How to maintain soil fertility in stockless organic farming: Research concepts and insights from the first crop rotation of a long-term field experiment

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On mixed farms, growth of deep rooting perennial forage legumes or legume-grass mixtures as well as farmyard manure are important contributors to soil fertility and play a key role for nutrient management. On stockless farms, growth of these crops has no direct economic use and is therefore questionable. Disentangling physical, chemical, and biological long-term impacts on soil fertility and consequently on crop yield and quality requires long-term research. In 2017, a long-term field experiment was established in Hesse, Germany, in which three stockless organic farm types differing in crop rotation, each combined with three fertilization treatments, are compared to a traditional mixed farm type with three livestock density levels. The results of the first crop rotation show that the mixed farm achieved more synchronized nutrient input and output with increasing livestock density. Stockless farm types showed deficits, especially in P and K balances, unless compensated by organic fertilizers from farm-external sources. The application of compost from external sources but also of grass-clover silage prepared from own fertility-building leys resulted in significant increases in soil organic carbon. Significant correlations between soil organic carbon and crop yields in stockless farm types using compost emphasize the importance of soil organic carbon content to ensure productivity in organic farming systems. On the other hand, at least in this first rotation, other farm types relying more on the high natural site productivity did not experience yield declines. experimental design compost nutrient management ley-based fertilizers soil organic carbon Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 1. Introduction Organic agriculture meets the demand for ecologically sustainable agricultural production systems and is therefore expanding worldwide (Willer et al. 2021 ). In 2020, 9.1 % of the agriculturl area in Europe was under organic farming (Eurostat 2023 ). In Germany, 10.9 % of the agricultural land and 14. % of the farms are managed organiclly (BMEL 2023), with even higher shares in some regions. For example, in the Federal state of Hesse, where the long-term field experiment presented in this study is located, the share of the land managed organically is 15.9 % and the share of organic farms i 15.4 % (LLH 2022). With the constant increase in he number of organic farms in Germany and the European Union (Eurostat 2017 ), the share of stockless organic farms in Germany has increased concurrently from 21 % in 2003 to 30 % in 2016 (Schmidt 2003 ; Schulz et al. 2017 ), and in the state of Hesse, 21 % f organic farmsare managed stockless (LLH 2022). However, long-term impacts on production efficiencyof stockless farms has hardly been studied. Removing livestock from the organic farm cycle is associated with considerable challenges in terms of nutrient management and soil fertility (Kolbe 2022 ; Schulz et al. 2014 ), which is defined as the potential yield capacity determined by soil physical properties (texture, water holding capacity, bulk density, aggregation etc.) as well as chemical and biological parameters (Berner et al. 2012 ; Heckman et al. 2009 ; Köppen 2002 ). By providing carbon-rich fertilizers such as manure or nitrogen-rich as slurry, livestock-based farming systems can have enormous positive impacts on soil fertility. Especially farmyard manure enhances soil quality (Edmeades 2003 ; Johnston und Poulton 2018 ; Krause et al. 2022 ; Ludwig et al. 2011 ). Therefore, livestock is an inherent part of organic agricultural systems where it is raised on clover grass and other fodder legume-grass-mixtures, which also play a key role for nutrient management in organic crop rotations (Leithold et al. 2014 ). The cultivation of forage-legumes has a number of positive impacts on soils (Whittaker et al. 2023 ). Fodder legumes are mostly perennial, therefore associated with longer soil rest, and supply not only nitrogen from symbiotic fixation but also high amounts of carbon due to large quantities of root biomass and rhizodeposits (Bolinder et al. 2002 ; Hafner und Kuzyakov 2016 ). Therefore, fodder legumes enable to maintain or even increase soil organic carbon contents in the long run (Johnston et al. 2017 ). In organic cropping systems, the crops derive their nutrients largely from mineralisation of the soil organic matter (Kautz et al. 2013 ) and thus crop yields depend much stronger on soil fertility than in conventional agriculture (Brock et al. 2011 ). Grain legumes have been tested as an alternative to fodder legume-grass-mixtures to secure nitrogen import from N 2 -fixation for stockless organic farms, since they have a market value and are therefore economically more attractive (Schulz et al. 2014 ). However, observations from long-term experiments comparing different crop rotations of stockless organic farms at Gladbacher Hof, Giessen, Germany, revealed that replacing fodder crops by grain legumes in the long run led to a considerable decline of soil organic matter by up to 0.7 Mg soil organic matter (SOM) ha − 1 a − 1 , with consequent declines in yield and yield stability (Niether et al. 2023 ). It can therefore be assumed that the cultivation of perennial forage crops on organic farms without livestock can make a significant contribution to maintaining soil fertility. On organic farms without livestock, perennial legume-grass mixtures are not used as fodder plants, but are often mulched as a source of nutrients for the subsequent crops (Maaß et al. 2017 ). This practice, however, results in decreased nitrogen fixation (Hatch et al. 2007) as the frequent nutrient input (mainly N) from the mulch material supports the growth of non-legume over legume partners in the mixture. Another disadvantage may be increased nitrous oxide emissions due to the thick layers of the mulched biomass with concentrated nutrient content (Helmert et al. 2004 ; Maaß et al. 2017 ). An alternative to mulching in stockless organic farms is the removal of cut material from the donor field and use as i) livestock feed on neighboring farms with the manure returned (“feed-manure-cooperation”), ii) a substrate for biogas plants and return the digestate (“biogas-cooperation”), iii) a fertilizer on neighboring fields (“cut-and-carry”), or iv) to conserve the freshly cut material either via silage or composting, and apply it later to the field. In all scenarios, the purpose is to increase the flexibility using the above ground biomass of forage legumes in stockless organic farms in terms of time and space compared to the mulch-system. In the cooperation and conservation cases (i,ii,iv), flexible timing is possible, while in the “cut-and-carry” case (iii) a synchronized timing of cutting and fertilization demand and/or technical feasibility is required but is not always possible. Despite the advantages of alternative transfer strategies on organic farms with low or no livestock numbers, the economic benefits are questionable. Legume-grass-mixtures often have very low or even no direct economic return on stockless organic farms, resulting in a low incentive for the farmer to grow them for more than one year in a row. A supplementary option to account for both the missing utilization of legume-grass-mixtures to organic manures on stockless farms and the reduced period of their cultivation is to extend the farm nutrient cycle to a regional level. Here, beyond the above-described substitution by manure, slurry or digestate imported from other farms via cooperations, regional organic nutrient sources like green waste or bio waste compost from source separation of organic wastes or purchased fertilizers arising from food production may be used. When economic competitiveness drives management, stockless organic farms tend to specialize in high-profit root crops like potatoes or sugar beets and use fertilization strategies focused on withdrawal. Ecological concerns, particularly maintenance of soil fertility, play a crucial role in the long-term viability of organic farming systems (Fließbach et al. 2007 ; Mäder et al. 2002 ). Given the high impact of soil fertility on crop yields in organic cropping systems, farm managers may also decide to focus on improving and maintaining soil fertility to foster resilient and fertile cropping systems. Besides wide crop rotations with a low share of root crops – as these are particularly demanding in terms of nutrients and deplete soil organic matter - the farms focus on fertilization concepts that increase soil organic matter. Therefore, the question arises as to how soil fertility will develop under the different management scenarios (cases i-iv) and how this will impact on economic performance in the long term. In recent years, there has been a considerable increase in the vegan diet in Europe and Germany. The sales value of plant-based foods increased by 49% in Europe between 2018 and 2020 (Smart Protein Project 2021 ) and according to IfD Allensbach 2022 ), the number of people living a vegan lifestyle in Germany has almost doubled from 2016 (0.8 million) to 2022 (1.58 million). In a strict interpretation of veganism, and according to the “biocyclic vegan standard”, a label that has been issued to farms worldwide since 2017, the entire product chain must be vegan, including the agricultural production. Specifically, this means that “ the agricultural land used for the production of food for human nutrition must not be fertilized or otherwise treated with animal manure (slurry and manure), whether in fresh or composted form, slaughterhouse waste of any kind or other products of animal origin” ( BNS Biocyclic Network Services Ltd 2022 ). These topics are addressed within an ongoing long-term field experiment (LTFE) which was established at the University of Kassel in Hesse, Germany, in 2017. In the LTFE, the above-described range of scenarios in stockless organic farming are tested by simulating different farm types, including various options of alternative uses of legume-grass mixtures as well as external fertilizers. Since the relevance of the organic farming sector and vegan production chains are continuously increasing, it is timely to conduct these experiments to fully understand the impact on soil fertility and provide knowledge for nutrient management. To successfully assess these aspects, field balances offer a valuable tool, as they provide detailed insights into nutrient dynamics and serve as a basis for crop rotation and fertilizer planning (Baumgärtel et al. 2007 ; Kolbe und Köhler 2008a ). The LTFE allows for a comprehensive comparison of differentiated organic farming systems with regard to nutrient cycling and sustainable farm management. The broader aim of our research is to evaluate the performance of contrasting organic farming systems, emphasizing the challenges of stockless organic farming with respect to balancing nutrients and soil organic matter and resulting effects on soil biology, soil physical and chemical properties, as well as farm productivity and economy. A focus is on identifying the suitability of differing fertilization concepts with optimized within-farm nutrient cycling and integration of external fertilizers. We investigate four organic farm types, differing in their crop rotations. Three of these are stockless while one integrates livestock. Each farm type includes four fertilization treatments, allowing the comparison of contrasting fertilization strategies within each farm type. In the current study, we present the conceptual design of crop rotations and fertilization strategies of the different farm types as well as soil organic carbon and crop yields from the first six-year crop rotation with the resulting nutrient balances. In this first phase of the long-term experiment, the main focus was on evaluating different strategies for stockless farm types to at least maintain soil fertility and consequently crop yields, testing the following hypotheses: H 1: The mixed farm type results in a more balanced nutrient budget, with a closer match between nutrient inputs and outputs, compared to stockless farm types. H 2: In stockless organic farm types, soil organic carbon content is at least maintained by integrating annual legume-grass mixtures and removing shoot material for subsequent use in fertilization, combined with compost from external sources. H 3: Soil organic carbon contents are at least maintained in the mixed farm types with perennial legume-grass mixtures for forage production, regardless of the simulated livestock density. 2. Material and methods 2.1 Description of the long-term field experiment Three different stockless organic farming systems and one traditional mixed organic farm system are represented in the LTFE design. Each of the four farm types has an unfertilized control treatment in which legume-grass-mixtures are mulched. Other than the control treatments, the stockless farm types have three different treatments simulating different fertilization strategies. The additional treatments on the mixed farm type reflect different fertilization strategies based on varying livestock intensities and different organic fertilizers. Forage legumes are typically cut three to five times per year, depending on weather conditions and growth stage, with the first cut usually taking place in late April or early May. Full details on the simulated farm types are presented in sections 2.4.1 – 2.4.4 , preluded by a concise graphical summary in Fig. 1 . All measured parameters in the LTFE are summarized in Table 8 . Table 8 Measured parameters in LTFE. Parameter Frequency of the measurement Depth Soil mineralized nitrogen (N min ) (ISO 14256-2) 4x per year 0–30, 30–60, 60–90 cm Plant available phosphorus, potassium and sulfur (P CAL , K CAL , S min ) Annually in spring 0–30 cm Soil total carbon (C tot ) (ISO 10694) Annually in spring 0–30 cm Total Nitrogen (N tot ) (ISO 11261) Annually in spring 0–30 cm Total phosphorus, potassium and sulfur (P tot , K tot , S tot ) (ISO 11263, ISO 11260, ISO 14255) Once per crop rotation 0–30 cm pH (ISO 10390) Annually in spring 0–30 cm Cation exchange capacity (CEC) (ISO 11260) Annually in spring 0–30 cm Soil temperature and volumetric soil water content ( TEROS 11 Sensors, METER Group, Inc. USA ) Permanently 2 15, 40 and 60 cm Microbial carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus (C mic , N mic , P mic ) (Vance et al. 1987 ) Annually in spring 0–30 cm Basal respiration (ISO 16072) Annually in spring 0–30 cm Ergosterol (Djajakirana et al. 1996 ) Annually in spring 0–30 cm Nematode abundance and biomass Sporadically 0–30 cm Earthworm abundance and biomass Once a year 2 - Fresh and dry matter total yield After harvest - Fresh and dry matter yield of harvest product After harvest - Leaf area index At flowering 1 - Greenhouse gas emissions (N 2 O, CH 4 , CO 2 , NH 3 ) Weekly 1 - Bulk density 2 Once per crop rotation 0–30 cm 1 : since 2023; 2 : since 2020 2.2 Site and experimental design The LTFE is situated at the Hessian State Domain Frankenhausen near Kassel in Hesse, Germany (51° 24'35.4"N, 9° 26'03.2"E) and was set up in 2017. The soil type is a Haplic Luvisol (WRB) with 18.5% clay, 80.0% silt and 1.5% sand in the Ap horizon. Soil properties such as texture, are given in Table 1 . The average annual temperature from 2014 to 2024 was 10.0°C and the mean precipitation was 553 mm per year (Figs. 2 and 3 ). The climatic water balance (CWB) was negative throughout the entire duration of the first crop rotation. The CWB was calculated by subtracting daily evapotranspiration (ET), estimated using the Penman-Monteith equation (FAO 1998 ) with a grass reference, from the daily precipitation values. The daily CWB values were then summed to obtain the annual CWB for each year. The site has been under organic management since 1998, with the crop rotation described in Table 2 . This crop rotation from 1999 to 2016 shows a strong focus on legumes, with clover grass, field beans, and soybeans grown in 50% of the years. Cereals, represented by winter wheat, account for only 11%, while root crops and vegetables, such as potatoes, carrots, and sugar beets, make up 39%. Table 1 Soil properties at the experimental site (June 2020). SOC = Soil organic carbon, WRB = World Reference Base for Soil Resources (n = 80). Horizons Depth Sand Silt Clay Soil textural class SOC pH 1 Bulk density CEC 1 (WRB) (cm) (%) (%) (%) (WRB) (%) (CaCl 2 ) (g cm − 3 ) (cmol kg − 1 ) Ap 0–28 1.5 80.0 18.5 SiL 1.04 6.75 1.45 14.37 M 28–50 1.4 79.1 19.5 SiL 0.74 Bt1 50–95 0.8 74.6 24.6 SiL 0.71 Bt2 95–120 1.4 77.7 20.9 SiL 0.76 IC 120 − 140 1.8 82.6 15.6 SiL 1 : measured in Spring 2017 (n = 64) Table 2 Past crops since 1999 at the experimental site Year crop Year crop Year crop 1999 Sugar Beets 2005 Clover Grass 2011 Potatoes 2000 Field Beans 2006 Potatoes 2012 Carrots 2001 Potatoes 2007 Carrots 2013 Soy Beans 2002 Winter Wheat 2008 Clover Grass 2014 Field Beans 2003 Clover Grass 2009 Clover Grass 2015 Winter Wheat 2004 Clover Grass 2010 Clover Grass 2016 Potatoes The experiment is set up as a two-factor split-plot design with four repetitions, with the main plot representing the farm type (i.e. crop rotation) and the different fertilization treatments as subplots (Fig. 4 ). Each plot has a size of 135 m 2 (15 x 9 m) net area and 171 m 2 (19 x 9 m) gross area. 2.3 Conceptual design of fertilization and nutrient balances Since organic fertilizers contain multiple nutrients, balancing nutrients is a challenge. To enable fertilizer planning for each of the LTFE treatments, field balances comprising two crop rotations (12 years) were calculated for nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K) and sulfur (S) based on long-term average yields from the site under study (Table 5 ) and rule-of-thumb figures regarding nutrient contents (KTBL 2015; Stein-Bachinger et al. 2004 ). The nutrient inputs via seed and seedlings were not considered, as their proportion is negligible. Factors that are either not or only negligibly influenced by crop rotation or fertilization strategy, or that could not be reliably quantified within the scope of this study - such as nutrient supply via deposition, nutrient removal via denitrification or nitrogen losses during the application of farmyard manure or slurry (e.g. through ammonia volatilization) - were not considered in the nutrient balances. Nutrient Management was based on crop rotation. The amount of self-produced fertilizer applied based on legume-grass mixtures, such as compost or silage, depends on the clover or lucerne grass yield of the respective treatment. All fertilizers derived from forage legumes were produced using biomass from fields of the experimental farm. Clover grass compost was produced on-site and consisted of 25–35% fresh clover grass and 65–75% purchased green waste; straw was added if considered necessary to supply structural, carbon-rich material. Silage was produced from forage grown on the experimental farm and was typically stored in round bales until application. Mulch material for cut-and-carry was sourced from neighboring fields of the experimental farm. Manure compost was produced on-site, based on manure collected from the farm’s own dairy barn, housing German Black Pied Lowland cattle, which were fed with forage from the experimental fields. Manure and slurry also originated from the farm’s own cattle. Biogas residues were supplied by a cooperating farm in the vicinity. Green waste and biowaste composts were sourced from regional composting facilities certified by the German Federal Compost Association (Bundesgütegemeinschaft Kompost). Plant pellets and tofu residues were purchased externally. The quantities of fertilizer obtained through simulated cooperations were calculated based on the nitrogen equivalent provided by clover or lucerne grass to the cooperations. The amount of manure and slurry produced by the livestock simulated in the mixed farm type are based on livestock units (LU) defined according to the Eurostat ( 2025 ) classification and assigned to each treatment. The amount of organic purchased fertilizer was aligned with the upper limit of the Bioland Association guideline, limiting nitrogen import to 40 kg of total N per hectare and year on average. The symbiotic N 2 fixation of the cultivated forage and grain legumes, as well as the legume catch crops, was calculated according to Kolbe 2008 ; Kolbe und Köhler 2008b . For forage legumes, nitrogen fixation was determined using the following Eq. ( 1 ): $$\:N\_fixation\:=11.9\times\:Yield\times\:N\_concentration-50)$$ 1 where 11.9 is an empirically derived factor, Yield is biomass yield in Mg ha − 1 , and N concentration is the Nitrogen concentration in the biomass yield (kg N per Mg Yield). In cases where forage legume biomass was mulched, only 95% of the potential nitrogen fixation was considered. This correction accounts for the reduced nitrogen fixation resulting from the fertilization effect of the mulch. For grain legumes, nitrogen fixation was estimated using the Eq. ( 2 ): $$\:N\_fixation=\left(0.5-0.0025\times\:{N}_{min}\right)\times\:N\_uptake$$ 2 where N min is mineral nitrogen content in the soil in spring, before sowing (kg ha − 1 ), N-uptake is amount of nitrogen taken up in the harvested grain yield (kg ha − 1 ). 2.4 Description of individual treatments Table 3 Fertilization treatments of all farm types. The capital letters in the columns refer to the timing of the fertilization as indicated in Fig. 5 . GWC = Green waste compost, CGC = Clover grass compost, BWC = Bio waste compost, MC = Manure compost. Farm Type Treatment A B C D E Cash crop farm CF 0 - - - CF BGR Biogas residues Biogas residues Biogas residues CF FMC Cattle manure Cattle slurry Cattle manure CF S Clover grass silage Clover grass silage Vegan farm VF 0 - - - - - VF GWC Clover grass compost Plant pellets Green waste compost - - VF C&C Tofu residues + Mulch¹ Plant pellets - - - VF S Silage Plant pellets - Silage Silage Soil fertility farm SF 0 - - - - - SF GWC GWC CGC GWC SF FMC - MC Cattle slurry - Cattle slurry SF BWC BWC CGC - BWC - Mixed farm MF 0 - - - - MF 0.7 LU Manure compost Cattle slurry Manure compost Cattle slurry Manure compost MF 1.4 LU Manure compost Cattle slurry Manure compost Cattle slurry Manure compost MF 2.0 LU Manure compost Cattle slurry Manure compost Cattle slurry Manure compost 1 Mulch fertilization was not applied during the first crop rotation. The first application took place in the potatoes in 2024. 