epi Info (Version 3.5.1) [computer software]. Atlanta (GA): CDC; 2011. IBM Corp. IBM SPSS statistics for Windows. Version 24.0. Armonk: IBM Corp.; 2016. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files 4Supplementarymaterial.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Reviews received at journal 13 May, 2026 Reviews received at journal 04 May, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 24 Apr, 2026 Reviews received at journal 23 Apr, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 23 Apr, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 23 Apr, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 22 Apr, 2026 Reviewers invited by journal 14 Apr, 2026 Editor assigned by journal 10 Apr, 2026 Editor invited by journal 02 Apr, 2026 Submission checks completed at journal 01 Apr, 2026 First submitted to journal 01 Apr, 2026 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-9205108","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":622785252,"identity":"32369f4e-6bf0-4eb5-88d3-5c54a431c756","order_by":0,"name":"Fikru Gizaw Gurmessa","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAABEUlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBAC9mY2MM0DxIwPoAwYiR3wHEZoYTZA0YJLG88BNjibTQIhjE8LO1vaZx6GWhn59jNmFT/31MkY3G5gfPC2jUHOHpcWZrbDs3kYjvMw9uSY3ex5dpjH4M4BZsO5bQzGuGyxZ2ZvZuZhOMbDzJC77QbPgQM8BjcS2KR52xgSe3DaAtXCxv92W+GfA3UgLey/gVrqcWthOwzUUsPDI5G7jZnnADPYFmaglgSc3mdmS2acY3CAR0Li/WdpmQOHeSRvJDZLzjknYdhzAIcW/mPGDG8q6uzl+9MSP745UGfPdyP54Ic3ZTby7A04rAEDg8PIPEaQWgnsKhGgjpCCUTAKRsEoGMkAABdhSvjtD9+hAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"Arsi University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Fikru","middleName":"Gizaw","lastName":"Gurmessa","suffix":""},{"id":622785253,"identity":"c5d1e685-449b-4ffb-b82b-35c708690b56","order_by":1,"name":"Gonfa Shankute Erecho","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Munessa Woreda Agriculture and Land Office","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Gonfa","middleName":"Shankute","lastName":"Erecho","suffix":""},{"id":622785254,"identity":"58afeb9f-533f-492b-918f-878040035af7","order_by":2,"name":"Demeke Sibhatu Lobago","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Animal Health Institute","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Demeke","middleName":"Sibhatu","lastName":"Lobago","suffix":""},{"id":622785255,"identity":"34bc623a-e968-4271-851b-628f7423b82c","order_by":3,"name":"Dimshesha Tolera Debele","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Ministry of Ethiopian Agriculture","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Dimshesha","middleName":"Tolera","lastName":"Debele","suffix":""},{"id":622785256,"identity":"4edf4cbd-40f6-4291-9581-225e0343b0ab","order_by":4,"name":"Fasil Aklilu Asres","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Animal Health Institute","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Fasil","middleName":"Aklilu","lastName":"Asres","suffix":""},{"id":622785257,"identity":"e322e50a-5f80-4235-b4fa-e126457ed7a4","order_by":5,"name":"Abdi Yesuf Mohammed","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Asela Regional Veterinary Laboratory","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Abdi","middleName":"Yesuf","lastName":"Mohammed","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-03-24 00:38:16","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9205108/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9205108/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":107450580,"identity":"cb2a786e-705f-45b2-953f-233cf90e41e7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-21 15:13:16","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":240199,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMap of study area\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9205108/v1/7c6cc408575dc224dcb9094e.png"},{"id":107704450,"identity":"38681f63-6a71-4203-aa9f-c9bf6c51ef5c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-24 08:45:26","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":70874,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePPR outbreaks, Oromia Region, Ethiopia, 2016-2022\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9205108/v1/a9211e7517def3cd602d01cb.png"},{"id":107450582,"identity":"35deb7a4-f962-4531-b7d7-f0c0d824f2fe","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-21 15:13:16","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":253979,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSpatial distribution of PPR cases across different Zones in Oromia Region, Ethiopia, 2017-2022.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9205108/v1/2809b9272ae7c2f7da28ed31.png"},{"id":107450581,"identity":"385088e8-c3fc-4771-addb-6b814ec909f1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-21 15:13:16","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":74947,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePPR Vaccination coverage trends Oromia Region, Ethiopia, 2017-2022\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9205108/v1/196d644a68130a3622687e0c.png"},{"id":107709167,"identity":"8dadc742-2759-4d79-a101-6b5845761c84","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-24 09:34:53","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1348082,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9205108/v1/55927f19-55b2-483a-83d5-fed6117e813f.pdf"},{"id":107450579,"identity":"b920cf05-e2f3-414f-a478-93ea8dda8d28","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-21 15:13:16","extension":"docx","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":216737,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"4Supplementarymaterial.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9205108/v1/93dcc84e42c73295ae72cbb6.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Sero-prevalence and sero-monitoring of Pestes des petit ruminants (PPR) disease in small ruminants in Oromia Region, Ethiopia","fulltext":[{"header":"1. INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003eAnimal rearing is an integral part of agricultural production. A total of 2.1\u0026nbsp;billion heads of small ruminants are found worldwide, and they are the primary livestock resource for many poor rural families around the globe, including subsistence farmers, landless villagers, and pastoralists [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. Ethiopia has one of the largest livestock inventories in Africa, supporting the livelihoods of an estimated 80% of the rural poor in the country. According to the Ethiopia Statistical Service [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e], the total small ruminant population in Ethiopia is estimated at 52.5\u0026nbsp;million goats and 42.9\u0026nbsp;million sheep. The Oromia Region has a total of 7.6\u0026nbsp;million goats and 9.3\u0026nbsp;million sheep [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. Small ruminant can be raised in arid and semi-arid areas and around households due to low investment requirements, minimal feed needs, and a short period to generate output and income [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough the populations of sheep and goats are large in the country, their production and productivity are low. Among the limiting factors, infectious diseases are the primary constraint. Among the different infectious diseases, Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is a major problem affecting small ruminant production and productivity [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. The PPR virus (PPRV), which causes PPR, is the prototype member of the genus \u003cem\u003eMorbillivirus\u003c/em\u003e in the family \u003cem\u003eParamyxoviridae\u003c/em\u003e and the order \u003cem\u003eMononegavirales\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. The disease is highly contagious disease, and once newly introduced, the virus can infect up to 90% of sheep and goats in the area, with mortality reaching up to 70% of infected animals [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. Peste des petits ruminants is characterized by fever, anorexia, necrotic stomatitis, diarrhea, mucopurulent nasal and ocular discharges, enteritis, and pneumonia [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe risk factors that increase the prevalence and incidence of infection include variation in small ruminant breeds, geographical differences, and farmers\u0026rsquo; husbandry practices [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. Mortality is higher in young animals compared to adults, and goats are more severely affected than sheep [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. Climatic conditions are also a risk factor, with outbreaks most frequent during the rainy season or the cold dry season [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePeste des petits ruminants is currently considered one of the main transboundary and notifiable diseases, representing an emerging or re-emerging threat in many countries. It causes estimated economic losses of USD 1.45\u0026nbsp;billion to USD 2.1\u0026nbsp;billion annually worldwide [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. Studies in Ethiopia show that the financial loss due to mortality in affected animal farms averaged 2,146,875.00 birr (\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e92,140.56) in both sheep and goat farms [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. Considering the disease impact, in March 2015, PPR was targeted as a high-priority disease for progressive control and eradication by 2030, using vaccination as a key tool, conducted in response to outbreaks (ring vaccination). However, only a few countries, such as Morocco and Somalia, have implemented mass vaccination combined with intensified surveillance or other control measures [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. In Ethiopia, vaccination campaigns currently use a ring vaccination strategy with a risk-based surveillance approach to control PPR disease, recognizing that effectively vaccinated animals develop lifelong immunity, aiding eradication [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe PPR eradication movement is ongoing. Recent epidemiological assessments and evaluations of animal immunity clarify the effects of PPR control in various countries. Global PPR studies show that 22 countries experienced more than 100 outbreaks between 2015 and 2019, including 15 in Africa and 7 in Asia. In Africa, reported outbreaks increased in 2018 and 2019 in Algeria, Ethiopia, and Guinea, presenting significant challenges for successful eradication. Eradicating PPR by 2030 requires substantial effort in countries where the disease occurs. The eradication strategy involves strengthening veterinary health services, improving disease surveillance, conducting vaccination campaigns, and promoting awareness and capacity building [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. Strengthening surveillance and post-vaccination sero-monitoring is essential for achieving PPR eradication [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDereje [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e] states that PPR is now a widespread viral disease affecting small ruminant in various production systems in Ethiopia. Studies from different regions report frequent outbreaks and high prevalence in sheep and goats: Benishangul Gumuz region, 75% [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]; Afar region, 60.15% [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]; East Shewa and Arsi Zones, 48.43% [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e]; and Silte and Guraghe Zones, 29.2% [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. Additional studies by Gizaw \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e] in Ada\u0026rsquo;ar and Mile (40.2%) in Afar region, and by Abesha \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e] in Benishangul Gumuz region (32.5%), indicate that PPR is widely prevalent in small ruminants in these areas.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSince there is no general Differentiating Infected from Vaccinated Animals (DIVA) test available, the current data on PPR are ambiguous, as antibodies detected in blood may result from either infection or vaccination. Niedbalski \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e] note that, in the absence of DIVA tests, interpreting positive samples remains challenging in several countries. Therefore, surveillance strategies that account for vaccination history are essential.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough the eradication program is ongoing, integrated studies on sero-prevalence and post-vaccination sero-monitoring are key strategies for successful control and eradication, yet they remain scarce. Specifically, no information exists on PPR antibody status in unvaccinated and vaccinated animals in agro-pastoral districts of Bale Zone, Oromia, Southeastern Ethiopia. World organization for Animal Health (WOAH) and \u003cem\u003eFood and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO-UN)\u003c/em\u003e experts designing the recommended PPR control strategy agreed that vaccination campaigns should aim for a post-vaccination population immunity of at least 70%, a threshold used to evaluate campaign success through post-vaccination monitoring at epidemiological unit level [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e] by international technical experts. This study aimed to support ongoing control and eradication efforts by identifying the current disease status in unvaccinated animals and the immunity developed in vaccinated small ruminants. It also assessed the regional status of the disease using retrospective data. Based on the findings, recommendations were made regarding vaccination strategies and vaccine effectiveness. This is particularly important because the FAO-UN and the Ethiopian Ministry of Agriculture have reaffirmed their commitment to eradicating PPR throughout Ethiopia. Therefore, the aim of this study was to estimate sero-prevalence, and conduct sero-monitoring of PPR and its associated risk factors in small ruminant in selected districts of Bale Zone, southeastern Ethiopia. Additionally, the study assessed retrospective data on PPR outbreaks, case distribution, and vaccination trends in the Oromia Region.