Can I Trust You? How Kindergarteners’ Oppositionality and ADHD Symptomatology are Related to Trust between Parents and Teachers

Can I Trust You? 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How Kindergarteners’ Oppositionality and ADHD Symptomatology are Related to Trust between Parents and Teachers Maria A. Rogers, Carolynn Hare, Hannah O'Reilly, Julia Ogg, Robert Volpe, and 3 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7266053/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Prior research suggests that children’s oppositional behaviors, inattention, and hyperactivity/impulsivity may be associated with challenges in parent-teacher relationships. The present correlational study examined how children’s behaviors of oppositionality, inattention, and hyperactivity/impulsivity in kindergarteners are associated with trust between parents and teachers. Participants included parents and teachers of 168 kindergarteners (45% girls, 54 % boys). Teachers rated children’s behaviors while both parents and teachers rated their trust in one another during the spring of the children’s kindergarten year. Results indicated that children’s oppositional behaviors were associated with lower levels of parent trust of teachers. Inattention was significantly associated with teachers’ trust in parents, independent of oppositional behaviors. Specifically, higher levels of inattention were associated with lower levels of teachers’ trust in parents. However, neither inattention nor hyperactivity/impulsivity were significantly related to parents’ trust in teachers. These results suggest that parents and teachers may experience and interpret both child behavior and the relationship itself in distinct ways. parent-teacher trust oppositional behaviors inattention hyperactivity/impulsivity Introduction Collaborative parent-teacher relationships are associated with a range of positive outcomes for children as young as preschool-age (Acar et al., 2019; Adams & Christenson, 2000; Froiland & Davidson, 2014; Janssen et al., 2012; Santiago et al., 2016). An essential component of collaborative parent-teacher relationships is the level of trust that parents and teachers have of one another (Adams & Christenson, 1998; Santiago et al, 2016; Neuenschwander, 2020; Vickers & Minke, 1995). Building trust between parents and teachers can help increase parental involvement in children’s education, which can contribute to the development of positive parent-teacher relationships (Santiago et al., 2016; Zulauf-McCurdy et al., 2024). Research has shown that family-school relationships in kindergarten have predictive effects on later parental involvement (Baker et al., 2016; Xin et al., 2016) and early parental involvement is related to better learning outcomes (Ma et al., 2016). As such, it is important to understand how these relationships may be associated with children’s classroom behavior in the early years of schooling. The extant research shows that oppositionality and symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in early childhood can negatively impact children’s school functioning (DeShazer et al., 2023; Langberg et al., 2011), but less research has examined how this relates to parent-teacher relationships and trust. Child Behaviors in Kindergarten Oppositional behaviors involve “acting out” on one’s environment (Holland, 2017; McMahon, 1994) and include aggression and defiance (Achenbach & Edelbrock, 1978; Tremblay et al., 2013). Briesch and colleagues (2013) found that children and youth with oppositionality were clinically referred at three times the rate of those with leaning difficulties, ADHD symptoms, or internalizing symptoms. While developmentally normative in the early years, it has been found that oppositional behaviors in early to middle childhood place children at significant risk for adverse outcomes later in development, such as aggression and delinquency (Broidy et al., 2003), substance use (Fergusson et al., 2007), and other mental health diagnoses (e.g., ADHD, conduct disorder, bipolar disorder) (Nock et al., 2007). Conceptual models examining the relationship between childhood ADHD symptoms, oppositional behaviors, and academic functioning indicate that ADHD symptoms, but not oppositional behaviors, have a direct negative association on academic achievement (Fergusson et al., 1993; Giannopulu et al., 2008; Rapport et al., 1999). Thus, while children’s oppositional behaviors are challenging for parents and teachers, ADHD symptoms create unique challenges towards achievement in the school context. Children with significantly elevated symptoms of inattention and/or hyperactivity/impulsivity may be diagnosed with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD; APA, 2022) – one of the most prevalent early childhood disorders (e.g., Fulton et al., 2009; Lavigne et al., 2009; Willoughby et al., 2020). Yet even at sub-clinical levels and starting in the preschool years, children with elevated ADHD symptoms often experience significant barriers, both academically and socially (Ferretti et al., 2019; Gray et al., 2017; Jangmo et al., 2019). For instance, a qualitative review synthesis of community samples found that higher levels of inattention were associated with lower academic achievement (Gray et al., 2017). Guided by a systems framework, Rogers and colleagues (2015) concluded that ADHD symptoms in childhood have far-reaching and pervasive effects on children’s experiences in school, and that understanding the family-school relationship is crucial to sustaining intervention and student support efforts over time. Parent-Teacher Trust A review of the literature concerning interpersonal trust found that academic settings are one of the most studied domains in the trust literature (Niedlich et al., 2021). Adams and Christenson (1998) defined parent-teacher trust as, “…confidence that another person will act in a way to benefit or sustain the relationship, or the implicit or explicit goals of the relationship to achieve positive outcomes for students” (p. 6). Parent-teacher relationships marked by high trust were significantly positively correlated with positive child outcomes, such as: increased prosocial behavior (Froiland & Davidson, 2014; Santiago et al., 2016), decreased peer-related problems (Santiago et al., 2016), decreased total difficulties (Santiago et al., 2016), increased emotion regulation (Acar et al., 2019), enhanced academic performance, notably better attendance, enhanced number of earned credits, and higher grades (Adams & Christenson, 2000; Froiland & Davidson, 2014), as well as higher reading levels in first graders (Janssen et al., 2012). Moreover, parent-teacher trust was found to be significantly, positively associated with parental involvement in their children’s education (Adams & Christenson, 1998; Santiago et al., 2016). Parent-teacher relationships high in interpersonal trust play an important role in educational contexts and are linked to positive outcomes for children. Moreover, meta-analyses have shown that strong parent-teacher relationships play a key role in promoting positive outcomes for children within family-school engagement interventions (Sheridan et al., 2019; Smith et al., 2022). Kim and colleagues (2013) suggested that the benefits associated with strong parent-teacher relationships might be particularly important for families who have children with behavioral difficulties. Parent-Teacher Relationships and Child Behavior Much of the research on parent-teacher relationships has focused on their associations with academic outcomes (Adams & Christenson, 2000; Froiland & Davidson, 2014; Janssen et al., 2012; Santiago et al., 2016). However, there is a need to understand the role that children’s classroom behavior plays in these relationships, particularly early in a child’s schooling when family-school partnerships are forming. Disruptive behaviors can strain parent-teacher interactions by prompting reactive communication focused on problems rather than proactive collaboration. For example, outside routine parent–teacher interactions, such as annual conferences, teachers often reach out to parents primarily in response to behavioral or academic concerns (Adams & Christenson, 2000; Seitsinger et al., 2008; Tan & Goldberg, 2009). When problem-solving occurs without a pre-existing relationship, parents and teachers are more prone to form negative assumptions about each other, which can make future collaboration more difficult (Adams & Christenson, 2000). Theories of attribution and communication suggest that problem behaviors can lead to negative assumptions, defensiveness, and misaligned expectations (Hoover-Dempsey et al., 2005; Pomerantz et al., 2007). Parents of children with ADHD may feel judged or excluded, particularly when teachers interpret behaviors as intentional or oppositional (Gwernan-Jones et al., 2015). While ADHD symptoms may be perceived as disruptive but manageable, ODD behaviors often evoke stronger emotional reactions and greater strain on home–school collaboration. Importantly, strong parent–teacher relationships are associated with greater parenting confidence and predictive of child behavior later on (Flack et al., 2023), highlighting the need to understand how disruptive behaviors influence the development of trust between families and schools. Higher levels of children’s oppositionality have been associated with lower quality parent-teacher relationships (Kim et al., 2013). Minke and colleagues (2014) examined how similarly parents and teachers rated their relationship quality, and whether the level of congruence predicted children’s behavioral difficulties and oppositional symptoms (hyperactivity/impulsivity symptoms were included in the latter grouping). When parents and teachers agree that their relationship is negative or when such ratings are incongruent, then teachers perceived the oppositional symptoms of children as being worse. However, ratings of relationship quality did not predict the ways in which parents perceived their children’s behaviors (Minke et al., 2014). This suggests that the rater of the parent-teacher relationship may differentially relate to behavioral symptoms. Thus, findings about children’s oppositional behaviors and parent-teacher relationships have yielded mixed results and may be influenced by differing perceptions of the relationship (i.e., parent-report, teacher-report). Similarly, studies examining parent-teacher relationship quality and ratings of child ADHD symptomology have yielded inconsistent results. A systematic review of qualitative research examining how parents of children with ADHD perceive the parent-teacher relationship found that parents felt as though they were being “silenced” and that positive relationships with teachers were quite uncommon (Gwernan-Jones et al., 2015). Similarly, parents of 8-12 year old children with ADHD reported that the school was less inviting and that teachers requested additional invitations for parental involvement in comparison to parents of children without ADHD, even when oppositional behaviors were controlled (Rogers et al., 2009). However, Mautone and colleagues (2014) found no association between the quality of the parent-teacher relationship and child inattention during homework as rated by parents of 4–12-year-olds. Only one study to date has examined parent-teacher trust and children’s oppositional behaviors and ADHD symptoms specifically. Santiago and colleagues (2016) surveyed parents of 212 students in grades K-4 and found that parents’ trust in their child’s teacher was not significantly associated with parents’ perceptions of child conduct problems or ADHD symptoms. Research also suggests that parent-teacher trust may play a foundational role in shaping child-teacher relationships, highlighting the importance of trust as an entry point for collaborative engagement around the child (Søe & Psouni, 2025). Taken together, these discrepant findings suggest possible