2.4.1 Farm Type I: Cash Crop Farm The Cash Crop Farm treatments (CF) simulate a farm whose crop rotation and fertilization strategies are largely driven by the objective to optimize economic performance. They have a high share of economically attractive root crops in the rotation (33%). Catch crops are included in the crop rotation only when a benefit for the following crop in terms of additional nitrogen supply is expected. The six-year crop rotation begins with a 20-month phase of perennial red clover-grass ( Trifolium pratense ), followed by potatoes ( Solanum tuberosum ), a catch crop over the winter season, carrots ( Daucus carota , cv. Romance) , fallow over winter, spring sown field beans ( Vicia faba) , winter wheat ( Triticum aestivum , cv. Genius) and finally winter spelt ( Triticum spelta , cv. Zollernspelz ). The crop rotation then starts over with clover grass. Fertilization treatments are withdrawal orientated, i.e. the withdrawal of nutrients with the harvested biomass determines the amount replenished by fertilization. The individual fertilization treatments in the LTFE simulate i) a cooperation with a biogas plant, which provides biogas residues in exchange for legume-grass shoot material, ii) a feed manure cooperation, where farmyard manure or slurry is provided in exchange for forage for the livestock of the cooperation farm and iii) producing silage from the fodder crops, to be returned to the land as fertilizer. Timing of seeding and harvest of each crop, and fertilization for all four Cash Crop Farm treatments are depicted in Fig. 5 and Table 3 . 2.4.2 Farm Type II: Vegan Farm The Vegan farm (VF) treatments do not include any livestock derived products throughout the entire production cycle. The objective is to produce as much food as possible for human nutrition, to minimize periods of fallow and to maximize the benefits of green manures as a replacement for animal-based manures. The share of root crops (potatoes and carrots) is 33%. The crop rotation is comprised of clover grass (20 months), potatoes followed by a catch crop before carrots followed by spring-sown field beans, spelt followed by a summer catch crop and winter oats (cv. Fleuron ). After harvesting the oats, the crop rotation starts again with clover grass. Fertilization treatments are purely plant based. The shoot material of the legume-grass mixtures cannot be used for feed-manure-cooperations, so three options for using it as a farm-based fertilizer are tested: composting, production of silage, and ‘cut & carry’. In this latter system, the clover grass is cut on the providing field and spread as mulch on the receiving field. For this purpose, both cutting and fertilizing must take place at the same time, which is not always feasible. Additional purchased fertilizers are therefore used in this treatment. These are plant-based fertilizers such as plant pellets or residues from Tofu ( Taifun-Tofu GmbH, DE ) production. In the treatment where clover grass compost is produced, green waste composts purchased from municipal production are additionally applied by 35% (vol.) to reduce the N-loss during composting. The time points of establishment and harvest of each crop and of the fertilization operations in the four Vegan Farm treatments are depicted in Fig. 5 and Table 3 . 2.4.3 Farm Type III: Soil Fertility Farm In the Soil Fertility Farm (SF) treatments, enhancing soil organic matter and other soil fertility parameters are given more weight than in the Cash Crop Farm type and override the optimization of economic performance. With a share of 17%, the share of root crops (potato) is lower than for any other stockless farm type. At the beginning of the crop rotation, clover grass is cultivated for 20 months, followed by potatoes planted in spring, winter wheat, a catch crop over winter before spring-sown field beans, winter oats ( Avena sativa ), a catch crop, and winter spelt. Different from the other farm types, here clover grass alternates with lucerne grass ( Medicago sativa ) and field beans alternate with field peas ( Pisum sativum ) to minimize soil and plant health risks due to legume self-incompatibility. In this farm type, fertilization strategies are aligned with the goal of enhancing soil fertility, primarily through the application of organic fertilizers such as composts. The shoot material of the legume-grass mixtures is either exchanged for composted manure in a fodder-manure cooperation or composted to be used as a fertilizer with high amounts of organically bound nutrients and comparatively slow mineralization. To enable soil fertility buildup, imported composts from green waste or biowaste are additionally used. The time points of establishment and harvest of each crop and the fertilization operations in the four Soil Fertility Farm treatments are depicted in Fig. 5 and Table 3 . 2.4.4 Farm Type IV: Mixed Farm The Mixed Farm (MF) farm type corresponds to a traditional organic mixed farm, with the idea of a largely closed nutrient cycle. Thereby the integration of livestock is obligatory. Due to the on-farm livestock, it is necessary to integrate a large proportion of fodder legumes into the crop rotation to provide feed. The share of legumes is 50%, the share of root crops is 17% (potato), and the share of cereals is 33%. The crop rotation starts with the cultivation of clover grass for about 2.5 years. The clover grass is then followed by spring-planted potatoes, winter wheat, a catch crop over winter before spring-sown field beans and green rye ( Secale cereale ). The green rye is harvested in early summer and simulates the use as silage for feeding the livestock. Furthermore, in this farm type, fertilization treatments are distinguished according to amount rather than type of the fertilizers. Livestock rates, defined according to the Eurostat ( 2025 ) classification of 0.7 (equivalent to 40 kg total N and 35 kg P 2 O 5 ), 1.4 (equivalent to 80 kg total N and 70 kg P 2 O 5 ) and 2.0 (equivalent to 112 kg total N and 98 kg P 2 O 5 ) LU per ha are compared. The livestock rate of 2.0 LU per hectare corresponds to the maximum stocking rate of most German organic farming associations. The only fertilizers given are cattle slurry and composted manure. The time points of establishment and harvest of each crop and of the fertilization operations in the four mixed farm treatments are depicted in Fig. 5 and Table 3 . 2.5 Sampling considerations: Dealing with non-orthogonal treatment combinations In the Frankenhausen LTFE, production systems rather than individual management factors are compared, resulting in a non-orthogonal design. In order to ensure scientific evaluability, in each of the six-year crop rotations potatoes are grown in the second and field beans in the fourth year of a crop rotation in each of the farming types, so that the different long-term agricultural management schemes may be evaluated for the same crop. All metadata is stored in the BonaRes Repository for Soil and Agricultural Research Data and the LTFE is visible in BonaRes European overview Map for LTFEs. The research data and accompanying documentation will be made available in the repository on an ongoing basis. As the experiment is also intended to be a platform for further research questions, additional investigations have already been conducted in the past (Fig. 11 ). In the following, the methods used for the data presented in the current study are described in more detail. Mineralized nitrogen (N min ) : N min samples have been collected four times per year since 2018, by hand-operated drilling rods at depths of 0–30 cm, 30–60 cm, and 60–90 cm. The samplings took place in winter, spring, at flowering, and after harvest. The N min samples were subsequently extracted and analyzed for nitrate (NO 3 − -N) and ammonium (NH 4 + -N) content. The analysis was conducted using an Analytical AA3 Segmented Flow Analyzers from Seal Analytical GmbH , Norderstedt , employing the photometric determination method via continuous flow analysis (CFA). Soil organic carbon : From 2018, soil organic carbon (SOC) measurements were carried out annually between the eighth and eleventh calendar week using a hand-operated drilling rod at a depth of 0–30 cm and analyzed by combustion with subsequent CO 2 capture and measurement of the total carbon content (C t ) using a VarioMAX analyzer from Elementar Analysensysteme GmbH (VDLUFA 1997 ). As experience has shown that no relevant quantities of inorganic C such as carbonates or carbonic acids are present at the site, the determination of SOC as the difference between C t and inorganic C was dispensed with and C t was equated with SOC. Crop yields and nutrient contents : The crop yields presented in this article were collected within a 15 m 2 area in the center of the gross plot. Potatoes and carrots were harvested by hand, cereals were harvested with a plot combine. To collect shoot biomass yields of clover grass or lucerne grass, 4 x 0.5 m 2 were cut by hand in each plot and then weighed and dried. Analysis of C and N was then carried out with a using a VarioMAX analyzer from Elementar Analysensysteme GmbH . The phosphorus content was determined using a photometric method with ammonium molybdate and measured on a Shimadzu UV1800 UV Spectrophotometer . Potassium analysis was conducted using atomic absorption spectroscopy on a UNICAM 939 AA Spectrometer from Perkin-Elmer Instruments Inc . The presented yields were converted to dry matter yields. For potatoes and carrots, the marketable yield was used for calculation. Statistics : Annual average yield data from farm type and treatment were analyzed separately using linear mixed-effects models (LMMs) to account for the split-plot design of the experiment. Models included the fixed effects farm type , fertilization treatment , and their interaction as appropriate. Repetition and mainplot nested within Repetition were included as random effects. In cases where the interaction term was not significant, reduced models were fitted with only the main effects. To analyze changes in soil carbon content (SOC) over time, slopes of SOC change over time were calculated using linear regression for each treatment across the 5-year period (2018–2022) to estimate the direction and magnitude of temporal trends. ANOVA was used to assess the significance of fixed effects. When significant differences were detected (p < 0.05), estimated marginal means (EMMs) were calculated using the emmeans package in R, and pairwise comparisons were conducted with Tukey's HSD adjustment. To explore the relationship between soil organic carbon and crop yield, Pearson correlation analyses were conducted for each year (2018–2022) and farm type individually. Yield was modeled as a function of soil total carbon content in the topsoil. In addition, Pearson correlations were performed between the mean annual nitrogen input and mean crop yield over the full crop rotation (2017–2022), and between the cumulative nitrogen input and the soil organic carbon content measured at the end of the rotation (2022). All statistical analyses were performed using R, Version 4.3.1. 3. Results of the first crop rotation Although the LTFE is still in its early years, the results on soil organic carbon, crop yields, and nutrient balances from the first six-year crop rotation already provide valuable insights into the effects of different nutrient management strategies on soil fertility and crop performance. 3.1 Soil organic carbon As the initial measurement of Corg contents was carried out in 2018, the results are presented from this year onward. The trends in carbon content (Fig. 6 ) show significant increases over the 5-year period in the Cash Crop Farm type under the silage treatment (CF S) as well as in the two compost treatments of the Soil Fertility Farm type (SF GWC and SF BWC). A marked increase is also observed in the Vegan Farm type under the compost treatment (VF GWC). All other treatments, except for the biogas residue treatment in the Cash Crop Farm type (CF BGR), exhibit either slight increases or stable carbon levels. These developments reflect the magnitude of organic carbon inputs applied: the highest increases occurred in treatments with consistent high-carbon amendments such as silage and compost (Table 4 ). In contrast, treatments with low organic inputs or those receiving more easily degradable materials (e.g. CF BGR) show no clear increase in soil carbon content. Table 4 Mean annual carbon input via fertilization over the 6-year rotation in kg C ha -1 yr -1 Farm type Treatment C input (kg ha − 1 yr − 1 ) Cash crop farm CF 0 0 CF BGR 319 CF FMC 569 CF S 661 Soil fertility farm SF 0 0 SF GWC 1017 SF FMC 562 SF BWC 793 Vegan farm VF 0 0 VF GWC 1050 VF S 1062 VF C&C 102 Mixed farm MF 0 0 MF 0.7 462 MF 1.4 701 MF 2.0 1031 3.2 Crop yields, crop nutrient uptake and implications for nutrient balances The average yield over the entire crop rotation did not differ significantly within the farm types, indicating no clear effect of fertilization. However, the treatments of the m ixed farm type significantly outperformed the treatments of the other farm types (Fig. 7 ). When averaged across fertilization treatments, the Mixed Farm type produced significantly higher yields over the entire crop rotation compared to the other three farm types. In this farm type, livestock densities and the associated amount of fertilizer did affect yields, with increasing yields as livestock densities increases. There is a tendency for the two farm types cash crop farm and v egan farm , which both have a higher share of root crops, to produce more dry matter yield than the farm type soil fertility farm , even independently of the total N input (Fig. 8 ). Table 5 gives an overview on all crop yields, including a comparison with the estimated yields, which were assumed prior to the establishment of the experiment based on site-specific historical yield data.. All yields are presented in Mg DM ha − 1 and for each crop, treatment and year separately. Differences between observed and assumed yields are also shown, based on the average measured values per treatment and year. This can indicate discrepancies in terms of expected yields as well as potential differences in nutrient balances calculated prior to the start of the experiment. Especially in the initial years of the experiment, the actually realized crop yields are lower than assumed. In 2021 and 2022, however, crop yields are equal to or higher than the assumed yields. The only significant difference between farm types was observed for spelt in 2022, with higher yields in the Cash Crop Farm as compared to the Soil Fertility Farm (Table 5 ). Fertilizer effects were determined between Cash Crop Farm treatments for winter wheat in 2021 and spelt in 2022, with higher yields in the Silage treatment as compared to the Biogas treatment and to the Control treatment for winter wheat and higher yields in the Silage and the Biogas treatments as compared to the Control treatment for spelt. Within the Soil Fertility Farm, winter wheat yields in 2019 were significantly higher in the Feed manure cooperation treatment compared to the Control and Biowaste compost treatments. For oats in 2021, the yields in the two compost treatments (SF GWC and SF BWC) were significantly higher than in the Control treatment, the same was observed for spelt in 2022. In the Vegan Farm significant differences were also found for oats in 2022: the Silage variant outperformed the Cut-and-carry treatment. In the Mixed Farm, the treatment with the highest livestock density (MF 2.0) achieved significantly higher yields compared to the control treatment. Table 5 Assumed and actual yields for all crops and treatments of the LTFE in Mg DM ha -1 . x̄ is the mean value of all 4 fertilization treatments per crop. LU = Livestock Unit, CF = Cash Crop Farm, VF = Vegan Farm, SF = Soil Fertility Farm, MF = Mixed Farm, BGR = Biogas residues, FMC = Feed-manure-cooperation, S = Silage, GWC = Green waste compost, C&C = Cut & Carry, BWC = Bio waste compost, 0 = Control treatment. Different lowercase letters indicate significant differences between treatments within the same harvest year and within the same crop (Tukey-test, α = 0.05). Uppercase letters indicate significant differences between farm types within the same harvest year (Tukey-test, α = 0.05). If no letters are shown, no statistically significant differences were found. Yield in Mg DM ha − 1 Year Crop CF 0 BGR FMC S Assumed Yields Δ x̄ observed to assumed yield 2017 Clover Grass 1.8 1.8 1.6 1.8 12 − 10.25 2018 Potatoes 4.8 4.9 4.9 4.9 9.9 − 5.025 2019 Carrots 9.4 8.8 9.4 8.0 10.8 − 1.9 2020 Field Beans 3.9 4.0 4.1 4.1 4.3 − 0.275 2021 Winter Wheat 6.5 b 6.5 b 6.6 ab 6.8 a 6.0 + 0.6 2022 Spelt A 5.2 b 6.0 a 5.5 ab 6.0 a 4.3 + 1.4 Crop SF 0 GWC FMC BWC 2017 Clover Grass 1.8 1.8 1.7 1.7 12 − 10.25 2018 Potatoes 5.6 5.2 4.9 5.4 9.9 − 4.625 2019 Winter Wheat 7.2 b 7.3 ab 8.0 a 6.8 b 6.0 + 1.325 2020 Field Beans 4.0 4.2 4.3 4.2 4.3 − 0.125 2021 Oats 5.5 b 5.9 a 5.7 ab 5.9 a 4.3 + 1.45 2022 Spelt B 4.0 b 4.7 a 4.3 ab 4.7 a 4.3 + 0.125 Crop VF 0 GWC S C&C 2017 Clover Grass 1.8 1.7 1.7 1.8 12 − 10.25 2018 Potatoes 5.3 5.1 5.2 5.6 9.9 − 4.6 2019 Carrots 9.1 9.3 9.3 9.2 10.8 − 1.575 2020 Field Beans 3.9 4.1 4.1 3.9 4.3 − 0.3 2021 Spelt 6.7 6.6 6.5 6.7 4.3 + 2.325 2022 Oats 4.2 ab 4.0 ab 5.5 a 3.4 b 4.3 + − 0 Crop MF 0 0.7 LU 1.4 LU 2.0 LU 2017 Clover Grass 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.8 12 − 10.275 2018 Potatoes 4.8 4.9 4.9 5.2 9.9 − 4.95 2019 Winter Wheat 6.9 7.1 7.4 7.5 6.0 + 1.225 2020 Field Beans 3.9 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.3 − 0.175 2021 Green Rye 10.9 b 11.8 ab 11.9 ab 12.4 a 1.2 + 10.55 2022 Clover Grass 1 19.73 20.3 21.5 22.1 12 + 8.908 1 In the Mixed Farm system, the clover-grass yields reported for 2022 include two cuts from late 2021 and five cuts from 2022. rotation (2017–2022). Nitrogen inputs are subdivided into inputs from fertilization, including mulched clover grass biomass left on the field in the control treatments (solid fill) and biological nitrogen fixation (striped fill). LU = Livestock Unit, CF = Cash Crop Farm, VF = Vegan Farm, SF = Soil Fertility Farm, MF = Mixed Farm, BGR = Biogas residues, FMC = Feed-manure-cooperation, S = Silage, GWC = Green waste compost, C&C = Cut & Carry, BWC = Bio waste compost, 0 = Control treatment. Figure 8 shows the mean annual nutrient inputs of the first crop rotation of the LTFE for each, treatment and the nutrients N, P, K, and S. The nutrient balances (Fig. 9 ) were calculated based on nutrient removal, which is derived from the actual crop yields presented in Table 5 . In Table 9 , these balances are compared with the nutrient balances calculated prior to the experiment. Notably, the actual balances for nitrogen are negative, except for the treatments MF 0, MF 1.4, MF 2.0, SF GWC, SF BWC, and VF GWC. In the cash crop farm in particular, the balances of all nutrients in all fertilizer treatments are clearly negative. Table 9 Calculated and actual nutrient balances for nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and sulfur according to yields (Table 5 ) and inputs (Fig. 8 ) in kg ha -1 yr -1 . Calculated balances Actual balances Δ actual balances -Calculated balances Farm type Treatment N P K S N P K S N P K S Cash crop farm CF 0 -11 -21 -111 -8 -61 -18 -57 -6 -50 3 54 2 CF BGR -9 -13 -125 -10 -31 -10 -28 -3 -22 3 97 7 CF FMC -19 -17 -86 -5 -34 -13 -9 -3 -15 4 77 2 CF S -11 -21 -113 -8 -35 -14 -18 -4 -24 7 95 4 Soil fertility farm SF 0 11 -17 -61 -7 -47 -18 -48 -5 -58 -1 13 2 SF GWC 52 -4 -18 -1 8 -8 -14 1 -44 -4 4 2 SF FMC -10 -13 -38 -5 -31 -16 6 -4 -21 -3 44 1 SF BWC 58 -3 -15 2 5 -9 -16 2 -53 -6 -1 0 Vegan farm VF 0 7 -19 -108 -8 -57 -18 -67 -6 -64 1 41 2 VF GWC 70 -2 -67 -2 9 -6 -16 1 -61 -4 51 3 VF S 22 -17 -105 -8 -5 -12 -4 -2 -27 5 101 6 VF C&C 40 -15 -72 -1 -49 -16 -67 -6 -89 -1 5 -5 Mixed farm MF 0 23 -19 -125 -10 9 -15 -74 -5 -14 4 51 5 MF 0.7 -6 -19 -139 -12 -4 -11 -19 -2 2 8 120 10 MF 1.4 26 -11 -69 -8 15 -9 18 0 -11 2 87 8 MF 2.0 58 -4 2 -4 38 -7 70 3 -21 -3 68 7 Table 6 shows the relation between crop yields and SOC content for each experimental year and farm type separately. The four fertilization treatments within each farm type were combined for analysis. Except for the Cash Crop Farm treatments in 2018, the correlation coefficient is positive. Significant correlations were observed in for the Vegan Farm type in 2020, 2021 and 2022 and additionally for the Soil Fertility Farm type in 2021 and 2022. Table 6 Correlation between crop yield and soil organic carbon content (SOC, mg g⁻¹ topsoil) across different farm types (Cash Crop Farm, Vegan Farm, Soil Fertility Farm, Mixed Farm) and years (2017–2022; n = 16). The table presents Pearson correlation coefficients (r) and corresponding significance levels (p-values) for each system and year. Significant correlations are indicated by asterisks (*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001). Crop System Year r Potatoes Cash Crop Farm 2018 -0.06 Potatoes Vegan Farm 2018 0.09 Potatoes Soil Fertility Farm 2018 0.06 Potatoes Mixed Farm 2018 0.39 Carrots Cash Crop Farm 2019 0.48 Carrots Vegan Farm 2019 0.16 Winter Wheat Soil Fertility Farm 2019 0.26 Winter Wheat Mixed Farm 2019 0.15 Field Beans Cash Crop Farm 2020 0.30 Field Beans Vegan Farm 2020 0.51* Field Beans Soil Fertility Farm 2020 0.45 Field Beans Mixed Farm 2020 0.33 Winter Wheat Cash Crop Farm 2021 0.22 Spelt Vegan Farm 2021 0.56* Oats Soil Fertility Farm 2021 0.56* Green Rye Mixed Farm 2021 0.49 Spelt Cash Crop Farm 2022 0.29 Oats Vegan Farm 2022 0.57* Spelt Soil Fertility Farm 2022 0.87*** Clover Grass Mixed Farm 2022 0.25 4. Discussion Despite the high fertility of the LTFE site and the expectation that many effects will only become apparent in the long term, nutrient balances already provide valuable early insights into the sustainability of nutrient management of individual stockless and mixed organic farm types. Hypothesis 1, stating that The mixed farm type results in a more balanced nutrient budget, with a closer match between nutrient inputs and outputs, compared to stockless farm types , can be confirmed. The results show that mixed farms with a livestock stocking rate of 1.4 LU ha − 1 or more can achieve balanced nutrient inputs and outputs for nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and sulfur. The reason for this can be attributed, on the one hand, to nutrient availability from organic fertilizers, and on the other hand, to the higher proportion of forage legumes in the crop rotation, which in particular has a significant impact on the nitrogen balance. Two of the observed stockless farm types also achieve positive nutrient balances for N, in particular with purchased compost (VF GWC, SF GWC, SF BWC), but would probably face higher costs due to the purchase of fertilizers and would have to rely on an existing infrastructure to purchase compost or other types of fertilizers. In particular these stockless treatments (SF GWC, SF BWC, and VF GWC) are within or close to the aspired ranges (N: 0 to 50 