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3. MATERIALS AND METHODS","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1. Description of study areas\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe cross-sectional and retrospective study was conducted in Oromia Region, Ethiopia (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). The small ruminant population in the region is larger than in other regions. The Oromia Region is the largest state in Ethiopia, with an estimated small ruminant population of 7.6\u0026nbsp;million goats and 9.3\u0026nbsp;million sheep [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. The Bale Zone has 11 districts and is located in the southeastern part of Ethiopia, between 40.0276\u0026deg; E longitude and 7.1185\u0026deg; N latitude (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). According to animal population data from the Zonal Agriculture Office, the Bale Zone holds about 2,574,072 cattle, 877,524 sheep, 1,359,815 goats, 132,452 horses, 68,973 mules, 233,212 donkeys, 89,612 camels, and 1,946,199 poultry [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. Goba district is one of the administrative districts of the Bale Zone and is located south of Bale Robe town. About 45% of this district is rugged or mountainous. Mount Tullu Demtu and part of the Bale Mountains National Park are found in this district. These features account for about 27.6% of the district being pasture land, which is favorable for animal rearing. The district comprises 219,950 cattle, 180,688 sheep, 21,650 goats, 86,100 equines, and 135,831 poultry [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e]. Sinana district has favorable climatic conditions for farming livelihoods and human settlement. It consists of 90% plain land and 10% highland, with an elevation of 2,492 m above sea level. The district has an annual temperature ranging from a minimum of 5\u0026deg;C to a maximum of 25\u0026deg;C. It experiences bimodal rainfall, with a mean annual rainfall of 1,400\u0026ndash;2,800 mm. Crop production and animal rearing are the common agricultural activities of the local communities. The livestock population of the district comprises 272,001 cattle, 135,101 sheep, 28,700 goats, 45,500 equines, and 75,426 poultry [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. Dinsho district also has favorable climatic conditions for farming, with annual temperatures ranging from a minimum of 5\u0026deg;C to a maximum of 25\u0026deg;C. The mean annual rainfall ranges from 1,100 to 1,500 mm. The district consists of 5% midland and 95% highland areas, with an altitude of 3,079 m above sea level. The livestock population of the district includes 110,414 cattle, 248,640 sheep, 18,815 goats, 45,595 equines, and 401,990 poultry [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e]. Summary of the study area by topography, climate, and livestock population:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"No\" id=\"Taba\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCategory\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBale Zone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGoba District\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSinana District\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDinsho District\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLocation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40.0276\u0026deg; E longitude \u0026amp; 7.1185\u0026deg; N latitude;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45% rugged/mountainous;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBale Mountains National Park \u0026amp;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90% plain land, 10% highland; 2,492 m a.s.l\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5% midland, 95% highland; 3,079 m a.s.l\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClimate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTullu Demtu\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.6% Pasture land\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTemp: 5\u0026ndash;25\u0026deg;C; Rainfall 1,400-2,800 mm\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTemp: 5\u0026ndash;25\u0026deg;C; Rainfall 1,100-1,500 mm\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCattle\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2,574,072\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e219,950\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e272,001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e110,414\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSheep\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e877,524\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e180,688\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e135,101\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e248,640\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGoats\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1,359,815\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21,650\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28,700\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18,815\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHorses\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e132,452\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e86,100 Equines\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45,500 Equines\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45,595 Equines\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDonkeys\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e233,212\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMules\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e68,973\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCamels\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e89,612\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoultry\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1,946,199\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e135,831\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75,426\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e401,990\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2. Study animals and exclusion and inclussion criterea\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor sero-prevalence, the study populations were indigenous breeds of both male and female sheep and goats aged over six months and under three years, kept under an extensive farming system with no history of PPR vaccination for the past three years. Moreover, small ruminants younger than six months and older than three years and brought in from other herds were excluded from sampling to avoid seropositivity due to maternal antibodies and vaccination, as a confounder. Maternal antibodies in kids are detectable up to six months [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor sero-monitoring, the study population consisted of vaccinated animals aged between six months and three years. Sheep and goats were sampled from those that had been vaccinated at least three months earlier, since the PPR vaccine is known to provide protective immunity as early as 21 days post-vaccination (dpv) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e]. During sampling animals entered to herd after vaccination were excluded based on owners histories. In this study, age of sheep and goats included was categorized in to young and adults based on teeth eruption according to ESGPIP [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor retrospective study, the study population consisted of all reported data on PPR outbreaks, PPR cases, and PPR vaccination coverages. Data were obtained from both active and passive surveillance systems. Active surveillance data were collected through Participatory Disease Surveillance (PDS) and Outbreak Investigations (OBI). In addition, passive surveillance data were obtained from the Disease Outbreak and Vaccination Activity Report (DOVAR) system, which compiles monthly reports submitted to the Oromia Agricultural Office.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3. Study design\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study consisted of two components. A cross-sectional study was conducted from January to November 2024 in three districts of Bale Zone (Goba, Sinana, and Dinsho), Oromia Region, to assess the seroprevalence of PPR infection in non-vaccinated small ruminants and to evaluate the immune response status in vaccinated animals. In addition, a retrospective study was performed using secondary data obtained from the Oromia Agriculture Office to analyze PPR outbreak reports, case distribution, and vaccination activities in small rumminats across the Oromia Region from 2016 to 2022.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSince it is serologically difficult to distinguish PPR-vaccinated animals from those that have recovered from natural PPR infection (due to the absence of a DIVA test), questionnaires were used as a source of information for seroprevalence and seromonitoring during serum collection. In the absence of DIVA tests, and as reported in several studies from different countries, interpretation of positive samples remains challenging. Therefore, a careful surveillance strategy that takes vaccination history into account should be considered [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.4. Sample size determination\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFor sero-prevalence, sample size was determined using the formula described by Thrusfield [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e] considering an expected previous prevalence of 50% in the Zone and absolute precision of 5% with 95% confidence interval (CI).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cimg src=\"data:image/png;base64,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\" width=\"217\" height=\"58\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWhere: N= sample size; d=Desired Absolute Precision\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP\u003csub\u003eexp\u003c/sub\u003e = Expected Prevalence\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAccordingly, 420 serum samples were collected from sheep and goats in the study areas. For seromonitoring, the sample size was determined using an expected seropositivity of 80% among field-level vaccinated small ruminants, as per the Global Control and Eradication Strategy [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. Based on the above formula, with 5% absolute precision and a 95% confidence interval, a sample size of 246 was calculated.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.5. Sampling method\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe Zone and three districts were purposively selected for the study. Goba and Sinana districts were chosen for sero-prevalence investigation due to the absence of PPR outbreak reports during the past three years, no history of PPR vaccination, no previous PPR surveys, and large sheep and goat populations. In each district, five representative \u003cem\u003ekebeles\u003c/em\u003e and three villages per \u003cem\u003ekebele\u003c/em\u003e were selected using simple random sampling. \u003cem\u003eKebele\u003c/em\u003e is the smallest official administrative unit in Ethiopia. From each village, two to three herds (households) were selected, and an average of six sheep and goats per herd were sampled using stratification. Depending on herd size, a minimum of two and a maximum of 10 animals were sampled per farm that was privately owned by an individual. In total, 420 animals were sampled from 10 \u003cem\u003ekebeles\u003c/em\u003e, 30 villages, and 75 herds. Villages were defined as flocks sharing common grazing areas and watering points. Sampling of small ruminant was proportionally allocated by species, herd, and district. Herds were classified as small (5\u0026ndash;15), medium (16\u0026ndash;30), and large (\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;31 animals). Of the 420 animals sampled, 190 from Sinana and 230 were from Goba; 90 were goats and 330 sheep, comprising 143 males and 277 females. Age distribution showed 251 animals aged\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.6 to 2 years and 169 aged\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;2 to 3 years.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDinsho district was purposively selected for sero-monitoring due to frequent PPR cases. Records from Asela Regional Veterinary Laboratory (ARVL) and the district agriculture office indicated outbreaks in late 2023, followed by ring vaccination of 92,600 animals in five \u003cem\u003ekebeles\u003c/em\u003e. Three \u003cem\u003ekebeles\u003c/em\u003e and three villages per \u003cem\u003ekebele\u003c/em\u003e were randomly selected, and 246 animals were sampled, excluding those introduced into the herds after vaccination. Individual animal history was collected using a structured questionnaire administered through face-to-face interviews in Afan Oromo or Amharic, ensuring all sampled herds contributed questionnaire data.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSource of data for a retrospective study\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePPR is a notifiable disease in Ethiopia, and all cases must be reported to the National Epidemiology Department of the Federal Ministry of Agriculture. For this study, data were obtained from disease outbreak, surveillance, and vaccination activity reports submitted to the Oromia Agricultural Office between 2016 and 2022 by the Regional Veterinary Laboratory Centers of Oromia Region.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.6. Data collection method\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA structured questionnaire was designed to collect data on outbreak experience, clinical signs, vaccination status, common diseases, possible risk factors, and surveillance history of PPR through interviews with the herds owners from which blood samples were taken. For serum collection, approximately 7 mL of blood was aseptically collected from the jugular vein of each small ruminants using sterile plain vacutainer tubes and needles. The samples were properly labeled, and allowed to clot at room temperature for 24 hours. The separated sera were gently transferred into sterile cryovials, labeled with animal identification numbers, and stored at -20\u0026deg;C until testing [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]. During this study, the geographic coordinates (GPS) of each \u003cem\u003eKebele\u003c/em\u003e were recorded and geo-referenced using a GIS to represent the location of the sampled herd.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRetrospective data on PPR disease outbreaks, case distribution, and the number of vaccinated animals in the Oromia Region were obtained from the Oromia Agriculture office vaccination campaign records. Specifically, data were obtained from the PDS, OBI, and DOVAR reports covering a six-year period. These data were used to analyze trends in disease outbreak and vaccination coverage, providing a snapshot of the regional PPR situation to inform future control and eradication strategies.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOperational definition\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTemporal PPR outbreak events were categorized by year. The spatial distribution of PPR outbreaks was determined using the longitude and latitude coordinates of each outbreak location. Confirmed outbreaks were reported through DOVAR when cases were examined and diagnosed by regional laboratories using rapid PPR tests and ELISA, with positive results. Suspected outbreaks were reported through DOVAR based on presumptive diagnoses without laboratory confirmation. The total number of vaccinated animals included animals vaccinated to control disease outbreaks (ring vaccination) and animals vaccinated for preventive purposes before an outbreak occurred (prophylactic vaccination).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.7. Sample transportation and laboratory procedures\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe collected serum samples used to detect antibodies due to natural infection were shipped in an icebox to the ARVL and kept at -20\u0026deg;C until tested. Samples collected from vaccinated animals were shipped to the Animal Health Institute (former NAHDIC, Sebeta, Ethiopia) and stored in a refrigerator until tested.