Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) Regulatory Frameworks, Sources, Occurrence, Fate, and Exposure: Trend, Concern, and Implication

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) Regulatory Frameworks, Sources, Occurrence, Fate, and Exposure: Trend, Concern, and Implication | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) Regulatory Frameworks, Sources, Occurrence, Fate, and Exposure: Trend, Concern, and Implication Md Shahin Alam, Gang Chen This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-4810454/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 27 Jul, 2025 Read the published version in International Journal of Environmental Research → Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are artificial chemicals in diverse consumer and industrial goods. They are known for their enduring presence in the environment and the potential risks they pose to human health. This meta-analysis scrutinizes the sources, occurrence, fate, exposure pathways, and regulatory frameworks of PFAS globally, spanning 2021 to 2024. Through a comprehensive review of literature and regulatory documents, this study integrates the evolving trends and prevailing concerns and identifies research gaps. The analysis also reveals a need for a more regulatory landscape characterized by diverse approaches across different regions, with variations in standards, monitoring protocols, and remediation strategies. Despite concerted efforts to mitigate PFAS contamination, significant challenges persist, including regulatory inconsistencies, limited data availability, and emerging PFAS variants not covered by existing regulations. Sources of PFAS contamination encompass a broad spectrum of industrial activities, consumer products, and legacy pollution, with emerging evidence highlighting the role of atmospheric transport in global dispersion. Moreover, PFAS persistence in the environment and their bioaccumulative nature portray the urgency of understanding fate and transport mechanisms across various environmental compartments. Exposure pathways to PFAS exhibit multifaceted routes with humans, animals, invertebrates, and biota. Furthermore, disparities in exposure patterns are evident across different geographic regions and demographic groups, accentuating the need for targeted interventions and risk mitigation strategies. This meta-analysis identifies critical research needs, including enhanced surveillance programs, standardized methodologies, and interdisciplinary approaches to address PFAS contamination’s complexities comprehensively. This study provides a holistic overview of PFAS regulatory frameworks, sources, occurrence, fate, and exposure around the globe, highlighting evolving trends, persistent concerns, and crucial knowledge gaps. By synthesizing current knowledge and identifying research priorities, this study aims to inform policy development, regulatory enforcement, and scientific endeavors to address the challenges posed by PFAS contamination effectively. PFAS Regulatory Frameworks Sources Occurrence Fate Exposure Global Trend Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Introduction Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a class of synthetic organic compounds that have recently been the focus of regulatory attention. PFAS have been commonly used in aqueous film-forming foams (AFFF), household products, nonstick materials (Teflon ™ ), cosmetics, stain-resistant fabrics (e.g., Scotchgard ™ , Stainmaster®), water-resistant textiles (GORE-Tex®), paints, food packaging (e.g., fast-food wrappers, pizza boxes), engineered coatings in semiconductor production, manufacture of heat, oil, stain, grease, water-resistant fluoropolymer coatings products, medical supplies, and equipment (Alam et al., 2022 ; An et al., 2023 ; Costello & Lee, 2020 ; Death et al., 2021 ; Ghisi et al., 2019 ). The fluorinated components of PFAS are inactive, with the intense strength of the carbon-fluorine bond of 485 kcal/mol (Lemal, 2004 ). PFAS are, therefore, thermodynamically stable and highly resistant to hydrolysis, metabolism, photolysis, and other forms of degradation (Rowe et al., 2023 ; Wu et al., 2022 ; F. Xiao et al., 2021 ). Depending on their solubility, they may be in wastewater treatment plants for further treatment. However, treatment processes such as biological degradation struggle to remove PFAS, leading to PFAS accumulation in biosolids, landfills, fields that are irrigated with treated wastewater, and water resources that receive an effluent discharge (Gallen et al., 2018 ; S. Y. Liu et al., 2022 ; Silva et al., 2022 ). PFAS have been manufactured and used in various industries since the 1940s. So far, more than 7 million PFAS compounds with varying functional groups and carbon numbers have been defined (Schymanski et al., 2023 ). PFAS have been detected in biota, groundwater, surface water, sediments, and soil, raising concerns about potential hazards to human health and the environment resulting from their dispersion and interaction (An et al., 2023 ; Ghisi et al., 2019 ; Hu et al., 2023 ; Reinikainen et al., 2022 ; Sadia et al., 2023 ). PFAS threaten human health due to their toxic effects on the kidneys, liver, lungs, reproductive system, and immune system (Babayev et al., 2022 ; Hu et al., 2023 ). Due to concerns about their toxicity, measures have been taken to restrict the production of PFAS and their precursors. By synthesizing data from a wide range of literature and regulatory documents, this study offers a holistic overview of the evolving trends, prevailing concerns, and critical knowledge gaps in PFAS research and regulation. The analysis will reveal the complexity of the regulatory landscape, characterized by diverse approaches across different regions. The sources of PFAS contamination are diverse and widespread. Understanding the pathways through which PFAS enter and move through the environment is crucial for developing effective mitigation strategies. Their persistence and bioaccumulative nature necessitate a thorough investigation into their fate and transport mechanisms across various environmental compartments, including water, soil, and air. Exposure pathways to PFAS are multifaceted and affect humans, animals, invertebrates, and other biota. Disparities in exposure patterns are evident across different geographic regions and demographic groups, highlighting the need for targeted interventions. Specific populations may be more vulnerable to PFAS exposure due to occupational settings, dietary habits, and geographic location. Therefore, tailored risk mitigation strategies are essential to address these disparities effectively. This meta-analysis , compiled with bibliometric analysis, comprehensively assembles the global regulatory frameworks, sources, occurrence, fate, and exposure pathways of PFAS. History, Regulatory, and Policy Frameworks United States PFAS have been a part of a wide range of consumer and commercial products since their introduction in the 20th century. The family of perfluorinated compounds was introduced on April 6, 1938, when, by coincidence, Roy J. Plunkett invented polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), a wholly saturated fluorocarbon polymer. Since its registration in 1945, the Teflon™ trademark has gained global recognition for its superior cookware nonstick properties, ability to repel textile stains, and commercial coatings (Teflon™, 2024 ). Perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) are the most commonly used PFAS compounds, which were introduced into the production of polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) nonstick coatings between the 1940s and the 1950s (Teflon™, 2024 ). Between the 1950s and 1960s, PFOS and PFOA were further used in water- and stain-resistant products and protective coatings (Buck et al., 2011 ; Teflon™, 2024 ). The widespread use of PTFE started in industrial cookware in 1961, completely changing the culinary industry. Perfluorinated substances significantly transformed their usage due to their outstanding capacity to repel water and grease. PFOS was further introduced to firefighting in the 1960s and 1970s (Liuzza, 2024 ). With their widespread applications, many consumer goods and drinking water in the twenty-first century contain different ratios and amounts of PFAS. During the 1970s to 1980s, certain manufacturers acknowledged the toxic characteristics of PFAS, prompting the voluntary phase-out of Class A forms by 2000 (Hilton, 1972 ; ITRC, 2024a ). Due to the concern over the presence of PFAS in the environment, regulatory agencies have been proposing drinking water standards for several PFAS compounds. In 2009, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) issued provisional Health Advisories for PFOA and PFOS (USEPA, 2009 ). Subsequently, in 2012, public water supplies underwent testing under the Safe Drinking Water Act. In 2016, the US EPA established a national Lifetime Health Advisory (LHA) of 70 ng/L, with approximately 28 states subsequently setting guidance values for PFAS concentrations (USEPA, 2016 ). On June 15, 2022, the US EPA issued updated health advisories for several PFAS compounds, including PFOA, PFOS, GenX or hexafluoropropylene oxide dimer acid (HFPO-DA), and perfluorobutanesulfonic acid (PFBS). The interim health advisories for PFOA and PFOS were set at 0.004 and 0.02 ng/L, consecutively, while the final health advisories for GenX chemicals and PFBS were established at 10 and 2000 ng/L, correspondingly (USEPA, 2022 ). The US EPA identified the regulatory concentrations for PFOS and PFOA and the hazard index for other PFAS compounds, which is calculated by Eq. 1 (USEPA, 2023 ): \(\:\frac{GenX}{10}\) + \(\:\frac{PFBS}{2000}\) + \(\:\frac{PFNA}{10}+\:\frac{PFHxS}{10}\) = Hazard Index Value …………. (1) All units are parts per trillions (ppt) or nanogram per litter (ng/L). In March 2023, the US EPA proposed the National Primary Drinking Water Regulation (NPDWR) for six PFAS chemicals, including PFOA, PFOS, perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA), perfluorohexanesulfonic acid (PFHxS), PFBS, and HFPO-DA or GenX. For PFOA, Maximum Contaminant Levels (MCL) and MCL Goals (MCLG) are 4 ng/L and 0 ng/L. For PFOS, MCL and MCLG are 4 ng/L and 0 ng/L. PFNA, PFHxS, PFBS, and HFPO-DA or GenX have a hazard index MCL of 1 and a hazard index MCLG of 1. On April 10, 2024, the USEPA finalized regulations under the Safe Drinking Water Act of PFAS. The USEPA established Final NPDWR MCLs for PFOA and PFOS, both set at 4 ng/L, with a corresponding MCLG of 0 ng/L. Additionally, for PFNA, PFHxS, HFPO-DA or GenX, and PFBS, the MCLs and MCLGs are both established at 10 ng/L. Furthermore, the Hazard Index MCL and Hazard Index MCLG are both designated for mixtures containing two or more of PFNA, PFHxS, HFPO-DA, and PFBS, set at 1 (USEPA, 2024 ). Figure 1 shows the complete regulatory timeline in the United States. Along the way, different states in the United States have established different regulatory programs (ITRC, 2024b ). If the proposed NPDWR is finalized, public water systems must monitor contaminants in drinking water regularly, notify consumers if the levels exceed the MCL, and implement appropriate treatment measures to ensure compliance with the MCL. Once EPA finalizes its standards for PFAS, including PFNA, PFHxS, PFBS, HFPO-DA, and GenX, any differences in the PADEP standards may impact various aspects of PFAS regulation and management. Worldwide In Australia, health-based standards for PFAS were developed in 2019 (HEPA, 2020 ). For drinking water (DW), PFOS, and PFHxS, a combined total is less than 70 ng/L, while PFOA's is less than 560 ng/L. For recreational water (RW), PFOS, and PFHxS, a combined total is less than 2000 ng/L; for PFOA, it is less than 10000 ng/L. In 2016, Health Canada (HC) introduced the first set of Drinking Water Screening Values (DWSV) for nine PFAS compounds, as outlined in Table 1 (HC, 2016 ). Subsequently, in 2019, HC established maximum acceptable concentrations (MAC) for PFOA (200 ng/L) and PFOS (600 ng/L) in drinking water. Additionally, DWSV provided regulations for nine PFAS compounds in 2019 (Table 1 ) (HC, 2019 ). Notably, in 2023, HC proposed a substantial reduction in permissible PFAS levels to 30 ng/L, particularly emphasizing the sum of 18 PFAS compounds as outlined in the EPA Method 537.1 (HC, 2023 ). The European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) has proposed restricting around 10,000 PFASs to reduce environmental emissions and enhance safety, aligning with the EU’s Chemicals Strategy and Zero Pollution plan. Published on February 7, 2023, with a potential ban decision expected by 2025 and application by 2026 or 2027. Without action, 4.4 million tons of PFASs could enter the environment over 30 years (ECHA, 2023 ). The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) highlighted that PFAS exposure primarily occurred through food and drinking water consumption, representing the primary routes of human exposure. In 2020, EFSA suggested a Total Weekly Intake (TWI) of 4.4 ng/kg body weight for the combined presence of four PFAS compounds: PFOA, PFNA, PFHxS, and PFOS. The TWI stands out as a significantly more stringent criterion than earlier assessments, explicitly focusing on evaluating effects on the immune system, which is deemed the most crucial endpoint for risk evaluation. To uphold the provision of safe drinking water according to standard assumptions—such as an allocation factor of 20%, a daily intake of 2 liters, and an average body weight of 60 kg—the TWI corresponds to a recommended concentration of 3.7 ng/L for the combined presence of the four PFAS compounds specified by EFSA (Sadia et al., 2023 ). The EU Directive 2013/39/EC came into effect on September 9, 2013, and required Member States to transpose it into their national legislation by November 14, 2015. When implementing the Water Framework Directive, it is essential to consider the environmental quality standards (EQS) outlined in this directive. These standards guide establishing supplementary monitoring programs. For freshwater bodies (SW-Fresh), the EQS Average Annual Concentration (AAC) was established at 0.65 ng/L only for PFOS, while for marine water (SW-Marine), it was set at 0.13 ng/L for PFOS. Moreover, EQS Maximum Allowable Concentrations (MAC) were stipulated for freshwater and marine environments. The EQS MAC for freshwater (SW-Fresh) was designated as 36,000 ng/L, whereas for marine water (SW-Marine), it was determined to be 7,200 ng/L (ARCADIS, 2016 ). These standards play a critical role as benchmarks in water quality management and efforts aimed at environmental protection. In 2021, the European Union (EU) revised its Drinking Water Directive (DWD) to include standards for PFAS in drinking water. The updated standards specify limits for either a sum of 20 PFAS at 100 ng/L or a total PFAS concentration of 500 ng/L (EU, 2021 ). In 2021, the Danish Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) introduced health-based standards for both drinking water (DW) and groundwater (GW). These standards were implemented to safeguard public health. In June, the EPA declared that drinking water's total concentration of four PFAS substances—PFOA, PFOS, PFNA, and PFHxS—must not exceed two nanograms per liter. Expressly, for drinking water, the guidelines specified a maximum allowable concentration of 100 ng/L for a total of 12 PFAS compounds, including PFOA, PFOS, PFNA, PFHxS, PFBA, PFPeA, PFHxA, PFDA, PFBS, 6:2 FTS, and PFOSA. Additionally, in 2023, an extra 10 PFAS compounds were included for groundwater assessment, namely PFUnDA, PFDoDA, PFTrDA, PFPeS, PFHpS, PFNS, PFDS, PFUnDS, PFDoDS, and PFTrDS, maintaining the maximum allowable concentration at 100 ng/L to ensure comprehensive protection of public health (NIRAS, 2022 ). Germany's regulatory framework encompasses significance thresholds (ST) for groundwater (GW) and health-based standards for drinking water (DW). In 2006, the German Ministry of Health established health-based guidelines for PFOA (300 ng/L) and PFOS (300 ng/L) in drinking water, although administrative directives set lower levels for PFOA (100 ng/L) and PFOS (100 ng/L) (DWC, 2006 ). The German States’ Water and Soil Consortia have aggregated 'significance thresholds' (ST) to evaluate groundwater contaminated with PFAS. By assessing available literature on human health and ecotoxicological impacts, ST ranging from 60 to 10,000 ng/L have been formulated for seven priority PFAS in groundwater (Table 1 ) (von der Trenck et al., 2018 ). After the Veneto Region Environmental Protection Agency (ARPA Veneto) conducted a monitoring campaign in 2013, revealing PFAS concentrations in drinking water, the Italian Health Institute (IHI) set threshold limits for PFOS, PFOA, and PFAS at 30 ng/L, 500 ng/L, and 500 ng/L, respectively (Giglioli et al., 2023 ). Additionally, Italy proposed environmental quality standards (EQS) for freshwater (FW), outlining limits for PFOA (100 ng/L), PFBA (7000 ng/L), PFPeA (3000 ng/L), PFHxA (1000 ng/L), and PFBS (3000 ng/L) (Valsecchi et al., 2017 ). The Dutch Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) established that the drinking water (DWC) criteria for PFOS is 530 ng/L (ARCADIS, 2016 ). The Swedish Food Agency's updated drinking water regulations (LIVSFS 2022:12) set two PFAS limits: 4 ng/l for PFAS-4 and 100 ng/l for PFAS-21. PFAS-4 includes PFOA, PFNA, PFOS, and PFHxS, in line with EFSA's health guidelines. PFAS-21 includes 20 PFAS substances from the European Parliament and