kg ha − 1 (Kolbe 2012 ), P: -2 to 5 kg ha − 1 , K: -40 to 0 on soils with high clay content (Kolbe und Köhler 2008a )) for nitrogen and potassium and at least less negative regarding P balances. The results of our study confirm the typical nutrient imbalances and negative P and K balances in commercial organic, in particular arable farms(Reimer et al. 2020b ), and other long-term field experiments, like the DOK trial in Switzerland (Fliessbach et al. 2023 ). Combinations of one nutrient in surplus and other nutrients in deficit are common in organic farming due to the reliance on fertilizers of organic origin containing multiple nutrients(Reimer et al. 2020a ; Reimer et al. 2020b ). Organic farms, in particular with a high share of root crops in their rotations, face potential nutrient imbalances and can therefore lead to unsustainable nutrient management. Plant available phosphorus and potassium were in medium or good range for all treatments at the end of the first crop rotation in April 2023 according to (VDLUFA 1999 , 2018 ). Good agricultural practice requires that these nutrients should be fertilized in accordance with expected withdrawals to avoid long-term nutrient deficiencies or excesses in the soil. Due to the restriction of external nutrient inputs by the EU regulations for organic farming and the fact that human excrements are not returned to the soil, preventing a nearly completely closed nutrient cycle also in organic farming, nutrient management is challenging. Especially in the treatments with high K and P deficits, the crops therefore rely on active nutrient mobilization from the solid phase of the soil. Rhizosphere activity and plant-soil interactions at the heart of nutrient management are supporting soil biological mechanisms in organic farming. The soil under study is highly fertile and stores an enormous amount of nutrients bound in the solid phase due to a high clay content and a large loess layer providing optimum conditions for crop growth. However, the long-term productivity may still be affected in the treatments that show nutrient deficits and need to be monitored in the long term. When interpreting the results, it is important to consider that at the start of the trial in 2017, the clover grass was only recently established, allowing for just one harvest to be conducted. In future crop rotations, the clover grass will be present in the treatments for at least a whole year. An initial insight is provided by the yields from 2023, where the clover-grass yield across all treatments averaged 10.5 Mg DM ha − 1 . This has a significant impact on nitrogen fixation and, consequently, on the nutrient balances. Despite the initially limited clover-grass period and associated nitrogen fixation effects, we decided to present and analyze the complete first rotation from 2017 to 2022 to capture the full sequence of crops and system effects across all treatments. Possible reasons for lower-than-expected crop yields include the severe drought in 2018 and the unusually dry conditions in 2018 and 2020, which led to significant yield reductions for potatoes (2018), carrots (2019), and field beans (2020). However, winter cereals in 2019 were not affected in the same way. In 2021, as nationally, soil began to recover from the drought (UFZ 2024), yields exceeded expectations for all four crops. Differences in crop yields between fertilization treatments were visible, especially when compared to control treatments. No differences are likely due to the high geogenic nutrient supply at the experimental site, which helped buffer the expected impacts. Over the years 2018–2022, the Climatic Water Balance (CWB) remained consistently negative (Fig. 2 ), reflecting the persistent water scarcity during this period. In addition to the evaluation of yields and nutrient balances, insights will also be provided into the environmental impacts of the various systems. Initial data from N min investigations indicate that higher N min levels, particularly over winter, are found in crop rotations emphasizing root crops, which are associated with an increased leaching potential (Fig. 10 ). A significant increase in SOC content (expressed as mg g − 1 C t in the topsoil) is already visible in some treatments. Treatments with compost in the Soil Fertility Farm type show a significant increase from 2018 to 2022. In the compost treatment of the Vegan Farm type a considerable increase was observed as well, which was, however, not significant due to high standard deviation. A lack of variation in other treatments can be attributed to the spatial variability of SOC distribution (Table 7 ) and the relatively small annual changes compared to the total SOC pool, requiring a sufficiently long observation period to detect significant changes (Smith 2004 ). Moreover, the variation in SOC trends between treatments is also linked to differences in the amount of organic carbon applied with the respective fertilizers (Table 4 ). Altogether, the results support Hypothesis 2, despite the limited trial period: In stockless organic farm types, soil organic carbon content is at least maintained by integrating annual legume-grass mixtures and removing shoot material for subsequent use in fertilization, combined with compost from external sources , is supported by our results with respect to the effect of compost from external sources on SOC contents, but not with respect to the effect of farm type/ crop rotation. Hypothesis 3, Soil organic carbon contents are at least maintained in the mixed farm types with perennial legume-grass mixtures for forage production, regardless of the simulated livestock density., is not supported by the results so far. However, it will be important to continue investigating this relationship over the long term. Table 7 Spatial variability of soil total carbon (C t ) in g kg⁻¹ per replication with a noticeable gradient from replicate one to four. Repetition Mean Median Minimum Maximum Standard deviation g C t kg − 1 1 11.07 11.01 9.54 13.13 0.66 2 11.49 11.47 10.03 13.38 0.70 3 11.80 11.69 10.24 14.31 0.84 4 12.75 12.62 11.03 15.81 1.01 Across all treatments and years, a consistent positive correlation between SOC and crop yield was observed, emphasizing the importance of soil fertility for crop yield in organic farming systems. Significant relationships between SOC and crop yield were particularly evident in farm types including treatments with compost from external sources. This is likely mainly attributed to the considerable carbon inputs provided with these types of composts, but also to the substantial nitrogen inputs associated with compost application. The mixed farm type, fertilized with slurry and manure compost, showed considerably higher nitrogen input mainly from N 2 fixation of the perennial legume-grass mixtures. This resulted in a more immediate and yield-effective impact compared to other farm types fertilized with green waste or biowaste compost, leading to a strong, however non-significant relationship between mean annual nitrogen input and mean annual crop yield (Table 10 ). Nitrogen mineralization from SOM plays an important role for yield development in organic farming (Brock 2011). Also in conventional farming, long-term experiments have shown, that an increase in imports of organic fertilizers has a positive effect on both crop yields and SOM (Gocke et al. 2023 ). When maintaining or even building up SOC stocks, composts from the separate collection of organic waste offer a great opportunity to shift nutrient cycles from the farm level to a regional level. Since 2014, composts from organic kitchen and garden waste (biowaste composts used in the Soil Fertility Farm type) or from the municipal collection of shredded shrub and tree waste (green waste composts used in the Soil Fertility and Vegan Farm types) have been recognized as organic fertilizers by the two largest German organic farming associations Bioland and Naturland (Gottschall et al. 2023 ). Due to very strict quality regulations for composts, they are acceptable as external inputs for organic farms. High nitrogen amounts supplied with composts are mineralized only gradually over many years (Amlinger et al. 2003 ). Consequently, compost application is expected to contribute to yield stabilization and potential yield increases in the long term. Table 10 Correlations between nitrogen input and crop yield or change in soil organic carbon content (Ct) across different farm types (Cash Crop Farm, Vegan Farm, Soil Fertility Farm, Mixed Farm; n = 4). The table presents Pearson correlation coefficients (r). The left section shows correlations between mean nitrogen input and mean crop yield (2017–2022). The second section shows correlations between cumulative nitrogen input (2017–2022) and change in soil organic carbon content from 2018 to 2022 (SOC, mg g⁻¹ topsoil). Mean N input vs. mean yield Cumulative N input vs. ΔCt 2018–2022 System r p r p Cash Crop Farm 0.64 0.36 -0.46 0.54 Vegan Farm 0.45 0.55 0.99 0.01 Soil Fertility Farm 0.68 0.32 0.91 0.09 Mixed Farm 0.95 0.05 0.25 0.75 5. Conclusion and outlook Long-term experiments provide a crucial foundation for understanding the complex relationships between farm management and its effects on soil fertility in agroecosystems. As the LTFE in our study aims at monitoring the long-term impacts of complete crop rotations and associated fertilization strategies, its value is expected to increase as well with time as treatments will lead to a differential agroecosystem response. The results of the first crop rotation of the LTFE in this study show that sustainable nutrient management for stockless organic farms within the EU regulations is possible. Future research will focus on developing soil physical, chemical, and biological parameters, as well as quantifying N input via biological N₂ fixation and, to comprehensively assess the environmental impacts of the various farm systems, also N losses through greenhouse gas emissions and nitrate leaching. In this respect, it will also become a valuable data source to provide a basis for informing model-based studies of the processes and feedbacks in the agrosphere. To complement this biophysical perspective, the LTFE will also serve as a platform for addressing socio-economic questions. This includes evaluating the economic viability and practical feasibility of nutrient management strategies, as well as farmers’ perceptions and adoption potential. Taken together, these lines of research will contribute to developing robust, site-adapted recommendations for sustainable organic farms with varying degrees of livestock integration. Declarations Competing Interests: The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose. Funding: This long-term field experiment is supported by the Hessian Ministry for Agriculture and Environment, Viticulture, Forestry, Hunting, and Homeland Affairs. Author Contribution M.M. was responsible for conceptualization, project administration, investigation, visualization, and writing the original draft. M.A. contributed to supervision as well as to reviewing and editing the manuscript. S.D. contributed to methodology, conceptualization, and investigation. T.W. contributed to methodology and was involved in reviewing and editing the manuscript. B.R. contributed to investigation and to reviewing and editing. C.B. was responsible for supervision, project administration, funding acquisition, and resources, and also contributed to conceptualization and manuscript review and editing. Acknowledgement This long-term field experiment is supported by the Hessian Ministry for Agriculture and Environment, Viticulture, Forestry, Hunting, and Homeland Affairs. Special thanks go to Verena Jalane for developing the graphical representation of the treatments and to Stefan Rottstock and Vincent Braunmiller for calculating the nutrient balances. 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Plant Nutr. Soil Sci. 178 (1), S. 4–12. DOI: 10.1002/jpln.201400133 . LLH (Hg.) (2022): Landwirtschaft in Hessen. Ausgewählte Daten und Fakten. Landesbetrieb Landwirtschaft Hessen (LLH). Kassel. Ludwig, B.; Geisseler, D.; Michel, K.; Joergensen, R. G.; Schulz, E.; Merbach, I. et al. (2011): Effects of fertilization and soil management on crop yields and carbon stabilization in soils. A review. In: Agron. Sustain. Dev. 31 (2), S. 361–372. DOI: 10.1051/agro/2010030 . Maaß, Henrik; Blumenstein, Benjamin; Bruns, Christian; Möller, Detlev (Hg.) (2017): Alternativen der Kleegrasnutzung in vieharmen und viehlosen Betrieben. Ökologischen Landbau weiterdenken - Verantwortung übernehmen, Vertrauen stärken. Beiträge zur 14. Wissenschaftstagung Ökologischer Landbau, Freising-Weihenstephan, 7. bis 10. März 2017. Unter Mitarbeit von Sebastian Wolfrum, H. Heuwinkel, H. J. Reents, K. Wiesinger und Kurt-Jürgen Hülsbergen. 1. Auflage. Berlin: Verlag Dr. Köster. Mäder, Paul; Fliessbach, Andreas; Dubois, David; Gunst, Lucie; Fried, Padruot; Niggli, Urs (2002): Soil fertility and biodiversity in organic farming. In: Science (New York, N.Y.) 296 (5573), S. 1694–1697. DOI: 10.1126/science.1071148 . Milke, Felix; Rodas-Gaitan, Heberto; Meissner, Georg; Masson, Vincent; Oltmanns, Meike; Möller, Morten et al. (2024): Enrichment of putative plant growth promoting microorganisms in biodynamic compared with organic agriculture soils. In: ISME Communications 4 (1), Artikel ycae021. DOI: 10.1093/ismeco/ycae021 . Niether, Wiebke; Macholdt, Janna; Schulz, Franz; Gattinger, Andreas (2023): Yield dynamics of crop rotations respond to farming type and tillage intensity in an organic agricultural long-term experiment over 24 years. In: Field Crops Research 303, S. 109131. DOI: 10.1016/j.fcr.2023.109131 . Reimer, Marie; Hartmann, Tobias Edward; Oelofse, Myles; Magid, Jakob; Bünemann, Else K.; Möller, Kurt (2020a): Reliance on Biological Nitrogen Fixation Depletes Soil Phosphorus and Potassium Reserves. In: Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 118 (3), S. 273–291. DOI: 10.1007/s10705-020-10101-w . Reimer, Marie; Möller, Kurt; Hartmann, Tobias Edward (2020b): Meta-analysis of nutrient budgets in organic farms across Europe. In: Org. Agr. 10 (S1), S. 65–77. DOI: 10.1007/s13165-020-00300-8 . Schmidt, Harald (2003): Viehloser Ackerbau im ökologischen Landbau. Evaluierung des derzeitigen Erkenntnisstandes anhand von Betriebsbeispielen und Expertenbefragungen. Universität Gießen. Schulz, F.; Brock, C.; Knebl L.; Leithold G. (2017): Gemischtbetrieb im Viehhaltung vs. viehloser Ökolandbau – 3. Rotation im Dauerfeldversuch Gladbacherhof. Schulz, Franz; Brock, Christopher; Schmidt, Harald; Franz, Klaus-Peter; Leithold, Günter (2014): Development of soil organic matter stocks under different farm types and tillage systems in the Organic Arable Farming Experiment Gladbacherhof. In: Archives of Agronomy and Soil Science 60 (3), S. 313–326. DOI: 10.1080/03650340.2013.794935 . Smart Protein Project (2021): Plant-based foods in Europe: How big is the market? Smart Protein Plant-based Food Sector Report by Smart Protein Project. Hg. v. European Union's Horizon research and innovation programme (No 862957). Online verfügbar unter https://smartproteinproject.eu/plant-based-food-sector-report ., zuletzt geprüft am 19.11.2023. Smith, Pete (2004): How long before a change in soil organic carbon can be detected? In: Global change biology 10 (11), S. 1878–1883. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2486.2004.00854.x . Stein-Bachinger, Karin; Bachinger, Johann; Schmitt, Liliane (2004): Nzahrstoffmanagement im zOkologischen Landbau. Ein Handbuch fzur Beratung und Praxis: Berechnungsgrundlagen, Faustzahlen, Schzatzverfahren zur Erstellung von Nzahrstoffbilanzen : Handlungsempfehlungen zum effizienten Umgang mit innerbetrieblichen Nzahrstoffressourcen, insbesondere Stickstoff. Darmstadt: Kuratorium fzur Technik und Bauwesen in der Landwirtschaft (Schrift, 423). Vance, E. D.; Brookes, P. C.; Jenkinson, D. S. (1987): An extraction method for measuring soil microbial biomass C. In: Soil Biology and Biochemistry 19 (6), S. 703–707. DOI: 10.1016/0038-0717(87)90052-6 . VDLUFA (1997): Methodenbuch. 4. Aufl., 2. Teillieferung. Darmstadt: VDLUFA-Verlag (Handbuch der Landwirtschaftlichen Versuchs-und Untersuchungsmethodik: (Methodenbuch), Bd. 1, 4. Aufl. 2. Teillieferung). VDLUFA (1999): Kalium-Düngung nach Bodenuntersuchung und Pflanzenbedarf Richtwerte für die Gehaltsklasse C. Hg. v. Prof. Dr. G. Breitschuh. Darmstadt. VDLUFA (2018): Phosphordüngung nach Bodenuntersuchung und Pflanzenbedarf. Hg. v. Prof. Dr. F. Wiesler. Speyer. Whittaker, Jennifer; Nyiraneza, Judith; Zebarth, Bernie J.; Jiang, Yefang; Burton, David L. (2023): The effects of forage grasses and legumes on subsequent potato yield, nitrogen cycling, and soil properties. In: Field Crops Research 290, S. 108747. DOI: 10.1016/j.fcr.2022.108747 . Willer, Helga; Trávnícek, Jan; Meier, Claudia; Schlatter, Bernhard (2021): The World of Organic Agriculture. Statistics & Emerging Trends 2021. Frick, Bonn: FiBL; IFOAM - Organics International. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 03 Mar, 2026 Read the published version in Organic Agriculture → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 03 Nov, 2025 Reviews received at journal 20 Oct, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 20 Sep, 2025 Reviews received at journal 18 Sep, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 02 Sep, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 03 Aug, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 09 Jul, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 09 Jul, 2025 First submitted to journal 08 Jul, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7072909","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":495966857,"identity":"6bbc080d-2ecb-4e6e-86e0-c63866ad91cf","order_by":0,"name":"Morten Möller","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"","institution":"University of Kassel","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Morten","middleName":"","lastName":"Möller","suffix":""},{"id":495966858,"identity":"51cc842f-4ff2-400b-aac4-ceec1f25ac32","order_by":1,"name":"Miriam Athmann","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Kassel","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Miriam","middleName":"","lastName":"Athmann","suffix":""},{"id":495966859,"identity":"60c585e4-6e94-46ef-b2b8-c9dd8069d5ee","order_by":2,"name":"Simon Dreßen","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Kassel","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Simon","middleName":"","lastName":"Dreßen","suffix":""},{"id":495966860,"identity":"3b2d36e2-af38-4ea7-924c-ac77a3ad844c","order_by":3,"name":"Tobias Karl David Weber","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Kassel","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Tobias","middleName":"Karl David","lastName":"Weber","suffix":""},{"id":495966861,"identity":"6ab7cfe6-34ed-40e8-94c8-89e1ae68178f","order_by":4,"name":"Benjamin Ruch","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Kassel","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Benjamin","middleName":"","lastName":"Ruch","suffix":""},{"id":495966862,"identity":"62d49ffc-f343-42e4-a2a0-9f47ccd65a8c","order_by":5,"name":"Christian Bruns","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Kassel","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Christian","middleName":"","lastName":"Bruns","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-07-08 09:08:22","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7072909/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7072909/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s13165-026-00545-9","type":"published","date":"2026-03-03T15:58:06+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":88521359,"identity":"70af6267-23b4-429e-9d7c-e2e9fb244e6a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-07 09:51:47","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":270315,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eOverview of the 4 farm types and the 16 treatments of the long-term field experiment. In the pie chart, the red color shows the share of root crops, green the legume share (fodder and grain) and yellow the cereal share. LU = Livestock Unit (Eurostat 2025), CF= Cash Crop Farm, VF = Vegan Farm, SF = Soil Fertility Farm, MF = Mixed Farm, BGR = Biogas Residues, FMC = Feed-manure-cooperation, S = Silage, GWC = Green Waste Compost, C\u0026amp;C = Cut \u0026amp; Carry, BWC = Bio Waste Compost, 0 = Control treatment. In the treatments a-d of the respective farm types, the first two letters stand for the farm type and the remaining for the fertilization strategy.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7072909/v1/2eb800be6b9a0364a0910914.png"},{"id":88522832,"identity":"e803da05-d085-464b-86b9-b926ebdacc83","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-07 09:59:46","extension":"jpeg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":66933,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eAnnual total precipitation (blue bars) and climatic water balance (light blue bars) from 2018 to 2022. The dashed blue line indicates the annual average precipitation from 2014 to 2024.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7072909/v1/7c92e0610e5e9d8836030eab.jpeg"},{"id":88521357,"identity":"b3ae5e93-e2f1-448b-8586-c93ad4721737","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-07 09:51:47","extension":"jpeg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":87471,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMonthly average temperatures per year from 2018 to 2022.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7072909/v1/6ae8d91b3073b22f2832fedb.jpeg"},{"id":88522833,"identity":"04cc88e9-a755-4703-ba58-e187574d46c4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-07 09:59:47","extension":"jpg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":65449,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eField setup of the LTFE with main plots and subplots. The bold font letters depict the farm type, distinguished by crop rotation. The normal font letters depict the fertilization treatment. 0 stands for the control treatment without any fertilization. S, Silage; FMC, Feed Manure Cooperation; BWC, Bio Waste Compost; GWC, Green Waste Compost; BGR, Biogas Residues; C\u0026amp;C/ PF, Cut \u0026amp; Carry with purchased fertilizers (e.g. tofu residues or plant pellets); 0.7 LU – 2.0 LU, Livestock Units (Eurostat 2025) ha\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e which means fertilization with only manure compost and slurry.