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCompetitive or blocking enzyme linked immunosorbant assay(c-ELISA)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA c-ELISA was used to detect antibodies against PPR in serum samples from non-vaccinated and vaccinated animals for sero-prevalence and sero-monitoring, respectively, following the manufacturer\u0026rsquo;s instructions (ID Vet, rue Louis Pasture-Grabels France). Competitive ELISA PPR kit has sensitivity (Se) of 94.4% and specificity (Sp) of 99.8% [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e]. Briefly, 25\u0026micro;L of dilution buffer-13 (supplied kit) was added to each well, followed by 25\u0026micro;L of positive control into A1 and B1, 25\u0026micro;L negative control into C1 and D1, and 25\u0026micro;L test samples in the remaining wells. The plate was then incubated at 37\u0026deg;C for 45 minutes and washed three times with 300 \u0026micro;L of wash solution. Then, 100\u0026micro;L of 1X conjugate was added to each well and incubated at room temperature for 30 minutes. After 3 times washing, 100 \u0026micro;L substrate solutions were added to each well and incubated for 15 minutes in the dark. Lastly, the reaction was stopped with 100 \u0026micro;L stop solution, and optical density (OD) was read using ELISA micro plate reader with an inference filter of 450 nm. Check the annex 3 for brief procedures and result interpretation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.8. Data management and analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAll collected data obtained from laboratory, field and retrospective data, were entered into Microsoft Excel spreadsheets and analyzed using Epi-info software (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, version 3.5.1., Atlanta, USA) and SPSS software (IBM Corp., IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version 24.0. Armonk, NY, USA). Descriptive analysis was used to summarize the characteristics of the data. This included seroprevalence and seromonitoring data (proportions of serologically positive samples in relation to each potential risk factor); questionnaire data (distribution of responses and related categorical variables); and retrospective study data (outbreaks, case distribution, and number of animals vaccinated) were summarized over time and by location to identify trends and patterns beyond spatial mapping. The apparent prevalence (AP) was adjusted to true prevalence (TP) using the Rogan\u0026ndash;Gladen correction formula TP=(AP\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;Sp\u0026minus;1)/(Se\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;Sp\u0026minus;1) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e], considering the sensitivity (94.4%) and specificity (99.8%) of the c-ELISA test. Associations between potential risk factors (geographical location, age, sex, species, and herd size) and sample positivity were screened using the univariable analysis (logistic regression analyses and chi-square tests). Variables with p-value\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;0.25 in bivariable logistic regression were entered into the multivariable logistic regression analysis [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e]. Adjusted odds ratios (OR) with 95% confidence intervals were used to determine the strength of association, and statistical significance was considered at P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05. The maps of the study area and spatial distribution of the disease in the region were generated by Arc GIS (Geographical information system) version 3.3 using GPS (Global Positioning System) coordinates [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. RESULTS","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.1. Overall sero- prevalence and distribution of PPR sero-positivity in Bale Zone\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this study, out of 420 sera collected from sheep and goats, 15.2% (64/420) (95%CI: 12.0%,19.1%) were found positive for antibodies against PPRV infection. The sero-prevalence of PPR virus in small ruminants was 12.2% (28/230) (95%CI: 8.2%,17.1%) in Goba and 19% (36/190) (95%CI: 13.6,25.3%) in Sinana districts of the Bale Zone. By species, 12.1% (40/330) (95%CI: 8.9%, 16.3%) of sheep and 26.7% (24/90) (95%CI: 17.9%,37%) of goats tested positive. After adjusting for test sensitivity and specificity, the overall true prevalence in small ruminants was 15.9%, with 12.6% in sheep and 28.1% in goats. Similarly, the true prevalence of PPRV in Goba and Sinana districts was 12.7% and 20%, respectively (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeroprevalence of PPR disease in non-vaccinated animals in Bale Zone, Oromia Region, Ethiopia\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRisk factor\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCategory\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eApparent prevalence\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrue prevalence (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003en (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95%CI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDistricts\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGoba\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e230\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28(12.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.2,17.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSinana\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e190\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36(18.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.6,25.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecies\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSheep\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e330\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40(12.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.9,16.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGoat\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24(26.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.9,37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSex\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e143\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14 (9.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.5,15.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e277\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50(18.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.7,23.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdult\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e169\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17(10.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.0,15.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYoung\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e251\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e47(18.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.1,24.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHerd size\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSmall\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e164\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15 (9.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2,14.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedium\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e141\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23(16.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.6,23.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLarge\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e115\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26(22.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.3,31.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOver all\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e230\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e64(15.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.0,19.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"6\"\u003e\u003cb\u003eKey\u003c/b\u003e: CI-confidence interval; N- number examined; n-number with positive result\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2. Association between some of the risk factors with occurrence of PPR sero-positivity\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this study, hypothesized risk factors for PPR sero-prevalence were initially screened using bivariable analysis (chi-square and logistic regression). The results revealed that sex, age, species, and herd size were statistically significantly associated with PPR virus seropositivity (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05), whereas geographical area did not. However, all variables (geographical area, sex, age, species, and herd size) were entered into the multivariable logistic regression model because their p-values were \u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.25 in bivariable logistic regression (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChi-square and Univariable logistic regression model of risk factors associated with PPR occurrences in Bale Zone, Oromia region, Ethiopia, January to November 2024\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"11\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRisk factor\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCategory\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrevalence\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eX\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDf\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP-value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95% CI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP-value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003en (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95%CI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDistricts\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGoba\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e230\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28(12.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.2,17.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.055\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRef\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSinana\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e190\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36(18.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.6,25.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1, 2.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.056\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecies\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSheep\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e330\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40(12.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.9,16.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRef\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGoat\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24(26.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.9,37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.5,4.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSex\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e143\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14 (9.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.5,15.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.026\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRef\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e277\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50(18.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.7,23.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.1,3.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.028\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdult\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e169\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17(10.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.0,15.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.015\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRef\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYoung\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e251\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e47(18.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.1,24.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.1,3.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.017\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHerd size\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSmall\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e164\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15 (9.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2,14.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.008\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRef\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedium\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e141\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23(16.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.6,23.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1,3.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.062\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLarge\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e115\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26(22.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.3,31.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.5,5.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.002\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOver all\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e230\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e64(15.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.0,19.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"11\"\u003e\u003cb\u003eKey\u003c/b\u003e: Df-degrees of freedom; CI-confidence interval; N- number examined; n-number with positive result; OR-odds ratio\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the final multivariable logistic regression model, age, area, species, and herd size were significantly associated with the occurrence of PPR disease (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). Animals in the younger age group were 2.54 times more likely to be seropositive than older animals (OR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.54; 95%CI: 1.4,4.8; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.004). Regarding herd size, animals from medium-sized herds were 2.34 times more likely to be positive than those from small herds (OR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.34; 95%CI: 1.1,4.8; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.021). Similarly, animals from large herds had 2.85 times higher odds of being positive compared with animals from small herds (OR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.85, 95%CI: 1.4,5.8; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.004). Sex was also significantly associated with the disease. Female animals were 2.57 times more likely than adults (OR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.57; 1.3,5; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.006). Species also showed a significant association with the outcome. Goats were 2.76 times more affected than sheep (OR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.76; 95% CI: 1.5, 5.0; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.001). District was excluded from the final model because it was not statistically significant and did not act as a confounder (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMultivariable logistic regression model of risk factors associated with PPR occurrences in Bale zone, Oromia, Ethiopia, January to November 2024\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRisk factor\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCategory\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003en (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95% CI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP-value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecies\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSheep\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e330\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40 (12.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRef\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGoat\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24 (26.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.76\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.5,5.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSex\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e143\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14 (9.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRef\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e277\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50 (18.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.3,5.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.006\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdult\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e169\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17 (10.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRef\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYoung\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e251\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e47 (18.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.4,4.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.004\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHerd\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSize\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSmall\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e164\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15 (9.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRef\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedium\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e141\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23 (16.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.1,4.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.021\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLarge\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e115\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26 (22.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.85\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.4,5.