Council Directive (EU) 2020/2184, plus 6:2 FTS (SFA, 2023 ). Health-oriented standards were instituted for drinking water, with a primary emphasis on safeguarding public health. These standards introduced initial action limits for PFAS in drinking water in 2014, specifying levels at 90 ng/L for the individual or combined sum of seven PFAS, namely PFPeA, PFHxA, PFHpA, PFOA, PFBS, PFHxS, and PFOS (Xu et al., 2021 ). In the United Kingdom (UK), the Drinking Water Inspectorate (DWI) developed tiered Drinking Water Guidance (2009) for PFOS and PFOA in 2009, wherein the first tier set a threshold at 300 ng/L, prompting consultation and monitoring if exceeded. However, the guidance mandates reductions below 1000 ng/L for PFOS and 5000 ng/L for PFOA, surpassing standards in many other nations. This reflects the higher tolerable daily intakes (TDIs) established by the European Food Safety Agency (EFSA) in 2008 and still adheres to in the UK (150 ng/kg bw/day for PFOS; 1,500 ng/kg/ bw/day for PFOA) (ARCADIS, 2016 ; Ross, 2019 ). In October 2021, the DWI of England and Wales issued a roster of 47 PFAS, including PFOA and PFOS, for monitoring in drinking water. Water providers must test their sources for PFAS using accredited methods; if no such method exists, results must be flagged accordingly. Results are evaluated against DWI's risk management scheme for PFAS. Combined PFOA and PFOS concentrations of 10 ng/L or below pose low risk and require no further action. Medium risk occurs at combined concentrations below 90 ng/L, necessitating heightened monitoring and preventative measures. High risk is identified when combined concentrations exceed 90 ng/L, potentially endangering human health, requiring water companies to notify consumers and health authorities and take immediate remedial action (RSC, 2023 ). Japan's Ministry of Environment (MOE) issued provisional standards for PFAS in drinking water in 2020. They proposed standard limits of 50 ng/L for total or individual PFOA & PFOS, contributing to water quality management efforts (Elder, 2023 ). For groundwater protection, the Chinese government issued the Regulations of Groundwater Management (Order No. 748 of the State Council of the People’s Republic of China) in 2021. In these regulations, the Chinese government strengthened the monitoring and protection of groundwater, including the limit values for PFOS and PFOA in drinking water. PFOS and PFOA are currently limited at 40 and 80 ng/L, respectively, by the Standards for Drinking Water Quality of China (GB5749-2022). The World Health Organization (WHO) put forth provisional guideline values, suggesting 100 ng/L individually for both PFOA and PFOS, along with a combined provisional guideline value of 500 ng/L for total PFAS. However, it is essential to note that the proposed 100 ng/L guideline for PFOA and PFOS is not based on health considerations, and the associated draft document does not indicate that this level of exposure is safe. Hence, comparing WHO's provisional guideline value with health-based values set by other agencies is inappropriate. Table 1 Summary of the regulatory and policy frameworks for PFAS in drinking water and groundwater across various locations worldwide. The data encompasses standards, guidelines, and regulatory updates from different agencies and departments. The standards and guidelines are presented in nanograms per liter (ng/L) and cover a range of PFAS compounds, including PFOS, PFOA, PFNA, PFBS, PFBA, PFHxS, PFHxA, PFPeA, PFHpA, 6:2 FTS, PFDA, PFOSA, and the sum of PFAS (Sources: ITRC Fact Sheet and Other Below-Mentioned References). Region Office Year Guidance Class/Note PFOS PFOA PFNA PFBS PFBA PFHxS PFHxA PFPeA PFHpA 6:2 FTS PFDA PFOSA 8:2 FTS Sum PFAS Australia 2019 health-based DW 70 560 70 2019 health-based RW 2000 10000 2000 2023 Proposed DW (a) 30 Canada HC 2019 MAC DW 600 200 2019 DWSV DW 20 15000 30000 600 200 200 200 200 200 2016 DWSV DW 600 200 200 15000 30000 600 200 200 200 China 2021 DW 40 80 European Union EU 2021 DWD DW (c) 100 2021 DWD DW (d) 500 2013 EQS AAC SW-Fresh 0.65 2013 EQS AAC SW-Marine 0.13 2013 EQS MAC SW-Fresh 36000 2013 EQS MAC SW-Marine 7200 Denmark EPA 2021 health-based DW & GW(e) 2 2 2 2 2 EPA 2021 health-based DW (h) 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 Germany GMH 2018 ST GW 100 100 60 6000 10000 100 6000 2006 health-based DW 300 300 2006 administrative DW 100 100 Italy 2017 EQS Proposed FW 100 3000 7000 1000 3000 IHI 2014 ST DW 30 500 500 Japan MOE 2020 Provisional DW (b) 50 50 Netherlands EPA 2011 DWC DW 530 Sweden LIVSFS 2022 health-based DW(i)(j) 4 4 4 4 2014 health-based DW 90 2014 administrative DW (f) 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 UK DWI 2021 Low Risk DW (g) 10 10 10 2021 Medium Risk DW (g) 90 90 90 2021 High Risk DW (g) 100 100 100 DEFRA 2009 health-based DW 300 10000 2009 administrative (Tier 1) DW 300 300 2009 administrative (Tier 2) DW 1000 5000 2009 administrative (Tier 3) DW 9000 45000 WHO 2022 Provisional DW 100 100 All data presented in the unit of ng/L. DW = Drinking Water, RW = Recreational Water, GW = Groundwater, SW = Surface Water. Standard or Guidance: DWSV = Drinking Water Screening Value, MAC = Maximum Acceptable/Allowable Concentration, EQS = Environmental Quality Standards, AAC = Annual Average Concentration, DWD = Drinking Water Directive, ST = Significance Thresholds, INEV = Indicative Level of Severe Pollution, DWC = Drinking water criteria. Agency/Department: DOH = Department of Health, HC = Health Canada, EU = European Unions, EPA = Environmental Protection Agency, RIVM = Dutch National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, IHI = Italian Health Institute, MOE = Ministry of Environment, DEFRA = Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, DWI = Drinking Water Inspectorate. Note (a): Sum of 18 PFAS EPA Method 537.1, (b): total or individual of PFOA & PFOS, (c): the totality of PFOS, (d): perfluoroalkyl moiety with three or more carbons or a perfluoroalkylether moiety with two or more carbons polyfluoroalkyl substances, (e): total sum of PFOA, PFOS, PFNA and PFHxS, (f): total sum of PFOA, PFOS, PFNA, PFHxS, PFBA, PFPeA, PFHxA, PFHpA, PFDA, PFBS, 6:2 FTS, PFOSA, (g): Concentration of any single PFAS in final drinking water, (h): individul or sum of PFPeA, PFOA, PFHxA, PFOS, PFHpA, PFBS, and PFHxS, (i): individual or sum of PFOS, PFOA, PFHxS, PFNA 4ng/L (j): PFAS-21: 100 ng/l 20 PFAS substances specified in European Parliament and Council Directive (EU) 2020/2184 as well as 6:2 FTS. Bibliometric Analysis In recent years, the popularity of bibliometrics has increased as an efficient approach to forecasting research evolution trends. This method quantitatively describes, evaluates, and monitors data, offering reasonably objective outcomes while overcoming researcher bias (Ramírez-Malule et al., 2020 ). In this comprehensive review article, we dig into the bibliographic analysis of PFAS. On September 18, 2023, we conducted a Search through the Web of Science with keywords including “PFAS”, “PFAA”, “PFOA”, “PFOS”, “per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances”, “perfluorinated compounds”, “perfluoroalkyl acids”, “polyfluorinated compounds”, “PFAS fate and transport”, “PFOA fate and transport”, “PFOS fate and transport”, and “per- and polyfluoroalkyl substance fate and transport” connecting with “or” function. This extensive search yielded 9,918 articles, proceedings papers, and news items. These articles’ knowledge of PFAS sheds light on the significant attention and research dedicated to the PFAS field of study. The global PFAS research landscape has seen many articles, with a yearly count exceeding thousand (Fig. 2 ). This comprehensive PFAS review article portrays notable research advancements, particularly over the past four years. Diving into the specifics, the United States has the highest number of PFAS research, with an impressive tally of 3353 papers and citations of 132,655. Notably, the collaborative efforts of the US authors extend to a global scale, with China following closely as the second-highest contributor. China produces 2791 papers related to PFAS, with a citation count 79,012. Canada secures the third position regarding the number of papers on PFAS. The global reach of PFAS research is further contributions from countries such as Sweden, Germany, Norway, Denmark, the Netherlands, Spain, France, Australia, Italy, Japan, Belgium, Switzerland, Taiwan, and South Korea , each of which has published more than 100 manuscripts, signifying their substantial engagement in PFAS research. Czech Republic, Poland, India, Finland, Singapore, Brazil, Greece, South Africa, and Austria have published over 50 manuscripts, showing their engagement in PFAS research (Fig. 3 ). European countries exhibit commendable collaboration networks (Fig. 4 ), highlighting the transcontinental exchange of knowledge and expertise in the empire of PFAS research. Given the populations of the USA (341.8 million), China (1.43 billion), Canada (40.8 million), Sweden (10.7 million), Germany (83.3 million), Norway (5.5 million), and Denmark (5.9 million), it is noteworthy that Sweden, Norway, and Denmark are highly productive relative to their smaller populations. PFAS research extends its influence across disciplines beyond traditional fields such as chemistry and environmental engineering. Current PFAS research is substantiated by related keywords employed by researchers in their studies. Among these keywords, “perfluorinated compounds”, “perfluoroalkyl substances”, “perfluorooctane sulfonate”, “PFOS”, “polyfluoroalkyl substances”, “PFOA”, “exposure”, “water”, “perfluorooctanoic acid”, “perfluoroalkyl acids”, “perfluorooctane sulfonate”, “toxicity”, “sorption”, “chemicals”, “serum”, “drinking-water”, “surfactants”, “fate”, “hydrophilicity”, “hydrophobicity”, etc. predominate. These keywords align with various facets of PFAS research, encompassing areas like the food web, fate and transport, wastewater treatment, bioaccumulation, coastal waters, edible fish , health implications in rats, disease studies, removal methods, metabolic processes, the use of film-forming foams, and much more (Fig. 5 ). This review article conducted a citation analysis of 1,459 sources identified through our literature search, as illustrated in Fig. 1 -SM. Meta-Analysis To conduct a meta-analysis , we refined our search and applied several filters, including “highly cited papers,” “open access,” and “hot paper” status. Furthermore, we limited the publication years to 2021, 2022, 2023, and 2024 documents and focused exclusively on articles. After this meticulous search and filtering process, we identified 128 articles that we thoroughly reviewed (Fig. 6 ). Examining these articles and their citations provides a unique window into the ever-evolving landscape of PFAS research, offering insights into the current state of knowledge and the directions in which it is headed. The analysis encompassed a total of 128 articles, categorized across six focus areas, each representing a distinct percentage of the entities of source and occurrence (25.4%), exposure (10.8%), remediation (3.8%), PFAS chemistry (21.5%), fate and behavior (2.3%), and fate and transport (36.2%) (Fig. 7 a). The investigation also embraced 22 matrices, delineating their research environmental compartments along with their respective percentages of unsaturated zone (17%), lab aquatic environment (5%), surface water (14.5%), groundwater (8.8%), atmosphere (6.3%), soil & smectite clay (8.2%), plant (2.5%), wetland (1.3%), marine (3.8%), lab (3.8%), sediments (10.7%), drinking water (1.3%), biosolids (1.3%), WWTP (4.4%), snow (0.6%), solid waste (1.3%), statistical analysis (1.3%), human (1.3%), macroinvertebrates, fish & animal (3.1%), watershed (1.9%), and rock & dolomite aquifer (1.3%), with integrity accounting for (0.6%) (Fig. 7 b). Environmental Source and Distribution To find where PFAS comes from, scientists look at different factors to understand how PFAS mobility is affected in a specific area. They use combined field, experimental, and modeling work to identify PFAS sources by comparing different types of PFAS at a contaminated site and considering the chemical conditions in that area (Charbonnet et al., 2021). This article summarizes PFAS sources in graphical abstract and Table 2 . Table 2 comprehensively overviews PFAS presence and distribution across different environmental settings worldwide. The primary source of PFAS is industrial manufacturing, where PFAS are produced and utilized in various processes (Buck et al., 2011 ; Feng et al., 2023 ). Goods such as nonstick and stain-resistant coating, semiconductors, water repellents, and fire-fighting foams involve PFAS compounds (Buck et al., 2011 ; Gonzalez et al., 2021 ; Lin et al., 2021 ; Reinikainen et al., 2022 ). An et al. found that industrial activities contributed to elevated PFPeA levels in water and sediments of the Jiulong River and Xiamen Bay regions of China (An et al., 2023 ). Manufacturing facilities become point sources of PFAS contamination, releasing these substances into the air, water, and soil during production and disposal (Feng et al., 2023 ; M. Liu et al., 2022 ). Poyang Lake in China showed high PFBA levels in surface water from the fluoropolymer industry, textile, and food packaging (Tang et al., 2022 ). North Carolina, USA, found significant perfluoro-2-(perfluoromethoxy) propanoic acid (PMPA) concentrations near PFAS manufacturing facilities (Pétré et al., 2021 ). This highlights the pressing demand for sustainable alternatives and responsible manufacturing practices. Firefighting practices represent another significant source of PFAS contamination, with firefighting foams containing PFOS and PFOA widely utilized in fuel fires and aircraft accidents (ITRC, 2024a ; Liuzza, 2024 ). This usage has been associated with notable environmental impacts. In Uppsala and Stockholm, Sweden, elevated PFOS levels were detected in river water, linked to firefighting training activities and the discharge of wastewater effluent (Nguyen et al., 2022 ). In Michigan, USA, significant PFOS concentrations were observed in municipal influent and effluent following an AFFF spill incident (Vitale et al., 2023 ). Rhode Island, USA, recorded high concentrations of 6:2-FTS attributable to AFFF deployment (Katz et al., 2022 ; Pétré et al., 2021 ). In 2019, an investigation assessing PFAS presence in groundwater across five aquifer systems in the eastern United States revealed detection of 14 out of 24 PFAS, with elevated levels linked to distance to the nearest fire-training area, titanium concentration percentage of urban land use, and dissolved and volatile carbon concentrations are the top five predictors of PFAS detections (McMahon et al., 2022 ). PFOS contamination in drinking water in Southeast Alaska stemmed from airport operations and fire training sites (Babayev et al., 2022 ). In contrast, Massachusetts, USA, experienced increased PFHxS concentrations in reference groundwater due to fire training activities (Barber et al., 2023 ). Finland has identified AFFF-impacted sites as major sources of PFAS across various environmental matrices (Reinikainen et al., 2022 ). The aftermath reveals a significant environmental cost is associated with firefighting with PFAS since PFAS from firefighting foams infiltrate soils and contaminate water resources. The persistence of these chemicals used before poses long-term challenges (Liuzza, 2024 ). Liu et al., 2021 investigated 93 classes of PFAS at four Canadian airports and found that multiple chemistries affected all AFFF sites, with the active firefighter training areas displaying a wider range and higher total PFAS content compared to nonfunctional sites. Notably, zwitterionic and cationic PFAS were identified as significant constituents, accounting for 34.5–85.5% of the total PFAS mass in most surface soil samples within the points source. However, their presence was relatively sparse, constituting less than 20% of groundwater samples (Nickerson et al., 2021 ). Background soil surrounding the source zone predominantly contained unknown precursors, with atmospheric deposition being identified as the primary contributing factor (Nickerson et al., 2021 ). In AFFF-impacted soils, precursors from AFFF were captured by high-resolution mass spectrometry. Using these technologies as well as total oxidized precursors (TOP) assay, suspect screening, and non-targeted analysis, PFAS were characterized in an AFFF currently sanctioned for use by the U.S. military (Christie et al., 2023 ; da Silva et al., 2022 ; Nickerson et al., 2021 ). The cumulative PFAS concentration identified through targeted analysis and suspect screening was juxtaposed with the outcomes of the TOP assay, revealing that more than 90% (20.2 mM) of the estimated total PFAS concentration (22.4 mM) was categorized as “unknown” PFAS (Shojaei et al., 2022 ). The total estimated concentration of the 10 identified PFAS closely matched the “unknown” fraction (20.2 mM) disclosed by the TOP assay (Shojaei et al., 2022 ). It should be noted that suspect screening methodologies may misidentify PFAS as isomers if solely based on accurate mass matching, resulting in notable different conclusions, including biotransformation pathways. PFAS and light non-aqueous phase liquids (NAPLs) are found together at sites where AFFF is used, as demonstrated by advanced analytical techniques detecting elevated levels of PFOS and other PFAS in NAPLs extracted from military installations. Analysis of field-collected NAPLs from AFFF-affected