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7072909/v1/74fa728f86747fe0601177f2.jpg"},{"id":88521362,"identity":"ee9f5020-9af4-4b7f-bc62-f4307176bde8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-07 09:51:47","extension":"jpeg","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":262673,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCrop rotation of all farm types. A: Cash Crop Farm (CF), B: Soil Fertility Farm (SF) ,C: Vegan Farm (VF), D: Mixed Farm (MF). The inner circle with the grey to black colours depict the months of the year. A, B, C, D and E, shown within the boxes, denote time points at which fertilization measures, as detailed in Table 3, are carried out.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage5.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7072909/v1/07022a5dbf3c253cba3a85d8.jpeg"},{"id":88522836,"identity":"80381861-b860-4e94-8843-9b4460c306a7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-07 09:59:47","extension":"jpeg","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":369457,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSoil total carbon (C\u003csub\u003et\u003c/sub\u003e) in mg g\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e soil for each year and each treatment of all treatments in topsoil (0-30 cm depth). Significant trends are marked with * (p\u0026lt;0.05) and indicates that the slope (b) of the regression line differs significantly from zero. There were no significant differences between treatments within each experimental year. A = Cash Crop Farm, B = Vegan Farm, C Soil Fertility Farm, D = Mixed Farm.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage6.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7072909/v1/d38a5ac6d8ee6c05e2cd9488.jpeg"},{"id":88524636,"identity":"27a7faab-72d7-4fa0-a0f8-d17694662b92","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-07 10:15:47","extension":"jpeg","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":92995,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMean annual yield in dry matter ha\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e-1\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cem\u003e of first six-year crop rotation for all treatments of the LTFE. Error bars indicate standard deviation. Different letters indicate significant differences between treatments of each farm type according to Tukey's test (p \u0026lt; 0.05). LU = Livestock Unit, CF= Cash Crop Farm, VF = Vegan Farm, SF = Soil Fertility Farm, MF = Mixed Farm, BGR = Biogas residues, FMC = Feed-manure-cooperation, S = Silage, GWC = Green waste compost, C\u0026amp;C = Cut \u0026amp; Carry, BWC = Bio waste compost, 0 = Control treatment.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage7.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7072909/v1/4243fca01a0315771dba281f.jpeg"},{"id":88521372,"identity":"027ad1b9-9c85-47bb-89fc-9eab5b2c2bd9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-07 09:51:47","extension":"jpeg","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":324335,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMean annual input of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), and sulfur (S) per treatment over the first crop\u003cbr\u003e\n \u0026nbsp;rotation (2017–2022). Nitrogen inputs are subdivided into inputs from fertilization, including mulched clover grass biomass left on the field in the control treatments (solid fill) and biological nitrogen fixation (striped fill). LU = Livestock Unit, CF= Cash Crop Farm, VF = Vegan Farm, SF = Soil Fertility Farm, MF = Mixed Farm, BGR = Biogas residues, FMC = Feed-manure-cooperation, S = Silage, GWC = Green waste compost, C\u0026amp;C = Cut \u0026amp; Carry, BWC = Bio waste compost, 0 = Control treatment.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage8.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7072909/v1/d5595d837aa160f026e5b09d.jpeg"},{"id":88522841,"identity":"d34ff0df-8b49-4c04-88da-c25cd159d5c2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-07 09:59:47","extension":"jpeg","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":226992,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eNutrient balances for nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), and sulfur (S) according to actual yields (Table 5) and inputs (Figure 8) in kg ha\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e yr\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage9.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7072909/v1/e741934d1cfe3aae2a523318.jpeg"},{"id":88521366,"identity":"512b752c-3ee2-41cc-a0f4-4df83ffb4ed1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-07 09:51:47","extension":"jpeg","order_by":10,"title":"Figure 10","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":232028,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTrend of N\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003emin\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cem\u003e by farm type and fertilization treatment in kg ha\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e-1\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cem\u003e. A = Cash crop farm, B = Vegan farm, C Soil fertility farm, D = Mixed farm.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage10.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7072909/v1/99585d734703699ca6b930b4.jpeg"},{"id":88523564,"identity":"d9edd565-5e18-4913-b80c-db114a2c61b8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-07 10:07:47","extension":"jpeg","order_by":11,"title":"Figure 11","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":238513,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eField setup of the long-term experiment with identification of plots treated with biodynamic preparations and subsequent analysis of the soil microbiome in 2021 (Milke et al. 2024). The application was carried out at the edge of the plots, extending 1 m into the plot and 1 m into the area adjacent to the plot which in 2021 was still managed equally with the plot area. Areas marked with a plus (+) indicate areas where the preparations were applied, while areas marked with a minus (-) represent water-treated controls.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage11.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7072909/v1/90581038c1222991ce2244ce.jpeg"},{"id":104250891,"identity":"8d32c6ec-b734-4c2d-b25e-3fd304373057","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-09 16:11:19","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":4153586,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7072909/v1/489d0400-ca57-4035-9416-2df026146408.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"How to maintain soil fertility in stockless organic farming: Research concepts and insights from the first crop rotation of a long-term field experiment","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eOrganic agriculture meets the demand for ecologically sustainable agricultural production systems and is therefore expanding worldwide (Willer et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). In 2020, 9.1 % of the agriculturl area in Europe was under organic farming (Eurostat \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). In Germany, 10.9 % of the agricultural land and 14. % of the farms are managed organiclly (BMEL 2023), with even higher shares in some regions. For example, in the Federal state of Hesse, where the long-term field experiment presented in this study is located, the share of the land managed organically is 15.9 % and the share of organic farms i 15.4 % (LLH 2022). With the constant increase in he number of organic farms in Germany and the European Union (Eurostat \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), the share of stockless organic farms in Germany has increased concurrently from 21 % in 2003 to 30 % in 2016 (Schmidt \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e; Schulz et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), and in the state of Hesse, 21 % f organic farmsare managed stockless (LLH 2022). However, long-term impacts on production efficiencyof stockless farms has hardly been studied.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eRemoving livestock from the organic farm cycle is associated with considerable challenges in terms of nutrient management and soil fertility (Kolbe \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Schulz et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e), which is defined as the potential yield capacity determined by soil physical properties (texture, water holding capacity, bulk density, aggregation etc.) as well as chemical and biological parameters (Berner et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Heckman et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; K\u0026ouml;ppen \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). By providing carbon-rich fertilizers such as manure or nitrogen-rich as slurry, livestock-based farming systems can have enormous positive impacts on soil fertility. Especially farmyard manure enhances soil quality (Edmeades \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e; Johnston und Poulton \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Krause et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Ludwig et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, livestock is an inherent part of organic agricultural systems where it is raised on clover grass and other fodder legume-grass-mixtures, which also play a key role for nutrient management in organic crop rotations (Leithold et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). The cultivation of forage-legumes has a number of positive impacts on soils (Whittaker et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Fodder legumes are mostly perennial, therefore associated with longer soil rest, and supply not only nitrogen from symbiotic fixation but also high amounts of carbon due to large quantities of root biomass and rhizodeposits (Bolinder et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; Hafner und Kuzyakov \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, fodder legumes enable to maintain or even increase soil organic carbon contents in the long run (Johnston et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). In organic cropping systems, the crops derive their nutrients largely from mineralisation of the soil organic matter (Kautz et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) and thus crop yields depend much stronger on soil fertility than in conventional agriculture (Brock et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Grain legumes have been tested as an alternative to fodder legume-grass-mixtures to secure nitrogen import from N\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e-fixation for stockless organic farms, since they have a market value and are therefore economically more attractive (Schulz et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). However, observations from long-term experiments comparing different crop rotations of stockless organic farms at Gladbacher Hof, Giessen, Germany, revealed that replacing fodder crops by grain legumes in the long run led to a considerable decline of soil organic matter by up to 0.7 Mg soil organic matter (SOM) ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e a\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e, with consequent declines in yield and yield stability (Niether et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). It can therefore be assumed that the cultivation of perennial forage crops on organic farms without livestock can make a significant contribution to maintaining soil fertility.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOn organic farms without livestock, perennial legume-grass mixtures are not used as fodder plants, but are often mulched as a source of nutrients for the subsequent crops (Maa\u0026szlig; et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). This practice, however, results in decreased nitrogen fixation (Hatch et al. 2007) as the frequent nutrient input (mainly N) from the mulch material supports the growth of non-legume over legume partners in the mixture. Another disadvantage may be increased nitrous oxide emissions due to the thick layers of the mulched biomass with concentrated nutrient content (Helmert et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; Maa\u0026szlig; et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). An alternative to mulching in stockless organic farms is the removal of cut material from the donor field and use as i) livestock feed on neighboring farms with the manure returned (\u0026ldquo;feed-manure-cooperation\u0026rdquo;), ii) a substrate for biogas plants and return the digestate (\u0026ldquo;biogas-cooperation\u0026rdquo;), iii) a fertilizer on neighboring fields (\u0026ldquo;cut-and-carry\u0026rdquo;), or iv) to conserve the freshly cut material either via silage or composting, and apply it later to the field. In all scenarios, the purpose is to increase the flexibility using the above ground biomass of forage legumes in stockless organic farms in terms of time and space compared to the mulch-system. In the cooperation and conservation cases (i,ii,iv), flexible timing is possible, while in the \u0026ldquo;cut-and-carry\u0026rdquo; case (iii) a synchronized timing of cutting and fertilization demand and/or technical feasibility is required but is not always possible.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDespite the advantages of alternative transfer strategies on organic farms with low or no livestock numbers, the economic benefits are questionable. Legume-grass-mixtures often have very low or even no direct economic return on stockless organic farms, resulting in a low incentive for the farmer to grow them for more than one year in a row. A supplementary option to account for both the missing utilization of legume-grass-mixtures to organic manures on stockless farms and the reduced period of their cultivation is to extend the farm nutrient cycle to a regional level. Here, beyond the above-described substitution by manure, slurry or digestate imported from other farms via cooperations, regional organic nutrient sources like green waste or bio waste compost from source separation of organic wastes or purchased fertilizers arising from food production may be used.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhen economic competitiveness drives management, stockless organic farms tend to specialize in high-profit root crops like potatoes or sugar beets and use fertilization strategies focused on withdrawal. Ecological concerns, particularly maintenance of soil fertility, play a crucial role in the long-term viability of organic farming systems (Flie\u0026szlig;bach et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e; M\u0026auml;der et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). Given the high impact of soil fertility on crop yields in organic cropping systems, farm managers may also decide to focus on improving and maintaining soil fertility to foster resilient and fertile cropping systems. Besides wide crop rotations with a low share of root crops \u0026ndash; as these are particularly demanding in terms of nutrients and deplete soil organic matter - the farms focus on fertilization concepts that increase soil organic matter. Therefore, the question arises as to how soil fertility will develop under the different management scenarios (cases i-iv) and how this will impact on economic performance in the long term. In recent years, there has been a considerable increase in the vegan diet in Europe and Germany. The sales value of plant-based foods increased by 49% in Europe between 2018 and 2020 (Smart Protein Project \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) and according to IfD Allensbach \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), the number of people living a vegan lifestyle in Germany has almost doubled from 2016 (0.8\u0026nbsp;million) to 2022 (1.58\u0026nbsp;million). In a strict interpretation of veganism, and according to the \u0026ldquo;biocyclic vegan standard\u0026rdquo;, a label that has been issued to farms worldwide since 2017, the entire product chain must be vegan, including the agricultural production. Specifically, this means that \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003ethe agricultural land used for the production of food for human nutrition must not be fertilized or otherwise treated with animal manure (slurry and manure), whether in fresh or composted form, slaughterhouse waste of any kind or other products of animal origin\u0026rdquo; (\u003c/em\u003eBNS Biocyclic Network Services Ltd \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e\u003cem\u003e).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese topics are addressed within an ongoing long-term field experiment (LTFE) which was established at the University of Kassel in Hesse, Germany, in 2017. In the LTFE, the above-described range of scenarios in stockless organic farming are tested by simulating different farm types, including various options of alternative uses of legume-grass mixtures as well as external fertilizers. Since the relevance of the organic farming sector and vegan production chains are continuously increasing, it is timely to conduct these experiments to fully understand the impact on soil fertility and provide knowledge for nutrient management. To successfully assess these aspects, field balances offer a valuable tool, as they provide detailed insights into nutrient dynamics and serve as a basis for crop rotation and fertilizer planning (Baumg\u0026auml;rtel et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e; Kolbe und K\u0026ouml;hler \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008a\u003c/span\u003e). The LTFE allows for a comprehensive comparison of differentiated organic farming systems with regard to nutrient cycling and sustainable farm management. The broader aim of our research is to evaluate the performance of contrasting organic farming systems, emphasizing the challenges of stockless organic farming with respect to balancing nutrients and soil organic matter and resulting effects on soil biology, soil physical and chemical properties, as well as farm productivity and economy. A focus is on identifying the suitability of differing fertilization concepts with optimized within-farm nutrient cycling and integration of external fertilizers. We investigate four organic farm types, differing in their crop rotations. Three of these are stockless while one integrates livestock. Each farm type includes four fertilization treatments, allowing the comparison of contrasting fertilization strategies within each farm type. In the current study, we present the conceptual design of crop rotations and fertilization strategies of the different farm types as well as soil organic carbon and crop yields from the first six-year crop rotation with the resulting nutrient balances. In this first phase of the long-term experiment, the main focus was on evaluating different strategies for stockless farm types to at least maintain soil fertility and consequently crop yields, testing the following hypotheses:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eH 1: The mixed farm type results in a more balanced nutrient budget, with a closer match between nutrient inputs and outputs, compared to stockless farm types.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eH 2: In stockless organic farm types, soil organic carbon content is at least maintained by integrating annual legume-grass mixtures and removing shoot material for subsequent use in fertilization, combined with compost from external sources.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eH 3: Soil organic carbon contents are at least maintained in the mixed farm types with perennial legume-grass mixtures for forage production, regardless of the simulated livestock density.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Material and methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.1 Description of the long-term field experiment\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThree different stockless organic farming systems and one traditional mixed organic farm system are represented in the LTFE design. Each of the four farm types has an unfertilized control treatment in which legume-grass-mixtures are mulched. Other than the control treatments, the stockless farm types have three different treatments simulating different fertilization strategies. The additional treatments on the mixed farm type reflect different fertilization strategies based on varying livestock intensities and different organic fertilizers. Forage legumes are typically cut three to five times per year, depending on weather conditions and growth stage, with the first cut usually taking place in late April or early May. Full details on the simulated farm types are presented in sections \u003cspan refid=\"Sec8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2.4.1\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan refid=\"Sec11\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2.4.4\u003c/span\u003e, preluded by a concise graphical summary in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. All measured parameters in the LTFE are summarized in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 8\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMeasured parameters in LTFE.