differences in interactions between home and school for parents of children with ADHD symptoms, but the results remain largely inconclusive. The Present Study The purpose of this study was to examine how young children’s oppositionality, inattention, and hyperactivity/impulsivity are associated with perceived trust in parent and teacher relationships. To this end, the following research questions were addressed in the present [LH1] study: 1) Is oppositionality in kindergarten children associated with parent-teacher trust? and 2) Are children’s inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity in kindergarten associated with parent-teacher trust, above and beyond the role of children’s oppositionality? It was hypothesized that oppositionality would be significantly, negatively associated with parent-teacher trust as rated by both parents and teachers. This hypothesis was made based on previous research (Kim et al., 2013, Santiago et al., 2016) which found a significant, negative association between indicators of parent-teacher relationship quality and children’s oppositional behaviors in the classroom. The research on the links between children’s ADHD symptoms and the parent-teacher relationship has yielded variable findings. For example, Rogers and colleagues (2009) found that parents of children with ADHD reported feeling less welcomed by their child’s school, while Santiago and colleagues (2016) found no relationship between child symptoms of ADHD and parent-teacher trust. However, their study focused solely on parents’ trust and did not include teachers’ perspectives or reciprocal trust. In contrast, the present study examines both parent and teacher trust, allowing for a more comprehensive understanding of the parent-teacher dynamic. We expect that when oppositionality is accounted for, child ADHD symptoms will not be related to parent-teacher trust. Without oppositionality included ADHD symptoms may be related to parent-teacher trust, but this relationship is more exploratory in nature. Methods Participants Participants from the study were recruited from 14 schools in the southeastern United States and eastern Canada. The participants were recruited from a larger study that consisted of 181 students in kindergarten in the fall (13 students were removed for missing variables of interest). Participants were parents (90.5% biological mothers, 8.3% biological fathers) and teachers (100% female) of 168 kindergarteners (76 girls, 91 boys, 1 unreported). The children were aged 62 to 89 months with a mean age of approximately 5.8 years ( M = 69.15 months, SD = 4.33). Most of the parents in the study were married (72.6%). Sixty-one percent of the sample self-identified as White, 2.4% Asian, 13.1% Hispanic, 6.5% Black, 11.3% multi-racial, 3.6% other ethnicity, and 1.2% did not report their child’s ethnicity. Of the participating parents, 33.3% had high school education, 16.1% some college or university education, 16.1% had a bachelor’s degree, 32.1% reported having post-graduate training. Fifty-four percent reported a family income of $60,000 or more, 46.4% reported a family income of less than $60,000. Procedure After institutional ethics approval, families were recruited from seven English elementary schools in a large city in eastern Canada and seven elementary schools in the southeastern U.S. The school district in the United States was a large district (39% White, 57% access to free and reduced lunch, 14% eligible for special education). The school district in Canada was an English-speaking school district in a suburban area with 26 elementary schools. Children in kindergarten whose teachers and parents consented, and whose parents reported being fluent in English, were eligible to participate in this study. The current study utilized data from the spring of the students’ kindergarten year (i.e., when teachers had established a relationship with the children and their parents), packages consisted of a demographic questionnaire (e.g., level of education, family income, child’s age, child’s gender) and rating scales were delivered to participating schools and distributed to both the parents and teachers. Parents returned the completed questionnaires to the school in sealed envelopes and were given a $10 gift card for participation. Teachers were provided a $10 incentive for each student packet of questionnaires that they completed. Measures Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Symptoms. ADHD symptomatology (i.e., inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity) was assessed using the first 18 items of the ADHD Symptom Checklist-4 (ADHD-SC4; Gadow & Sprafkin, 1997).Teachers reported the frequency of inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity symptoms endorsed by the child in the classroom setting. Response options ranged from 0 ( never ) to 3 ( very oft en), whereby higher scores reflected higher levels of ADHD symptoms. The Inattention subscale was composed of nine items that corresponded with DSM-4 symptoms of inattention (e.g., “Difficulty paying attention”, “Difficulty following instructions; does not finish things”, “Easily distracted”). The Hyperactivity/Impulsivity subscale was composed of nine items that corresponded to symptoms of hyperactivity and impulsivity that are typically observed in individuals with ADHD based on DSM-4 criteria (e.g., “Fidgets with hands or feet; squirms in seat”, “Difficulty remaining seated”, “Runs about or climbs on things”). The mean scores of both subscales were calculated. In previous samples, strong internal consistency has been found for both the Inattention and Hyperactivity/Impulsivity subscales (Sprafkin et al., 2001), and the scales have shown good stability, along with the teacher-completed checklists having shown good test-retest reliability (Angello et al. 2003). In the current study Cronbach’s alpha was .92 for the Inattention scale and .94 for the Hyperactivity/Impulsivity scale of the ADHD-SC4. Oppositional Behavior. The externalizing subscale on the Brief Problem Monitor (BPM; Achenbach et al., 2011) was completed by kindergarten teachers to assess classroom behavioral problems (e.g., “argues a lot”, “disobedient at school”). Response options ranged from 0 ( not true ) to 2 ( very true ) and a mean score was calculated, whereby a higher score indicated a higher degree of oppositional behavior. In this sample, Cronbach’s alpha was α = .82 while in a previous sample the Cronbach’s alpha for the teacher-rated oppositional behaviors subscale was α = .88 (Achenbach et al., 2011). Parent-Teacher Trust. The Family-School Relationships Scale (FSRS; Adams & Christenson, 2000) was used to assess parents’ trust in teachers (19 items; Parent Trust), and teachers’ trust in parents (17 items; Teacher Trust). An example of parents’ trust in teachers is “I am confident that my child’s teachers are doing a good job keeping me well-informed of my child’s progress” and an example of teachers’ trust in parents is “I am confident that the parents/guardians of this student are receptive to my input and suggestions.” Response options ranged from 0 ( strongly disagree ) to 3 ( strongly agree ) and mean scores were calculated along both subscales, whereby higher scores indicated higher levels of trust in the other party. In the present study, Cronbach’s alpha was α = .97 for both parent and teacher trust. In prior studies Cronbach’s alpha was α = .90 for teachers and α = .96 for parents (Adams & Christenson, 2000). Data Analytic Plan Pearson’s r bivariate correlations were conducted to examine the relationship between key study variables: teacher’s trust in parents, parent’s trust in teachers, children’s ADHD symptoms, and oppositional behaviors. Spearman rho correlations were conducted to examine associations between parent education level (highest of either parent) and annual family income alongside key study variables. To determine whether child sex, research site (i.e., Canada vs. US), or their interaction should be included as covariates in subsequent regression models, we conducted a multivariate general linear model predicting child behavior ratings (oppositionality, inattention, hyperactivity-impulsivity) and parent- and teacher-rated trust. A paired-samples t-test was conducted to detect differences in parent and teacher’s trust in each other. To understand the ways in which children’s oppositional behaviors, as well as inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity symptoms were related to parent-teacher trust, two hierarchical multiple regression analyses were conducted, one where parents’ trust in teachers was the outcome variable and one where teachers’ trust in parents was the outcome variable. In the first step of both analyses, oppositional behaviors were entered as an independent variable. Oppositional behaviors are added first as they have been more consistently related to negative parent-teacher relationships and mistrust. In the second step, inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity symptoms were added to determine if these variables accounted for levels of parent-teacher trust above and beyond the effects of oppositional behaviors. If research site or gender differences emerged in the omnibus test, they were added into step three of the hierarchical regression. Results Preliminary Analyses Parents’ education level (highest of either parent) and annual family income were not significantly associated with parent-teacher trust or the child behavior variables but were significantly related to each other, ρ (104) = .30, p = .002 (Table 1 ). As further outlined in Table 1 , preliminary correlation analyses revealed that teachers’ trust in parents was significantly negatively correlated with oppositionality, inattention, and hyperactivity/impulsivity. Parents’ trust in teachers was not significantly correlated with teachers’ trust in parents, oppositionality, inattention, and hyperactivity/impulsivity. Table 1 Bivariate correlations between parent-teacher trust and teacher-rated children’s symptoms Variable n M SD 1 2 3 4 5 1. Teachers’ Trust in Parents 158 2.48 .54 — 2. Parents’ Trust in Teachers 116 2.60 .46 .004 — 3. Externalizing Symptoms 158 .26 .27 − .39** .06 — 4. Inattention 160 .61 .75 − .37** .03 .79** — 5. Hyperactivity/ Impulsivity 162 .58 .78 − .32** − .17 .81** .90** — ** p < .001. For the multivariate general linear model analyses, results indicated a significant effect of research site on parent’s trust in teachers ( F (1,102) = 11.45, p = .001), with parent’s trust rated higher in the U.S schools ( n = 84, M = 2.69, SD = .41) than those in Canada ( n = 32, M = 2.35, SD = .50). No other significant effects were found. Research site was included as a predictor in the trust models. A paired-samples t-test revealed that parents’ trust in teachers ( M = 2.61, SD = 0.44) was not significantly different from teachers’ trust in parents ( M = 2.55, SD = 0.50), t (109) = -1.05, p = .297, d = -0.10. These findings suggest that trust is fairly symmetrical between parents and teachers, with only a negligible mean difference. Teachers’ Trust in Parents A three-step hierarchical regression analysis was conducted to determine whether children’s teacher-rated oppositional behaviors, inattention, hyperactivity/impulsivity symptoms, and research site were associated with teachers’ trust in parents (Table 2 ). Table 2 Hierarchical multiple regression predicting teachers’ trust of parents from teacher-rated children’s symptoms Variable R 2 R 2 ∆ B SE B β p Step 1 .15 .15 < .001 Externalizing − .81 .16 − .39 < .001 Step 2 .20 .05 < .001 Externalizing − .56 .27 − .27 .042 Inattention − .43 .15 − .57 .004 Hyperactivity/Impulsivity .30 .14 .42 .031 Step 3 .22 .02 < .001 Externalizing − .42 .28 − .20 .13 Inattention − .43 .15 − .57 .004 Hyperactivity/Impulsivity .25 .14 .35 .08 Research Site − .18 .09 − .16 .04 Note. N = 152. This Table includes the results with outliers. Analysis was also run with 3 