military sites revealed a wide array of anionic PFAS, including PFOS and perfluoroalkyl sulfonamides, indicating their potential as undiscovered reservoirs of PFAS contamination, with 6:2 FTOH emerging as the only detectable neutral PFAS (Christie et al., 2023 ). PFAS compounds have been found in wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) influent, effluent, and sludge worldwide (Desgens-Martin et al., 2023 ; S. Y. Liu et al., 2022 ; Rodríguez-Varela et al., 2021 ; Seay et al., 2023 ; Tavasoli et al., 2021 ). Studies have revealed that the concentrations of several PFAS substances, including perfluorocarboxylic acids (PFCA) and perfluoro sulfonic acids (PFSA), increase from influent to effluent, indicating biodegradation of PFAS precursors and subsequent release of PFAS (S. Y. Liu et al., 2022 ; Rodríguez-Varela et al., 2021 ; Tavasoli et al., 2021 ). Wastewater discharge emerged as a major PFAS source in Pakistan’s central river system (Khan et al., 2022 ). Population size and urban land use were the most reliable indicators for anticipating PFAS loads to WWTP. For instance, the estimated total of influent loads for specific PFAS in California was approximately 61,000 ± 40,000 kg per year (Desgens-Martin et al., 2023 ). Moreover, there was a notable correlation between the annual sum of PFAS in the assessed regions and the overall pollution burden. Tavasoli et al., 2021 investigated the fate and distribution of 24 PFAS in six municipal WWTPs in New Hampshire. These compounds, originating from diverse sources like household products, industrial wastewater, septic discharge, and firefighting wastewaters, entered the environment through WWTP. The analysis detected 7 to 12 PFAS constituents in both influent and effluent, and their concentrations ranged from 30 to 128 ng/L. Short-chain PFAS dominated effluent and influent, whereas long-chain compounds were predominant in WWTP sludge. The TOP assay indicated the existence of unspecified PFAS precursors in both the influent and effluent samples. Notably, the variation of oxidizable PFAS precursors with season indicated a potential influence of temperature or season on microbial-mediated PFAS precursor transformation. These findings offer insights into PFAS transformation dynamics in New England municipal WWTP during different seasons (Tavasoli et al., 2021 ). The efficiency of PFAS removal during wastewater treatment processes demonstrates its possible significance in meeting the environmental quality standard (EQS) established for PFOS under the Water Framework Directive. The findings highlight that effluents frequently surpass the annual average EQS for PFOS and PFOA by factors ranging from 1.1-fold to 40-fold and 2-fold to 22-fold, respectively. However, many individual effluents reduce fluorocarbon concentrations downstream from the discharge location. Elevated concentrations upstream indicate widespread inputs of these perfluoro compounds into aquatic ecosystems, posing regulatory challenges through individual WWTP permits (Comber et al., 2021 ). Focusing on the chlorinated polyfluorinated ether sulfonates (Cl-PFESA) fate in wastewater originating from electroplating and textile printing and dyeing procedures, Liu et al., 2022 compared the behavior of different PFAS. The research conducted in the southeast region of China revealed that the total PFAS concentrations at the WWTP for textile printing and dyeing processes were 520 ± 30 ng/L. At the same time, the electroplating WWTP effluents had 4200 ± 270 ng/L concentrations. 6:2 Cl-PFESA (18%) and 8:2 Cl-PFESA (0.7%) predominated within electroplating wastewater. Trace levels of Cl-PFESA were also identified in textile printing and dyeing wastewater, likely originating from diffuse emissions. The study observed consistent mass flows of dissolved-phase Cl-PFESA and PFAS through the WWTPs, with sludge sedimentation predominantly capturing Cl-PFESA. Nevertheless, specific treatment processes may induce fluctuations in wastewater concentrations and lead to the relative enrichment of Cl-PFESAs, as evidenced by the 6:2/8:2 Cl-PFESA ratios. The findings emphasize that Cl-PFESA and PFSAs are more susceptible to the examined treatment processes' influences than PFCA (S. Y. Liu et al., 2022 ). Constructed wetlands in Tianjin, China, identified PFOS, PFOA, and PFBS as major PFAS (Xu et al., 2022 ). Landfills, often considered the final resting place for discarded materials, have become inadvertent breeding grounds for PFAS contamination. The consequences of improper disposal of PFAS-containing products as these substances leach into the surrounding environment, endangering both surface and groundwater (Gallen et al., 2018 ; Y. L. Liu et al., 2021 ). In landfilling processes, PFAS transform precursor states in fresh vehicle leachates to PFAAs in aged landfill leachates, indicating precursor conversion. Various PFAS, such as 8Cl-PFOS, PFPrS, 8:2 Cl-PFESAs, 6:2, PFECHS, and NaDONA, have been detected, suggesting potential degradation pathways (Y. L. Liu et al., 2021 ). Street sweeping samples from diverse locations, including Gainesville, Florida, reveal a range of PFAS compositions, with the identification of previously unreported compounds like hexadecafluorosebacic acid and perfluoro-3,6,9-trioxaundecane-1,11-dioic acid, indicating unique contamination patterns (Ahmadireskety et al., 2022 ). Analysis of stormwater pond sediment, encompassing 51 PFAS, highlights PFCA as the most prevalent class, with correlations between PFAS concentrations and land-use indicators, particularly road-type functional classification, suggesting its utility in predicting PFAS contamination in stormwater ponds and emphasizing the need for further monitoring prioritization (Olmsted et al., 2021 ). The atmospheric transport of PFAS introduces a global dimension to the issue. Airborne PFAS, borne by rain, snow, and dust, can traverse vast distances, infiltrating even remote areas far from industrial hotspots (Bastow et al., 2022 ; Du et al., 2023 ; Madronich et al., 2023 ). Agricultural practices also contribute significantly to PFAS contamination. Using PFAS-containing pesticides and fertilizers and applying biosolids introduce PFAS into the soil (Costello & Lee, 2020 ). For instance, using sulfurated-based ant baits in Brazil and exporting them to other countries likely plays a role in the global release of PFOS (Guida et al., 2023 ). Once PFAS are in the soil, they can persist and migrate, potentially reaching water bodies such as groundwater and surface water. Runoff from agricultural lands can transport PFAS to nearby streams and rivers, amplifying the dispersion of these chemicals in aquatic ecosystems. Irrigation with PFAS-contaminated water makes it challenging for plants to avoid PFAS uptake (Mroczko et al., 2022 ). Studies have attributed PFAS sources wastewater irrigation to crops and groundwater (Canez et al., 2021 ; Mroczko et al., 2022 ). The extent of PFAS uptake by plants is influenced by factors such as the length of the PFAS chain, the type of functional group, and the specific plant species and organs involved (Ghisi et al., 2019 ). The aerial transfer of volatile chemicals, which can subsequently be absorbed and metabolized by plant leaves, is an alternate mechanism for plant PFAS occurrence (Ghisi et al., 2019 ). However, many processes that influence the subsequent transport of PFAS from soil to crops are yet unknown (Ghisi et al., 2019 ). PFAS chemicals in agricultural products originate from plant PFAS uptake from polluted soils (Lesmeister et al., 2021 ). Livestock may be exposed to PFAS through drinking PFAS-contaminated water or consuming feed, or grass produced in PFAS-contaminated soil (Death et al., 2021 ). China's Yangtze River and Taihu Lake displayed elevated levels of PFHxA and PFOA during water diversion projects (T. Liu et al., 2021 ), with increased PFOS concentrations observed in surface water during hurricanes in Florida, USA (Martinez et al., 2022 ). Taiwan detected significant PFAS concentrations in upstream river water, and PFAS concentration decreased with the increase in salinity (Shiu et al., 2023 ). River basins in Alabama, USA, exhibited high PFBS concentrations from various sources (Viticoski et al., 2022 ). The South China Sea demonstrated heightened PFOA levels in both water and sediment from numerous unknown sources (S. K. Xiao et al., 2021 ). Table 2 PFAS concentrations range, source, number of samples, location of study, Sample collected periods, Abundance PFAS highest/Average concentration, and number of PFAS tested Data/Quantified PFAS: A Global Overview. Location Number of samples Number of PFAS tested Data/Quantified PFAS Sources Abundance PFAS highest/Avg. Concentration (unit) ΣPFAS Data Range Sample Collection Period Article Florida, United States 117 37/26 Street sweeping Key West N-EtFOSAA had highest concentration 18.16 ng/g ΣPFAS 0.01 to 41.24 ng/g April to May, 2020 Ahmadireskety et al., 2022 Jiulong River and Xiamen Bay regions, China 56 Water & 22 Sediment 25/25 Manufacturing machinery, paper packaging, wastewater treatment plant discharge, airport operations, and dock activities. Jiulong River PFPeA had the highest concentration 65.57 ng/L. The mean concentrations of PFPeA, PFOS, PFBA, and PFOA were 11.13, 5.65, 4.03, and 2.50 ng/L. ΣPFAS 10.48 to 149.29 ng/L January, April, and July, 2022 An et al., 2023 Southeast Alaska, United States 27 Drinking water & 3 Field Blank, 40 Human serum & 4 Field Blank 39/14 water, 39/17 serum Airport operations and fire training sites PFOS had the highest concentration 20.77 ng/L. Water ΣPFAS not detected to 120 ng/L & Serum 0.017 to 13.1 ng/mL November 2019. Babayev et al., 2022 Massachusetts, United States 105 Minnows (Pimephales promelas), 37 Mussels (Ligumia subrostrata), 13 polar organic chemical integrative samplers (POCIS) & 10 polyethylene tube samplers (PETS)/ 26 groundwater 29/24 groundwater, 31/26 fish , and 31/24 mussel, 31/23 POCIS, 31/24 PETS Fire training activities, WWTP Reference groundwater most abundant PFHxS 83 ± 5.9 ng/L, & contaminated groundwater PFHxS 15,000 ng/L. Reference Groundwater ΣPFAS 120 to 140 ng/L & 6100 to 15,000 ng/L Contaminated Groundwater 2015 and 2018 Barber et al., 2023 Svalbard & Jan Mayen, Arctic Norway 32 Surface snow 7/7 Atmospheric deposition The highest observed flux for Trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) spanning between 22 and 1800 ng/m 2 . Highest TFA 270 ng/L. ΣPFAS 7.48 to 270.04 ng/L January to August, 2019 Björnsdotter et al., 2021 Arizona, United States 104 Well Water 16/8 Wastewater Irrigation Highest PFOS 340 ng/L ΣPFAS not detected to 471.8 ng/L July 2016 to December 2019 Cáñez et al., 2021 Military Bases, United States 5 Military bases, 17 light NAPL Groundwater & 2 Field Blank 51/ 16 Residual light NAPLs at AFFF-impacted field sites FhxSA occurred at the highest 67600 ng/L. ΣPFAS not detected to 75247 ng/L No Mentioned Christie et al., 2023 Florida, United States 45 Surface water 51/21 detected three or more samples Military bases, airports, and industries PFOS & PFPeA highest concentration 269 ng/L & 51.9 ng/L, respectively ΣPFAS 2.96 to 676.6 ng/L February, 2020 da Silva et al., 2022 California, United States 16 Central and Southern California WWTPs, 198 Surface water 18/13 Wastewater San Bernardino site’s highest concentration PFHxA 249 ng/L ΣPFAS 42.11 to 4466.9 ng/L September 2020 to June 2022 Desgens-Martin et al., 2023 Shandong province, Northern China 8 Surface water, 27 Groundwater, 36 Dust, 9 Soil and 49 Tree leaf and Bark 18/16 surface Water Fluorochemical industry During 2021, the large-scale fluorochemical industrial complex in Shandong, China, released up to 1026 kg and 5040kg of HFPO into air and water respectively. Furthermore, 1890 kg and 7560 kg of PFOA were discharged into air and water correspondingly. Surface Water ΣPFAS 9529.95 to 777187.6 ng/L. Groundwater ΣPFAS 10.6–6520 ng/L. July, 2019 Feng et al., 2023 Florida, United States 8 Locations, 150 Aquatic vegetable (Seagrasses, freshwater plant, green macroalgae, red macroalgae, floating aquatic plant, and the sedge) 92/ 12 Numerous unknown sources Lake Okeechobee L-PFOS 41.1 ng/L ΣPFAS 0.18 to 70 ng/g January to March 2022 Griffin et al., 2023 Northern Germany 41 Sampling sites, 41 Sediments & 1 suspended solids 43/26 Numerous unknown sources The Sediments highest concentration of PFOS 39.44 ng/g ΣPFAS 0.14 to 44 ng/g 2018, 2019, & 2020 Guckert et al., 2022 Heilongjiang Province, Northeast China 39 Females, 52 Males 26/26 Daily eating habits and environmental factors Higher concentrations 6:2 FTSA 255 pg/mL ΣPFAS 34.0 to 12900 pg/mL January to October, 2018 Hu et al., 2023 Rhode Island, United States 9 Surface water 24/11 AFFF deployment Highest concentration observed 6:2-FTS 310.88 ng/L ΣPFAS 21.67 to 332.43 ng/L July to December, 2018 Katz et al., 2022 Central river system, Pakistan 26 Surface water, 26 sediments 17/12 The release of wastewater from industrial or municipal sources, runoff from agricultural fields, and urban areas Surface water highest concentration observed PFHxA 46.32 ng/L. Sediment highest concentration observed PFHxA 10.16 ng/g dw Surface water ∑PFAA 2.28 to 221.75 ng/L & Sediment ∑PFAA 0.78 to 29.19 ng/g dw January to February 2018 Khan et al., 2022 United States 164 Urban River sites & 682 total fish (25 species ), 157 Great Lake sites & 423 total fish (18 species ) Urban River sites 13/13 and Great Lake sites 13/12 Consumer products, precursors, fluoropolymer manufacture and processing, notably polyvinylidene fluoride manufacture, metal plating. Highest PFOS concentrations were 80 and 127 ng/g in Great Lakes and urban river samples Urban river ∑PFAS 2.5 to 139.1 ng/g & Great Lakes ∑PFAS 3.39 to 88.10 ng/g May 2008 to November 2010 Stahl et al., 2014 & Lin et al., 2021 Shandong Province, Eastern China 24 Lakes and Reservoirs 17/7 The manufacture of fluoropolymers, textile and fabric industries, food packaging, metal plating, and deposition from the atmosphere. Highest PFOA 92.7 ng/L ∑PFAA 1.0 to 107.0 ng/L August 2021 to January 2022 Liu et al., 2023 Central and Eastern Canada 45 Surface Soil & 70 Groundwater 93/66 soils, 93/58 Groundwater AFFF Impacted sites PFOS most abundant compounds in soil median: 754 ng/g dw and groundwater median: 171 ng/L Soil ∑PFAS 0.03 to 9198.5 ng/g dw & Not Detected to 10,800 ng/L in Groundwater. September 2016 to February 2017 Liu et al., 2022 Southeast China Entire treatment processes of the two different WWTP 25/17 EP WWTP, 25/15 in PD WWTP Electroplating, textile printing and dyeing industries In EP wastewater, PFOS exhibited the highest levels at 1300 ± 98 ng/L, subsequently 6:2 Cl-PFESA at 220 ± 23 ng/L and PFHxS at 460 ± 18 ng/L, while 6:2 Cl-PFAES indicated PD-wastewater, and other PFAS showed varying influent and effluent concentrations. Effluent ∑PFAS 520 ± 30 to 4200 ± 270 ng/L & 590 ± 39 to 2100 ± 130 ng/L Influent November, 2019 Liu et al., 2022 Yangtze River and Taihu Lake, China 14 Sites, 28 surface water 18/10 Water diversion projects Maximum PFHxA 325.96 ng/L during the diversion project & during flooding in July highest PFOA 170.23 ng/L. January ∑PFAA 117.77 ng/L to 543.3 ng/L & July 19.13 to 231.35 ng/L January to July, 2020 Liu et al., 2021 North central Florida, United States 9 Landfill Leachate, 9 commercial, 9 residential waste collection vehicles & 4 Field Blank 51/38 landfill leachates, 51/36 commercial, and 51/48 residential vehicles Solid waste The highest PFHxS concentration, at 1900 ng/L, was observed in landfill leachate, PFPrS reached its peak of 95 ng/L in commercial vehicle leachate. In residential vehicle leachate, PFHxS concentration peaked at 150 ng/L. Landfill ∑PFAS 9700 ng/L, Residential 3400 ng/L, & Commercial 3300 ng/L 2018 Liu et al., 2021 Jiangsu and Zhejiang Provinces, China 21 overlying waters, 21 pore water, 21 suspended particulate matter (SPM), 21 Sediments 13/12 overlaying water, 13/10 pore water, 13/13 in SPM, 13/9 in sediments Ship navigation Maximum concentration overlying surface water PFHpA 616.78 ng/L, Pore water PFOA 56676 ng/L, SPM PFHpA 3320.63 ng/g & Sediment PFOS 26.07 ng/g Overlying surface water ∑PFAA 502.52 to 1937.65 ng/L, Pore water 2627.17 to 97467.6 ng/L, SPM 1069.15 to 9048.52 ng/g & Sediment 29.95 to 67.16 ng/g August, 2020 Ma et al., 2021 Nunavut, Canada 82 Permafrost thaw and snowmelt Freshwater 19/16 Atmospheric deposition Highest concentration observed PFBA 3.8 ng/L ∑PFAS ranged of 2.5 to 21 ng/L June 2012 to August 2015 MacInnis et al., 2022 Florida, United States 49 Surface water 51/17 Hurricane increase exposure During the storm Peak concentration of PFOS 4.998 ng/L ∑PFAS 0.762 to 13.66 ng/L March 2019 to March 2020 Martinez et al., 2022 Eastern United States 254 Drinking water, 40 Field Blank 24/14 Concentrations of tritium, fire training site, urban land usage, and levels of VOC and DOC. Highest concentration of PFOS 1500 ng/L ∑PFAS Not detected to 1645.5 ng/L 2019 McMahon et al., 2022 Uppsala & Stockholm, Sweden 67 River water 12 Fire-fighting training areas and Wastewater The highest concentration observed PFOS 357 ng/L ∑PFAS 0.56 to 644 ng/L February 2013 to March 2014 Nguyen et al., 2022 Military installation located, United States 105 Soil & 58 Groundwater 197/152 soil, 69/40 groundwater AFFF impacted site Perfluorohexane sulfonamide potential transformation product was high concentrations of 448 ng/g in soil, groundwater 3.4 mg/L Groundwater total PFAS 164463 to 6954052 ng/L & Soil 23.013 to 29663.36 ng/g dw 2017 Nickerson et al., 2021 Florida, United States 54 samples in total, comprising 9 sites with 2 locations per site and triplicate samples for each location. 