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParameter\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFrequency of the measurement\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDepth\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSoil mineralized nitrogen (N\u003csub\u003emin\u003c/sub\u003e) (ISO 14256-2)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4x per year\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;30, 30\u0026ndash;60, 60\u0026ndash;90\u0026nbsp;cm\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePlant available phosphorus, potassium and sulfur (P\u003csub\u003eCAL\u003c/sub\u003e, K\u003csub\u003eCAL\u003c/sub\u003e, S\u003csub\u003emin\u003c/sub\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnnually in spring\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;30\u0026nbsp;cm\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSoil total carbon (C\u003csub\u003etot\u003c/sub\u003e) (ISO 10694)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnnually in spring\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;30\u0026nbsp;cm\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal Nitrogen (N\u003csub\u003etot\u003c/sub\u003e) (ISO 11261)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnnually in spring\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;30\u0026nbsp;cm\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal phosphorus, potassium and sulfur (P\u003csub\u003etot\u003c/sub\u003e, K\u003csub\u003etot\u003c/sub\u003e, S\u003csub\u003etot\u003c/sub\u003e) (ISO 11263, ISO 11260, ISO 14255)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOnce per crop rotation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;30\u0026nbsp;cm\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003epH (ISO 10390)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnnually in spring\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;30\u0026nbsp;cm\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCation exchange capacity (CEC) (ISO 11260)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnnually in spring\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;30\u0026nbsp;cm\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSoil temperature and volumetric soil water content (\u003cem\u003eTEROS 11 Sensors, METER Group, Inc. USA\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePermanently\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15, 40 and 60\u0026nbsp;cm\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMicrobial carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus (C\u003csub\u003emic\u003c/sub\u003e, N\u003csub\u003emic\u003c/sub\u003e, P\u003csub\u003emic\u003c/sub\u003e) (Vance et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1987\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnnually in spring\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;30\u0026nbsp;cm\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBasal respiration (ISO 16072)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnnually in spring\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;30\u0026nbsp;cm\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eErgosterol (Djajakirana et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnnually in spring\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;30\u0026nbsp;cm\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNematode abundance and biomass\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSporadically\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;30 cm\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEarthworm abundance and biomass\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOnce a year\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFresh and dry matter total yield\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAfter harvest\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFresh and dry matter yield of harvest product\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAfter harvest\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLeaf area index\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAt flowering \u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGreenhouse gas emissions (N\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO, CH\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e, CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e, NH\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWeekly\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBulk density\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOnce per crop rotation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;30\u0026nbsp;cm\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e: since 2023; \u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e: since 2020\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2 Site and experimental design\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe LTFE is situated at the Hessian State Domain Frankenhausen near Kassel in Hesse, Germany (51\u0026deg; 24'35.4\"N, 9\u0026deg; 26'03.2\"E) and was set up in 2017. The soil type is a Haplic Luvisol (WRB) with 18.5% clay, 80.0% silt and 1.5% sand in the Ap horizon. Soil properties such as texture, are given in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. The average annual temperature from 2014 to 2024 was 10.0\u0026deg;C and the mean precipitation was 553 mm per year (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). The climatic water balance (CWB) was negative throughout the entire duration of the first crop rotation. The CWB was calculated by subtracting daily evapotranspiration (ET), estimated using the Penman-Monteith equation (FAO \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e) with a grass reference, from the daily precipitation values. The daily CWB values were then summed to obtain the annual CWB for each year.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe site has been under organic management since 1998, with the crop rotation described in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. This crop rotation from 1999 to 2016 shows a strong focus on legumes, with clover grass, field beans, and soybeans grown in 50% of the years. Cereals, represented by winter wheat, account for only 11%, while root crops and vegetables, such as potatoes, carrots, and sugar beets, make up 39%.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSoil properties at the experimental site (June 2020). SOC\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Soil organic carbon, WRB\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;World Reference Base for Soil Resources (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;80).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"10\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHorizons\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDepth\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSand\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSilt\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eClay\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSoil textural class\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSOC\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003epH\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBulk density\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCEC\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e(WRB)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e(cm)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e(%)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e(%)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e(%)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e(WRB)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e(%)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e(CaCl\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e2\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cb\u003e)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e(g cm\u003c/b\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cb\u003e)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e(cmol kg\u003c/b\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cb\u003e)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAp\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e80.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSiL\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.04\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.45\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14.37\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28\u0026ndash;50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e79.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSiL\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.74\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBt1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50\u0026ndash;95\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e74.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e24.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSiL\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.71\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBt2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e95\u0026ndash;120\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e77.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSiL\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.76\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIC\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e120 \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;140\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e82.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSiL\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"10\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e: measured in Spring 2017 (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;64)\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePast crops since 1999 at the experimental site\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYear\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ecrop\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYear\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ecrop\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYear\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ecrop\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1999\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSugar Beets\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2005\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eClover Grass\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2011\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePotatoes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eField Beans\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2006\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePotatoes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2012\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCarrots\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePotatoes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2007\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCarrots\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2013\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSoy Beans\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2002\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWinter Wheat\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2008\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eClover Grass\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2014\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eField Beans\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2003\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eClover Grass\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2009\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eClover Grass\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2015\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWinter Wheat\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2004\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eClover Grass\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2010\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eClover Grass\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2016\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePotatoes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe experiment is set up as a two-factor split-plot design with four repetitions, with the main plot representing the farm type (i.e. crop rotation) and the different fertilization treatments as subplots (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). Each plot has a size of 135 m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e (15 x 9 m) net area and 171 m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e (19 x 9 m) gross area.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.3 Conceptual design of fertilization and nutrient balances\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eSince organic fertilizers contain multiple nutrients, balancing nutrients is a challenge. To enable fertilizer planning for each of the LTFE treatments, field balances comprising two crop rotations (12 years) were calculated for nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K) and sulfur (S) based on long-term average yields from the site under study (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e) and rule-of-thumb figures regarding nutrient contents (KTBL 2015; Stein-Bachinger et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). The nutrient inputs via seed and seedlings were not considered, as their proportion is negligible. Factors that are either not or only negligibly influenced by crop rotation or fertilization strategy, or that could not be reliably quantified within the scope of this study - such as nutrient supply via deposition, nutrient removal via denitrification or nitrogen losses during the application of farmyard manure or slurry (e.g. through ammonia volatilization) - were not considered in the nutrient balances.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eNutrient Management was based on crop rotation. The amount of self-produced fertilizer applied based on legume-grass mixtures, such as compost or silage, depends on the clover or lucerne grass yield of the respective treatment. All fertilizers derived from forage legumes were produced using biomass from fields of the experimental farm. Clover grass compost was produced on-site and consisted of 25\u0026ndash;35% fresh clover grass and 65\u0026ndash;75% purchased green waste; straw was added if considered necessary to supply structural, carbon-rich material. Silage was produced from forage grown on the experimental farm and was typically stored in round bales until application. Mulch material for cut-and-carry was sourced from neighboring fields of the experimental farm. Manure compost was produced on-site, based on manure collected from the farm\u0026rsquo;s own dairy barn, housing German Black Pied Lowland cattle, which were fed with forage from the experimental fields. Manure and slurry also originated from the farm\u0026rsquo;s own cattle. Biogas residues were supplied by a cooperating farm in the vicinity. Green waste and biowaste composts were sourced from regional composting facilities certified by the German Federal Compost Association (Bundesg\u0026uuml;tegemeinschaft Kompost). Plant pellets and tofu residues were purchased externally.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe quantities of fertilizer obtained through simulated cooperations were calculated based on the nitrogen equivalent provided by clover or lucerne grass to the cooperations. The amount of manure and slurry produced by the livestock simulated in the mixed farm type are based on livestock units (LU) defined according to the Eurostat (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e) classification and assigned to each treatment. The amount of organic purchased fertilizer was aligned with the upper limit of the \u003cem\u003eBioland Association\u003c/em\u003e guideline, limiting nitrogen import to 40 kg of total N per hectare and year on average. The symbiotic N\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e fixation of the cultivated forage and grain legumes, as well as the legume catch crops, was calculated according to Kolbe \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Kolbe und K\u0026ouml;hler \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008b\u003c/span\u003e. For forage legumes, nitrogen fixation was determined using the following Eq.\u0026nbsp;(\u003cspan refid=\"Equ1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e):\u003cdiv id=\"Equ1\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ1\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:N\\_fixation\\:=11.9\\times\\:Yield\\times\\:N\\_concentration-50)$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e1\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ewhere\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e11.9 is an empirically derived factor,\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eYield is biomass yield in Mg ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e,\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eand N concentration is the Nitrogen concentration in the biomass yield (kg N per Mg Yield).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn cases where forage legume biomass was mulched, only 95% of the potential nitrogen fixation was considered. This correction accounts for the reduced nitrogen fixation resulting from the fertilization effect of the mulch.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFor grain legumes, nitrogen fixation was estimated using the Eq.\u0026nbsp;(\u003cspan refid=\"Equ2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e):\u003cdiv id=\"Equ2\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ2\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:N\\_fixation=\\left(0.5-0.0025\\times\\:{N}_{min}\\right)\\times\\:N\\_uptake$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e2\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ewhere\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eN\u003csub\u003emin\u003c/sub\u003e is mineral nitrogen content in the soil in spring, before sowing (kg ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e),\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eN-uptake is amount of nitrogen taken up in the harvested grain yield (kg ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.4 Description of individual treatments\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFertilization treatments of all farm types. The capital letters in the columns refer to the timing of the fertilization as indicated in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e. GWC\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Green waste compost, CGC\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Clover grass compost, BWC\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Bio waste compost, MC\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Manure compost.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFarm Type\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTreatment\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eD\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eE\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCash crop farm\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCF 0\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCF BGR\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBiogas residues\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBiogas residues\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBiogas residues\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCF FMC\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCattle manure\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCattle slurry\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCattle manure\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCF S\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eClover grass silage\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eClover grass silage\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVegan farm\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eVF 0\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eVF GWC\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eClover grass compost\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePlant pellets\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGreen waste compost\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eVF C\u0026amp;C\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTofu residues\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;Mulch\u0026sup1;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePlant pellets\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eVF S\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSilage\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePlant pellets\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSilage\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSilage\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSoil fertility farm\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSF 0\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSF GWC\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGWC\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCGC\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGWC\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSF FMC\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMC\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCattle slurry\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCattle slurry\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSF BWC\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBWC\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCGC\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBWC\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMixed farm\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMF 0\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMF 0.7 LU\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eManure compost\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCattle slurry\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eManure compost\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCattle slurry\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eManure compost\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMF 1.4 LU\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eManure compost\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCattle slurry\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eManure compost\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCattle slurry\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eManure compost\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMF 2.0 LU\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eManure compost\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCattle slurry\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eManure compost\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCattle slurry\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eManure compost\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"7\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003eMulch fertilization was not applied during the first crop rotation. The first application took place in the potatoes\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ein 2024.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.4.1 Farm Type I: Cash Crop Farm\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe \u003cem\u003eCash Crop Farm\u003c/em\u003e treatments (CF) simulate a farm whose crop rotation and fertilization strategies are largely driven by the objective to optimize economic performance. They have a high share of economically attractive root crops in the rotation (33%). Catch crops are included in the crop rotation only when a benefit for the following crop in terms of additional nitrogen supply is expected. The six-year crop rotation begins with a 20-month phase of perennial red clover-grass (\u003cem\u003eTrifolium pratense\u003c/em\u003e), followed by potatoes (\u003cem\u003eSolanum tuberosum\u003c/em\u003e), a catch crop over the winter season, carrots (\u003cem\u003eDaucus carota\u003c/em\u003e, cv. \u003cem\u003eRomance)\u003c/em\u003e, fallow over winter, spring sown field beans (\u003cem\u003eVicia faba)\u003c/em\u003e, winter wheat (\u003cem\u003eTriticum aestivum\u003c/em\u003e, cv. \u003cem\u003eGenius)\u003c/em\u003e and finally winter spelt (\u003cem\u003eTriticum spelta\u003c/em\u003e, cv. \u003cem\u003eZollernspelz\u003c/em\u003e ). The crop rotation then starts over with clover grass.