outliers excluded using ± 3 SD criteria, and the overall models stayed the same. In Model 3 without outliers, hyperactivity-impulsivity was significant, and research site was no longer significant. In Step 1, the oppositional behaviors score was added and significantly predicted teacher’s trust, R² = .15, F (1, 150) = 26.96, p < .001. In Step 2, inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity were added to the model, resulting in a significant improvement in model fit, ΔR² = .05, ΔF (2, 148) = 4.25, p = .016, bringing the total variance explained to R² = .20. Inattention emerged as a significant negative predictor ( β = –.57, p = .004), while hyperactivity/impulsivity was a significant positive predictor ( β = .42, p = .032). In Step 3, research site was added and explained an additional 2.2% of variance, ΔF (1, 147) = 4.24, p = .041, resulting in a final model accounting for 22.1% of the variance in teacher’s trust ( R² = .22, F (4, 147) = 10.42, p < .001). In the final model, inattention remained a significant negative predictor ( β = –.57, p = .004), and research site was also a significant negative predictor ( β = –.16, p = .041), suggesting that students from the Canadian site were associated with lower teachers’ trust. Multicollinearity statistics were within acceptable limits (all VIFs < 7.3, most < 3.4 in the final model). Parents’ Trust in Teachers A three-step hierarchical regression analysis was conducted to determine whether children’s teacher-rated oppositional behaviors, inattention, hyperactivity/impulsivity symptoms, and research site were associated with parents’ trust in teachers (Table 3 ). Table 3 Hierarchical multiple regression predicting parents’ trust of teachers from teacher-rated children’s symptoms Variable R 2 R 2 ∆ B SE B β p Step 1 .03 .03 .08 Externalizing − .26 .14 − .17 .08 Step 2 .13 .11 .06 Externalizing − .97 .25 − .65 < .001 Inattention .17 .16 .27 .30 Hyperactivity/Impulsivity .17 .16 .31 .26 Step 3 .21 .18 < .001 Externalizing − .84 .24 − .56 < .001 Inattention .10 .16 .17 .52 Hyperactivity/Impulsivity .18 .15 .32 .24 Research Site − .29 .10 − .28 .003 Note. N = 109. This Table includes the results with outliers. Analysis was also run with 3 outliers excluded using ± 3 SD criteria, and the overall models stayed the same. In Step 1, the oppositional behaviors score was added and did not significantly predict parent’s trust, R² = .03, F (1, 107) = 3.12, p = .08. In Step 2, inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity were added to the model, resulting in a significant improvement in model fit, ΔR² = .10, ΔF (2, 105) = 5.29, p = .003, bringing the total variance explained to R² = .13. Oppositional behaviors became a significant negative predictor ( β = –.65, p < .001). Inattention ( β = .27, p = .30) and hyperactivity/impulsivity ( β = .31, p = .26) were not significant predictors. In Step 3, research site was added and explained an additional 7.3% of variance, ΔF (1, 144) = 9.56, p = .003, resulting in a final model accounting for 20.5% of the variance in parent’s trust ( R² = .21, F (4, 104) = 6.72, p < .001). In the final model, oppositional behaviors remained a significant negative predictor ( β = –.56, p < .001), and research site was also a significant negative predictor ( β = –.28, p = .003), suggesting that students from the Canadian site were associated with lower parent’s trust. Multicollinearity statistics were within acceptable limits (all VIFs < 9.5). Discussion The purpose of this study was to examine the role of children’s oppositional behaviors and ADHD symptoms on the perceived feelings of trust between parents and teachers – an important element of effective parent-teacher relationships (Adams & Christenson, 1998 ; Santiago et al., 2016 ; Vickers & Minke, 1995 ; Zulauf-McCurdy et al., 2024 ). Using a community sample of teachers and parents of children in kindergarten, it was found that children’s inattention was significantly related to trust that teachers reported in parents. That is, when children had higher levels of inattention, teachers reported lower levels of trust in their students’ parents. Children’s oppositional behaviors were associated with lower levels of teachers’ trust, only when ADHD symptoms were not included. For parents’ trust in teachers, higher children’s oppositional behaviors were related to lower trust. Inattention and hyperactivity-impulsivity were not related to parents’ trust, when oppositional behaviors were included. Trust was higher for both teachers and parents collected from the US research site compared to the Canadian research site. There was not a significant difference between parents’ trust in teachers and teachers’ trust in parents, and trust ratings were not related to each other. The relationship between parent-teacher trust and children’s ADHD symptoms is an emerging field of study, and few studies to date have examined teachers’ perceptions specifically. Prior research has demonstrated that parent-teacher relationships have been associated with externalizing problems, which has included items related to hyperactivity, aggression, and conduct problems (Kim et al., 2013 ). To our knowledge, the present study is the first to examine teacher perceptions of the parent-teacher relationship by separating children’s ADHD symptoms from other externalizing behaviors. We found that higher levels of student inattention were associated with lower levels of teachers’ trust in parents, even after accounting for children’s oppositional behaviors. This is consistent with research suggesting that teachers report finding children with ADHD symptoms to be stressful to teach (Greene et al., 2002 ) and may attribute children's ADHD behaviors to familial and parenting factors, such as a disruptive family environment, family neglect, lack of discipline, overprotective parenting, or lack of support for education (Arcia et al., 2000). Such attributions may contribute to diminished trust in parents when children exhibit symptoms of ADHD, particularly inattention, which may be perceived as indicative of parental disengagement or lack of support. Surprisingly, hyperactivity/impulsivity was not related to parent-teacher trust. Some prior research has indicated that hyperactivity/impulsivity can demonstrate positive associations with academic outcomes (Tymms & Merrell, 2011 ), and impulsivity may be positively associated with academic engagement in the classroom. For these reasons, and for young students in particular who may be more likely to be hyperactive and impulsive in general, teachers may perceive hyperactive and impulsive behaviors as a positive sign of engagement. Further, they may perceive this engagement as reflective of parents’ activity and support at home. In contrast, inattention could be perceived as a sign of disinterest, boredom, or lack of engagement. Further research is needed to explore this finding, as it may help highlight which families may be more at risk for having difficulty developing trusting relationships with their children’s teachers. Conversely, oppositionality was associated with lower levels of parents’ trust in teachers, but ADHD symptoms were not related to parents’ trust. Oppositional behaviors were associated with lower levels of teacher’s trust in parents, only when ADHD was not accounted for in the model. Oppositional behaviors may directly impact parents’ experiences with teachers, for example, through more frequent disciplinary communications, which could erode parents’ sense of trust in teachers (Kim et al., 2013 ). This interpretation aligns with previous findings indicating that oppositionality can negatively affect the quality of the parent-teacher relationship (Kim et al., 2013 ). Moreover, Minke and colleagues ( 2014 ) found that when parents and teachers had inconsistent or jointly negative perceptions of their relationship, teachers—but not parents—reported greater oppositional behaviors in children. These findings highlight the importance of informant perspective: parents and teachers may experience and interpret both child behavior and the relationship itself in distinct ways. Our findings underscore this divergence in reporting of the parent-teacher relationship. There was no significant difference in the average levels of trust reported by parents and teachers; however, the two trust ratings were not significantly correlated, suggesting that this trust is experienced independently by each group. Previous research found that parents’ trust in teachers is generally higher than teachers’ trust in parents (Adams & Christenson, 1998 ). It is important to note that because teachers rated both their trust in parents and the children’s behavior, the link we found between teachers’ trust and ADHD, or oppositional behaviors, might be influenced by the fact that the same person reported both. In contrast, the association between oppositionality and parents’ trust in teachers is based on reports from two different people, making it more likely to reflect actual dynamics in the parent-teacher relationship. Further, it has been shown that parent and teacher ratings of ADHD do not often agree (De Los Reyes et al., 2015; Talbot et al., 2018); therefore, future research should include ratings from both parents and teachers. Taken together, these findings suggest that teachers’ trust in parents may be influenced by their perceptions of children’s inattention, possibly shaped by broader beliefs about family involvement or parenting. Meanwhile, parents’ trust in teachers appears to be more closely related to behavior patterns that are likely to cause conflict or communication strain. Future longitudinal research is needed to examine how these differing experiences of trust develop over time, how they are shaped by specific child behaviors, and how they may impact children’s functioning in the classroom. This research contributes to an emerging body of literature on how ADHD symptoms may be related to family-school relationships in the elementary years. In clinical studies, Rogers and colleagues ( 2009 ) found that the parent-teacher relationship was affected when a child has ADHD, but other studies did not find significant group differences (Mautone et al., 2014 ; Santiago et al., 2016 ). The current study found the parent-teacher relationship may be affected by ADHD symptoms among a group of younger children in a community sample. This may be due to developmental differences between the samples in the extant studies. That is, the kindergarten children in our sample would have been typically too young for a formal diagnosis of ADHD, which typically occurs between five to nine years of age, (Knott et al., 2024). Therefore, the symptoms of ADHD may have been overall lower and thus less likely to play a role in the parent-teacher relationship. Similarly, parent involvement can be a broad concept that encompasses several different behaviors and interactions. For instance, many studies examine the frequency of parent-teacher contact, while others look at the emotional tone of parent-teacher relationships. As stated by Hoover-Dempsey and Sandler ( 1997 ), more precise operational definitions of parent-teacher relations are needed in order to more accurately explain inconclusive trends in this body of literature. Due to the small sample size, we could not examine the potentially important role of parent or teacher gender in this study. Previous research tells us that mothers are often more involved in their children’s education, especially those with a college education or higher (Guryan et al., 2008); however, studies on paternal involvement show that fathers of children with ADHD symptoms play a different but important role in their children’s education (Musabelliu et al., 2022 ; Rogers et al., 2009 ). In our sample, we found no differences in oppositionality and ADHD symptomology between male and female children. Some existing research suggests that teachers are more likely to rate boys’ disruptive