51/28 Nearest roadway The highest concentration observed PFDoA 4779 ng/kg ∑PFAS 7.2 to 4800 ng/kg 2018 Olmsted et al., 2021 North Carolina, United States 78 Groundwater & 22 Surface Water 29/21 PFAS Manufacturing Facility Groundwater peak perfluoro-2-(perfluoromethoxy) propanoic acid (PMPA) 1365 ng/L. Highest surface water PMPA 1190 ng/L. Groundwater ∑PFAS 20–4773 ng/L & Surface water 426–3617 ng/L 2018 to 2019 Pétré et al., 2021 Finland 72 Surface Water, 5 wastewater, 26 groundwater, 3 earthworms, 7 Fish , 2 sediments, 27 Soil 23/23 AFFF-impacted sites Groundwater PFOS 3500 ng/L, Surface water PFHxS 13000 & PFOS 42000 ng/L, Wastewater PFOS 250 ng/L, Sediment PFTrDA 235 ng/g dw, Soil PFOS 1530 ng/g dw, Fish PFDA 1.57 ng/g fw, Earthworm PFOS 104, & PFHxS 77.8 ng/g fw Groundwater ∑PFAS 20 to 3997.27 ng/L, Surface water 0.6 to 73336 ng/L, Wastewater 93 to 326.7 ng/L, Sediment 145.102 to 507.67 ng/g dw, Soil 0.364 to 878.69 ng/g dw, Fish 7.4 to 26.87 ng/g fw, Earthworm 135.15 to 184.19 ng/g fw 2016 to 2019 Reinikainen et al., 2022 Mexico City, Mexico 54 Wastewater, 15 Field Blank 5/5 Wastewater The highest concentration observed PFBA 186.6 ng/L ∑PFAS 482.6–724.8 ng/L April to October, 2019 Rodríguez-Varela et al., 2021 Germany 50 Wild boar livers, 50 Soil, 26 Fish , 20 Sediments 66/31 Paper sludges, industrial emissions, and atmospheric deposition PFOS in areas paper sludge and industrial emission 426 and 82 ng/g, respectively and PFOA in area industrial emission 650 ng/g Soil ∑PFAS Not detected to 6.76 ng/g, Sediments 1.42 to 33.58 ng/g, European Chub liver 4.8 to 90.54 ng/g & Wild boar liver 4.8 to 876.95 ng/g 2019 to 2020 Rupp et al., 2023 Global 41 Ambient Air 24/22 Numerous unknown sources The highest Arauca, Colombia concentration observed 6:2 FTOH 143 pg/m3. Ionic + Neutral ∑PFAS 4.33-1291.35 pg/m3 2017 Saini et al., 2023 Ohio, United States 4 Influent, 12 effluent, 4 Ambient Air, 12 Potable water, 12 Sludge, 12 Tray scrubber water, 12 Mercury scrubber water, 4 Stack gas, 12 Wet ash slurry, 4 Grit 19/9 potable water, 29/20 non-potable water, 29/15 Solids, 31/30 Ambient Air, 32/13 Stack gas Wastewater Influent to effluent increases PFBA (19.6 ± 29.8 ng/L to 72.0 ± 75.9 ng/L) and smaller increase HFPO-DA (7.5 ± 2.5 ng/L to 18.6 ± 6.9 ng/L), Ionic PFAS air PFBA (22.5 ± 6.6 pg/m 3 ) and PFOA (26.3 ± 31.9 pg/m 3 ) Mean ∑PFAS concentrations influent (117 ± 39 ng/L), effluent (167 ± 83 ng/L), Venturi/Tray Scrubber (86.9 ± 17.9 ng/L), Ash Slurry (136 ± 44.7 ng/L), Potable Water (9.89 ± 0.64 ng/L), Mercury Scrubber (84.8 ± 82.9 ng/L), Grit (1.32 ± 2.46 ng/g), Sludge (31.3 ± 3.72 ng/g), stack gas (523 ± 869 ng/m3), ambient air ionic + neutral (836.32 ± 66.3 ng/m3). August, 2019 Seay et al., 2023 Andaya and Birkenes, Norway 2 locations, 115 Ambient aerosol, 16 Field Blank 11/10 Sea spray aerosols PFOA < 0.003 to 1.3 pg/m3, PFOS < 0.003 to 0.14 pg/m3 at Andaya. PFOS was detected in almost all samples Birkenes & Andaya Andaya ∑PFAS 0.049 to 3.56 pg/m3 & Birkenes 0.019 to 2.46 pg/m3 April 2018 to July 2020 Sha et al., 2022 Pearl River Delta, China 9 locations, 3 Cities 7/7 Meteorological conditions and local emissions 8:2 FTOH & 10:2 FTOH were detected in all samples and their range 222–7802 pg/m3, 75.6–6542 pg/m3 respectively with averages 1642 ± 2049 pg/m3, 978 ± 1509 pg/m3 respectively. ∑PFAS 371 pg/m3 to 18700 pg/m3 June 2018 to June 2019 Shen et al., 2023 Taiwan 7 Surface water, 4 sediments, 7 suspended particulate matter, 8 Field Blanks 8/8 Upstream river’s industrial and residential sewages The highest suspended particulate matter observed PFOA 9.01 ng/g dw Water ∑PFAS 0.59 to 7.40 ng/L, Sediments 0.05 to 0.13 ng/g and suspended particulate matters 0.54 to 9.08 ng/g. January 2021 Shiu et al., 2023 Poyang Lake, China 10 Sites, 51 Surface water & 10 sediments 35/31 Food packaging, textile treatments and fluoropolymer manufacturing Surface water the highest PFBA 530 ng/L. Sediments highest sodium p-perfluorous nonenoxybenzene sulfonate 1.1 ng/g dw Surface Water total PFAS 23 to 1000 ng/L, suspended particulate matters1.3–9.8 ng/L, Sediments 0.26–2.9 ng/g dw July 2019 to December 2019 Tang et al., 2022 New Hampshire, United States 6 WWTP, 32 Influent & Effluents, 4 sludge, 5 surface water, 2 Field Blank 24/15 Wastewater Influent PFHxS 94 ng/L Precursor PFPeA 11210 ng/L, Effluent PFPeA 73 ng/L & PFHxA 65 ng/L, Sludge PFOS 98 ng/g, Surface Water PFBA 13 ng/L Influent ∑PFAS 31 to 132 ng/L, Effluent 30 to 198 ng/L, Sludge 0.54 to 26.3 ng/g, Surface Water 6.1 to 51 ng/L 2019 Tavasoli et al., 2021 Michigan, United States Municipal Influent 94 influent, 71 effluent, and 49 biosolids, primary sludge 29, Secondary sludge 30, Kalamazoo River water 4, Sanitary Sewer Manholes 13 28/21 Influents, 28/14 Effluent AFFF Spill The influent highest PFOS concentrations at 24,000 and 33,100 ng/l in the first two samples taken 4- and 6-hours post-spill, respectively. Meanwhile, the effluent reached its peak PFOS levels at around 1.16 and 1.25 days, registering concentrations of 2850 and 2410 ng/l, respectively. Manhole Sewer ∑PFAS 35.03 to 1925.56 ng/L, influent 34.96 to 46573.5 ng/L, effluent 73.72 to 6372.4 ng/L, sludge 20.05 to 2100.85 ng/g, biosolids 21.34 to 2180.3 ng/g dw, surface water 4.5 to 27.4 ng/L Background sampling May 2020 to March 29, 2021 & After the spill sampling March 30 to June 4, 2021, Vitale et al., 2023 Alabama, United States 10 River basins, 74 Surface water 17/6 Numerous unknown sources Highest PFBS concentration of 79.4 ng/L. ∑PFAS Not detected to 108 ng/L June to August, 2020 Viticoski et al., 2022 Northern China 2 regions & 3 North Shelter Forest 16 Air, 8 Soil, and 18 Leaf 27/16 soil & Air, 27/13 leaf Atmospheric deposition Air Σi-PFAS, PFOA 1.57 ± 0.76 pg/m 3 and PFBA, 2.31 ± 0.82 pg/m 3 , Σn-PFAS 8:2 FTOH 8.13 to 21.2 pg/m 3 (mean: 14.5 ± 4.2 pg/m 3 ) Air ΣPFAS 1.09 to 44.9 pg/m3, soil 98.0 to 707 pg/g dw & Leaf 105 to 993 pg/g dw 2017 to 2018 Wang et al., 2022 South China Sea 31 Sites, 31 Water & 26 Sediment 21/14 water, 21/7 sediments Numerous unknown sources Water highest PFOA 1.46 ng/L and in sediment with highest PFOA 0.19 ng/g Water ∑PFAS 0.98 to 2.64 ng/L & Sediments 0.19 to 0.66 ng/g, dw April, 2019 Xiao et al., 2021 Tianjin, China 5 Sites, 15 Water, 15 Sediments 20/ 9 water, 20/7 sediments Surrounding WWTP PFOS, PFBS and PFOA were dominant in water and sediment in the Constructed Wetlands Water ∑PFAS 38.94 to 81.65 ng/L & Sediments 1.23–4.31 ng/g, dw July, 2019 Xu et al., 2022 Fate and Occurrence of PFAS PFAS are renowned for their remarkable chemical stability and resilience against degradation processes, which enables them to persist in the environment for extended periods. They accumulate in various environmental compartments such as soil, water, sediment, and biota. This persistence raises concerns about the long-term environmental impact of PFAS contamination. The degree to which PFAS binds to particles substantially impacts their fate, bioavailability, and toxicity (Costello & Lee, 2020 ). Understanding the potential environmental pathways that PFAS affect human health is essential to protect human health and the environment. Direct PFAS release to the environment, such as urban runoff, industrial air emission or atmospheric deposition, discharge of treated wastewater effluent, disposal of solid waste in landfills, industrial processing discharge, and disposal of PFAS-containing waste from firefighting activities are the key sources of PFAS contamination (An et al., 2023 ; Barton et al., 2007 ; Costello & Lee, 2020 ; Ghisi et al., 2019 ; Liu et al., 2023 ). PFAS fate is governed by abiotic and biotic degradation, adsorption to organic matter, and volatilization in aquatic and terrestrial systems (S. Y. Liu et al., 2022 ; Xu et al., 2022 ; Yan et al., 2022 ). Several researchers have shown that PFAS are ordinary in the aquatic environment and are more prevalent in surface water upstream of WWTPs (Desgens-Martin et al., 2023 ; Tavasoli et al., 2021 ). Aquatic and terrestrial systems determine PFAS fate by abiotic and biotic degradation, adsorption to organic matter, and volatilization. The PFAS are known to be difficult to break down in aerobic and anaerobic conditions (Awad et al., 2022 ; Zhou et al., 2022 ). PFAS fates are also influenced by the characteristics of PFAS, such as the length of the alkyl chain, and environmental conditions, such as pH, temperature, and other chemicals or contaminants in the surrounding ecosystem. Additionally, factors like soil or sediment type and composition and microbial communities' presence can play significant roles in determining PFAS persistence and behavior. Furthermore, the transport mechanisms within aquatic and terrestrial systems, such as groundwater movement and surface water flow, can affect the distribution and dispersion of PFAS contaminants over time. Fluorotelomer sulfonates (FTS) and fluorotelomer alcohols (FOTH), which have been demonstrated to convert to stable PFAA by aeration and oxygenation processes in WWTP, have been attributed to the increase of PFAA in WWTP. The PFAS compounds that convert to statable PFAS are considered PFAS precursors. Several recent studies have suggested that precursor chemicals could be transformed during wastewater treatment. However, it does not seem feasible for them to biodegrade during the wastewater treatment. The solubility of the plasticizer plays a critical role in determining the fate of PFAS within plastics, influencing factors such as the extent of leaching from plastic products, the mobility of PFAS, and their fate within the plastic matrix (Martin et al., 2022). PFAS can be hazardous to aquatic creatures at high concentrations, and their solubility influences their toxicity in aquatic species . PFAS are used in metal plating for their unique properties and incorporated into various consumer products for functionalities like water and stain resistance. Rodríguez-Varela et al., 2021 employed liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry to validate an analytical method for quantifying five PFCA in wastewater from a megacity of Mexico. Monthly sampling in the underground sewerage system and the primary open-air canal consistently indicated levels of the target PFCA, totaling 591.1 ± 39 ng/L in the open-air canal and 419.4 ± 24.3 ng/L in underground sewage. Short-chain PFCA (PFHxA, PFHpA, and PFBA) predominated; however, concentrations of PFUnA and PFOA were comparatively lower. Along the open-air canal, discrete sampling points revealed elevated levels of short-chain PFCA attributed to clandestine discharges of industrial and municipal wastewater, accompanied by reduced levels of PFOA and PFUnA. Notably, 60 km downstream, where canal water was used for irrigation, significant concentrations of PFCA were found, underscoring the environmental impact of short-chain PFCA, especially in treated sewage effluent. Atmospheric deposition has been identified as the predominant source of PFAS in Nunavut, Canada (MacInnis et al., 2022 ), mirroring findings in northern China, where it emerged as a notable contributor to PFAS contamination in both soils, leave, and air (Wang et al., 2022 ). In the Three-North Shelter Forest in northern China, Wang et al. ( 2022 ) examined the influence of forests on PFAS transport and fate. Sampling during 2017–2018 revealed higher PFAS concentrations inside forests than outside, with mean ratios ranging from 10.6 ± 3.1pg/m 3 to 2.83 ± 0.78 pg/m 3 . A positive correlation between individual PFAS n-octanol − air partition coefficient and air concentration (Qair) was observed, particularly noting higher Qair values for ionic PFAS in broad-leaved forests than coniferous ones. Leaf samples displayed significantly greater 8:2 FTS levels, suggesting potential differences in PFAS behavior related to surface activity (Wang et al., 2022 ). In Arctic Norway's Svalbard & Jan Mayen region, trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) primarily enters the environment through atmospheric deposition, emerging as the predominant PFAS contamination pathway (Björnsdotter et al., 2021 ). Arauca, Colombia, experiences high concentrations of FTOH in ambient air (Saini et al., 2023 ), while PFOS and PFOA are detected in sea spray aerosols in Andøya and Birkenes, Norway (Sha et al., 2022 ). Similarly, elevated FTOH concentrations are observed in ambient aerosols in the Pearl River Delta, China (Shen et al., 2023 ). The extended model is designed to predict various parameters such as solubility, Koc, Kow, Kd, and critical micelle concentration (CMC), all of which are essential for forecasting the environmental fate of PFAS. These forecasts are crucial for understanding the long-distance transport of PFAS and can be applied in multimedia models. The proposed model also predicts how pH and speciation influence the extent of PFAS interfacial partitioning, which is vital for comprehending the behavior of ionizable PFAS, such as fluorinated carboxylic acids (Le et al., 2021 ). Table 1 -SM illustrates the average distribution of six PFAS compounds, including PFOA, PFOS, PFNA, PFHxS, PFBS, and HFPO-DA/GenX, measured in ng/L across diverse studies aimed at meeting USEPA standards for MCL and MCLG in drinking water. The data encompassed surface water samples collected from various global locations such as China, the United States, and Norway, along with groundwater and drinking water samples. The findings reveal notable disparities in PFAS levels across different regions and types of samples. For instance, PFOA concentrations in Massachusetts groundwater were strikingly high at 608.88 ng/L (Barber et al., 2023 ), whereas they were markedly lower in Arizona groundwater at 0.02 ng/L (Canez et al., 2021 ). PFOS concentrations exhibited wide-ranging values, from 0.14 ng/L in the South China Sea to 1342.33 ng/L in Massachusetts groundwater (Barber et al., 2023 ; S. K. Xiao et al., 2021 ). Moreover, instances where certain PFAS substances were not detected (ND) underscored the varying degrees of contamination and global concerns regarding PFAS pollution in water sources. This dataset emphasizes the urgent need for comprehensive monitoring initiatives and regulatory interventions to address PFAS contamination on a global scale. PFAS Exposure PFOS, PFOA, PFHxS, and n-methylperfluorooctane sulfonamidoacetic acid (N-MeFOSAA) are the most frequently detected PFAS in human blood congeners, with a detection frequency exceeding 90% (Hu et al., 2023 ). Hu et al., 2023 reported PFOS and PFOA, as the predominant congeners, accounted for 14.5% and 27.7% of ΣPFAS, with average concentrations of 115 pgm/L and 221 pgm/L, respectively. Interestingly, the total concentration of PFAS in cerebrospinal fluid was usually lower in females than males, potentially linked to variations in the half-lives of PFAS between sexes. Notably, concentrations of ΣPFAS and specific congeners (e.g., PFHxA, PFDA, PFNA, PFHxS, and PFOS) increased with age, reaching the highest levels in older adults. This age-related trend might be attributed to a decline in cerebrospinal fluid output as individuals age, offering valuable insights into the age-dependent dynamics of PFAS exposure in the studied population (Hu et al., 2023 ). Reinikainen et al., 2022 conducted a comprehensive assessment of PFAS impact at firefighting and industrial sites in Finland, focusing on key elements for retrospective risk analysis. The study proposes that conventional approaches, centering on PFOS and relevant PFAS, can effectively evaluate risks, even in cases where regulatory values are surpassed. Even with these instances of surpassing limits, the specific environmental and human health risks at individual sites might be relatively minor (Reinikainen et al., 2022 ). PFOS emissions in Guangzhou, Dongguan, and Foshan using regional numerical environmental multimedia modeling (RNEMM) to study PFOS distribution in soil, water, air, and fish by Chen et al., 2022 . The model's results closely matched observed data, with errors below 40% for water and sediment and below 5% for air. The health risk assessment indicated low risk for children and adults, demonstrating RNEMM's effectiveness in managing environmental and health risks from pollutants (Chen et al., 2022 ). PFNA was studied by Suski et al. ( 2023 ) for 42 days in mature fish and 21 days in larval fish . The results showed that the concentrations of ≥ 250 µg/L had the greatest impact on larval development. Ninety-five percent of freshwater species had a protective threshold of 55 µg PFNA/L, and effective values of 100.3 µg/L (10%) and 129.5 µg/L (20%) were found. According to the study, ecological risk assessments must take into account a variety of stresses (Suski et al., 2023 ). In contrast to PCBs and BDEs, Lin et al. ( 2021 ) found increasing PFOS levels downstream from Lakes Superior and Michigan to Huron, Erie, and Ontario, confirming Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF)'s usefulness in locating PFAS sources in Great Lakes fish . The manufacturing of PVDF and AFFF are two sources of PFAS, with larger contributions in less populous regions like Lake Superior and Huron. Due to their water solubility and endurance, PFAS accumulates downstream, which implies that air transport precursor activities are important sources of PFOS (Lin et al., 2021 ; Stahl et al., 2014 ). Zhou et al.'s ( 2022 ) investigation of PFAS levels in Baiyangdian Lake, China, revealed a clear north-south spatial variation in PFAS composition and a 7–40 times increase from 2008 to 2019. In