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.004\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"7\"\u003e\u003cb\u003eKey\u003c/b\u003e: CI-confidence interval; OR-odds ratio; N-number examined; n-number with positive result\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.3. Sero monitoring of PPR vaccinated small ruminants in Bale Zone\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe overall antibody presence after immunization was 76% (187/246) (95%CI: 70.2,81.2) in the Dinsho district of Bale Zone. In the study area, the prevalence of antibodies developed in goats was 77.55% (38/49) (95%CI: 69.0,81.5) and in sheep 75.6% (149/197) (95%CI: 63.4,88.2) after three months of field vaccination. After adjusting for test sensitivity and specificity, the overall true prevalence of antibodies developed in small ruminants was 80.5%, with 80% in sheep and 82.2% in goats (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnti-body prevalence in vaccinated animals in Dinsho district, Bale Zone, Oromia region, Ethiopia\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRisk factor\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCategory\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eApparent prevalence\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrue antibody prevalence (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003en(%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95%CI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKebele\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHora Saba\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58 (71.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e69.8,85.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDinsho 01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41(77.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60.5,81.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e82.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGojera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e112\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e88 (78.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e63.8,87.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e83.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecies\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOvine\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e197\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e149 (75.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e63.4,88.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCaprine\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38 (77.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e69.0,81.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e82.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSex\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e143\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e105 (73.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e65.4,80.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e77.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e103\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e82 (79.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70.5,86.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e84.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYoung\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e103\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e69 (67.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e57.0,75.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdult\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e143\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e118 (82.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75.3,88.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e87.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOver all\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e246\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e187(76.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70.2,81.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"6\"\u003e\u003cb\u003eKey\u003c/b\u003e: CI-confidence interval; N- number examined; n-number with positive result\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.4. Some of the risk factors for anti-body prevalence in vaccinated animals in Bale Zone\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll risk factors were initially evaluated using bivariable analysis. The bivariable logistic regression results indicated that only age was statistically significantly associated with anti-body prevalence in vaccinated animals (OR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.33; 95%CI:1.3,4.2; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.005). Other variables (geographical area, sex, and species) were not entered into the multivariable logistic regression model because their p-values were \u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.25 in bivariable logistic regression (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChi-square and Univariable logistic regression model of risk factors associated with PPR occurrences in Bale zone, Oromia region, Ethiopia\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"11\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRisk factor\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCategory\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003en (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95%CI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eX\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDf\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP-value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95% CI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP-value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKebele\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHora Saba\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58 (71.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e69.8,85.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.517\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDinsho 01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41(77.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60.5,81.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.8,2.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.267\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGojera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e112\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e88 (78.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e63.8,87.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.5,2.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.860\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecies\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOvine\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e197\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e149 (75.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e63.4,88.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.779\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCaprine\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38 (77.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e69.0,81.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.5,2.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.779\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSex\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e143\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e105 (73.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e65.4,80.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.262\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e103\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e82 (79.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70.5,86.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.41\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.8,2.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.264\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYoung\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e103\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e69 (67.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e57.0,75.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.005\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdult\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e143\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e118 (82.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75.3,88.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.3,4.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.005\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOver all\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e246\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e187(76.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70.2,81.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"11\"\u003e\u003cb\u003eKey\u003c/b\u003e: Df-degrees of freedom; CI-confidence interval; N- number examined; n-number with positive result; OR-odds ratio\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMultivariable logistic regression analysis showed age was the only significant factor (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). Vaccinated adults were 2.35 times more likely to develop antibodies than young animals (OR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.35; 95% CI: 1.28,4.2; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.006) (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e). Species, area, and sex were excluded from the final model because they were not statistically significant and did not act as a confounder.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 6\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMultivariable logistic regression model of the risk factors associated with antibody development in vaccinated small ruminants in Bale Zone, Oromia Region, Ethiopia\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRisk factor\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCategory\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003en (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95% CI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP-value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYoung\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e103\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e69 (67)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRef\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdult\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e143\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e118 (82.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.3,4.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.006\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"7\"\u003e\u003cb\u003eKey\u003c/b\u003e: CI-confidence interval; N- number examined; n-number with positive result; OR-odds ratio\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.5. Questionnaire survey results analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMajority (62.6%) of the owners reported no small ruminant disease surveillance and that ovine pasteurellosis was more common than PPR as reported by 38.7% and 12.0% of respondents respectively. Outbreaks of PPR were reported by a minority (28.0%) with most outbreaks occurring more than two years ago (47.6% respondents). Disease symptoms that were PPR-like were reported by only about one third (33.3%) of the respondents with goats reported as being most affected (57.1% respondents). About half (47.6%) of those who responded did not know the origin of PPR outbreaks, and that all herds (100% respondents) mixed at watering/grazing points and also a considerable proportion of herds had contact with wildlife (32% respondents). Almost all respondents (90.7%) reported that their small ruminants were vaccinated with vaccination against ovine pasteurellosis being the most commonly administered (54.4%respondents). The majority of the owners (81.3%) responded that they did not introduce new shoats in to their herds, and all small ruminant flocks (100% respondents) do not migrate outside their village (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab7\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 7\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDescriptive statistics of questionnaire survey on outbreaks and vaccination trends in Oromia Region, Ethiopia\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariables\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCategories\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003en\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePercent (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSmall ruminant disease surveillance\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI do not know\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"4\" rowspan=\"5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCommon disease of sheep and goat\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOvine Pasteurellosis\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSGP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePPR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParasite\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOther\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOccurrence of disease outbreak(s)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e72.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTime outbreaks occurred\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;1 year\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u0026ndash;2 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;2 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e47.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNasal discharge, anorexia, and diarrhoea, Enteritis-stomatitis\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e66.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMore affected small ruminants\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSheep\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGoat\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e57.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoth\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCommon source/origin of the outbreak\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNeighbouring herds\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNew introducing\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWild animals\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI do not know\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e47.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHistory of vaccination\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVaccinated\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e68\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTypes of vaccine\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSGP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e68\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOvine Pasteurellosis\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e68\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e54.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePPR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e68\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI do not know\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e68\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eContact of herd with other herds\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eContact of herd with wildlife\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e68.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMovement/migration\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIntroduced new shoats\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e81.