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFertilization treatments are withdrawal orientated, i.e. the withdrawal of nutrients with the harvested biomass determines the amount replenished by fertilization. The individual fertilization treatments in the LTFE simulate i) a cooperation with a biogas plant, which provides biogas residues in exchange for legume-grass shoot material, ii) a feed manure cooperation, where farmyard manure or slurry is provided in exchange for forage for the livestock of the cooperation farm and iii) producing silage from the fodder crops, to be returned to the land as fertilizer. Timing of seeding and harvest of each crop, and fertilization for all four Cash Crop Farm treatments are depicted in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e and Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.4.2 Farm Type II: \u003cem\u003eVegan Farm\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe \u003cem\u003eVegan farm\u003c/em\u003e (VF) treatments do not include any livestock derived products throughout the entire production cycle. The objective is to produce as much food as possible for human nutrition, to minimize periods of fallow and to maximize the benefits of green manures as a replacement for animal-based manures. The share of root crops (potatoes and carrots) is 33%. The crop rotation is comprised of clover grass (20 months), potatoes followed by a catch crop before carrots followed by spring-sown field beans, spelt followed by a summer catch crop and winter oats (cv. \u003cem\u003eFleuron\u003c/em\u003e). After harvesting the oats, the crop rotation starts again with clover grass.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFertilization treatments are purely plant based. The shoot material of the legume-grass mixtures cannot be used for feed-manure-cooperations, so three options for using it as a farm-based fertilizer are tested: composting, production of silage, and \u0026lsquo;cut \u0026amp; carry\u0026rsquo;. In this latter system, the clover grass is cut on the providing field and spread as mulch on the receiving field. For this purpose, both cutting and fertilizing must take place at the same time, which is not always feasible. Additional purchased fertilizers are therefore used in this treatment. These are plant-based fertilizers such as plant pellets or residues from Tofu (\u003cem\u003eTaifun-Tofu GmbH, DE\u003c/em\u003e) production. In the treatment where clover grass compost is produced, green waste composts purchased from municipal production are additionally applied by 35% (vol.) to reduce the N-loss during composting. The time points of establishment and harvest of each crop and of the fertilization operations in the four Vegan Farm treatments are depicted in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e and Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.4.3 Farm Type III: \u003cem\u003eSoil Fertility Farm\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the \u003cem\u003eSoil Fertility Farm\u003c/em\u003e (SF) treatments, enhancing soil organic matter and other soil fertility parameters are given more weight than in the Cash Crop Farm type and override the optimization of economic performance. With a share of 17%, the share of root crops (potato) is lower than for any other stockless farm type. At the beginning of the crop rotation, clover grass is cultivated for 20 months, followed by potatoes planted in spring, winter wheat, a catch crop over winter before spring-sown field beans, winter oats (\u003cem\u003eAvena sativa\u003c/em\u003e), a catch crop, and winter spelt. Different from the other farm types, here clover grass alternates with lucerne grass (\u003cem\u003eMedicago sativa\u003c/em\u003e) and field beans alternate with field peas (\u003cem\u003ePisum sativum\u003c/em\u003e) to minimize soil and plant health risks due to legume self-incompatibility.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn this farm type, fertilization strategies are aligned with the goal of enhancing soil fertility, primarily through the application of organic fertilizers such as composts. The shoot material of the legume-grass mixtures is either exchanged for composted manure in a fodder-manure cooperation or composted to be used as a fertilizer with high amounts of organically bound nutrients and comparatively slow mineralization. To enable soil fertility buildup, imported composts from green waste or biowaste are additionally used. The time points of establishment and harvest of each crop and the fertilization operations in the four \u003cem\u003eSoil Fertility Farm\u003c/em\u003e treatments are depicted in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e and Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.4.4 Farm Type IV: \u003cem\u003eMixed Farm\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe \u003cem\u003eMixed Farm\u003c/em\u003e (MF) farm type corresponds to a traditional organic mixed farm, with the idea of a largely closed nutrient cycle. Thereby the integration of livestock is obligatory. Due to the on-farm livestock, it is necessary to integrate a large proportion of fodder legumes into the crop rotation to provide feed. The share of legumes is 50%, the share of root crops is 17% (potato), and the share of cereals is 33%. The crop rotation starts with the cultivation of clover grass for about 2.5 years. The clover grass is then followed by spring-planted potatoes, winter wheat, a catch crop over winter before spring-sown field beans and green rye (\u003cem\u003eSecale cereale\u003c/em\u003e). The green rye is harvested in early summer and simulates the use as silage for feeding the livestock.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFurthermore, in this farm type, fertilization treatments are distinguished according to amount rather than type of the fertilizers. Livestock rates, defined according to the Eurostat (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e) classification of 0.7 (equivalent to 40 kg total N and 35 kg P\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e5\u003c/sub\u003e), 1.4 (equivalent to 80 kg total N and 70 kg P\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e5\u003c/sub\u003e) and 2.0 (equivalent to 112 kg total N and 98 kg P\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e5\u003c/sub\u003e) LU per ha are compared. The livestock rate of 2.0 LU per hectare corresponds to the maximum stocking rate of most German organic farming associations. The only fertilizers given are cattle slurry and composted manure. The time points of establishment and harvest of each crop and of the fertilization operations in the four mixed farm treatments are depicted in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e and Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.5 Sampling considerations: Dealing with non-orthogonal treatment combinations\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the Frankenhausen LTFE, production systems rather than individual management factors are compared, resulting in a non-orthogonal design. In order to ensure scientific evaluability, in each of the six-year crop rotations potatoes are grown in the second and field beans in the fourth year of a crop rotation in each of the farming types, so that the different long-term agricultural management schemes may be evaluated for the same crop.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll metadata is stored in the \u003cem\u003eBonaRes Repository for Soil and Agricultural Research Data\u003c/em\u003e and the LTFE is visible in BonaRes European overview Map for LTFEs. The research data and accompanying documentation will be made available in the repository on an ongoing basis. As the experiment is also intended to be a platform for further research questions, additional investigations have already been conducted in the past (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the following, the methods used for the data presented in the current study are described in more detail.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMineralized nitrogen (N\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003emin\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cb\u003e)\u003c/b\u003e:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eN\u003csub\u003emin\u003c/sub\u003e samples have been collected four times per year since 2018, by hand-operated drilling rods at depths of 0\u0026ndash;30 cm, 30\u0026ndash;60 cm, and 60\u0026ndash;90 cm. The samplings took place in winter, spring, at flowering, and after harvest. The N\u003csub\u003emin\u003c/sub\u003e samples were subsequently extracted and analyzed for nitrate (NO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e-N) and ammonium (NH\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e-N) content. The analysis was conducted using an \u003cem\u003eAnalytical AA3 Segmented Flow Analyzers\u003c/em\u003e from \u003cem\u003eSeal Analytical GmbH\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eNorderstedt\u003c/em\u003e, employing the photometric determination method via continuous flow analysis (CFA).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSoil organic carbon\u003c/b\u003e:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFrom 2018, soil organic carbon (SOC) measurements were carried out annually between the eighth and eleventh calendar week using a hand-operated drilling rod at a depth of 0\u0026ndash;30 cm and analyzed by combustion with subsequent CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e capture and measurement of the total carbon content (C\u003csub\u003et\u003c/sub\u003e) using a \u003cem\u003eVarioMAX\u003c/em\u003e analyzer from \u003cem\u003eElementar Analysensysteme GmbH\u003c/em\u003e (VDLUFA \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e). As experience has shown that no relevant quantities of inorganic C such as carbonates or carbonic acids are present at the site, the determination of SOC as the difference between C\u003csub\u003et\u003c/sub\u003e and inorganic C was dispensed with and C\u003csub\u003et\u003c/sub\u003e was equated with SOC.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCrop yields and nutrient contents\u003c/b\u003e:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe crop yields presented in this article were collected within a 15 m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e area in the center of the gross plot. Potatoes and carrots were harvested by hand, cereals were harvested with a plot combine. To collect shoot biomass yields of clover grass or lucerne grass, 4 x 0.5 m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e were cut by hand in each plot and then weighed and dried. Analysis of C and N was then carried out with a using a \u003cem\u003eVarioMAX\u003c/em\u003e analyzer from \u003cem\u003eElementar Analysensysteme GmbH\u003c/em\u003e. The phosphorus content was determined using a photometric method with ammonium molybdate and measured on a \u003cem\u003eShimadzu UV1800 UV Spectrophotometer\u003c/em\u003e. Potassium analysis was conducted using atomic absorption spectroscopy on a \u003cem\u003eUNICAM 939 AA Spectrometer\u003c/em\u003e from \u003cem\u003ePerkin-Elmer Instruments Inc\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe presented yields were converted to dry matter yields. For potatoes and carrots, the marketable yield was used for calculation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eStatistics\u003c/b\u003e:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnnual average yield data from farm type and treatment were analyzed separately using linear mixed-effects models (LMMs) to account for the split-plot design of the experiment. Models included the fixed effects \u003cem\u003efarm type\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003efertilization treatment\u003c/em\u003e, and their interaction as appropriate. \u003cem\u003eRepetition\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003emainplot nested within Repetition\u003c/em\u003e were included as random effects. In cases where the interaction term was not significant, reduced models were fitted with only the main effects. To analyze changes in soil carbon content (SOC) over time, slopes of SOC change over time were calculated using linear regression for each treatment across the 5-year period (2018\u0026ndash;2022) to estimate the direction and magnitude of temporal trends. ANOVA was used to assess the significance of fixed effects. When significant differences were detected (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05), estimated marginal means (EMMs) were calculated using the emmeans package in R, and pairwise comparisons were conducted with Tukey's HSD adjustment. To explore the relationship between soil organic carbon and crop yield, Pearson correlation analyses were conducted for each year (2018\u0026ndash;2022) and farm type individually. Yield was modeled as a function of soil total carbon content in the topsoil. In addition, Pearson correlations were performed between the mean annual nitrogen input and mean crop yield over the full crop rotation (2017\u0026ndash;2022), and between the cumulative nitrogen input and the soil organic carbon content measured at the end of the rotation (2022). All statistical analyses were performed using R, Version 4.3.1.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results of the first crop rotation","content":"\u003cp\u003eAlthough the LTFE is still in its early years, the results on soil organic carbon, crop yields, and nutrient balances from the first six-year crop rotation already provide valuable insights into the effects of different nutrient management strategies on soil fertility and crop performance.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1 Soil organic carbon\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs the initial measurement of Corg contents was carried out in 2018, the results are presented from this year onward. The trends in carbon content (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e) show significant increases over the 5-year period in the Cash Crop Farm type under the silage treatment (CF S) as well as in the two compost treatments of the Soil Fertility Farm type (SF GWC and SF BWC). A marked increase is also observed in the Vegan Farm type under the compost treatment (VF GWC). All other treatments, except for the biogas residue treatment in the Cash Crop Farm type (CF BGR), exhibit either slight increases or stable carbon levels. These developments reflect the magnitude of organic carbon inputs applied: the highest increases occurred in treatments with consistent high-carbon amendments such as silage and compost (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). In contrast, treatments with low organic inputs or those receiving more easily degradable materials (e.g. CF BGR) show no clear increase in soil carbon content.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMean annual carbon input via fertilization over the 6-year rotation in kg C ha\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e yr\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFarm type\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTreatment\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eC input (kg ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e yr\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCash crop farm\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCF 0\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCF BGR\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e319\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCF FMC\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e569\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCF S\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e661\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSoil fertility farm\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSF 0\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSF GWC\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1017\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSF FMC\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e562\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSF BWC\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e793\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eVegan farm\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eVF 0\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eVF GWC\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1050\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eVF S\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1062\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eVF C\u0026amp;C\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e102\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMixed farm\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMF 0\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMF 0.7\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e462\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMF 1.4\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e701\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMF 2.0\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1031\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2 Crop yields, crop nutrient uptake and implications for nutrient balances\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe average yield over the entire crop rotation did not differ significantly within the farm types, indicating no clear effect of fertilization. However, the treatments of the m\u003cem\u003eixed farm\u003c/em\u003e type significantly outperformed the treatments of the other farm types (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e). When averaged across fertilization treatments, the Mixed Farm type produced significantly higher yields over the entire crop rotation compared to the other three farm types. In this farm type, livestock densities and the associated amount of fertilizer did affect yields, with increasing yields as livestock densities increases. There is a tendency for the two farm types \u003cem\u003ecash crop farm\u003c/em\u003e and v\u003cem\u003eegan farm\u003c/em\u003e, which both have a higher share of root crops, to produce more dry matter yield than the farm type \u003cem\u003esoil fertility farm\u003c/em\u003e, even independently of the total N input (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e gives an overview on all crop yields, including a comparison with the estimated yields, which were assumed prior to the establishment of the experiment based on site-specific historical yield data.. All yields are presented in Mg DM ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e and for each crop, treatment and year separately. Differences between observed and assumed yields are also shown, based on the average measured values per treatment and year. This can indicate discrepancies in terms of expected yields as well as potential differences in nutrient balances calculated prior to the start of the experiment. Especially in the initial years of the experiment, the actually realized crop yields are lower than assumed. In 2021 and 2022, however, crop yields are equal to or higher than the assumed yields.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe only significant difference between farm types was observed for spelt in 2022, with higher yields in the Cash Crop Farm as compared to the Soil Fertility Farm (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). Fertilizer effects were determined between Cash Crop Farm treatments for winter wheat in 2021 and spelt in 2022, with higher yields in the Silage treatment as compared to the Biogas treatment and to the Control treatment for winter wheat and higher yields in the Silage and the Biogas treatments as compared to the Control treatment for spelt. Within the Soil Fertility Farm, winter wheat yields in 2019 were significantly higher in the Feed manure cooperation treatment compared to the Control and Biowaste compost treatments. For oats in 2021, the yields in the two compost treatments (SF GWC and SF BWC) were significantly higher than in the Control treatment, the same was observed for spelt in 2022. In the Vegan Farm significant differences were also found for oats in 2022: the Silage variant outperformed the Cut-and-carry treatment. In the Mixed Farm, the treatment with the highest livestock density (MF 2.0) achieved significantly higher yields compared to the control treatment.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAssumed and actual yields for all crops and treatments of the LTFE in Mg DM ha\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e. x̄ is the mean value of all 4 fertilization treatments per crop. LU\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Livestock Unit, CF\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Cash Crop Farm, VF\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Vegan Farm, SF\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Soil Fertility Farm, MF\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Mixed Farm, BGR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Biogas residues, FMC\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Feed-manure-cooperation, S\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Silage, GWC\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Green waste compost, C\u0026amp;C\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Cut \u0026amp; Carry, BWC\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Bio waste compost, 0\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Control treatment. Different lowercase letters indicate significant differences between treatments within the same harvest year and within the same crop (Tukey-test, α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.05). Uppercase letters indicate significant differences between farm types within the same harvest year (Tukey-test, α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.05). If no letters are shown, no statistically significant differences were found.