behavior as more problematic than girls’ (Horn et al. 2021 ). Future research should examine parent and teacher gender to gain a more nuanced understanding of these associations, as we can only speculate how the findings from this study would have been different if fathers or male teachers were rating children’s behaviors and perceptions of trust. This study was exploratory in nature and thus caution must be taken when interpreting the findings. In addition to the question of gender, we used a small cross-sectional dataset with a sample of parents who were mostly university-educated Caucasian mothers. As such, the diversity in our sample was limited. Moreover, qualitative research is needed to explore trust between parents and teachers, and how it may be influenced by children’s behavior in the early years of schooling. In their qualitative study, Gwernan-Jones and colleagues ( 2015 ) found that parents of children with ADHD felt as though they were being “silenced” by the school (Gwernan-Jones et al., 2015 ). Additional mixed methods studies in this area are needed to explore this topic more deeply. Furthermore, data was collected from schools in two different geological and cultural areas: the southeastern United States and eastern Canada. Differences in social welfare policies, spending on education (Levin, 2011 ), curriculum (Davies & Aurini, 2013 ), and special education policy (Grynova & Kalinichenko, 2018 ) may impact academic performance differences in students at a national level, as well as impact perceptions of various aspects of schooling for parents and teachers (Merry, 2013 ). Future research can examine the impact of these differences on, not only academic outcomes, but the parent-teacher relationship as well. Despite these limitations, this research represents an understudied area in the field of ADHD symptoms and children’s schooling. An extensive body of longitudinal research shows that family-school collaboration in the early grades is predictive of parental involvement later in children’s education (Hayakawa et al., 2013 ), and parental involvement is a widely studied predictor of children’s learning, academic achievement, and social-emotional well-being (Castro et al., 2015; Cosso et al., 2022 ). Therefore, it is important to advance our understanding of how deviations in children’s behaviors in the primary grades may affect the trajectory of parent-teacher relationships over time. This may be especially important for children who display early symptoms of ADHD, because symptoms of inattention in kindergarten are highly predictive of academic success longitudinally (Classens et al., 2014; Rabiner & Coie, 2000 ). Another strength of this study is that it examined both parent and teacher perceptions of the relationship. To date, most studies on this topic have examined only parent perceptions of the relationships, and our findings suggest that there may be differing perceptions of trust between parents and teachers based on children’s classroom behavior. Conclusion We demonstrated that while higher children’s oppositional behaviors are associated with lower levels of parents’ trust in teachers, children’s ADHD symptoms were more explanatory of teachers’ trust in parents. Specifically, symptoms of inattention were associated with teachers having lower levels of trust in parents, but hyperactive-impulsive symptoms were unrelated to trust. This is an important finding and highlights families who may be at particular risk for developing negative relationships with the school. Declarations Author Contribution Maria: intellectual and conceptual lead, data collection, writing, editingCarolynn: statistical analysis, writing, editingHannah: writing, editingJulia: intellectual and conceptual development, co-investigator, data collection, editingRob: intellectual and conceptual development, mentor, editingVictoria, Raven & Lillian: writing, editing Data Availability Data is available from authors upon request. References Acar, I.H., Veziroğlu-Çelik, M., Çelebi, Ş., İngeç, D., & Kuzgun, S. (2019). Parenting styles and Turkish children’s emotion regulation: The mediating role of parent-teacher relationships. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7266053","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":496224760,"identity":"696a49b2-d3da-4068-be26-815cf385377e","order_by":0,"name":"Maria A. 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How Kindergarteners’ Oppositionality and ADHD Symptomatology are Related to Trust between Parents and Teachers","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eCollaborative parent-teacher relationships are associated with a range of positive outcomes for children as young as preschool-age (Acar et al., 2019; Adams \u0026amp; Christenson, 2000; Froiland \u0026amp; Davidson, 2014; Janssen et al., 2012; Santiago et al., 2016). An essential component of collaborative parent-teacher relationships is the level of \u003cem\u003etrust\u003c/em\u003e that parents and teachers have of one another (Adams \u0026amp; Christenson, 1998; Santiago et al, 2016; Neuenschwander, 2020; Vickers \u0026amp; Minke, 1995). Building trust between parents and teachers can help increase parental involvement in children\u0026rsquo;s education, which can contribute to the development of positive parent-teacher relationships (Santiago et al., 2016; Zulauf-McCurdy et al., 2024). Research has shown that family-school relationships in kindergarten have predictive effects on later parental involvement (Baker et al., 2016; Xin et al., 2016) and early parental involvement is related to better learning outcomes (Ma et al., 2016). As such, it is important to understand how these relationships may be associated with children\u0026rsquo;s classroom behavior in the early years of schooling. The extant research shows that oppositionality and symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in early childhood can negatively impact children\u0026rsquo;s school functioning (DeShazer et al., 2023; Langberg et al., 2011), but less research has examined how this relates to parent-teacher relationships and trust.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eChild Behaviors in Kindergarten\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOppositional behaviors involve \u0026ldquo;acting out\u0026rdquo; on one\u0026rsquo;s environment (Holland, 2017; McMahon, 1994) and include aggression and defiance (Achenbach \u0026amp; Edelbrock, 1978; Tremblay et al., 2013). Briesch and colleagues (2013) found that children and youth with oppositionality were clinically referred at three times the rate of those with leaning difficulties, ADHD symptoms, or internalizing symptoms. While developmentally normative in the early years, it has been found that oppositional behaviors in early to middle childhood place children at significant risk for adverse outcomes later in development, such as aggression and delinquency (Broidy et al., 2003), substance use (Fergusson et al., 2007), and other mental health diagnoses (e.g., ADHD, conduct disorder, bipolar disorder) (Nock et al., 2007).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConceptual models examining the relationship between childhood ADHD symptoms, oppositional behaviors, and academic functioning indicate that ADHD symptoms, but not oppositional behaviors, have a direct negative association on academic achievement (Fergusson et al., 1993; Giannopulu et al., 2008; Rapport et al., 1999). Thus, while children\u0026rsquo;s oppositional behaviors are challenging for parents and teachers, ADHD symptoms create unique challenges towards achievement in the school context.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eChildren with significantly elevated symptoms of inattention and/or hyperactivity/impulsivity may be diagnosed with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD; APA, 2022) \u0026ndash; one of the most prevalent early childhood disorders (e.g., Fulton et al., 2009; Lavigne et al., 2009; Willoughby et al., 2020). Yet even at sub-clinical levels and starting in the preschool years, children with elevated ADHD symptoms often experience significant barriers, both academically and socially (Ferretti et al., 2019; Gray et al., 2017; Jangmo et al., 2019). For instance, a qualitative review synthesis of community samples found that higher levels of inattention were associated with lower academic achievement (Gray et al., 2017). Guided by a systems framework, Rogers and colleagues (2015) concluded that ADHD symptoms in childhood have far-reaching and pervasive effects on children\u0026rsquo;s experiences in school, and that understanding the family-school relationship is crucial to sustaining intervention and student support efforts over time.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eParent-Teacher Trust\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA review of the literature concerning interpersonal trust found that academic settings are one of the most studied domains in the trust literature (Niedlich et al., 2021). Adams and Christenson (1998) defined parent-teacher trust as, \u0026ldquo;\u0026hellip;confidence that another person will act in a way to benefit or sustain the relationship, or the implicit or explicit goals of the relationship to achieve positive outcomes for students\u0026rdquo; (p. 6). Parent-teacher relationships marked by high trust were significantly positively correlated with positive child outcomes, such as: increased prosocial behavior (Froiland \u0026amp; Davidson, 2014; Santiago et al., 2016), decreased peer-related problems (Santiago et al., 2016), decreased total difficulties (Santiago et al., 2016), increased emotion regulation (Acar et al., 2019), enhanced academic performance, notably better attendance, enhanced number of earned credits, and higher grades (Adams \u0026amp; Christenson, 2000; Froiland \u0026amp; Davidson, 2014), as well as higher reading levels in first graders (Janssen et al., 2012). Moreover, parent-teacher trust was found to be significantly, positively associated with parental involvement in their children\u0026rsquo;s education (Adams \u0026amp; Christenson, 1998; Santiago et al., 2016). Parent-teacher relationships high in interpersonal trust play an important role in educational contexts and are linked to positive outcomes for children. Moreover, meta-analyses have shown that strong parent-teacher relationships play a key role in promoting positive outcomes for children within family-school engagement interventions (Sheridan et al., 2019; Smith et al., 2022). Kim and colleagues (2013) suggested that the benefits associated with strong parent-teacher relationships might be particularly important for families who have children with behavioral difficulties.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eParent-Teacher Relationships and Child Behavior\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMuch of the research on parent-teacher relationships has focused on their associations with academic outcomes (Adams \u0026amp; Christenson, 2000; Froiland \u0026amp; Davidson, 2014; Janssen et al., 2012; Santiago et al., 2016). However, there is a need to understand the role that children\u0026rsquo;s classroom behavior plays in these relationships, particularly early in a child\u0026rsquo;s schooling when family-school partnerships are forming. Disruptive behaviors can strain parent-teacher interactions by prompting reactive communication focused on problems rather than proactive collaboration. For example, outside routine parent\u0026ndash;teacher interactions, such as annual conferences, teachers often reach out to parents primarily in response to behavioral or academic concerns (Adams \u0026amp; Christenson, 2000; Seitsinger et al., 2008; Tan \u0026amp; Goldberg, 2009). When problem-solving occurs without a pre-existing relationship, parents and teachers are more prone to form negative assumptions about each other, which can make future collaboration more difficult (Adams \u0026amp; Christenson, 2000). Theories of attribution and communication suggest that problem behaviors can lead to negative assumptions, defensiveness, and misaligned expectations (Hoover-Dempsey et al., 2005; Pomerantz et al., 2007).