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"5\"\u003e\u003cb\u003eKey\u003c/b\u003e: N-Number of respondent; n-number of respondents; SGP-sheep and goat pox\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.6. A retrospective analysis of PPR outbreaks and vaccine trends in Oromia Region\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrom 2016 to 2022, a total of 181 outbreaks, 13,710 cases, and 3,162 deaths were reported from different agro-ecological regions of Oromia, giving an overall case fatality of 23.1% (3162/13710). The number of outbreaks, cases, and deaths varied across the years. The highest number of outbreaks (46) and cases (4765) reported in 2019, while 2018 recorded the highest number of deaths (1179). In contrast, 2017 and 2022 had the lowest number of outbreaks (10 each). The case fatality also varied, with the highest case fatality in 2022 (50.4%; 142/282) despite relatively few cases (282), and the lowest case fatality reported in 2020 (16%; 309/1929) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Oromia Region, a total of 347 PDS and OBI active surveillances were conducted by vaccination campaign from 2017 to 2022 and 131 PPR outbreaks were recorded. In areas where PDS and OBI conducted, 2266 PPR positive cases were identified and 1,859,263 populations at risk were vaccinated. The distributions of these occurrences were highest in Borena, East Shewa, and Bale zones and moderate in the other zones of Oromia Region (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). A total of 2266 PPR cases were reported between 2017 and 2022 from a population at risk of 1859263 animals. Of the total cases, 1952 (86.1%) were reported through OBI, while 314 (13.9%) were identified and confirmed through PDS, indicating that OBI surveillance contributed the majority of reported cases during the study period. The number of reported PPR cases varied considerably by year. The lowest number of cases was recorded in 2019 with only 66 cases, while the highest number occurred in 2021 with 778 cases. A sharp increase in cases was observed between 2019 and 2020, rising from 66 to 618 cases, and the number remained high in 2021 before declining to 388 cases in 2022. The population at risk also fluctuated across the years, increasing from 95795 animals in 2017 to a peak of 609368 animals in 2021, before decreasing to 269459 animals in 2022. PDS reports data were not available in 2017 and 2019, but their contribution increased in later years, particularly in 2021 when 237 cases were reported, representing the highest PDS contribution during the study period(Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab8\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 8\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumber of PPR cases, Oromia Region, Ethiopia, 2017\u0026ndash;2022\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYear\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOBI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePDS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCases\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePopulation at risk\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCases\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePopulation at risk\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCases\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePopulation at risk\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2017\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e256\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95795\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e-\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e256\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95795\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2018\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e150\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e132710\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2987\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e160\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e135697\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e66\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e180433\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31245\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e66\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e211678\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2020\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e606\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e444157\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e93109\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e618\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e537266\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2021\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e541\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e396920\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e237\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e212448\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e778\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e609368\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2022\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e333\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e205935\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e63524\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e388\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e269459\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1952\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1455950\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e314\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e403313\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2266\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1859263\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"7\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote\u003c/em\u003e: Participatory Disease Surveillance (PDS) and Outbreak Investigation (OBI) are active surveillance methods used to collect animal health data such as PPR disease outbreaks, number of cases, and vaccinated animals through campaigns led by regional veterinary laboratory staff. Data are collected directly by veterinarians or investigators using participatory approaches, field investigation and questionnaires surveys and other appropriate data collection methods.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe overall vaccination coverage against PPR in small ruminants in Oromia Region increased progressively from 8.5% (1529442/17,995,956) in 2017 to 36.7% (6774578/18472610) in 2022, with goats consistently showing higher coverage (23.2%) than sheep (15.7%). A total of 20,840,010 small ruminants were vaccinated, containing 9,173,318 sheep and 11,666,692 goats. A temporal trend analysis showed that vaccination coverage was very low in the early years (20017 to 2019), with total coverage ranging from 8.5% in 2017 to 11.5% in 2019. Coverage began to improve in 2020, reaching 15.7%, with vaccination rates for sheep and goats nearly equal, 15.7% and 15.8%, respectively. In 2021, vaccination coverage increased to 32.3%, and in 2022, it peaked at 36.7%, with goats achieving 47.5% coverage. Especially, the total number of vaccinated animals was greatest in 2022, 6774578 animals. Vaccine coverage was estimated approximately as the total number of animals vaccinated divided by the total population. This method may underestimate true coverage, as not all animals may have been targeted or accessible (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"5. DISCUSSIONS","content":"\u003cp\u003eDespite that FAO-UN and WOAH intends to eradicate PPR by 2030, studies in the country continue to report seropositivity in unvaccinated sheep and goats. In the present study, an overall seroprevalence of 15.2% was recorded in unvaccinated animals from Goba and Sinana districts of Bale Zone. Seroprevalence was higher in goats (26.7%) than in sheep (12.1%), indicating greater exposure among goats. This finding highlight the ongoing importance of PPR in the study areas and the need for intensified control measures. The result aligns with reports by Fentie \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e], who reported 18.3% from three Zones of the Amahara region, and Ejigu \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e], who reported 10.3% from North Shewa, Oromia Region.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe seroprevalence detected in the current study was higher than previously reported by Gelana \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e] in the Horo Guduru Zone of the Oromia Region (5.71%), Yitagesu [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e] in the Buno Bedele Zone of the Oromia Region (4.7%), Gebre \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e] in southwest Ethiopia (2.1%), Abraham \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e] in the Afar Region and Borena Zone (6.8%), and Waret-Szkuta \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e] in different regions of Ethiopia: Oromia (1.7%), Amhara (4.6%), and the Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples\u0026rsquo; Region (1.8%).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, it was lower than the reports of Hirut \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e] in the Adama District of the Oromia Region (30.2%), Gari \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e] in East Shewa and Arsi Zones of the Oromia Region (48.43%), Abesha \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e] in the Benishangul-Gumuz Region (32.5%), Wondemagegn [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e] in the Somali Region (41%), Kifle and Tsegaw [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e] in the Metema District of the Amhara Region (26.3%), Berihun \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e] in the Tigray Region (47.5%), Gizaw \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e] in the Adar and Mille Zones of the Afar Region (40.2%), Hailegebreal [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e] in the Silte and Guraghe Zones (29.2%), Dubie \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e] in Afar (Adar and Mille) (60.15%), and Yalew \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e] in the Asosa Zone of the Benishangul-Gumuz Region (75%). The findings of the current study were also lower than reports from other African and Asian countries, including 45.0% in the Republic of Niger [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e], 67.9% in India [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e], 45.6% in Sudan [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e], 23.2% in Nigeria [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e], 38.2% in Saudi Arabia [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e], and 61.8% in Sudan [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e]. The difference prevalence of PPR observed in current and previous studies in different parts in Ethiopia and other countries could be attributed to the differences in surveillance strategies, management practices, vaccination status, uncontrolled animals movement and agro ecological differences. Agroecology and vegetation determine the spread of the virus during an outbreak of PPR [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn current study, the multivariable logistic regression model revealed that species was significantly associated with the sero-prevalence of PPR, with prevalence in goats being higher (26.7%) than in sheep (12.1%). Similar findings have been reported from different geographical areas of Ethiopia, showing a higher prevalence of PPR in goats than in sheep: Fentie \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e] (21.57% in goats and 14.89% in sheep); Delil \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e] (42.6% in goats and 7.3% in sheep); Wondimagegn [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e] (42% in goats and 39% in sheep); Yitagesu [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e] (6% in goats and 2.6% in sheep); [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e] (2.3% in goats and 1.8% in sheep); and Dubie \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e] (68.18% in goats and 38.18% in sheep). Abubakar \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e] also reported similar findings (56.3% in goats and 49.5% in sheep) in Pakistan.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGoats were generally more severely affected by PPR virus than sheep, showing pronounced clinical signs, while sheep often develop mild disease [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e]. However, studies from Ethiopia have reported higher sero-prevalence in sheep than goats, including findings by Abraham \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e] in Afar and Borena (13% in sheep and 9% in goats) and Gelana \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e] in Horo Guduru, Oromia (6.98% in sheep and 4.53% in goats). Similar patterns were reported elsewhere, including in Sudan [[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e] (62.9% in sheep and 59.7% in goats); [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e] (68.1% in sheep and 43.5% in goats)], Pakistan [[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e] (24.9% in sheep and 15.36% in goats); [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e] (51.5% in sheep and 46.5% in goat)], and Nigeria [[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e] (57% in sheep and 44% in goats)]. Variations in prevalence in current finding and previous study may reflect differences in management systems and geospatial locations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe sero-prevalence of PPR was higher in females (18.0%) than males (9.8%), with a statistically significant difference, indicating females are more likely to be infected. This finding agrees with reports by Afera \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e], who reported 47.5% in female and 43.75% in male; Gebre \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e], who reported 2.2% in males and 1.8% in females and Megersa \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e57\u003c/span\u003e], who report 32.2% in males and 22.1% in males from Ethiopia. It is also consistent with findings by Senthilkumar \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e58\u003c/span\u003e] from India (75% in females and 53% in males) and WOAH [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e59\u003c/span\u003e]. The higher prevalence in females may be due to longer retention for breeding and production or reproduction-related stress. However, this contrasts with studies by Abesha \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e] and Alemu \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e60\u003c/span\u003e] from Ethiopia; Nizamani \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e61\u003c/span\u003e] from Pakistan, and Swai \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e62\u003c/span\u003e] from Tanzania, which reported higher seroprevalence in males.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePeste des petits ruminants antibody prevalence showed a significant age-related difference among small ruminants. Young animals aged 6 months to 2 years had higher sero-prevalence (18.7%) than adults aged 2 to 3 years (10.1%). Young animals were about twice as likely to be infected compared to adults, indicating greater susceptibility. This may be due to declining maternal antibodies and nutritional factors. Similar findings were reported by Gebre \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e] and Waret-Szkuta \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e] from Ethiopia, Bello \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e63\u003c/span\u003e] from Nigeria, but contrast with Dubie \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e] and Wondimagegn [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e] from Ethiopia; Nizamani \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e61\u003c/span\u003e] from Pakistan; and De \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e64\u003c/span\u003e] from India.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePeste des petits ruminants sero-prevalence studies were limited in the Ethiopian highlands compared with the lowlands, where lowland agro-ecology has been widely reported as a risk factor for PPR outbreak. Infection varies by geographical location [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e65\u003c/span\u003e]. In Ethiopia, free-range grazing and seasonal animal movement, especially in low-altitude dry areas, facilitate PPR transmission [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e]. Similar findings were reported in Sudan [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e] and Nigeria [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e63\u003c/span\u003e]. Lower risk is associated with higher altitudes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e]. However, the current study revealed notable sero-prevalence (15.2%) in highland areas (Goba and Sinana), indicating endemic viral circulation despite limited animal movement.