their optimized fugacity model, water was found to be the primary PFAS transport pathway (76.5% of the total flux), with a notable interchange between water and sediment (94 kg/year). Gathering submerged plants showed promise as a substitute for cleaning silt, which proved to be the most economical restoration method (Zhou et al., 2022 ). Lewis et al. ( 2023 ) studied the effects of PFCA, PFSA, and FTS on three freshwater benthic macroinvertebrates, considering divalent cations' influence on PFAS partitioning. L. variegatus showed higher PFAS bioaccumulation than P. acuta and E. complanata , particularly with higher Mg 2+ and Ca 2+ concentrations, which enhanced PFAS bioaccumulation factors for compounds with more than eight carbon atoms. Long-chain PFAS were the most prevalent in macroinvertebrate profiles, with divalent cations significantly increasing bioaccumulation under high cation conditions (Lewis et al., 2023 ). Rupp et al. ( 2023 ) analyzed PFAS in 50 wild boars from areas with paper sludge, industrial emissions, and background contamination, detecting 31 PFAS with distinct site-specific profiles. Boar livers from contaminated areas had higher PFAS levels, with PFOS prevalent in paper sludge and background areas, and PFOA and its substitutes in industrial sites. The study highlighted wild boar livers as effective bioindicators of terrestrial PFAS contamination, noting legacy PFAS persistence in terrestrial versus riverine environments (Rupp et al., 2023 ). Conclusion and Future Perspectives PFAS presents multifaceted challenges requiring ongoing research and concerted action across scientific, regulatory, and societal fronts. Despite significant progress in understanding its environmental and health impacts, critical research needs, and future perspectives emerge, e.g., To comprehend the implications of roadway-derived PFAS sources and the function of street cleaning in maintaining water quality, Ahmadireskety et al. ( 2022 ) advised investigating PFAS within a watershed across different land uses and numerous street cleaning cycles. Vehicle leachate primarily comprises PFAS precursors (Y. L. Liu et al., 2021 ), and landfill leachate contains terminal and rare PFAS, suggesting potential biodegradation pathways and additional study on PFAS transformation. While Guckert et al. (2022) suggested using high-resolution mass spectrometry to expand target analysis and TOP assay analytes to include precursor and transformation compounds, Seay et al. ( 2023 ) suggested broadening the range of compounds measured at WWTPs, quantifying PFAS volatilization, and investigating advanced analytical techniques for a thorough understanding of PFAS fate and transport as well as advising against extrapolating results to other contexts. Research shows that although PFAS can only move vertically in regions with low permeability, there is evidence of lateral transfer in surface soils. According to M. Liu et al. ( 2022 ) results are essential for revising priority analyte lists and merging targeted and non-targeted analysis of TOP for comprehensive PFAS monitoring at sites impacted by AFFF contamination. Barber et al.'s 2023 study findings show that passive samplers can effectively screen for PFAS in fish but not in mussels. This highlighted the difficulty of bioconcentration and the demand for specialized methods to assess the effects of the environment on aquatic animals. Traditional WWTP cannot remove PFAS completely; in certain circumstances, the release of PFAS-by-PFAS precursors may even worsen the issue. According to Canez et al. ( 2021 ), PFAS are probably confined in the vadose zone and migrate to the alluvial aquifer during aquifer recharge episodes. This suggested that PFAS contamination assessment and remediation require a thorough mathematical model. A long-term reuse facility's PFAS levels were assessed by Mroczko et al. ( 2022 ), highlighting the need for more studies on the dangers to livestock health and the consequences for meat and dairy products. Comber et al. ( 2021 ) proposed employing biota-derived quality standards as a potentially more pragmatic approach to evaluating environmental risk. They also recommended evaluating the efficacy of recently implemented controls before considering extensive end-of-pipe treatments of WWTPs. According to Christie et al., 2023 , field evidence indicates that Light NAPLs are important PFAS reservoirs, requiring additional research and management by the US EPA's 2021 PFAS Strategic Roadmap, given their coexistence with other contaminants. Future research on PFAS should map the compounds' distribution and binding drivers in sediments, as Griffin et al. (2023) suggested, and investigate the sources, fate, transport, and trophic transfer of PFAS in coastal ecosystems to determine any possible negative consequences. To ensure sustainability, studies like the ones conducted by Khan et al. ( 2022 ) and bibliometric analyses suggest that looking at the presence and behavior of PFAS in food, groundwater, and surface water throughout Asia and Africa is imperative. Liu et al. ( 2022 ) discovered that although AFFF-impacted soils exhibited vertical movement and recognizable antecedents, background soils containing PFASs were derived from air deposition. PFOS in the Great Lakes is largely caused by atmospheric interactions of precursors (Lin et al., 2021 ). The atmospheric transport of volatile precursors and their degradation significantly impact the global distribution of C2-C4 PFCA. The extensive presence of trifluoromethane sulfonic acid is indicated by its identification in surface snow at remote Arctic sites; nevertheless, the precise process of transit to the Arctic is yet unknown (Björnsdotter et al., 2021 ). According to research on atmosphere transport, detecting and examining unknown precursors and transformation products in the air mixture may be vital since they may be harmful and persistent (Liu et al., 2021 ; Saini et al., 2023 ). Mattila et al. (2023) recommended conducting additional studies on various tube materials, sizes, kinds, and concentrations of PFAS to better understand measurement delays. They also suggested experiments on actual atmospheric conditions, such as fluctuating humidity and trace gases, to reduce measurement errors due to tubing and enable precise research into fate, environmental transport, and particulate matter emissions. To better understand the effects of significant weather events and PFAS level variations on coastal populations and inform mitigation plans, Martinez et al. ( 2022 ) advise continuous monitoring and modeling of these events, paying particular attention to PFOS behavior during storms. In 2022, da Silva et al. said that to remediate PFAS pollution effectively, more knowledge about the effects of big storms, seasonal variations, and point sources is needed. More studies on PFAS variability in stormwater ponds and applying the landscape development intensity index and categorization can improve stormwater pond monitoring and provide guidance for better design and management techniques to stop PFAS contamination in natural water bodies (Olmsted et al., 2021 ). Shiu et al. ( 2023 ) emphasized the need for further research in river-sea systems to understand spatiotemporal variations, environmental parameters, and synergistic effects of various PFAS compounds to understand coastal pollutant transport and fate comprehensively. Petre et al. (2021) suggested future study directions include soil investigations, groundwater age dating, monitoring PFAS discharge into streams, and installing gauging stations to understand aquifer dynamics better and promote water quality recovery. Although few studies on removing PFAS from WWTPs, knowledge gained from studies on drinking water treatment provides some context. Foam fractionation was reported to be inefficient against PFBA but beneficial against PFHxS, PFOA, and PFOS concentrations in groundwater (Buckley et al., 2022 ). Macinnis et al. (2021) identify permafrost soils as important contamination repositories, especially under climate change , and stress the need for research on PFAS sources in the Lake Hazen watershed, with an emphasis on glaciers and permafrost as potential PFAS vectors. For a better knowledge of PFAS fate and transport in vast watersheds, planned monitoring studies and possible model improvements are essential. According to Rafiei and Nejadhashemi (2023), more research is required. Accurate predictions in complex hydrological systems require advanced modeling techniques, and systematic monitoring is urgently needed to track PFAS contamination over time and across different environmental compartments. The various research efforts contribute to a holistic grasp of PFAS, guiding effective strategies for mitigation and management. Prioritizing these research needs enhances our understanding of PFAS risks, facilitating efforts to minimize their environmental and human health impacts. Declarations Ethical Approval The submitted article complies with the ethical guidelines of the journal. Consent to Participate Not Applicable. Consent to Publish The authors consent to publish the article on acceptance. Authors Contributions Md Shahin Alam: Conceptualization, Methodology, Software, Validation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Data Curation, Writing - Original Draft, Writing - Review & Editing, Visualization Gang Chen : Data curation, Writing - Review & Editing, Data Curation, Supervision, Project administration, Funding acquisition. Funding The work was supported by Hinkley Center to Florida State University through Subcontract SUB00003896 Competing Interests The authors declare no competing interests. Data Availability Supplement material is included with the submission and additional information will be available on request to authors. References Ahmadireskety A, Da Silva BF, Robey NM, Douglas TE, Aufmuth J, Solo-Gabriele HM, Yost RA, Townsend TG, Bowden JA (2022) Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) in Street Sweepings. 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J Hazard Mater 438:129558. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.129558 Supplementary Files floatimage1.jpeg Graphical Abstract SourceOccuranceandExposure05232024Supplementary.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 27 Jul, 2025 Read the published version in International Journal of Environmental Research → Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-4810454","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":343801670,"identity":"654ccd32-56f3-43f4-8a1b-e5c3d507e387","order_by":0,"name":"Md Shahin 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Statistics by Country (1991 – September 2023).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4810454/v1/887a7d2a885e1c75fb7edf29.png"},{"id":63486438,"identity":"7afbc45f-12b2-46df-92fe-8b55bc36d60c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-28 16:07:09","extension":"jpeg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":264134,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003edepicts an outline of co-authorship analysis that demonstrates the overlay visualization of collaborative efforts between countries working on PFAS during 1990–2023 with Association Strength.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4810454/v1/f5600b576eb25b43dd10431f.jpeg"},{"id":63484812,"identity":"60982a2a-e282-4ae4-b424-7d5c4827862c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-28 15:43:09","extension":"jpeg","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":878065,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eshows the study of the co-occurrence of the most frequently utilized 500 keywords in PFAS-related papers published between 1990 and 2023 using Association Strength.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage5.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4810454/v1/f53415ffa9b9cd802381aaac.jpeg"},{"id":63485951,"identity":"94054834-7ab8-4581-9d8f-534321b0c47f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-28 15:59:10","extension":"jpeg","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":374799,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFlow chart of screening process used for systematic review.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage6.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4810454/v1/6c7d4c48a002fb55059dd316.jpeg"},{"id":63484818,"identity":"0d0f7ad7-dc1a-46b9-be56-9d407971a849","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-28 15:43:09","extension":"jpeg","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":558146,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ea. The study focuses on the reviewed articles. b. The matrices of the articles were used for their studies.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage7.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4810454/v1/9ea8089bc40d951a6fd042e9.jpeg"},{"id":87864134,"identity":"365ee76d-5f0f-4944-9ba2-0b398002e4ba","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-29 19:16:41","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":4148929,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4810454/v1/dac8c9ec-00e6-4348-8d7c-b5b944583c20.pdf"},{"id":63485317,"identity":"e7cdbacf-4047-4bee-ac34-eb261d3c7e40","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-28 15:51:09","extension":"jpeg","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":355645,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGraphical Abstract\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4810454/v1/5272509868d50fe4bb15cf43.jpeg"},{"id":63485949,"identity":"3ced691f-3128-4080-aab5-bde037c77b34","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-28 15:59:10","extension":"docx","order_by":2,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":270986,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"SourceOccuranceandExposure05232024Supplementary.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4810454/v1/8af411f8e8910d357a3fe075.docx"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) Regulatory Frameworks, Sources, Occurrence, Fate, and Exposure: Trend, Concern, and Implication","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003ePer- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a class of synthetic organic compounds that have recently been the focus of regulatory attention. PFAS have been commonly used in aqueous film-forming foams (AFFF), household products, nonstick materials (Teflon\u003csup\u003e™\u003c/sup\u003e), cosmetics, stain-resistant fabrics (e.g., Scotchgard\u003csup\u003e™\u003c/sup\u003e, Stainmaster®), water-resistant textiles (GORE-Tex®), paints, food packaging (e.g., fast-food wrappers, pizza boxes), engineered coatings in semiconductor production, manufacture of heat, oil, stain, grease, water-resistant fluoropolymer coatings products, medical supplies, and equipment (Alam et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; An et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Costello \u0026amp; Lee, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Death et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Ghisi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). The fluorinated components of PFAS are inactive, with the intense strength of the carbon-fluorine bond of 485 kcal/mol (Lemal, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). PFAS are, therefore, thermodynamically stable and highly resistant to hydrolysis, metabolism, photolysis, and other forms of degradation (Rowe et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Wu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR95\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; F. Xiao et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR96\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Depending on their solubility, they may be in wastewater treatment plants for further treatment. However, treatment processes such as biological degradation struggle to remove PFAS, leading to PFAS accumulation in biosolids, landfills, fields that are irrigated with treated wastewater, and water resources that receive an effluent discharge (Gallen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; S. Y. Liu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Silva et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePFAS have been manufactured and used in various industries since the 1940s. So far, more than 7\u0026nbsp;million PFAS compounds with varying functional groups and carbon numbers have been defined (Schymanski et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). PFAS have been detected in biota, groundwater, surface water, sediments, and soil, raising concerns about potential hazards to \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht29216696-c42e-4f00-932a-aea34347df6a\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"human*\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003ehuman\u003c/em\u003e health and the environment resulting from their dispersion and interaction (An et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Ghisi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Hu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Reinikainen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Sadia et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). PFAS threaten \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht29216696-c42e-4f00-932a-aea34347df6a\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"human*\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003ehuman\u003c/em\u003e health due to their toxic effects on the kidneys, liver, lungs, reproductive system, and immune system (Babayev et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Hu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Due to concerns about their toxicity, measures have been taken to restrict the production of PFAS and their precursors. By synthesizing data from a wide range of literature and regulatory documents, this study offers a holistic overview of the evolving trends, prevailing concerns, and critical knowledge gaps in PFAS research and regulation. The analysis will reveal the complexity of the regulatory landscape, characterized by diverse approaches across different regions. The sources of PFAS contamination are diverse and widespread. Understanding the pathways through which PFAS enter and move through the environment is crucial for developing effective mitigation strategies. Their persistence and bioaccumulative nature necessitate a thorough investigation into their fate and transport mechanisms across various environmental compartments, including water, soil, and air. Exposure pathways to PFAS are multifaceted and affect \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht29216696-c42e-4f00-932a-aea34347df6a\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"human*\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003ehumans,\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht29216696-c42e-4f00-932a-aea34347df6a\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"animal*\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003eanimals,\u003c/em\u003e invertebrates, and other biota. Disparities in exposure patterns are evident across different geographic regions and demographic groups, highlighting the need for targeted interventions. Specific populations may be more vulnerable to PFAS exposure due to occupational settings, dietary habits, and geographic location. Therefore, tailored risk mitigation strategies are essential to address these disparities effectively. This \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht2ecd8aa4-09dc-4ddc-8bb0-28c2efee0ea2\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"meta-analysis\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003emeta-analysis\u003c/em\u003e, compiled with bibliometric analysis, comprehensively assembles the global regulatory frameworks, sources, occurrence, fate, and exposure pathways of PFAS.