\u0026nbsp;Parents of children with ADHD may feel judged or excluded, particularly when teachers interpret behaviors as intentional or oppositional (Gwernan-Jones et al., 2015). While ADHD symptoms may be perceived as disruptive but manageable, ODD behaviors often evoke stronger emotional reactions and greater strain on home\u0026ndash;school collaboration. Importantly, strong parent\u0026ndash;teacher relationships are associated with greater parenting confidence and predictive of child behavior later on (Flack et al., 2023), highlighting the need to understand how disruptive behaviors influence the development of trust between families and schools.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHigher levels of children\u0026rsquo;s oppositionality have been associated with lower quality parent-teacher relationships (Kim et al., 2013). Minke and colleagues (2014) examined how similarly parents and teachers rated their relationship quality, and whether the level of congruence predicted children\u0026rsquo;s behavioral difficulties and oppositional symptoms (hyperactivity/impulsivity symptoms were included in the latter grouping). When parents and teachers agree that their relationship is negative or when such ratings are incongruent, then teachers perceived the oppositional symptoms of children as being worse. However, ratings of relationship quality did not predict the ways in which parents perceived their children\u0026rsquo;s behaviors (Minke et al., 2014). This suggests that the rater of the parent-teacher relationship may differentially relate to behavioral symptoms. Thus, findings about children\u0026rsquo;s oppositional behaviors and parent-teacher relationships have yielded mixed results and may be influenced by differing perceptions of the relationship (i.e., parent-report, teacher-report).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSimilarly, studies examining parent-teacher relationship quality and ratings of child ADHD symptomology have yielded inconsistent results. A systematic review of qualitative research examining how parents of children with ADHD perceive the parent-teacher relationship found that parents felt as though they were being \u0026ldquo;silenced\u0026rdquo; and that positive relationships with teachers were quite uncommon (Gwernan-Jones et al., 2015). Similarly, parents of 8-12 year old children with ADHD reported that the school was less inviting and that teachers requested additional invitations for parental involvement in comparison to parents of children without ADHD, even when oppositional behaviors were controlled (Rogers et al., 2009). However, Mautone and colleagues (2014) found no association between the quality of the parent-teacher relationship and child inattention during homework as rated by parents of 4\u0026ndash;12-year-olds. Only one study to date has examined parent-teacher trust and children\u0026rsquo;s oppositional behaviors and ADHD symptoms specifically. Santiago and colleagues (2016) surveyed parents of 212 students in grades K-4 and found that parents\u0026rsquo; trust in their child\u0026rsquo;s teacher was not significantly associated with parents\u0026rsquo; perceptions of child conduct problems or ADHD symptoms. Research also suggests that parent-teacher trust may play a foundational role in shaping child-teacher relationships, highlighting the importance of trust as an entry point for collaborative engagement around the child (S\u0026oslash;e \u0026amp; Psouni, 2025). Taken together, these discrepant findings suggest possible differences in interactions between home and school for parents of children with ADHD symptoms, but the results remain largely inconclusive.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eThe Present Study\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe purpose of this study was to examine how young children\u0026rsquo;s oppositionality, inattention, and hyperactivity/impulsivity are associated with perceived trust in parent and teacher relationships. To this end, the following research questions were addressed in the present \u0026nbsp;\u003ca\u003e[LH1]\u003c/a\u003e study: 1) Is oppositionality in kindergarten children associated with parent-teacher trust? and 2) Are children\u0026rsquo;s inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity in kindergarten associated with parent-teacher trust, above and beyond the role of children\u0026rsquo;s oppositionality?\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIt was hypothesized that oppositionality would be significantly, negatively associated with parent-teacher trust as rated by both parents and teachers. This hypothesis was made based on previous research (Kim et al., 2013, Santiago et al., 2016) which found a significant, negative association between indicators of parent-teacher relationship quality and children\u0026rsquo;s oppositional behaviors in the classroom. The research on the links between children\u0026rsquo;s ADHD symptoms and the parent-teacher relationship has yielded variable findings. For example, Rogers and colleagues (2009) found that parents of children with ADHD reported feeling less welcomed by their child\u0026rsquo;s school, while Santiago and colleagues (2016) found no relationship between child symptoms of ADHD and parent-teacher trust. However, their study focused solely on parents\u0026rsquo; trust and did not include teachers\u0026rsquo; perspectives or reciprocal trust. In contrast, the present study examines both parent and teacher trust, allowing for a more comprehensive understanding of the parent-teacher dynamic. We expect that when oppositionality is accounted for, child ADHD symptoms will not be related to parent-teacher trust. Without oppositionality included ADHD symptoms may be related to parent-teacher trust, but this relationship is more exploratory in nature.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eParticipants\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eParticipants from the study were recruited from 14 schools in the southeastern United States and eastern Canada. The participants were recruited from a larger study that consisted of 181 students in kindergarten in the fall (13 students were removed for missing variables of interest). Participants were parents (90.5% biological mothers, 8.3% biological fathers) and teachers (100% female) of 168 kindergarteners (76 girls, 91 boys, 1 unreported). The children were aged 62 to 89 months with a mean age of approximately 5.8 years (\u003cem\u003eM\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= 69.15 months, \u003cem\u003eSD\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= 4.33). Most of the parents in the study were married (72.6%). Sixty-one percent of the sample self-identified as White, 2.4% Asian, 13.1% Hispanic, 6.5% Black, 11.3% multi-racial, 3.6% other ethnicity, and 1.2% did not report their child’s ethnicity. Of the participating parents, 33.3% had high school education, 16.1% some college or university education, 16.1% had a bachelor’s degree, 32.1% reported having post-graduate training. Fifty-four percent reported a family income of $60,000 or more, 46.4% reported a family income of less than $60,000. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eProcedure\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter institutional ethics approval, families were recruited from\u0026nbsp;seven English elementary schools in a large city in eastern Canada and seven elementary schools in the southeastern U.S. The school district in the United States was a large district (39% White, 57% access to free and reduced lunch, 14% eligible for special education). The school district in Canada was an English-speaking school district in a suburban area with 26 elementary schools. Children in kindergarten whose teachers and parents consented, and whose parents reported being fluent in English, were eligible to participate in this study. The current study utilized data from the spring of the students’ kindergarten year (i.e., when teachers had established a relationship with the children and their parents), packages consisted of a demographic questionnaire (e.g., level of education, family income, child’s age, child’s gender) and rating scales were delivered to participating schools and distributed to both the parents and teachers. Parents returned the completed questionnaires to the school in sealed envelopes and were given a $10 gift card for participation. Teachers were provided a $10 incentive for each student packet of questionnaires that they completed.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMeasures\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eAttention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Symptoms.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003eADHD symptomatology (i.e., inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity) was assessed using the first 18 items of the ADHD Symptom Checklist-4 (ADHD-SC4; Gadow \u0026amp; Sprafkin, 1997).Teachers reported the frequency of inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity symptoms endorsed by the child in the classroom setting. Response options ranged from 0 (\u003cem\u003enever\u003c/em\u003e) to 3 (\u003cem\u003every oft\u003c/em\u003een), whereby higher scores reflected higher levels of ADHD symptoms. The Inattention subscale was composed of nine items that corresponded with DSM-4 symptoms of inattention (e.g., “Difficulty paying attention”, “Difficulty following instructions; does not finish things”, “Easily distracted”). The Hyperactivity/Impulsivity subscale was composed of nine items that corresponded to symptoms of hyperactivity and impulsivity that are typically observed in individuals with ADHD based on DSM-4 criteria (e.g., “Fidgets with hands or feet; squirms in seat”, “Difficulty remaining seated”, “Runs about or climbs on things”). The mean scores of both subscales were calculated. In previous samples, strong internal consistency has been found for both the Inattention and Hyperactivity/Impulsivity subscales (Sprafkin et al., 2001), and the scales have shown good stability, along with the teacher-completed checklists having shown good test-retest reliability (Angello et al. 2003). In the current study Cronbach’s alpha was .92 for the Inattention scale and .94 for the Hyperactivity/Impulsivity scale of the ADHD-SC4.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eOppositional Behavior.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003eThe externalizing subscale on the Brief Problem Monitor (BPM; Achenbach et al., 2011) was completed by kindergarten teachers to assess classroom behavioral problems (e.g., “argues a lot”, “disobedient at school”). Response options ranged from 0 (\u003cem\u003enot true\u003c/em\u003e) to 2 (\u003cem\u003every true\u003c/em\u003e) and a mean score was calculated, whereby a higher score indicated a higher degree of oppositional behavior. In this sample, Cronbach’s alpha was α = .82 while in a previous sample the Cronbach’s alpha for the teacher-rated oppositional behaviors subscale was α = .88 (Achenbach et al., 2011).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eParent-Teacher Trust.