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study indicated that PPR outbreak was significantly affected by herd size. Animals in large herds were 2.9 times more likely to develop PPR virus infection than those in small herds. This finding agrees with reports by Gelana \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e] and Gari \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e] from Ethiopia, WOAH [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e59\u003c/span\u003e], but contrasts with Saeed \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e66\u003c/span\u003e] from Sudan. The higher prevalence in large herds may result from overcrowding and increased contact, which facilitate virus transmission.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite vaccination efforts in Bale Zone, no sero-monitoring studies had been conducted in the Zone in general, and specifically none in Dinsho District, even though PPR outbreaks are frequently reported and vaccination has been implemented in the district. During recent outbreaks in the last quarter of 2023, risk-based vaccination was conducted in villages near the outbreak areas, covering 92,600 small ruminants in five \u003cem\u003ekebeles\u003c/em\u003e of Dinsho district. Based on this, a sero-monitoring study was conducted in three vaccinated \u003cem\u003ekebeles\u003c/em\u003e of the district to assess the immunity developed in sheep and goat against PPRV; consequently, the level of population immunity following vaccination estimated. Balamurugan \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e67\u003c/span\u003e] reported that prevalence studies assessing PPRV antibodies and immunity status are crucial for PPR eradication, including post-vaccination evaluation or sero-monitoring to determine vaccine efficacy and vaccination effectiveness. Similarly, Abesha \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e] emphasized that herd immunity detection and epidemiological surveys help to understand disease status and to design effective disease control programs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the current study, the overall post-vaccination antibody prevalence was 76.0%, with seropositivity of 71.6% in Hora Sobba, 77.4% in Dinsho 01, and 78.6% in Gojera kebeles of Dinsho district, Bale Zone, Oromia Region, Ethiopia. This finding suggests that a significant proportion of animals developed detectable antibodies following vaccination. The present antibody prevalence was higher than reports by Faris \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e68\u003c/span\u003e] in Ethiopia (61.13%) using the Nigeria 75/1 strain PPR vaccine, the vaccine currently using for eradication, Luka \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e69\u003c/span\u003e] in Uganda (55.26%), and Kumbe \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e70\u003c/span\u003e] in Ethiopia\u0026rsquo;s Borena Region (68.8%)(88/128). Such variations may be attributed to differences in sample size, sampling methods, vaccine type, animal management, and environmental factors, as well as cold chain maintenance, which is critical for live-attenuated PPR vaccines.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings were consistent with reports by Kabir \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e71\u003c/span\u003e] in Bangladesh (75%), Balamurugan \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e67\u003c/span\u003e] in India (73.4%), and Regmi \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e72\u003c/span\u003e] in Nepal (75.2%). However, they are lower than the 97% seroprevalence reported by Iqbal \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e73\u003c/span\u003e] in Pakistan, possibly reflecting superior vaccine handling and delivery. Adopting as similar vaccination strategies as in Pakistan could improve seroconversion and enhance PPR eradication efforts in Ethiopia.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt has been estimated that achieving a minimum of 75\u0026ndash;80% herd immunity is essential for controlling rinderpest and related diseases [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e74\u003c/span\u003e]. According to FAO-UN and WOAH [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e], attaining 80% herd immunity is sufficient to reduce PPR virus transmission and eliminate the disease. In Morocco, veterinary services controlled PPR through three consecutive annual nationwide mass vaccination campaigns that reached about 85% of the national sheep and goat population, with more than 20\u0026nbsp;million small ruminant vaccinated. Despite this coverage, the estimated post-vaccination seroprevalence of antibodies against PPRV was 69% in sheep and goat [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR75\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e75\u003c/span\u003e]. These and the current study findings are consistent with previous expert recommendations suggesting that achieving a post-vaccination population immunity of around 70% is considered critical for evaluating the success of PPR vaccination campaigns [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on these considerations, vaccinated animals in the study villages developed adequate protective antibodies against PPRV, supporting vaccination of unvaccinated villages. However, a seropositivity of 76% indicates that 24% remained susceptible. This may result from poor cold chain maintenance, prolonged use of reconstituted vaccines, nature of the vaccine, genetics of the vaccinated animals, vaccinator skill, animal health status, and inadequate animal handling or incomplete vaccination coverage.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this study, among sex, species, and age, only age was significantly associated with antibody development. Seropositivity was 67.0% in young (6 months\u0026ndash;2 years) and 82.5% in adults (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;2\u0026ndash;3 years). Adults were 2.3s times more likely to develop antibodies. This agrees with Regmi \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e72\u003c/span\u003e] regarding sex and species in Nepal, but not age. Vaccinated caprines showed slightly higher antibody prevalence than ovines, but the difference was insignificant, consistent with Iqbal \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e73\u003c/span\u003e], who also reported no significant post-vaccination difference.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRespondents in Goba and Sinana ranked major small-ruminant diseases as ovine pasteurellosis (38.7%), SGP (24%), parasitic (17.3%), PPR (12%), and others (8%). Most reported no disease outbreaks in the past three years and confirmed vaccination against several diseases, except PPR. Although 19.1% claimed PPR vaccination, this reflected misunderstanding, as only recent in 2023 campaigns provided PPR vaccines. About 12% recognized PPR and its clinical signs, aligning with the current seroprevalence (15.2%), indicating PPR remains an important disease in both districts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll respondents (100%) reported that their animals had contact with other herds during watering and/or grazing, and 68% indicated contact with wildlife. During the study period, different herds and species, including wildlife at Goba and Dinsho National Parks, were observed sharing grazing areas and water points, which likely facilitated virus transmission among small ruminants and other animals. Salih \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e] noted that communal grazing contaminates pastures and water sources. Although sheep and goats are primary PPR hosts, sero-conversion has been reported in other domestic (camel, cattle and pigs) and wild species [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e76\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e77\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Dinsho district, the current sero-monitoring study area, sheep and goats have frequent contact with wild animals from Dinsho National Park due to the absence of a physical fence separating domestic livestock from wildlife. In addition, disease outbreaks have been experienced in the district within a single year. Studies conducted in Saudi Arabia reported that PPR can affect several wild ungulates, including Dorcas gazelles, Thomson\u0026rsquo;s gazelles, Nubian ibex, Laristan sheep, and gemsbok [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e78\u003c/span\u003e]. Based on these reports, wildlife may represent a recurrent source of PPR outbreaks in Dinsho district, although this assumption requires further investigation. PPRV circulating in domestic ruminants can act as a source of infection for wildlife [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e78\u003c/span\u003e]; however, the reverse scenario is also possible, whereby wildlife could serve as a source of infection for sheep and goats. Nevertheless, the role of wildlife in the epidemiology of PPR remains poorly investigated and not well understood, including its contribution to disease persistence, transmission challenges, and outbreak, all of which are important considerations for global eradication efforts [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. Conversely, there is no clear evidence to suggest that PPRV circulates sustainably in wild animals or that they act as a significant source of infection for domestic species [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR79\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e79\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Oromia Region possesses the largest proportion of the national livestock population. PPR has a major negative impact on sheep and goats production and continues to hamper international trade in live small ruminants and their products. Considering its significant impact, a control and eradication program is being implemented in the region under the national strategy, aligned with the global strategy, with the objective of eradicating the disease by 2030.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite ongoing control and eradication efforts prior to the global PPR program, outbreaks continued. Between 2016 and 2022, a total of 181 PPR outbreaks were reported, with the highest number occurring in 2019. Kumbe \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e70\u003c/span\u003e] noted that 53 outbreaks were recorded in Borena Zone in Ethiopia between 2018 and 2022, peaking in 2019. Similarly, Niedbalski \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e] reported increased PPR outbreaks in 2018\u0026ndash;2019 in Algeria, Ethiopia, and Guinea, highlighting challenges to successful disease eradication, consistent with data from Oromia Region.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Regional Veterinary Laboratories (RVL), through the regional veterinary laboratories campaign, conducted participatory diseases surveillance and outbreak investigation, which were employed based on existing risk, disease notification, reporting, or any rumor in order to detect the disease. Between 2017 and 2022, a total of 347 active surveillance activities were conducted in the Oromia Region, confirming 131 PPR outbreaks with an overall positivity rate of 37.8%. Despite vaccinating 1,859,263 animals at risk, 2,266 PPR positive cases were still identified in the surveyed areas, indicating that PPR continued to circulate.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe vaccination trends over the last six years in Oromia Region, from 8.5% in 2017 to 36.7% in 2022, show that the lowest number of vaccinations occurred in 2017, gradually increasing to reach the highest level in 2022, with a total of 21,338,935 small ruminants vaccinated. Despite improvements, overall coverage \u003cb\u003e(\u003c/b\u003e19.1%) remained moderate relative to the total population of the region, highlighting the need for expanded vaccination campaigns. Additionally, small ruminants have high turnover, and after three years, the exiting herd is replaced by new herds susceptible to PPR virus. FAO-UN and WOAH [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e] reported that once necessary herd immunity is achieved, vaccination may focus primarily on young animals to address the high turnover in small ruminant populations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor effective control and eventual eradication of PPR, timely vaccination of susceptible populations is recommended [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR80\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e80\u003c/span\u003e], although achieving eradication by 2030 remains a significant challenge in endemic countries [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. The current findings suggest that, despite ongoing surveillance and vaccination efforts, PPR continued to circulate within the region, indicating potential gaps in vaccine effectiveness, coverage, or implementation. The persistence of outbreaks despite large-scale vaccination highlights the need to strengthen surveillance systems, improve vaccination coverage, and enhance overall disease control strategies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOver all, these results underscore the importance of expanding vaccination campaigns, assessing of vaccine efficacy and diagnostic test; conducting repeated surveillance (including PDS and OBI); and building capacity in both surveillance and immunization programs to reduce virus circulation and support the timely eradication of PPR across the region.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"6. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe present study found an overall PPR seroprevalence of 15.2%, indicating active circulation of PPR virus among unvaccinated sheep and goats in the study area, suggesting endemic infection in these areas. Species, sex, age, and herd size were identified as significant risk factors for PPR outbreaks and distribution. In contrast, a 76% antibody prevalence was recorded among vaccinated small ruminants, indicating that immunized animals in the villages developed sufficient immunity against PPRV. By species, area, and sex, vaccinated animals revealed no significant difference in antibody development, though age was significantly associated. Despite ongoing control efforts, PPR continued to circulate in the Oromia Region, with 181 reported outbreaks between 2016 and 2022 and a 37.8% positivity rate from active surveillance. Although vaccination coverage increased over time, reaching 36.7% in 2022, overall coverage remained moderate (19.1%), indicating insufficient immunization to interrupt disease transmission. All interviewed owners reported herd contact during grazing or watering, and 32% reported wildlife contact. Circulating virus and unimmunized animals indicate epidemic risk. Generally, regional-level serological investigations and sero-monitoring should be strengthened, and mass vaccination programs should be mandatory for successful PPR eradication. Strengthening veterinary services and improving stakeholder engagement as well as awareness through awareness creation, alongside vaccination efforts and conducting repeated surveillance, are also essential for effective disease control and eradication. Further studies on other animal species are needed to determine their role as potential sources of infection. In addition, studies on vaccine efficacy and diagnostic test assessment and immunity should be conducted. In addition, studies on vaccine efficacy, diagnostic test performance, and comprehensive immune responses should be conducted.