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"6\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYield in Mg DM ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYear\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCrop CF\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eBGR\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFMC\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAssumed Yields\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eΔ x̄ observed to assumed yield\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2017\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eClover Grass\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;10.25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2018\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePotatoes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;5.025\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2019\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCarrots\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2020\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eField Beans\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.275\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2021\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWinter Wheat\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.5 \u003cb\u003eb\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.5 \u003cb\u003eb\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.6 \u003cb\u003eab\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.8 \u003cb\u003ea\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e+\u0026thinsp;0.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2022\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSpelt \u003cb\u003eA\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.2 \u003cb\u003eb\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.0 \u003cb\u003ea\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.5 \u003cb\u003eab\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.0 \u003cb\u003ea\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e+\u0026thinsp;1.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCrop SF\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eGWC\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFMC\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eBWC\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2017\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eClover Grass\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;10.25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2018\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePotatoes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;4.625\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2019\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWinter Wheat\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.2 \u003cb\u003eb\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.3 \u003cb\u003eab\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.0 \u003cb\u003ea\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.8 \u003cb\u003eb\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e+\u0026thinsp;1.325\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2020\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eField Beans\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.125\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2021\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOats\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.5 \u003cb\u003eb\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.9 \u003cb\u003ea\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.7 \u003cb\u003eab\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.9 \u003cb\u003ea\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e+\u0026thinsp;1.45\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2022\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSpelt \u003cb\u003eB\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.0 \u003cb\u003eb\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.7 \u003cb\u003ea\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.3 \u003cb\u003eab\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.7 \u003cb\u003ea\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e+\u0026thinsp;0.125\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCrop VF\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eGWC\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eC\u0026amp;C\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2017\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eClover Grass\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;10.25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2018\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePotatoes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;4.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2019\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCarrots\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1.575\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2020\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eField Beans\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2021\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSpelt\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e+\u0026thinsp;2.325\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2022\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOats\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.2 \u003cb\u003eab\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.0 \u003cb\u003eab\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.5 \u003cb\u003ea\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.4 \u003cb\u003eb\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e+ \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCrop MF\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.7 LU\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1.4 LU\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2.0 LU\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2017\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eClover Grass\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;10.275\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2018\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePotatoes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;4.95\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2019\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWinter Wheat\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e+\u0026thinsp;1.225\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2020\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eField Beans\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.175\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2021\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGreen Rye\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.9 \u003cb\u003eb\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.8 \u003cb\u003eab\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.9 \u003cb\u003eab\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.4 \u003cb\u003ea\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e+\u0026thinsp;10.55\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2022\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eClover Grass\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19.73\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e+\u0026thinsp;8.908\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003eIn the Mixed Farm system, the clover-grass yields reported for 2022 include two cuts from late 2021 and five cuts from 2022.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003erotation (2017\u0026ndash;2022). Nitrogen inputs are subdivided into inputs from fertilization, including mulched clover grass biomass left on the field in the control treatments (solid fill) and biological nitrogen fixation (striped fill). LU\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Livestock Unit, CF\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Cash Crop Farm, VF\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Vegan Farm, SF\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Soil Fertility Farm, MF\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Mixed Farm, BGR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Biogas residues, FMC\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Feed-manure-cooperation, S\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Silage, GWC\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Green waste compost, C\u0026amp;C\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Cut \u0026amp; Carry, BWC\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Bio waste compost, 0\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Control treatment.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e shows the mean annual nutrient inputs of the first crop rotation of the LTFE for each, treatment and the nutrients N, P, K, and S. The nutrient balances (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig10\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e) were calculated based on nutrient removal, which is derived from the actual crop yields presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e. In Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e, these balances are compared with the nutrient balances calculated prior to the experiment. Notably, the actual balances for nitrogen are negative, except for the treatments MF 0, MF 1.4, MF 2.0, SF GWC, SF BWC, and VF GWC. In the cash crop farm in particular, the balances of all nutrients in all fertilizer treatments are clearly negative.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab7\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 9\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCalculated and actual nutrient balances for nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and sulfur according to yields (Table \u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e) and inputs (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e) in kg ha\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e yr\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"14\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c13\" colnum=\"13\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c14\" colnum=\"14\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCalculated balances\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eActual balances\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c14\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eΔ actual balances -Calculated balances\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFarm type\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTreatment\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eK\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eS\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eK\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eS\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eK\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eS\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCash crop farm\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCF 0\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-21\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-111\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-61\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-57\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e54\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCF BGR\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-125\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-31\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e97\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCF FMC\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-19\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-86\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-34\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e77\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCF S\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-21\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-113\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-35\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-24\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e95\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSoil fertility farm\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSF 0\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-61\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-47\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-48\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-58\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSF GWC\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e52\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-44\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSF FMC\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-38\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-31\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-21\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSF BWC\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e58\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-53\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eVegan farm\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eVF 0\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-19\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-108\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-57\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-67\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-64\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e41\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eVF GWC\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e70\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-67\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-61\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e51\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eVF S\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-105\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e101\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eVF C\u0026amp;C\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-72\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-49\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-67\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-89\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMixed farm\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMF 0\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-19\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-125\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-74\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e51\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMF 0.7\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-19\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-139\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-19\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e120\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMF 1.4\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-69\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e87\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMF 2.0\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e58\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e70\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-21\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e68\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e shows the relation between crop yields and SOC content for each experimental year and farm type separately. The four fertilization treatments within each farm type were combined for analysis. Except for the Cash Crop Farm treatments in 2018, the correlation coefficient is positive. Significant correlations were observed in for the Vegan Farm type in 2020, 2021 and 2022 and additionally for the Soil Fertility Farm type in 2021 and 2022.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab8\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 6\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCorrelation between crop yield and soil organic carbon content (SOC, mg g⁻\u0026sup1; topsoil) across different farm types (Cash Crop Farm, Vegan Farm, Soil Fertility Farm, Mixed Farm) and years (2017\u0026ndash;2022; n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;16). The table presents Pearson correlation coefficients (r) and corresponding significance levels (p-values) for each system and year. Significant correlations are indicated by asterisks (*p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05, **p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01, ***p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCrop\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSystem\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYear\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003er\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePotatoes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCash Crop Farm\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2018\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.06\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePotatoes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVegan Farm\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2018\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePotatoes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSoil Fertility Farm\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2018\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePotatoes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMixed Farm\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2018\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.39\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCarrots\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCash Crop Farm\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2019\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.48\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCarrots\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVegan Farm\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2019\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWinter Wheat\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSoil Fertility Farm\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2019\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.26\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWinter Wheat\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMixed Farm\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2019\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eField Beans\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCash Crop Farm\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2020\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eField Beans\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eVegan Farm\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2020\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.51*\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eField Beans\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSoil Fertility Farm\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2020\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.45\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eField Beans\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMixed Farm\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2020\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWinter Wheat\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCash Crop Farm\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2021\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSpelt\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eVegan Farm\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2021\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.56*\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eOats\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSoil Fertility Farm\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2021\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.56*\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGreen Rye\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMixed Farm\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2021\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.49\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSpelt\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCash Crop Farm\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2022\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eOats\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eVegan Farm\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2022\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.57*\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSpelt\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSoil Fertility Farm\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2022\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.87***\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eClover Grass\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMixed Farm\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2022\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eDespite the high fertility of the LTFE site and the expectation that many effects will only become apparent in the long term, nutrient balances already provide valuable early insights into the sustainability of nutrient management of individual stockless and mixed organic farm types. Hypothesis 1, stating that \u003cem\u003eThe mixed farm type results in a more balanced nutrient budget, with a closer match between nutrient inputs and outputs, compared to stockless farm types\u003c/em\u003e, can be confirmed. The results show that mixed farms with a livestock stocking rate of 1.4 LU ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e or more can achieve balanced nutrient inputs and outputs for nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and sulfur. The reason for this can be attributed, on the one hand, to nutrient availability from organic fertilizers, and on the other hand, to the higher proportion of forage legumes in the crop rotation, which in particular has a significant impact on the nitrogen balance.