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003eThe Family-School Relationships Scale (FSRS; Adams \u0026amp; Christenson, 2000) was used to assess parents’ trust in teachers (19 items; Parent Trust), and teachers’ trust in parents (17 items; Teacher Trust). An example of parents’ trust in teachers is “I am confident that my child’s teachers are doing a good job keeping me well-informed of my child’s progress” and an example of teachers’ trust in parents is “I am confident that the parents/guardians of this student are receptive to my input and suggestions.” Response options ranged from 0 (\u003cem\u003estrongly disagree\u003c/em\u003e) to 3 (\u003cem\u003estrongly agree\u003c/em\u003e) and mean scores were calculated along both subscales, whereby higher scores indicated higher levels of trust in the other party. In the present study, Cronbach’s alpha was α = .97 for both parent and teacher trust. In prior studies Cronbach’s alpha was α = .90 for teachers and α = .96 for parents (Adams \u0026amp; Christenson, 2000).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Analytic Plan\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePearson’s \u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e bivariate correlations were conducted to examine the relationship between key study variables: teacher’s trust in parents, parent’s trust in teachers, children’s ADHD symptoms, and oppositional behaviors. Spearman rho correlations were conducted to examine associations between parent education level (highest of either parent) and annual family income alongside key study variables. To determine whether child sex, research site (i.e., Canada vs. US), or their interaction should be included as covariates in subsequent regression models, we conducted a multivariate general linear model predicting child behavior ratings (oppositionality, inattention, hyperactivity-impulsivity) and parent- and teacher-rated trust. A paired-samples t-test was conducted to detect differences in parent and teacher’s trust in each other.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo understand the ways in which children’s oppositional behaviors, as well as inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity symptoms were related to parent-teacher trust, two hierarchical multiple regression analyses were conducted, one where parents’ trust in teachers was the outcome variable and one where teachers’ trust in parents was the outcome variable. In the first step of both analyses, oppositional behaviors were entered as an independent variable. Oppositional behaviors are added first as they have been more consistently related to negative parent-teacher relationships and mistrust. In the second step, inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity symptoms were added to determine if these variables accounted for levels of parent-teacher trust above and beyond the effects of oppositional behaviors. If research site or gender differences emerged in the omnibus test, they were added into step three of the hierarchical regression.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePreliminary Analyses\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eParents\u0026rsquo; education level (highest of either parent) and annual family income were not significantly associated with parent-teacher trust or the child behavior variables but were significantly related to each other, \u003cem\u003eρ\u003c/em\u003e(104)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.30, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.002 (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). As further outlined in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, preliminary correlation analyses revealed that teachers\u0026rsquo; trust in parents was significantly negatively correlated with oppositionality, inattention, and hyperactivity/impulsivity. Parents\u0026rsquo; trust in teachers was not significantly correlated with teachers\u0026rsquo; trust in parents, oppositionality, inattention, and hyperactivity/impulsivity.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBivariate correlations between parent-teacher trust and teacher-rated children\u0026rsquo;s symptoms\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"9\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1. Teachers\u0026rsquo; Trust\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ein Parents\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e158\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.48\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.54\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2. Parents\u0026rsquo; Trust in Teachers\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e116\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.60\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.46\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.004\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3. Externalizing Symptoms\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e158\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.26\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.39**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.06\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4. Inattention\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e160\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.61\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.37**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.79**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5. Hyperactivity/\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eImpulsivity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e162\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.58\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.78\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.32**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.81**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.90**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e** \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFor the multivariate general linear model analyses, results indicated a significant effect of research site on parent\u0026rsquo;s trust in teachers (\u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(1,102)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;11.45, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.001), with parent\u0026rsquo;s trust rated higher in the U.S schools (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;84, \u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.69, \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.41) than those in Canada (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;32, \u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.35, \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.50). No other significant effects were found. Research site was included as a predictor in the trust models.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA paired-samples t-test revealed that parents\u0026rsquo; trust in teachers (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.61, \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.44) was not significantly different from teachers\u0026rsquo; trust in parents (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.55, \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.50), \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e(109) = -1.05, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.297, \u003cem\u003ed\u003c/em\u003e = -0.10. These findings suggest that trust is fairly symmetrical between parents and teachers, with only a negligible mean difference.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTeachers\u0026rsquo; Trust in Parents\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA three-step hierarchical regression analysis was conducted to determine whether children\u0026rsquo;s teacher-rated oppositional behaviors, inattention, hyperactivity/impulsivity symptoms, and research site were associated with teachers\u0026rsquo; trust in parents (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHierarchical multiple regression predicting teachers\u0026rsquo; trust of parents from teacher-rated children\u0026rsquo;s symptoms\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e∆\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSE B\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStep 1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExternalizing\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.81\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.39\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStep 2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExternalizing\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.56\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.042\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInattention\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.43\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.57\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.004\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHyperactivity/Impulsivity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.42\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.031\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStep 3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExternalizing\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.42\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInattention\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.43\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.57\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.004\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHyperactivity/Impulsivity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.35\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eResearch Site\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.09\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.04\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"7\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote. N\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;152. This Table includes the results with outliers. Analysis was also run with 3 outliers excluded using\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3 SD criteria, and the overall models stayed the same. In Model 3 without outliers, hyperactivity-impulsivity was significant, and research site was no longer significant.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn Step 1, the oppositional behaviors score was added and significantly predicted teacher\u0026rsquo;s trust, \u003cem\u003eR\u0026sup2;\u003c/em\u003e = .15, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(1, 150)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;26.96, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn Step 2, inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity were added to the model, resulting in a significant improvement in model fit, \u003cem\u003eΔR\u0026sup2;\u003c/em\u003e = .05, \u003cem\u003eΔF\u003c/em\u003e(2, 148)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.25, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.016, bringing the total variance explained to \u003cem\u003eR\u0026sup2;\u003c/em\u003e = .20. Inattention emerged as a significant negative predictor (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e = \u0026ndash;.57, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.004), while hyperactivity/impulsivity was a significant positive predictor (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.42, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.032).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn Step 3, research site was added and explained an additional 2.2% of variance, \u003cem\u003eΔF\u003c/em\u003e(1, 147)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.24, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.041, resulting in a final model accounting for 22.1% of the variance in teacher\u0026rsquo;s trust (\u003cem\u003eR\u0026sup2;\u003c/em\u003e = .22, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(4, 147)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;10.42, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001). In the final model, inattention remained a significant negative predictor (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e = \u0026ndash;.57, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.004), and research site was also a significant negative predictor (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e = \u0026ndash;.16, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.041), suggesting that students from the Canadian site were associated with lower teachers\u0026rsquo; trust. Multicollinearity statistics were within acceptable limits (all VIFs\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;7.3, most\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;3.4 in the final model).