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionList\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003ecELISA\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eARVL:Asella Regional Veterinary Laboratories\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eCompetitive enzyme-linked immunesorbent assay\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eDIVA\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDifferentiation between infected and vaccinated\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eDOVAR\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDisease Outbreak and Vaccination Activity Report\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eESGPIP\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEthiopian Sheep and Goat Productivity Improvement Program\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eFAO-UN\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eFood and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eRVL\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegional Veterinary Laboratories\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eOBI\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOutbreak investigation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003ePDS\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipatory Disease Surveillance\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003ePDV\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePorpoise distemper virus\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003ePPR\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePeste des petits ruminants\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003ePPRV\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePeste des petits ruminants Virus\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003eWOAH\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWorld organization for Animal Health.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors are grateful to ARVL, Animal Health Institute (former NAHDIC, Sebeta, Ethiopia); Ministry of Agriculture Ethiopia for providing the necessary reagents, consumables, and laboratory facilities. The authors would like to extend special thanks to all study participants and research assistants.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research was not funded by any organization or institution.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and materials\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request under ethical guidelines and the policies of the journal. All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in the \"Result\".\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor contribution\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFikru Gizaw: Conceptualized the initial idea and designed the experiments; coordinated the data collection activities; performed the experiments; analyzed and interpreted the data; wrote the paper.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGonfa Shankute: Contributed to collecting the materials; performed the experiments; analyzed and interpreted\u0026nbsp;the data; wrote the paper.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDemeke Sibhatu: Conducted laboratory investigations\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFasil Aklilu: Conducted laboratory investigations, validation, resource and\u0026nbsp;wrote the paper\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDimshesha Tolera and Abdi Yesuf: data collection;\u0026nbsp;performed the experiments; analyzed and interpreted the data\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFikru Gizaw Gurmessa and Gonfa Shankute: are contributed equally\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll authors have read and agreed to the published version of\u0026nbsp;the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe current study was conducted according to the ethical guide lines of Arsi University. Prior to the initiation of this work, Ethical approval was obtained from the Institutional Research Ethics Review Committee (IRERC) of Arsi University. The purpose of the study was clearly explained to animal owners, and best practices in veterinary care were strictly observed. The verbal informed consent procedure and the study protocols were approved by the Arsi University Research Ethics and Review Committee. Oral informed consent was obtained from all animal owners prior to data collection and serum sample collection. The questionnaire survey was conducted with the voluntary participation of animal owners. Informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to data collection, and confidentiality and anonymity were strictly maintained. All methods were conducted in accordance with relevant institutional guidelines and the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDeclaration of competing interest\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eClinical trial number\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFAO. WOAH. Partnering and investing for a peste des petits ruminants-free world. Global position paper. 2018.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCentral Statistical Agency (CSA). Report on livestock and livestock characteristics. Agricultural Sample Survey. Statistical Bulletin 589, Volume II. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: CSA; 2021. pp. 1\u0026ndash;199.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNour HSH. Challenges and opportunities for global eradication of peste des petits ruminants. J Trop Dis. 2020;8:349.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAbubakar M, Manzoor S, Wensman JJ, Torsson E, Qurban A, Munir M. Molecular and epidemiological features of peste des petits ruminants outbreak during endemic situation. Hosts Viruses. 2016;3(4):123\u0026ndash;9.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGibbs PJ, Taylor WP, Lawman MJ, Bryant J. Classification of peste des petits ruminants virus as the fourth member of the genus Morbillivirus. J Intervirol. 1979;11(5):268\u0026ndash;74. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1159/000149044\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1159/000149044\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAlbina E, Kwiatek O, Minet C, Lancelot R, de Almeida RS, Libeau G. Peste des petits ruminants, the next eradicated animal disease. Vet Microbiol. 2013;165(1\u0026ndash;2):38\u0026ndash;44.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAbubakar M, Irfan M, Manzoor S. Peste des petits ruminants in Pakistan; past, present and future perspectives. J Vet Sci Technol. 2015;6:257.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMdetele DP, Komba E, Seth MD, Misinzo G, Kock R, Jones BA. Review of peste des petits ruminants occurrence and spread in Tanzania. Animals. 2021;11(6):1698. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.3390/ani11061698\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3390/ani11061698\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKinne J, Kreutzer R, Kreutzer M, Wernery U, Wohlsein P. Peste des petits ruminants in Arabian wildlife. Epidemiol Infect. 2010;138:1211\u0026ndash;14. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1017/S0950268809991638\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1017/S0950268809991638\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFAO-UN WOAH. Global strategy for the control and eradication of peste des petits ruminants. Rome: FAO; 2015.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGizaw F, Merera O, Zeru F, Bedada H, Gebru M. Seroprevalence and socioeconomic impacts of peste des petits ruminants in small ruminants of selected districts of Afar, Ethiopia. J Vet Sci Technol. 2018;9:513.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDemeke S. Review of PPR in Ethiopian context. J Glob Sci. 2022;10(12).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNiedbalski W. Eradication of peste des petits ruminants: application of new research to guide and facilitate the global elimination of the disease. Med Weter. 2022;76(4):206\u0026ndash;11.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eZhao H, Njeumi F, Parida S, Benfield CTO. Progress towards eradication of peste des petits ruminants through vaccination. Viruses. 2021;13(6):1143. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.3390/v13061143\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3390/v13061143\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDereje TR. Epidemiology of peste des petits ruminants in sheep and goats in Ethiopia. Acad Res J Agric Sci. 2019;7(7):503\u0026ndash;12.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eYalew S, Woldemichal G, Mamo M. Seroprevalence of peste des petits ruminants virus antibody in Assosa zone, Benishangul-Gumuz region, Ethiopia. ARC J Anim Vet Sci. 2019;5(3):29\u0026ndash;33.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDubie T, Dagnew B, Gelo E, Negash W, Hussein F, Woldehana M. Seroprevalence and associated risk factors of peste des petits ruminants among ovine and caprine in selected districts of Afar region, Ethiopia. BMC Vet Res. 2022;18:429. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1186/s12917-022-03429-3\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1186/s12917-022-03429-3\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGari G, Serda B, Negesa D, Lemma F, Asgedom H. Serological investigation of peste des petits ruminants in East Shewa and Arsi zones, Oromia, Ethiopia. Int J Vet Med. 2017:1\u0026ndash;5.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHailegebreal G. Seroprevalence of peste des petits ruminants in selected districts of Siltie and Gurage zones, southern Ethiopia. J Vet Sci Technol. 2018;9(2).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAbesha H, Teshome Y, Alemu YF, Dejene H, Tarekegn ZS, Assefa A. Sero epidemiology of peste des petits ruminant\u0026rsquo;s virus in small ruminants in selected districts in Northwest Ethiopia. Vet Med Sci. 2022;9(2):884\u0026ndash;90. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1002/vms3.994\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1002/vms3.994\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHammami P, Lancelot R, Lesnoff M. Modelling the dynamics of post-vaccination immunity rate in a population of Sahelian sheep after a vaccination campaign against peste des petits ruminants virus. PLoS ONE. 2016;11(9):e0161769. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1371/journal.pone.0161769\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1371/journal.pone.0161769\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBale Zone Agriculture Office. Bale Zone statistics. Bale, Oromia, Ethiopia; 2022.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGoba District Agriculture Office. Goba district statistics, Bale, Oromia, Ethiopia. 2022.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSinana District Agriculture Office. Sinana district statistics, Bale, Oromia, Ethiopia. 2022.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDinsho District Agriculture Office. Dinsho district statistics, Bale, Oromia, Ethiopia. 2022.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBalamurugan V, Saravanan P, Sen A, Rajak KK, Venkatesan G, Krishnamoorthy P, Bhanuprakash V, Singh RK. Prevalence of peste des petits ruminants among sheep and goats in India. J Vet Sci. 2012;13(3):279\u0026ndash;85.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eEthiopian Sheep and Goat Productivity Improvement Program (ESGPIP). Estimation of weight and age of sheep and goats. Technical Bulletin No. 23. Ethiopia; 2009.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eThrusfield M. Veterinary epidemiology. 4th ed. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell; 2018.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAbubakar M, Rajput ZI, Javed M, Sarwar G, Qurban A. Evidence of peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV) infection in Sindh Ibex (Capra aegagrus blythi) in Pakistan as confirmed by detection of antigen and antibody. Trop Anim Health Prod. 2011;43(4):745\u0026ndash;7.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRogan WJ, Gladen BC. Estimating prevalence from the results of a screening test. Am J Epidemiol. 1978;107(1):71\u0026ndash;6. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a112510\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a112510\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSun GW, Shook TL, Kay GL. Inappropriate use of bivariable analysis to screen risk factors for use in multivariable analysis. J Clin Epidemiol. 1996;49(8):907\u0026ndash;16. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1016/0895-4356(96)00025-X\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/0895-4356(96)00025-X\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eEsri. ArcGIS Pro. Version 3.3. Redlands: Environmental Systems Research Institute; 2024.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFentie T, Teshome Y, Ayele B, et al. Sero-epidemiological study of peste des petits ruminants in small ruminants in Amhara region, Ethiopia. Comp Clin Pathol. 2018;27(4):1029\u0026ndash;36. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1007/s00580-018-2667-1\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s00580-018-2667-1\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eEjigu E, Tadele T, Feyissa B, Hailehizeb T. Seroprevalence and associated risk factors of peste des petits ruminants in Dera and Gerar Jarso districts of Oromia region, Ethiopia. Vet Med Int. 2023.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGelana M, Gebremedhin EZ, Gizaw D. Seroepidemiology of peste des petits ruminants in sheep and goats in the selected district of Horu Guduru zone, western Ethiopia. Res Vet Sci. 2020;132:527\u0026ndash;34. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1016/j.rvsc.2020.07.006\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.rvsc.2020.07.006\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eYitagesu S. Sero-prevalence and risk factors of peste des petits ruminants in selected districts of Buno-Bedele zone, southwest Ethiopia. MSc thesis. Jimma: Jimma University; 2020.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGebre T, Deneke Y, Begna F. Seroprevalence and associated risk factors of peste des petits ruminants in sheep and goats in four districts of Bench Maji and Kafa zones, southwest Ethiopia. Glob Vet. 2018;20(6):260\u0026ndash;70.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAbraham G, Sintayehu A, Libeau G, et al. Antibody seroprevalences against peste des petits ruminants (PPR) virus in camels, cattle, goats and sheep in Ethiopia. Prev Vet Med. 2005;70(1\u0026ndash;2):51\u0026ndash;7.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWaret-Szkuta A, Roger F, Chavernac D, et al. Peste des petits ruminants in Ethiopia: analysis of a national serological survey. BMC Vet Res. 2008;4:34. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1186/1746-6148-4-34\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1186/1746-6148-4-34\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHirut GM, Mulate B, Belayneh R. Serological and molecular investigation of peste des petits ruminants in Adama district, eastern Shoa zone of Oromia, Ethiopia. Bull Anim Health Prod Afr. 2017;65(2).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWondimagegn D. Sero-epidemiology and spatial distribution of peste des petits ruminants virus antibodies in selected pastoral areas of Somali regional state, Ethiopia. MSc thesis. Addis Ababa: Addis Ababa University; 2016.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKifle N, Tsegaw F. Prevalence and causes of selected respiratory infections in indigenous Gumuz sheep in Metema district, northwest Ethiopia. Int J Sci Basic Appl Res. 2012;5(1):14\u0026ndash;20.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBerihun A, Daniel H, Kassaw A. Seroprevalence of peste des petits ruminants in goats of southern parts of Tigray Region. Glob Vet. 2014;12(4):512\u0026ndash;6.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFarougou S, Gagara M, Mensah GA. Prevalence of peste des petits ruminants in the arid zone in the Republic of Niger. Onderstepoort J Vet Res. 2013;80(1):1\u0026ndash;6. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.4102/ojvr.v80i1.544\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.4102/ojvr.v80i1.544\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSaritha G, Shobhamani B, Sreedevi B. Seroprevalence of peste des petits ruminants in pastoral small ruminants with special reference to age and agro-climatic zones in India. Anim Sci Rep. 2014;8:3.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSalih HAME, Elfadil AAM, Saeed IK, Ali YH. Seroprevalence and risk factors of peste des petits ruminants in sheep and goats in Sudan. J Adv Vet Anim Res. 2014;1(2):42\u0026ndash;9.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWoma TY, Ekong PS, Bwala DG, Ibu JO, Ta\u0026rsquo;ama L, Dyek DY. Sero-survey of peste des petits ruminants virus in small ruminants from different agro-ecological zones of Nigeria. Onderstepoort J Vet Res. 2016;83(1):1\u0026ndash;9. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.4102/ojvr.v83i1.1218\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.4102/ojvr.v83i1.1218\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAbdellatif M, Mahmoud AZ, Shazali L. Prevalence of PPR-virus antibodies in sheep, goats and camels in Hail, Saudi Arabia. Br J Virol. 2016;3(3):86\u0026ndash;9.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAbdalla AS, Majok AA, El Malik KH, et al. Sero-prevalence of peste des petits ruminant\u0026rsquo;s virus (PPRV) in small ruminants in Blue Nile, Gadaref and North Kordofan States of Sudan. J Public Health Epidemiol. 2012;4(3):59\u0026ndash;64.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAssefa A, Tibebu A, Bihon A, Yimana M. Global ecological niche modelling of current and future distribution of peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRv) with an ensemble modelling algorithm. Transbound Emerg Dis. 2021;68:3601\u0026ndash;10.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDelil F, Asfaw Y, Gebreegziabher B. Prevalence of antibodies to peste des petits ruminants virus before and during outbreaks of the disease in Awash Fentale district, Afar, Ethiopia. Trop Anim Health Prod. 2012;44(7):1329\u0026ndash;30.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eTaylor WP. The distribution and epidemiology of peste des petits ruminants. Prev Vet Med. 1984;2(1\u0026ndash;4):157\u0026ndash;66.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSaeed FA, Abdel-Aziz SA, Gumaa MM. Seroprevalence and associated risk factors of peste des petits ruminants among sheep and goats in Kassala state, Sudan. Open J Anim Sci. 2018;8(4):381\u0026ndash;95.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMehmood A, Qurban A, Javaid AG, Salman AM, Syed IS. Detection of peste des petits ruminants virus antibodies in sheep and goat populations of the North West Frontier Province of Pakistan by competitive ELISA. Vet World. 2009;2(9):333\u0026ndash;36.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eJalees MM, Hussain I, Arshad M, Muhammad G, Khan QM, Mahmood MS. Occurrence of peste des petits ruminants in five districts of Punjab, Pakistan. Pak Vet J. 2013;33(2):165\u0026ndash;69.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAfera B, Hussien D, Amsalu K. Seroprevalence of Peste Des Petits Ruminants in Goats of Southern Parts of Tigray Region. Glob Vet. 2014;12(4):512\u0026ndash;6.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMegersa B, Biffa D, Belina T, Debela E, Regassa A, Abunna F, Rufael T, Stubsj\u0026oslash;en SM, Skjerve E. Serological investigation of peste des petits ruminants in small ruminants managed under pastoral and agro-pastoral systems in Ethiopia. Small Rumin Res. 2011;97:134\u0026ndash;38. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1016/j.smallrumres.2011.02.011\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.smallrumres.2011.02.011\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSenthilkumar A, Balamurugan P, Sribalaji N, Srinivasan G, Murugesan S. Outbreak of peste des petits ruminants in an organised goat farm in Theni district of Tamil Nadu. Chem Environ Sci J. 2018;6:64\u0026ndash;7.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWOAH. Peste des petits ruminants (infection with peste des petits ruminants virus). Terrestrial manual. World Organisation for Animal Health; 2019. pp. 1\u0026ndash;16.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAlemu B, Gari G, Libeau G, et al. Molecular detection and phylogenetic analysis of Peste des petits ruminants virus circulating in small ruminants in eastern Amhara region, Ethiopia. BMC Vet Res. 2019;15(1):1\u0026ndash;9.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNizamani AR, Nizamani ZA, Umrani AP, Dewani P, Vandiar MA, Gandahi JA, Soomro NM. Prevalence of peste des petits ruminants virus antibodies in small ruminants in Sindh, Pakistan. J Anim Plant Sci. 2015;25(6):1515\u0026ndash;19.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSwai ES, Kapaga A, Kivaria F, et al. Prevalence and distribution of peste des petits ruminants virus antibodies in various districts of Tanzania. Vet Res Commun. 2009;33(8):927\u0026ndash;36. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1007/s11259-009-9317-1\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s11259-009-9317-1\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBello AM, Lawal J, Dauda Y, Wakil YM, et al. Research for peste des petits ruminants (PPR) virus antibodies in goats, sheep and gazelle from Bauchi and Gombe States, North Eastern Nigeria. Direct Res J Agric Food Sci. 2016;4(8):193\u0026ndash;8.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDe A, Debnath B, Dutta TK, Shil S, Bhadouriya S, Chaudhary D, Rajak KK, Pachauri R, Ramakrishnan MA, Muthuchelvan D. Seroepidemiology of peste des petits ruminants in goats of Tripura state of North East India. Adv Anim Vet Sci. 2016;4(5):215\u0026ndash;7.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAbubakar M, Jamal MS, Arshed MJ, Hussain M, Ali Q. Peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV) infection: Its association with species, seasonal variations and geography. Trop Anim Health Prod. 2009;41:1197\u0026ndash;202.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSaeed IK, Ali YH, Khalafalla AI, Rahman-Mahasin EA. Current situation of peste des petits ruminants (PPR) in the Sudan. Trop Anim Health Prod. 2010;42:89\u0026ndash;93. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1007/s11250-009-9396-y\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s11250-009-9396-y\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBalamurugan V, Ojha R, Kumar KV, Asha A, Ashraf S, Dsouza AH, Pal A, Bokade PP, Harshitha SK, Deshpande R, et al. Post-vaccination sero-monitoring of peste des petits ruminants in sheep and goats in Karnataka: progress towards PPR eradication in India. Viruses. 2024;16:333.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFaris D, Yilkal A, Berhe G, Kelay B. Seroprevalence and seroconversion after vaccination against peste des petits ruminants in sheep and goats from Awash Fentale district, Afar, Ethiopia. Prev Vet Med. 2012;103:157\u0026ndash;62. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1016/j.prevetmed.2011.09.013\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.prevetmed.2011.09.013\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLuka PD, Erume J, Mwiine FN, Ayebazibwe C. Seroprevalence of peste des petits ruminants antibodies in sheep and goats after vaccination in Karamoja, Uganda: implication on control. Adv Int Vet J. 2011;3(1):18\u0026ndash;22.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKumbe A, Negussie H, Getachew Y, Alemu B, Alemayehu G, et al. Epidemiology of peste des petits ruminants in selected districts of Borena zone. Ethiopia. 2024;20:451.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKabir ME, Hossain MM, Ershaduzzaman M. Sero-surveillance and sero-monitoring of locally produced PPR vaccine at field and experimental levels. Asian J Med Biol Res. 2016;2(1):33\u0026ndash;7.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRegmi B, Dhakal I, Shah MK, Pande KR. Monitoring of serological status in response to PPR vaccination in the goat population of Parbat, Baglung and Myagdi districts of Nepal. Nepal Vet J. 2020;36:157\u0026ndash;62.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eIqbal ZR, Zahur AB, Soomro NA, Rajput IR, Lakho SA, Leghari A. PPR sero-prevalence and sero-monitoring after vaccination in field. Sci Int (Lahore). 2016;28(6):5259\u0026ndash;61.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRossiter PB, James AD. An epidemiological model of rinderpest: II. Simulations of the behavior of rinderpest virus in populations. Trop Anim Health Prod. 1989;21:69\u0026ndash;84.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eEttair M. PPR surveillance and control strategy in Morocco. In: REMESA; 2012. Available from: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttp://www.remesanetwork.org/fileadmin/user_upload/remesa/docs/RESEPSA/Atelier_2012-July_REPIVET_RESPSA/PPR_MAROC.pdf\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"http://www.remesanetwork.org/fileadmin/user_upload/remesa/docs/RESEPSA/Atelier_2012-July_REPIVET_RESPSA/PPR_MAROC.pdf\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAdel AA, Abu-Elzein E, Al-Naeem AM, Amin M. Sero surveillance for peste des petits ruminants (PPR) and rinderpest antibodies in naturally exposed Saudi sheep and goats. Vet Arhiv. 2004;74(6):459\u0026ndash;65.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAbraham G, Berhan A. The use of antigen-capture enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for the diagnosis of rinderpest and peste des petits ruminants in Ethiopia. Trop Anim Health Prod. 2001;33:423\u0026ndash;30.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHamed EL, Samadi K, Mohammad A. Peste des petits ruminants (PPR): a serious threat for wildlife. Adv Biosci Clin Med. 2016;4(2):49\u0026ndash;50.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMunir M. PPRV: wild ruminants, epidemiology, phylogenetic analysis, clinical assessment, diagnosis and control. Uppsala: Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences; 2012.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBaron MD, Diallo A, Lancelot R, Libeau G. Peste des petits ruminants virus. Adv Virus Res. 2016;95:1\u0026ndash;42.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLibeau G, Prehaud C, Lancelot R, Colas F, Guerre L, et al. Development of a competitive ELISA for detecting antibodies to the peste des petits ruminants virus using a recombinant nucleoprotein. Res Vet Sci. 1995;58:50\u0026ndash;5. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1016/0034-5288(95)90088-8\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/0034-5288(95)90088-8\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCenters for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Epi Info (Version 3.5.1) [computer software]. Atlanta (GA): CDC; 2011.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eIBM Corp. IBM SPSS statistics for Windows. Version 24.0. Armonk: IBM Corp.; 2016.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-veterinary-research","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Veterinary Research](http://bmcvetres.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"12917","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/12917/3?","title":"BMC Veterinary Research","twitterHandle":"@BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Bale Zone, Eradication, Oromia Region, Outbreak, PPR, Sero-prevalence, Sero-monitoring, Small ruminants, Vaccination","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9205108/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9205108/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eGlobal PPR (goat plague) eradication efforts are ongoing, mainly through vaccination programs. The disease causes substantial economic losses in sheep and goats because of its high morbidity and mortality. Integrated assessment of epidemiological status and immune responses in vaccinated animals is essential for effective control and eradication. This study consisted of two components conducted in the Oromia Region, Ethiopia. First, a cross-sectional study was conducted from January 2024 to November 2024 in three districts (Goba, Sinana, and Dinsho) of the Bale Zone to assess the seroprevalence of PPR infection in non-vaccinated area and to evaluate the immune response status (seromonitoring) in vaccinated area, along with associated risk factors. Second, a retrospective study was conducted using data obtained from the Oromia Agriculture Office to describe the extent of PPR disease outbreaks, the distribution of PPR cases, and vaccination activities in sheep and goats across the Oromia Region from 2016 to 2022. Zone and districts were selected purposively based on predefined criteria, while \u003cem\u003ekebeles\u003c/em\u003e, villages, and farms were sampled using random sampling. Finally, Goats and sheep were sampled using random sampling after stratifying by species. Blood samples were collected from 420 non-vaccinated and 246 vaccinated sheep and goats, and 75 household owners were interviewed to assess potential risk factors. Retrospective data on PPR disease in the Oromia Region were also reviewed. Antibodies against PPR in vaccinated and non-vaccinated animals were detected using a competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay at the Asella Regional Veterinary Laboratory and the Sebeta Animal Health Institute. The overall true seroprevalence among non-vaccinated animals level was 15.9% (12.6% in sheep and 28.2% in goats), whereas true antibody seroprevalence in vaccinated animals was reached 80.5% (80.3% in goats and 80.0% in sheep). Logistic regression showed that goats were significantly more likely to be infected (OR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.76, 95% CI: 1.5, 5.0, P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.001). Species, sex, age, and herd size were significant risk factors among non-vaccinated animals (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05), whereas only age was associated with antibody development in vaccinated animals. The interview results showed that all respondents (100%) indicated that their animals had the chance to contact other herds at watering points and/or during seasonal grazing, and 32% reported that their flocks had opportunities to encounter wildlife. In Oromia Region, a total of 347 active surveillance activities were conducted from 2017 to 2022, and 131 PPR outbreaks were confirmed, representing an overall positivity rate of 37.8% (131/347). A total of 2,266 PPR-positive cases were identified through passive surveillance, and 1,859,263 individuals at risk were vaccinated. In the region, a total of 21,338,935 small ruminants were vaccinated from 2017\u0026ndash;2022, resulting in an overall vaccine coverage of 19.1%. These findings indicate ongoing PPRV circulation in the study area, underscoring the need to expand vaccination campaigns, assess vaccine efficacy and diagnostic tests, and strengthen surveillance to achieve PPR eradication.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Sero-prevalence and sero-monitoring of Pestes des petit ruminants (PPR) disease in small ruminants in Oromia Region, Ethiopia","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-04-21 15:13:11","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9205108/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-05-13T06:05:14+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-05-05T02:59:20+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"253134917776909540122973398269195858282","date":"2026-04-24T05:51:39+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-04-23T07:56:00+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"37250050621965269021805252424260188516","date":"2026-04-23T06:50:52+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"198367935232708549219347326182885206028","date":"2026-04-23T05:06:58+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"30251573591352514098032486000759106088","date":"2026-04-22T15:13:21+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2026-04-14T05:15:49+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2026-04-10T13:59:12+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2026-04-02T05:01:06+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2026-04-01T20:36:39+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"BMC Veterinary Research","date":"2026-04-01T20:30:48+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-veterinary-research","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Veterinary Research](http://bmcvetres.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"12917","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/12917/3?","title":"BMC Veterinary Research","twitterHandle":"@BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"26fed705-e5ae-4831-bfac-b055a3d6cd63","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 21st, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-05-13T06:05:14+00:00","index":54,"fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-05-05T02:59:20+00:00","index":53,"fulltext":""}],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-04-21T15:13:12+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-04-21 15:13:11","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-9205108","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-9205108","identity":"rs-9205108","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}