\u003c/p\u003e "},{"header":"History, Regulatory, and Policy Frameworks","content":"\u003cp\u003eUnited States\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePFAS have been a part of a wide range of consumer and commercial products since their introduction in the 20th century. The family of perfluorinated compounds was introduced on April 6, 1938, when, by coincidence, Roy J. Plunkett invented polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), a wholly saturated fluorocarbon polymer. Since its registration in 1945, the Teflon™ trademark has gained global recognition for its superior cookware nonstick properties, ability to repel textile stains, and commercial coatings (Teflon™, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR84\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) are the most commonly used PFAS compounds, which were introduced into the production of polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) nonstick coatings between the 1940s and the 1950s (Teflon™, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR84\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Between the 1950s and 1960s, PFOS and PFOA were further used in water- and stain-resistant products and protective coatings (Buck et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Teflon™, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR84\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). The widespread use of PTFE started in industrial cookware in 1961, completely changing the culinary industry. Perfluorinated substances significantly transformed their usage due to their outstanding capacity to repel water and grease. PFOS was further introduced to firefighting in the 1960s and 1970s (Liuzza, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). With their widespread applications, many consumer goods and drinking water in the twenty-first century contain different \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht29216696-c42e-4f00-932a-aea34347df6a\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"rat*\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003eratios\u003c/em\u003e and amounts of PFAS. During the 1970s to 1980s, certain manufacturers acknowledged the toxic characteristics of PFAS, prompting the voluntary phase-out of Class A forms by 2000 (Hilton, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1972\u003c/span\u003e; ITRC, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024a\u003c/span\u003e). Due to the concern over the presence of PFAS in the environment, regulatory agencies have been proposing drinking water standards for several PFAS compounds. In 2009, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) issued provisional Health Advisories for PFOA and PFOS (USEPA, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR85\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Subsequently, in 2012, \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht71194251-f7a6-4c2d-a145-3d9f25b46662\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"public*\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003epublic\u003c/em\u003e water supplies underwent testing under the Safe Drinking Water Act. In 2016, the US EPA established a national Lifetime Health Advisory (LHA) of 70 ng/L, with approximately 28 states subsequently setting guidance values for PFAS concentrations (USEPA, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR86\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). On June 15, 2022, the US EPA issued updated health advisories for several PFAS compounds, including PFOA, PFOS, GenX or hexafluoropropylene oxide dimer acid (HFPO-DA), and perfluorobutanesulfonic acid (PFBS). The interim health advisories for PFOA and PFOS were set at 0.004 and 0.02 ng/L, consecutively, while the final health advisories for GenX chemicals and PFBS were established at 10 and 2000 ng/L, correspondingly (USEPA, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR87\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). The US EPA identified the regulatory concentrations for PFOS and PFOA and the hazard index for other PFAS compounds, which is calculated by Eq.\u0026nbsp;1 (USEPA, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR88\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e):\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e \u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\frac{GenX}{10}\\)\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/span\u003e + \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\frac{PFBS}{2000}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e +\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\frac{PFNA}{10}+\\:\\frac{PFHxS}{10}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e = Hazard Index Value …………. (1)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll units are parts per trillions (ppt) or nanogram per litter (ng/L). In March 2023, the US EPA proposed the National \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht2ecd8aa4-09dc-4ddc-8bb0-28c2efee0ea2\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"primary\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003ePrimary\u003c/em\u003e Drinking Water Regulation (NPDWR) for six PFAS chemicals, including PFOA, PFOS, perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA), perfluorohexanesulfonic acid (PFHxS), PFBS, and HFPO-DA or GenX. For PFOA, Maximum Contaminant Levels (MCL) and MCL Goals (MCLG) are 4 ng/L and 0 ng/L. For PFOS, MCL and MCLG are 4 ng/L and 0 ng/L. PFNA, PFHxS, PFBS, and HFPO-DA or GenX have a hazard index MCL of 1 and a hazard index MCLG of 1. On April 10, 2024, the USEPA finalized regulations under the Safe Drinking Water Act of PFAS. The USEPA established Final NPDWR MCLs for PFOA and PFOS, both set at 4 ng/L, with a corresponding MCLG of 0 ng/L. Additionally, for PFNA, PFHxS, HFPO-DA or GenX, and PFBS, the MCLs and MCLGs are both established at 10 ng/L. Furthermore, the Hazard Index MCL and Hazard Index MCLG are both designated for mixtures containing two or more of PFNA, PFHxS, HFPO-DA, and PFBS, set at 1 (USEPA, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR89\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e shows the complete regulatory timeline in the United States.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlong the way, different states in the United States have established different regulatory programs (ITRC, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024b\u003c/span\u003e). If the proposed NPDWR is finalized, \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht71194251-f7a6-4c2d-a145-3d9f25b46662\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"public*\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003epublic\u003c/em\u003e water systems must monitor contaminants in drinking water regularly, notify consumers if the levels exceed the MCL, and implement appropriate treatment measures to ensure compliance with the MCL. Once EPA finalizes its standards for PFAS, including PFNA, PFHxS, PFBS, HFPO-DA, and GenX, any differences in the PADEP standards may impact various aspects of PFAS regulation and management.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWorldwide\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn Australia, health-based standards for PFAS were developed in 2019 (HEPA, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). For drinking water (DW), PFOS, and PFHxS, a combined total is less than 70 ng/L, while PFOA's is less than 560 ng/L. For recreational water (RW), PFOS, and PFHxS, a combined total is less than 2000 ng/L; for PFOA, it is less than 10000 ng/L. In 2016, Health Canada (HC) introduced the first set of Drinking Water Screening Values (DWSV) for nine PFAS compounds, as outlined in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e (HC, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Subsequently, in 2019, HC established maximum acceptable concentrations (MAC) for PFOA (200 ng/L) and PFOS (600 ng/L) in drinking water. Additionally, DWSV provided regulations for nine PFAS compounds in 2019 (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e) (HC, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Notably, in 2023, HC proposed a substantial reduction in permissible PFAS levels to 30 ng/L, particularly emphasizing the sum of 18 PFAS compounds as outlined in the EPA Method 537.1 (HC, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) has proposed restricting around 10,000 PFASs to reduce environmental emissions and enhance safety, aligning with the EU’s Chemicals Strategy and Zero Pollution plan. Published on February 7, 2023, with a potential ban decision expected by 2025 and application by 2026 or 2027. Without action, 4.4\u0026nbsp;million tons of PFASs could enter the environment over 30 years (ECHA, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) highlighted that PFAS exposure primarily occurred through food and drinking water consumption, representing the \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht2ecd8aa4-09dc-4ddc-8bb0-28c2efee0ea2\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"primary\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003eprimary\u003c/em\u003e routes of \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht29216696-c42e-4f00-932a-aea34347df6a\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"human*\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003ehuman\u003c/em\u003e exposure. In 2020, EFSA suggested a Total Weekly Intake (TWI) of 4.4 ng/kg body weight for the combined presence of four PFAS compounds: PFOA, PFNA, PFHxS, and PFOS. The TWI stands out as a significantly more stringent criterion than earlier assessments, explicitly focusing on evaluating effects on the immune system, which is deemed the most crucial endpoint for risk evaluation. To uphold the provision of safe drinking water according to standard assumptions—such as an \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht2ecd8aa4-09dc-4ddc-8bb0-28c2efee0ea2\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"allocation\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003eallocation\u003c/em\u003e factor of 20%, a daily intake of 2 liters, and an average body weight of 60 kg—the TWI corresponds to a recommended concentration of 3.7 ng/L for the combined presence of the four PFAS compounds specified by EFSA (Sadia et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). The EU Directive 2013/39/EC came into effect on September 9, 2013, and required Member States to transpose it into their national legislation by November 14, 2015. When implementing the Water Framework Directive, it is essential to consider the environmental quality standards (EQS) outlined in this directive. These standards guide establishing supplementary monitoring programs. For freshwater bodies (SW-Fresh), the EQS Average Annual Concentration (AAC) was established at 0.65 ng/L only for PFOS, while for marine water (SW-Marine), it was set at 0.13 ng/L for PFOS. Moreover, EQS Maximum Allowable Concentrations (MAC) were stipulated for freshwater and marine environments. The EQS MAC for freshwater (SW-Fresh) was designated as 36,000 ng/L, whereas for marine water (SW-Marine), it was determined to be 7,200 ng/L (ARCADIS, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). These standards play a critical role as benchmarks in water quality management and efforts aimed at environmental protection. In 2021, the European Union (EU) revised its Drinking Water Directive (DWD) to include standards for PFAS in drinking water. The updated standards specify limits for either a sum of 20 PFAS at 100 ng/L or a total PFAS concentration of 500 ng/L (EU, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn 2021, the Danish Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) introduced health-based standards for both drinking water (DW) and groundwater (GW). These standards were implemented to safeguard \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht71194251-f7a6-4c2d-a145-3d9f25b46662\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"public*\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003epublic\u003c/em\u003e health. In June, the EPA declared that drinking water's total concentration of four PFAS substances—PFOA, PFOS, PFNA, and PFHxS—must not exceed two nanograms per liter. Expressly, for drinking water, the guidelines specified a maximum allowable concentration of 100 ng/L for a total of 12 PFAS compounds, including PFOA, PFOS, PFNA, PFHxS, PFBA, PFPeA, PFHxA, PFDA, PFBS, 6:2 FTS, and PFOSA. Additionally, in 2023, an extra 10 PFAS compounds were included for groundwater assessment, namely PFUnDA, PFDoDA, PFTrDA, PFPeS, PFHpS, PFNS, PFDS, PFUnDS, PFDoDS, and PFTrDS, maintaining the maximum allowable concentration at 100 ng/L to ensure comprehensive protection of \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht71194251-f7a6-4c2d-a145-3d9f25b46662\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"public*\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003epublic\u003c/em\u003e health (NIRAS, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Germany's regulatory framework encompasses significance thresholds (ST) for groundwater (GW) and health-based standards for drinking water (DW). In 2006, the German Ministry of Health established health-based guidelines for PFOA (300 ng/L) and PFOS (300 ng/L) in drinking water, although administrative directives set lower levels for PFOA (100 ng/L) and PFOS (100 ng/L) (DWC, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). The German States’ Water and Soil Consortia have aggregated 'significance thresholds' (ST) to evaluate groundwater contaminated with PFAS. By assessing available literature on \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht29216696-c42e-4f00-932a-aea34347df6a\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"human*\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003ehuman\u003c/em\u003e health and ecotoxicological impacts, ST ranging from 60 to 10,000 ng/L have been formulated for seven priority PFAS in groundwater (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e) (von der Trenck et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR93\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). After the Veneto Region Environmental Protection Agency (ARPA Veneto) conducted a monitoring campaign in 2013, revealing PFAS concentrations in drinking water, the Italian Health Institute (IHI) set threshold limits for PFOS, PFOA, and PFAS at 30 ng/L, 500 ng/L, and 500 ng/L, respectively (Giglioli et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, Italy proposed environmental quality standards (EQS) for freshwater (FW), outlining limits for PFOA (100 ng/L), PFBA (7000 ng/L), PFPeA (3000 ng/L), PFHxA (1000 ng/L), and PFBS (3000 ng/L) (Valsecchi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR90\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). The Dutch Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) established that the drinking water (DWC) criteria for PFOS is 530 ng/L (ARCADIS, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). The Swedish Food Agency's updated drinking water regulations (LIVSFS 2022:12) set two PFAS limits: 4 ng/l for PFAS-4 and 100 ng/l for PFAS-21. PFAS-4 includes PFOA, PFNA, PFOS, and PFHxS, in line with EFSA's health guidelines. PFAS-21 includes 20 PFAS substances from the European Parliament and Council Directive (EU) 2020/2184, plus 6:2 FTS (SFA, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Health-oriented standards were instituted for drinking water, with a \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht2ecd8aa4-09dc-4ddc-8bb0-28c2efee0ea2\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"primary\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003eprimary\u003c/em\u003e emphasis on safeguarding \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht71194251-f7a6-4c2d-a145-3d9f25b46662\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"public*\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003epublic\u003c/em\u003e health. These standards introduced initial action limits for PFAS in drinking water in 2014, specifying levels at 90 ng/L for the individual or combined sum of seven PFAS, namely PFPeA, PFHxA, PFHpA, PFOA, PFBS, PFHxS, and PFOS (Xu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR98\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the United Kingdom (UK), the Drinking Water Inspectorate (DWI) developed tiered Drinking Water Guidance (2009) for PFOS and PFOA in 2009, wherein the first tier set a threshold at 300 ng/L, prompting consultation and monitoring if exceeded. However, the guidance mandates reductions below 1000 ng/L for PFOS and 5000 ng/L for PFOA, surpassing standards in many other nations. This reflects the higher tolerable daily intakes (TDIs) established by the European Food Safety Agency (EFSA) in 2008 and still adheres to in the UK (150 ng/kg bw/day for PFOS; 1,500 ng/kg/ bw/day for PFOA) (ARCADIS, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Ross, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). In October 2021, the DWI of England and Wales issued a roster of 47 PFAS, including PFOA and PFOS, for monitoring in drinking water. Water providers must test their sources for PFAS using accredited methods; if no such method exists, results must be flagged accordingly. Results are evaluated against DWI's risk management scheme for PFAS. Combined PFOA and PFOS concentrations of 10 ng/L or below pose low risk and require no further action. Medium risk occurs at combined concentrations below 90 ng/L, necessitating heightened monitoring and preventative measures. High risk is identified when combined concentrations exceed 90 ng/L, potentially endangering \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht29216696-c42e-4f00-932a-aea34347df6a\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"human*\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003ehuman\u003c/em\u003e health, requiring water companies to notify consumers and health authorities and take immediate remedial action (RSC, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eJapan's Ministry of Environment (MOE) issued provisional standards for PFAS in drinking water in 2020. They proposed standard limits of 50 ng/L for total or individual PFOA \u0026amp; PFOS, contributing to water quality management efforts (Elder, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). For groundwater protection, the Chinese government issued the Regulations of Groundwater Management (Order No. 748 of the State Council of the People’s Republic of China) in 2021. In these regulations, the Chinese government strengthened the monitoring and protection of groundwater, including the limit values for PFOS and PFOA in drinking water. PFOS and PFOA are currently limited at 40 and 80 ng/L, respectively, by the Standards for Drinking Water Quality of China (GB5749-2022). The World Health Organization (WHO) put forth provisional guideline values, suggesting 100 ng/L individually for both PFOA and PFOS, along with a combined provisional guideline value of 500 ng/L for total PFAS. However, it is essential to note that the proposed 100 ng/L guideline for PFOA and PFOS is not based on health considerations, and the associated draft document does not indicate that this level of exposure is safe. Hence, comparing WHO's provisional guideline value with health-based values set by other agencies is inappropriate.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c13\" colnum=\"13\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c14\" colnum=\"14\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c15\" colnum=\"15\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c16\" colnum=\"16\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c17\" colnum=\"17\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c18\" colnum=\"18\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c19\" colnum=\"19\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSummary of the regulatory and policy frameworks for PFAS in drinking water and groundwater across various locations worldwide. The data encompasses standards, guidelines, and regulatory updates from different agencies and departments. The standards and guidelines are presented in nanograms per liter (ng/L) and cover a range of PFAS compounds, including PFOS, PFOA, PFNA, PFBS, PFBA, PFHxS, PFHxA, PFPeA, PFHpA, 6:2 FTS, PFDA, PFOSA, and the sum of PFAS\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Credit\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e(Sources: ITRC Fact Sheet and Other Below-Mentioned References).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"19\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOffice\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYear\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGuidance\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClass/Note\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePFOS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePFOA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePFNA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePFBS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePFBA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePFHxS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePFHxA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePFPeA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePFHpA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6:2 FTS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePFDA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePFOSA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8:2 FTS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSum PFAS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAustralia\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ehealth-based\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e560\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ehealth-based\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" 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colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDWSV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e600\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2016\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDWSV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e600\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e600\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChina\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2021\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEuropean Union\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEU\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2021\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDWD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDW (c)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2021\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDWD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDW (d)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e500\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2013\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEQS AAC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSW-Fresh\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2013\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEQS AAC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSW-Marine\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2013\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEQS MAC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSW-Fresh\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2013\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEQS MAC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSW-Marine\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7200\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDenmark\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEPA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2021\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ehealth-based\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDW \u0026amp; GW(e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEPA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2021\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ehealth-based\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDW (h)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGermany\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGMH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2018\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eST\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2006\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ehealth-based\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e300\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e300\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2006\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eadministrative\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItaly\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2017\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEQS Proposed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIHI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2014\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eST\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e500\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e500\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJapan\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMOE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2020\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProvisional\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDW (b)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNetherlands\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEPA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2011\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDWC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e530\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSweden\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLIVSFS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2022\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ehealth-based\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDW(i)(j)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2014\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ehealth-based\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2014\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eadministrative\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDW (f)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"6\" rowspan=\"7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUK\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDWI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2021\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLow Risk\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDW (g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2021\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedium Risk\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDW (g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2021\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigh Risk\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDW (g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDEFRA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2009\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ehealth-based\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e300\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2009\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eadministrative (Tier 1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e300\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e300\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2009\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eadministrative (Tier 2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2009\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eadministrative (Tier 3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWHO\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2022\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProvisional\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c19\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"19\" nameend=\"c19\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll data presented in the unit of ng/L. DW = Drinking Water, RW = Recreational Water, GW = Groundwater, SW = Surface Water. Standard or Guidance: DWSV = Drinking Water Screening Value, MAC = Maximum Acceptable/Allowable Concentration, EQS = Environmental Quality Standards, AAC = Annual Average Concentration, DWD = Drinking Water Directive, ST = Significance Thresholds, INEV = Indicative Level of Severe Pollution, DWC = Drinking water criteria. Agency/Department: DOH = Department of Health, HC = Health Canada, EU = European Unions, EPA = Environmental Protection Agency, RIVM = Dutch National Institute for \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht71194251-f7a6-4c2d-a145-3d9f25b46662\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"public*\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003ePublic\u003c/em\u003e Health and the Environment, IHI = Italian Health Institute, MOE = Ministry of Environment, DEFRA = Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, DWI = Drinking Water Inspectorate. Note (a): Sum of 18 PFAS EPA Method 537.1, (b): total or individual of PFOA \u0026amp; PFOS, (c): the totality of PFOS, (d): perfluoroalkyl moiety with three or more carbons or a perfluoroalkylether moiety with two or more carbons polyfluoroalkyl substances, (e): total sum of PFOA, PFOS, PFNA and PFHxS, (f): total sum of PFOA, PFOS, PFNA, PFHxS, PFBA, PFPeA, PFHxA, PFHpA, PFDA, PFBS, 6:2 FTS, PFOSA, (g): Concentration of any single PFAS in final drinking water, (h): individul or sum of PFPeA, PFOA, PFHxA, PFOS, PFHpA, PFBS, and PFHxS, (i): individual or sum of PFOS, PFOA, PFHxS, PFNA 4ng/L (j): PFAS-21: 100 ng/l 20 PFAS substances specified in European Parliament and Council Directive (EU) 2020/2184 as well as 6:2 FTS.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Bibliometric Analysis","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn recent years, the popularity of bibliometrics has increased as an efficient approach to forecasting research \u003cem class=\"Highlight htf42ccfb9-5a20-4c00-a242-49e5af408730\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"evolution\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003eevolution\u003c/em\u003e trends. This method quantitatively describes, evaluates, and monitors data, offering reasonably objective outcomes while overcoming researcher bias (Ramírez-Malule et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). In this comprehensive review article, we dig into the bibliographic analysis of PFAS. On September 18, 2023, we conducted a Search through the \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht2ecd8aa4-09dc-4ddc-8bb0-28c2efee0ea2\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"web of science\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003eWeb of Science\u003c/em\u003e with keywords including “PFAS”, “PFAA”, “PFOA”, “PFOS”, “per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances”, “perfluorinated compounds”, “perfluoroalkyl acids”, “polyfluorinated compounds”, “PFAS fate and transport”, “PFOA fate and transport”, “PFOS fate and transport”, and “per- and polyfluoroalkyl substance fate and transport” connecting with “or” function. This extensive search yielded 9,918 articles, proceedings papers, and news items. These articles’ knowledge of PFAS sheds light on the significant attention and research dedicated to the PFAS field of study.