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eParents\u0026rsquo; Trust in Teachers\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA three-step hierarchical regression analysis was conducted to determine whether children\u0026rsquo;s teacher-rated oppositional behaviors, inattention, hyperactivity/impulsivity symptoms, and research site were associated with parents\u0026rsquo; trust in teachers (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHierarchical multiple regression predicting parents\u0026rsquo; trust of teachers from teacher-rated children\u0026rsquo;s symptoms\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e∆\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSE B\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStep 1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExternalizing\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.26\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStep 2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.06\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExternalizing\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.97\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.65\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInattention\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHyperactivity/Impulsivity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.31\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.26\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStep 3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.21\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExternalizing\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.84\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.24\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.56\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInattention\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.52\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHyperactivity/Impulsivity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.24\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eResearch Site\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.003\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"7\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote. N\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;109. This Table includes the results with outliers. Analysis was also run with 3 outliers excluded using\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3 SD criteria, and the overall models stayed the same.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn Step 1, the oppositional behaviors score was added and did not significantly predict parent\u0026rsquo;s trust, \u003cem\u003eR\u0026sup2;\u003c/em\u003e = .03, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(1, 107)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.12, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.08.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn Step 2, inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity were added to the model, resulting in a significant improvement in model fit, \u003cem\u003eΔR\u0026sup2;\u003c/em\u003e = .10, \u003cem\u003eΔF\u003c/em\u003e(2, 105)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5.29, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.003, bringing the total variance explained to \u003cem\u003eR\u0026sup2;\u003c/em\u003e = .13. Oppositional behaviors became a significant negative predictor (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e = \u0026ndash;.65, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001). Inattention (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.27, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.30) and hyperactivity/impulsivity (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.31, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.26) were not significant predictors.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn Step 3, research site was added and explained an additional 7.3% of variance, \u003cem\u003eΔF\u003c/em\u003e(1, 144)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;9.56, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.003, resulting in a final model accounting for 20.5% of the variance in parent\u0026rsquo;s trust (\u003cem\u003eR\u0026sup2;\u003c/em\u003e = .21, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e(4, 104)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6.72, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001). In the final model, oppositional behaviors remained a significant negative predictor (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e = \u0026ndash;.56, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001), and research site was also a significant negative predictor (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e = \u0026ndash;.28, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.003), suggesting that students from the Canadian site were associated with lower parent\u0026rsquo;s trust. Multicollinearity statistics were within acceptable limits (all VIFs\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;9.5).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe purpose of this study was to examine the role of children\u0026rsquo;s oppositional behaviors and ADHD symptoms on the perceived feelings of trust between parents and teachers \u0026ndash; an important element of effective parent-teacher relationships (Adams \u0026amp; Christenson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e; Santiago et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR95\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Vickers \u0026amp; Minke, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR106\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e; Zulauf-McCurdy et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR110\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Using a community sample of teachers and parents of children in kindergarten, it was found that children\u0026rsquo;s inattention was significantly related to trust that teachers reported in parents. That is, when children had higher levels of inattention, teachers reported lower levels of trust in their students\u0026rsquo; parents. Children\u0026rsquo;s oppositional behaviors were associated with lower levels of teachers\u0026rsquo; trust, only when ADHD symptoms were not included. For parents\u0026rsquo; trust in teachers, higher children\u0026rsquo;s oppositional behaviors were related to lower trust. Inattention and hyperactivity-impulsivity were not related to parents\u0026rsquo; trust, when oppositional behaviors were included. Trust was higher for both teachers and parents collected from the US research site compared to the Canadian research site. There was not a significant difference between parents\u0026rsquo; trust in teachers and teachers\u0026rsquo; trust in parents, and trust ratings were not related to each other.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe relationship between parent-teacher trust and children\u0026rsquo;s ADHD symptoms is an emerging field of study, and few studies to date have examined teachers\u0026rsquo; perceptions specifically. Prior research has demonstrated that parent-teacher relationships have been associated with externalizing problems, which has included items related to hyperactivity, aggression, and conduct problems (Kim et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). To our knowledge, the present study is the first to examine teacher perceptions of the parent-teacher relationship by separating children\u0026rsquo;s ADHD symptoms from other externalizing behaviors. We found that higher levels of student inattention were associated with lower levels of teachers\u0026rsquo; trust in parents, even after accounting for children\u0026rsquo;s oppositional behaviors. This is consistent with research suggesting that teachers report finding children with ADHD symptoms to be stressful to teach (Greene et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e) and may attribute children's ADHD behaviors to familial and parenting factors, such as a disruptive family environment, family neglect, lack of discipline, overprotective parenting, or lack of support for education (Arcia et al., 2000). Such attributions may contribute to diminished trust in parents when children exhibit symptoms of ADHD, particularly inattention, which may be perceived as indicative of parental disengagement or lack of support.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSurprisingly, hyperactivity/impulsivity was not related to parent-teacher trust. Some prior research has indicated that hyperactivity/impulsivity can demonstrate positive associations with academic outcomes (Tymms \u0026amp; Merrell, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR105\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e), and impulsivity may be positively associated with academic engagement in the classroom. For these reasons, and for young students in particular who may be more likely to be hyperactive and impulsive in general, teachers may perceive hyperactive and impulsive behaviors as a positive sign of engagement. Further, they may perceive this engagement as reflective of parents\u0026rsquo; activity and support at home. In contrast, inattention could be perceived as a sign of disinterest, boredom, or lack of engagement. Further research is needed to explore this finding, as it may help highlight which families may be more at risk for having difficulty developing trusting relationships with their children\u0026rsquo;s teachers.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eConversely, oppositionality was associated with lower levels of parents\u0026rsquo; trust in teachers, but ADHD symptoms were not related to parents\u0026rsquo; trust. Oppositional behaviors were associated with lower levels of teacher\u0026rsquo;s trust in parents, only when ADHD was not accounted for in the model. Oppositional behaviors may directly impact parents\u0026rsquo; experiences with teachers, for example, through more frequent disciplinary communications, which could erode parents\u0026rsquo; sense of trust in teachers (Kim et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). This interpretation aligns with previous findings indicating that oppositionality can negatively affect the quality of the parent-teacher relationship (Kim et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, Minke and colleagues (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR75\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) found that when parents and teachers had inconsistent or jointly negative perceptions of their relationship, teachers\u0026mdash;but not parents\u0026mdash;reported greater oppositional behaviors in children. These findings highlight the importance of informant perspective: parents and teachers may experience and interpret both child behavior and the relationship itself in distinct ways.