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTwo of the observed stockless farm types also achieve positive nutrient balances for N, in particular with purchased compost (VF GWC, SF GWC, SF BWC), but would probably face higher costs due to the purchase of fertilizers and would have to rely on an existing infrastructure to purchase compost or other types of fertilizers. In particular these stockless treatments (SF GWC, SF BWC, and VF GWC) are within or close to the aspired ranges (N: 0 to 50 kg ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e (Kolbe \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e), P: -2 to 5 kg ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e, K: -40 to 0 on soils with high clay content (Kolbe und K\u0026ouml;hler \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008a\u003c/span\u003e)) for nitrogen and potassium and at least less negative regarding P balances. The results of our study confirm the typical nutrient imbalances and negative P and K balances in commercial organic, in particular arable farms(Reimer et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020b\u003c/span\u003e), and other long-term field experiments, like the DOK trial in Switzerland (Fliessbach et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Combinations of one nutrient in surplus and other nutrients in deficit are common in organic farming due to the reliance on fertilizers of organic origin containing multiple nutrients(Reimer et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020a\u003c/span\u003e; Reimer et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020b\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOrganic farms, in particular with a high share of root crops in their rotations, face potential nutrient imbalances and can therefore lead to unsustainable nutrient management. Plant available phosphorus and potassium were in medium or good range for all treatments at the end of the first crop rotation in April 2023 according to (VDLUFA \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Good agricultural practice requires that these nutrients should be fertilized in accordance with expected withdrawals to avoid long-term nutrient deficiencies or excesses in the soil. Due to the restriction of external nutrient inputs by the EU regulations for organic farming and the fact that human excrements are not returned to the soil, preventing a nearly completely closed nutrient cycle also in organic farming, nutrient management is challenging. Especially in the treatments with high K and P deficits, the crops therefore rely on active nutrient mobilization from the solid phase of the soil. Rhizosphere activity and plant-soil interactions at the heart of nutrient management are supporting soil biological mechanisms in organic farming. The soil under study is highly fertile and stores an enormous amount of nutrients bound in the solid phase due to a high clay content and a large loess layer providing optimum conditions for crop growth. However, the long-term productivity may still be affected in the treatments that show nutrient deficits and need to be monitored in the long term. When interpreting the results, it is important to consider that at the start of the trial in 2017, the clover grass was only recently established, allowing for just one harvest to be conducted. In future crop rotations, the clover grass will be present in the treatments for at least a whole year. An initial insight is provided by the yields from 2023, where the clover-grass yield across all treatments averaged 10.5 Mg DM ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e. This has a significant impact on nitrogen fixation and, consequently, on the nutrient balances. Despite the initially limited clover-grass period and associated nitrogen fixation effects, we decided to present and analyze the complete first rotation from 2017 to 2022 to capture the full sequence of crops and system effects across all treatments.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePossible reasons for lower-than-expected crop yields include the severe drought in 2018 and the unusually dry conditions in 2018 and 2020, which led to significant yield reductions for potatoes (2018), carrots (2019), and field beans (2020). However, winter cereals in 2019 were not affected in the same way. In 2021, as nationally, soil began to recover from the drought (UFZ 2024), yields exceeded expectations for all four crops. Differences in crop yields between fertilization treatments were visible, especially when compared to control treatments. No differences are likely due to the high geogenic nutrient supply at the experimental site, which helped buffer the expected impacts. Over the years 2018\u0026ndash;2022, the Climatic Water Balance (CWB) remained consistently negative (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e), reflecting the persistent water scarcity during this period. In addition to the evaluation of yields and nutrient balances, insights will also be provided into the environmental impacts of the various systems. Initial data from N\u003csub\u003emin\u003c/sub\u003e investigations indicate that higher N\u003csub\u003emin\u003c/sub\u003e levels, particularly over winter, are found in crop rotations emphasizing root crops, which are associated with an increased leaching potential (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig11\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA significant increase in SOC content (expressed as mg g\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e C\u003csub\u003et\u003c/sub\u003e in the topsoil) is already visible in some treatments. Treatments with compost in the Soil Fertility Farm type show a significant increase from 2018 to 2022. In the compost treatment of the Vegan Farm type a considerable increase was observed as well, which was, however, not significant due to high standard deviation. A lack of variation in other treatments can be attributed to the spatial variability of SOC distribution (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e) and the relatively small annual changes compared to the total SOC pool, requiring a sufficiently long observation period to detect significant changes (Smith \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, the variation in SOC trends between treatments is also linked to differences in the amount of organic carbon applied with the respective fertilizers (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). Altogether, the results support Hypothesis 2, despite the limited trial period: \u003cem\u003eIn stockless organic farm types, soil organic carbon content is at least maintained by integrating annual legume-grass mixtures and removing shoot material for subsequent use in fertilization, combined with compost from external sources\u003c/em\u003e, is supported by our results with respect to the effect of compost from external sources on SOC contents, but not with respect to the effect of farm type/ crop rotation. Hypothesis 3, Soil organic carbon contents are at least maintained in the mixed farm types with perennial legume-grass mixtures for forage production, regardless of the simulated livestock density., is not supported by the results so far. However, it will be important to continue investigating this relationship over the long term.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab9\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 7\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSpatial variability of soil total carbon (C\u003csub\u003et\u003c/sub\u003e) in g kg⁻\u0026sup1; per replication with a noticeable gradient from replicate one to four.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRepetition\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMedian\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMinimum\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMaximum\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStandard deviation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"5\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eg C\u003csub\u003et\u003c/sub\u003e kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.07\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.54\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.66\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.49\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.47\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.38\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.70\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e3\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.80\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.69\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.24\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14.31\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.84\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e4\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.62\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15.81\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAcross all treatments and years, a consistent positive correlation between SOC and crop yield was observed, emphasizing the importance of soil fertility for crop yield in organic farming systems. Significant relationships between SOC and crop yield were particularly evident in farm types including treatments with compost from external sources. This is likely mainly attributed to the considerable carbon inputs provided with these types of composts, but also to the substantial nitrogen inputs associated with compost application. The \u003cem\u003emixed farm\u003c/em\u003e type, fertilized with slurry and manure compost, showed considerably higher nitrogen input mainly from N\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e fixation of the perennial legume-grass mixtures. This resulted in a more immediate and yield-effective impact compared to other farm types fertilized with green waste or biowaste compost, leading to a strong, however non-significant relationship between mean annual nitrogen input and mean annual crop yield (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab10\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e). Nitrogen mineralization from SOM plays an important role for yield development in organic farming (Brock 2011). Also in conventional farming, long-term experiments have shown, that an increase in imports of organic fertilizers has a positive effect on both crop yields and SOM (Gocke et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). When maintaining or even building up SOC stocks, composts from the separate collection of organic waste offer a great opportunity to shift nutrient cycles from the farm level to a regional level. Since 2014, composts from organic kitchen and garden waste (biowaste composts used in the Soil Fertility Farm type) or from the municipal collection of shredded shrub and tree waste (green waste composts used in the Soil Fertility and Vegan Farm types) have been recognized as organic fertilizers by the two largest German organic farming associations \u003cem\u003eBioland\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eNaturland\u003c/em\u003e (Gottschall et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Due to very strict quality regulations for composts, they are acceptable as external inputs for organic farms. High nitrogen amounts supplied with composts are mineralized only gradually over many years (Amlinger et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). Consequently, compost application is expected to contribute to yield stabilization and potential yield increases in the long term.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab10\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 10\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCorrelations between nitrogen input and crop yield or change in soil organic carbon content (Ct) across different farm types (Cash Crop Farm, Vegan Farm, Soil Fertility Farm, Mixed Farm; n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4). The table presents Pearson correlation coefficients (r). The left section shows correlations between mean nitrogen input and mean crop yield (2017\u0026ndash;2022). The second section shows correlations between cumulative nitrogen input (2017\u0026ndash;2022) and change in soil organic carbon content from 2018 to 2022 (SOC, mg g⁻\u0026sup1; topsoil).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMean N input vs. mean yield\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCumulative N input vs. ΔCt 2018\u0026ndash;2022\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSystem\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003er\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ep\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003er\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ep\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCash Crop Farm\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.64\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.36\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.46\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.54\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eVegan Farm\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.45\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.55\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.99\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSoil Fertility Farm\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.68\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.91\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMixed Farm\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.95\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. Conclusion and outlook","content":"\u003cp\u003eLong-term experiments provide a crucial foundation for understanding the complex relationships between farm management and its effects on soil fertility in agroecosystems. As the LTFE in our study aims at monitoring the long-term impacts of complete crop rotations and associated fertilization strategies, its value is expected to increase as well with time as treatments will lead to a differential agroecosystem response. The results of the first crop rotation of the LTFE in this study show that sustainable nutrient management for stockless organic farms within the EU regulations is possible. Future research will focus on developing soil physical, chemical, and biological parameters, as well as quantifying N input via biological N₂ fixation and, to comprehensively assess the environmental impacts of the various farm systems, also N losses through greenhouse gas emissions and nitrate leaching. In this respect, it will also become a valuable data source to provide a basis for informing model-based studies of the processes and feedbacks in the agrosphere. To complement this biophysical perspective, the LTFE will also serve as a platform for addressing socio-economic questions. This includes evaluating the economic viability and practical feasibility of nutrient management strategies, as well as farmers\u0026rsquo; perceptions and adoption potential. Taken together, these lines of research will contribute to developing robust, site-adapted recommendations for sustainable organic farms with varying degrees of livestock integration.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003ch2\u003eCompeting Interests:\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFunding:\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis long-term field experiment is supported by the Hessian Ministry for Agriculture and Environment, Viticulture, Forestry, Hunting, and Homeland Affairs.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eM.M. was responsible for conceptualization, project administration, investigation, visualization, and writing the original draft. M.A. contributed to supervision as well as to reviewing and editing the manuscript. S.D. contributed to methodology, conceptualization, and investigation. T.W. contributed to methodology and was involved in reviewing and editing the manuscript. B.R. contributed to investigation and to reviewing and editing. C.B. was responsible for supervision, project administration, funding acquisition, and resources, and also contributed to conceptualization and manuscript review and editing.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis long-term field experiment is supported by the Hessian Ministry for Agriculture and Environment, Viticulture, Forestry, Hunting, and Homeland Affairs. Special thanks go to Verena Jalane for developing the graphical representation of the treatments and to Stefan Rottstock and Vincent Braunmiller for calculating the nutrient balances. Furthermore, we acknowledge the great effort that Anke Mindermann, Lukas Tiedemann, Marco Tamm, J\u0026uuml;rgen Mantel, and all other field technicians involved in the experiment have invested in the installation and maintenance of the LTFE.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study will be made available in the Bonares public repository (upon acceptance / before publication). A DOI will be provided in the final version of the article.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAmlinger, Florian; G\u0026ouml;tz, Bettina; Dreher, Peter; Geszti, Jutta; Weissteiner, Christof (2003): Nitrogen in biowaste and yard waste compost: dynamics of mobilisation and availability\u0026mdash;a review. In: \u003cem\u003eEuropean Journal of Soil Biology\u003c/em\u003e 39 (3), S. 107\u0026ndash;116. 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Unter Mitarbeit von Alfred Berner, Herwart B\u0026ouml;hm, Robert Brandhuber, Josef Braun, Uwe Brede, Jean-Louis Colling-von Roesgen et al. 1. Aufl. Frick: FiBL (Merkblatt / FiBL).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBNS Biocyclic Network Services Ltd (2022): Biozyklisch-Vegane Richtlinien. Version 1.05 vom 21.01.2022. Hg. v. Adolf-Hoops-Gesellschaft mbH.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBolinder, M. A.; Angers, D. A.; B\u0026eacute;langer, G.; Michaud, R.; Laverdi\u0026egrave;re, M. R. (2002): Root biomass and shoot to root ratios of perennial forage crops in eastern Canada. In: \u003cem\u003eCan. J. Plant Sci.\u003c/em\u003e 82 (4), S. 731\u0026ndash;737. 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Frick, Bonn: FiBL; IFOAM - Organics International.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"organic-agriculture","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"orga","sideBox":"Learn more about [Organic Agriculture](http://link.springer.com/journal/13165)","snPcode":"13165","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/13165/3","title":"Organic Agriculture","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"experimental design, compost, nutrient management, ley-based fertilizers, soil organic carbon","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7072909/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7072909/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eWith the increase of organic agriculture throughout Europe, there is also an increasing share of stockless organic farms. On mixed farms, growth of deep rooting perennial forage legumes or legume-grass mixtures as well as farmyard manure are important contributors to soil fertility and play a key role for nutrient management. On stockless farms, growth of these crops has no direct economic use and is therefore questionable. Disentangling physical, chemical, and biological long-term impacts on soil fertility and consequently on crop yield and quality requires long-term research. In 2017, a long-term field experiment was established in Hesse, Germany, in which three stockless organic farm types differing in crop rotation, each combined with three fertilization treatments, are compared to a traditional mixed farm type with three livestock density levels. The results of the first crop rotation show that the mixed farm achieved more synchronized nutrient input and output with increasing livestock density. Stockless farm types showed deficits, especially in P and K balances, unless compensated by organic fertilizers from farm-external sources. The application of compost from external sources but also of grass-clover silage prepared from own fertility-building leys resulted in significant increases in soil organic carbon. Significant correlations between soil organic carbon and crop yields in stockless farm types using compost emphasize the importance of soil organic carbon content to ensure productivity in organic farming systems. On the other hand, at least in this first rotation, other farm types relying more on the high natural site productivity did not experience yield declines.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"How to maintain soil fertility in stockless organic farming: Research concepts and insights from the first crop rotation of a long-term field experiment","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-08-07 09:51:42","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7072909/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-11-03T06:58:23+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-10-20T18:35:04+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"236885195339092506053603736206844399265","date":"2025-09-20T04:34:43+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-09-18T11:06:59+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"124270715199002833954061657134108446742","date":"2025-09-02T23:46:51+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-08-03T08:04:50+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-07-09T08:06:17+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-07-09T08:04:55+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Organic Agriculture","date":"2025-07-08T09:00:09+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"organic-agriculture","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"orga","sideBox":"Learn more about [Organic Agriculture](http://link.springer.com/journal/13165)","snPcode":"13165","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/13165/3","title":"Organic Agriculture","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"a6d8c029-d245-4fb2-b8e9-1a30611f767b","owner":[],"postedDate":"August 7th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-03-09T16:06:34+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-7072909","link":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s13165-026-00545-9","journal":{"identity":"organic-agriculture","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Organic Agriculture"},"publishedOn":"2026-03-03 15:58:06","publishedOnDateReadable":"March 3rd, 2026"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-08-07 09:51:42","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1007/s13165-026-00545-9","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s13165-026-00545-9","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7072909","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7072909","identity":"rs-7072909","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}