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOur findings underscore this divergence in reporting of the parent-teacher relationship. There was no significant difference in the average levels of trust reported by parents and teachers; however, the two trust ratings were not significantly correlated, suggesting that this trust is experienced independently by each group. Previous research found that parents\u0026rsquo; trust in teachers is generally higher than teachers\u0026rsquo; trust in parents (Adams \u0026amp; Christenson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e). It is important to note that because teachers rated both their trust in parents and the children\u0026rsquo;s behavior, the link we found between teachers\u0026rsquo; trust and ADHD, or oppositional behaviors, might be influenced by the fact that the same person reported both. In contrast, the association between oppositionality and parents\u0026rsquo; trust in teachers is based on reports from two different people, making it more likely to reflect actual dynamics in the parent-teacher relationship. Further, it has been shown that parent and teacher ratings of ADHD do not often agree (De Los Reyes et al., 2015; Talbot et al., 2018); therefore, future research should include ratings from both parents and teachers.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e Taken together, these findings suggest that teachers\u0026rsquo; trust in parents may be influenced by their perceptions of children\u0026rsquo;s inattention, possibly shaped by broader beliefs about family involvement or parenting. Meanwhile, parents\u0026rsquo; trust in teachers appears to be more closely related to behavior patterns that are likely to cause conflict or communication strain. Future longitudinal research is needed to examine how these differing experiences of trust develop over time, how they are shaped by specific child behaviors, and how they may impact children\u0026rsquo;s functioning in the classroom.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis research contributes to an emerging body of literature on how ADHD symptoms may be related to family-school relationships in the elementary years. In clinical studies, Rogers and colleagues (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR93\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e) found that the parent-teacher relationship was affected when a child has ADHD, but other studies did not find significant group differences (Mautone et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Santiago et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR95\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). The current study found the parent-teacher relationship may be affected by ADHD symptoms among a group of younger children in a community sample. This may be due to developmental differences between the samples in the extant studies. That is, the kindergarten children in our sample would have been typically too young for a formal diagnosis of ADHD, which typically occurs between five to nine years of age, (Knott et al., 2024). Therefore, the symptoms of ADHD may have been overall lower and thus less likely to play a role in the parent-teacher relationship. Similarly, parent involvement can be a broad concept that encompasses several different behaviors and interactions. For instance, many studies examine the \u003cem\u003efrequency\u003c/em\u003e of parent-teacher contact, while others look at the \u003cem\u003eemotional tone\u003c/em\u003e of parent-teacher relationships. As stated by Hoover-Dempsey and Sandler (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e), more precise operational definitions of parent-teacher relations are needed in order to more accurately explain inconclusive trends in this body of literature.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDue to the small sample size, we could not examine the potentially important role of parent or teacher gender in this study. Previous research tells us that mothers are often more involved in their children\u0026rsquo;s education, especially those with a college education or higher (Guryan et al., 2008); however, studies on paternal involvement show that fathers of children with ADHD symptoms play a different but important role in their children\u0026rsquo;s education (Musabelliu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Rogers et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR93\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). In our sample, we found no differences in oppositionality and ADHD symptomology between male and female children. Some existing research suggests that teachers are more likely to rate boys\u0026rsquo; disruptive behavior as more problematic than girls\u0026rsquo; (Horn et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Future research should examine parent and teacher gender to gain a more nuanced understanding of these associations, as we can only speculate how the findings from this study would have been different if fathers or male teachers were rating children\u0026rsquo;s behaviors and perceptions of trust.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study was exploratory in nature and thus caution must be taken when interpreting the findings. In addition to the question of gender, we used a small cross-sectional dataset with a sample of parents who were mostly university-educated Caucasian mothers. As such, the diversity in our sample was limited. Moreover, qualitative research is needed to explore trust between parents and teachers, and how it may be influenced by children\u0026rsquo;s behavior in the early years of schooling. In their qualitative study, Gwernan-Jones and colleagues (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) found that parents of children with ADHD felt as though they were being \u0026ldquo;silenced\u0026rdquo; by the school (Gwernan-Jones et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Additional mixed methods studies in this area are needed to explore this topic more deeply.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFurthermore, data was collected from schools in two different geological and cultural areas: the southeastern United States and eastern Canada. Differences in social welfare policies, spending on education (Levin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e), curriculum (Davies \u0026amp; Aurini, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e), and special education policy (Grynova \u0026amp; Kalinichenko, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) may impact academic performance differences in students at a national level, as well as impact perceptions of various aspects of schooling for parents and teachers (Merry, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Future research can examine the impact of these differences on, not only academic outcomes, but the parent-teacher relationship as well.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDespite these limitations, this research represents an understudied area in the field of ADHD symptoms and children\u0026rsquo;s schooling. An extensive body of longitudinal research shows that family-school collaboration in the early grades is predictive of parental involvement later in children\u0026rsquo;s education (Hayakawa et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e), and parental involvement is a widely studied predictor of children\u0026rsquo;s learning, academic achievement, and social-emotional well-being (Castro et al., 2015; Cosso et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, it is important to advance our understanding of how deviations in children\u0026rsquo;s behaviors in the primary grades may affect the trajectory of parent-teacher relationships over time. This may be especially important for children who display early symptoms of ADHD, because symptoms of inattention in kindergarten are highly predictive of academic success longitudinally (Classens et al., 2014; Rabiner \u0026amp; Coie, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR86\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e). Another strength of this study is that it examined both parent \u003cem\u003eand\u003c/em\u003e teacher perceptions of the relationship. To date, most studies on this topic have examined only parent perceptions of the relationships, and our findings suggest that there may be differing perceptions of trust between parents and teachers based on children\u0026rsquo;s classroom behavior.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eWe demonstrated that while higher children\u0026rsquo;s oppositional behaviors are associated with lower levels of parents\u0026rsquo; trust in teachers, children\u0026rsquo;s ADHD symptoms were more explanatory of teachers\u0026rsquo; trust in parents. Specifically, symptoms of inattention were associated with teachers having lower levels of trust in parents, but hyperactive-impulsive symptoms were unrelated to trust. This is an important finding and highlights families who may be at particular risk for developing negative relationships with the school.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eMaria: intellectual and conceptual lead, data collection, writing, editingCarolynn: statistical analysis, writing, editingHannah: writing, editingJulia: intellectual and conceptual development, co-investigator, data collection, editingRob: intellectual and conceptual development, mentor, editingVictoria, Raven \u0026amp; Lillian: writing, editing\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eData is available from authors upon request.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAcar, I.H., Veziroğlu-Çelik, M., Çelebi, Ş., İngeç, D., \u0026amp; Kuzgun, S. (2019). Parenting styles and Turkish children’s emotion regulation: The mediating role of parent-teacher relationships. 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SAGE Open 14(4). https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440241288114\u0026amp;nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"parent-teacher trust, oppositional behaviors, inattention, hyperactivity/impulsivity","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7266053/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7266053/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"Prior research suggests that children’s oppositional behaviors, inattention, and hyperactivity/impulsivity may be associated with challenges in parent-teacher relationships. The present correlational study examined how children’s behaviors of oppositionality, inattention, and hyperactivity/impulsivity in kindergarteners are associated with trust between parents and teachers. Participants included parents and teachers of 168 kindergarteners (45% girls, 54 % boys). Teachers rated children’s behaviors while both parents and teachers rated their trust in one another during the spring of the children’s kindergarten year. Results indicated that children’s oppositional behaviors were associated with lower levels of parent trust of teachers. Inattention was significantly associated with teachers’ trust in parents, independent of oppositional behaviors. Specifically, higher levels of inattention were associated with lower levels of teachers’ trust in parents. However, neither inattention nor hyperactivity/impulsivity were significantly related to parents’ trust in teachers. These results suggest that parents and teachers may experience and interpret both child behavior and the relationship itself in distinct ways.","manuscriptTitle":"Can I Trust You? How Kindergarteners’ Oppositionality and ADHD Symptomatology are Related to Trust between Parents and Teachers","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-08-06 12:17:14","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7266053/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"dc656869-f266-49a7-9f41-afd76c843dd1","owner":[],"postedDate":"August 6th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-02-26T20:38:49+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-08-06 12:17:14","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7266053","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7266053","identity":"rs-7266053","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}