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe global PFAS research landscape has seen many articles, with a yearly count exceeding thousand (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). This comprehensive PFAS review article portrays notable research advancements, particularly over the past four years. Diving into the specifics, the United States has the highest number of PFAS research, with an impressive tally of 3353 papers and citations of 132,655. Notably, the collaborative efforts of the US authors extend to a global scale, with China following closely as the second-highest contributor. China produces 2791 papers related to PFAS, with a citation count 79,012. Canada secures the third position regarding the number of papers on PFAS. The global reach of PFAS research is further contributions from countries such as Sweden, Germany, Norway, Denmark, the Netherlands, Spain, France, Australia, Italy, Japan, Belgium, Switzerland, Taiwan, and South \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht6bbde3a5-ff65-4ca4-808a-27bcf7eafcf3\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"korea\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003eKorea\u003c/em\u003e, each of which has published more than 100 manuscripts, signifying their substantial engagement in PFAS research. Czech Republic, Poland, India, Finland, Singapore, \u003cem class=\"Highlight htf42ccfb9-5a20-4c00-a242-49e5af408730\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"bra*\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003eBrazil,\u003c/em\u003e Greece, South Africa, and Austria have published over 50 manuscripts, showing their engagement in PFAS research (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). European countries exhibit commendable collaboration networks (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e), highlighting the transcontinental exchange of knowledge and expertise in the empire of PFAS research.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eGiven the populations of the USA (341.8\u0026nbsp;million), China (1.43\u0026nbsp;billion), Canada (40.8\u0026nbsp;million), Sweden (10.7\u0026nbsp;million), Germany (83.3\u0026nbsp;million), Norway (5.5\u0026nbsp;million), and Denmark (5.9\u0026nbsp;million), it is noteworthy that Sweden, Norway, and Denmark are highly productive relative to their smaller populations.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePFAS research extends its influence across disciplines beyond traditional fields such as chemistry and environmental engineering. Current PFAS research is substantiated by related keywords employed by researchers in their studies. Among these keywords, “perfluorinated compounds”, “perfluoroalkyl substances”, “perfluorooctane sulfonate”, “PFOS”, “polyfluoroalkyl substances”, “PFOA”, “exposure”, “water”, “perfluorooctanoic acid”, “perfluoroalkyl acids”, “perfluorooctane sulfonate”, “toxicity”, “sorption”, “chemicals”, “serum”, “drinking-water”, “surfactants”, “fate”, “hydrophilicity”, “hydrophobicity”, etc. predominate. These keywords align with various facets of PFAS research, encompassing areas like the food web, fate and transport, wastewater treatment, bioaccumulation, coastal waters, edible \u003cem class=\"Highlight htf340ff0d-a602-4893-ae8d-b60ea075e112\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"fish\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003efish\u003c/em\u003e, health implications in \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht29216696-c42e-4f00-932a-aea34347df6a\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"rat*\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003erats,\u003c/em\u003e disease studies, removal methods, metabolic processes, the use of film-forming foams, and much more (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). This review article conducted a citation analysis of 1,459 sources identified through our literature search, as illustrated in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e-SM.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem class=\"Highlight ht2ecd8aa4-09dc-4ddc-8bb0-28c2efee0ea2\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"meta-analysis\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003eMeta-Analysis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo conduct a \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht2ecd8aa4-09dc-4ddc-8bb0-28c2efee0ea2\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"meta-analysis\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003emeta-analysis\u003c/em\u003e, we refined our search and applied several filters, including “highly cited papers,” “open access,” and “hot paper” status. Furthermore, we limited the \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht71194251-f7a6-4c2d-a145-3d9f25b46662\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"public*\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003epublication\u003c/em\u003e years to 2021, 2022, 2023, and 2024 documents and focused exclusively on articles. After this meticulous search and filtering process, we identified 128 articles that we thoroughly reviewed (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e). Examining these articles and their citations provides a unique window into the ever-evolving landscape of PFAS research, offering insights into the current state of knowledge and the directions in which it is headed.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe analysis encompassed a total of 128 articles, categorized across six focus areas, each representing a distinct percentage of the entities of source and occurrence (25.4%), exposure (10.8%), remediation (3.8%), PFAS chemistry (21.5%), fate and behavior (2.3%), and fate and transport (36.2%) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003ea). The investigation also embraced 22 matrices, delineating their research environmental compartments along with their respective percentages of unsaturated zone (17%), lab aquatic environment (5%), surface water (14.5%), groundwater (8.8%), atmosphere (6.3%), soil \u0026amp; smectite clay (8.2%), plant (2.5%), wetland (1.3%), marine (3.8%), lab (3.8%), sediments (10.7%), drinking water (1.3%), biosolids (1.3%), WWTP (4.4%), snow (0.6%), solid waste (1.3%), statistical analysis (1.3%), \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht29216696-c42e-4f00-932a-aea34347df6a\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"human*\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003ehuman\u003c/em\u003e (1.3%), macroinvertebrates, \u003cem class=\"Highlight htf340ff0d-a602-4893-ae8d-b60ea075e112\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"fish\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003efish\u003c/em\u003e \u0026amp; \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht29216696-c42e-4f00-932a-aea34347df6a\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"animal*\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003eanimal\u003c/em\u003e (3.1%), watershed (1.9%), and rock \u0026amp; dolomite aquifer (1.3%), with integrity accounting for (0.6%) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003eb).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Environmental Source and Distribution","content":"\u003cp\u003eTo find where PFAS comes from, scientists look at different factors to understand how PFAS mobility is affected in a specific area. They use combined field, experimental, and \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht2ecd8aa4-09dc-4ddc-8bb0-28c2efee0ea2\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"model*\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003emodeling\u003c/em\u003e work to identify PFAS sources by comparing different types of PFAS at a contaminated site and considering the chemical conditions in that area (Charbonnet et al., 2021). This article summarizes PFAS sources in graphical abstract and Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e comprehensively overviews PFAS presence and distribution across different environmental settings worldwide. The \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht2ecd8aa4-09dc-4ddc-8bb0-28c2efee0ea2\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"primary\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003eprimary\u003c/em\u003e source of PFAS is industrial manufacturing, where PFAS are produced and utilized in various processes (Buck et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Feng et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Goods such as nonstick and stain-resistant coating, semiconductors, water repellents, and fire-fighting foams involve PFAS compounds (Buck et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Gonzalez et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Lin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Reinikainen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). An et al. found that industrial activities contributed to elevated PFPeA levels in water and sediments of the Jiulong River and Xiamen Bay regions of China (An et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Manufacturing facilities become point sources of PFAS contamination, releasing these substances into the air, water, and soil during production and disposal (Feng et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; M. Liu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Poyang Lake in China showed high PFBA levels in surface water from the fluoropolymer industry, textile, and food packaging (Tang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR82\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). North Carolina, USA, found significant perfluoro-2-(perfluoromethoxy) propanoic acid (PMPA) concentrations near PFAS manufacturing facilities (Pétré et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). This highlights the pressing demand for sustainable alternatives and responsible manufacturing practices.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFirefighting practices represent another significant source of PFAS contamination, with firefighting foams containing PFOS and PFOA widely utilized in fuel fires and aircraft accidents (ITRC, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024a\u003c/span\u003e; Liuzza, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). This usage has been associated with notable environmental impacts. In Uppsala and Stockholm, Sweden, elevated PFOS levels were detected in river water, linked to firefighting training activities and the discharge of wastewater effluent (Nguyen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). In Michigan, USA, significant PFOS concentrations were observed in municipal influent and effluent following an AFFF spill incident (Vitale et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR91\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Rhode Island, USA, recorded high concentrations of 6:2-FTS attributable to AFFF deployment (Katz et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Pétré et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). In 2019, an investigation assessing PFAS presence in groundwater across five aquifer systems in the eastern United States revealed detection of 14 out of 24 PFAS, with elevated levels linked to distance to the nearest fire-training area, titanium concentration percentage of urban land use, and dissolved and volatile carbon concentrations are the top five predictors of PFAS detections (McMahon et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). PFOS contamination in drinking water in Southeast Alaska stemmed from airport operations and fire training sites (Babayev et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). In contrast, Massachusetts, USA, experienced increased PFHxS concentrations in reference groundwater due to fire training activities (Barber et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Finland has identified AFFF-impacted sites as major sources of PFAS across various environmental matrices (Reinikainen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). The aftermath reveals a significant environmental cost is associated with firefighting with PFAS since PFAS from firefighting foams infiltrate soils and contaminate water resources. The persistence of these chemicals used before poses long-term challenges (Liuzza, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Liu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e investigated 93 classes of PFAS at four Canadian airports and found that multiple chemistries affected all AFFF sites, with the active firefighter training areas displaying a wider range and higher total PFAS content compared to nonfunctional sites. Notably, zwitterionic and cationic PFAS were identified as significant constituents, accounting for 34.5–85.5% of the total PFAS mass in most surface soil samples within the points source. However, their presence was relatively sparse, constituting less than 20% of groundwater samples (Nickerson et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Background soil surrounding the source zone predominantly contained unknown precursors, with atmospheric deposition being identified as the \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht2ecd8aa4-09dc-4ddc-8bb0-28c2efee0ea2\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"primary\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003eprimary\u003c/em\u003e contributing factor (Nickerson et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). In AFFF-impacted soils, precursors from AFFF were captured by high-resolution mass spectrometry. Using these technologies as well as total oxidized precursors (TOP) assay, suspect screening, and non-targeted analysis, PFAS were characterized in an AFFF currently sanctioned for use by the U.S. \u003cem class=\"Highlight htf42ccfb9-5a20-4c00-a242-49e5af408730\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"military\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003emilitary\u003c/em\u003e (Christie et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; da Silva et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Nickerson et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The \u003cem class=\"Highlight htf42ccfb9-5a20-4c00-a242-49e5af408730\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"cum*\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003ecumulative\u003c/em\u003e PFAS concentration identified through targeted analysis and suspect screening was juxtaposed with the outcomes of the TOP assay, revealing that more than 90% (20.2 mM) of the estimated total PFAS concentration (22.4 mM) was categorized as “unknown” PFAS (Shojaei et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). The total estimated concentration of the 10 identified PFAS closely matched the “unknown” fraction (20.2 mM) disclosed by the TOP assay (Shojaei et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). It should be noted that suspect screening methodologies may misidentify PFAS as isomers if solely based on accurate mass matching, resulting in notable different conclusions, including biotransformation pathways. PFAS and light non-aqueous phase liquids (NAPLs) are found together at sites where AFFF is used, as demonstrated by advanced analytical techniques detecting elevated levels of PFOS and other PFAS in NAPLs extracted from \u003cem class=\"Highlight htf42ccfb9-5a20-4c00-a242-49e5af408730\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"military\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003emilitary\u003c/em\u003e installations. Analysis of field-collected NAPLs from AFFF-affected \u003cem class=\"Highlight htf42ccfb9-5a20-4c00-a242-49e5af408730\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"military\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003emilitary\u003c/em\u003e sites revealed a wide array of anionic PFAS, including PFOS and perfluoroalkyl sulfonamides, indicating their potential as undiscovered reservoirs of PFAS contamination, with 6:2 FTOH emerging as the only detectable neutral PFAS (Christie et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePFAS compounds have been found in wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) influent, effluent, and sludge worldwide (Desgens-Martin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; S. Y. Liu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Rodríguez-Varela et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Seay et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Tavasoli et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR83\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Studies have revealed that the concentrations of several PFAS substances, including perfluorocarboxylic acids (PFCA) and perfluoro sulfonic acids (PFSA), increase from influent to effluent, indicating biodegradation of PFAS precursors and subsequent release of PFAS (S. Y. Liu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Rodríguez-Varela et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Tavasoli et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR83\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Wastewater discharge emerged as a major PFAS source in Pakistan’s central river system (Khan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Population size and urban land use were the most reliable indicators for anticipating PFAS loads to WWTP. For instance, the estimated total of influent loads for specific PFAS in California was approximately 61,000 ± 40,000 kg per year (Desgens-Martin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, there was a notable correlation between the annual sum of PFAS in the assessed regions and the overall pollution burden. Tavasoli et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR83\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e investigated the fate and distribution of 24 PFAS in six municipal WWTPs in New Hampshire. These compounds, originating from diverse sources like household products, industrial wastewater, septic discharge, and firefighting wastewaters, entered the environment through WWTP. The analysis detected 7 to 12 PFAS constituents in both influent and effluent, and their concentrations ranged from 30 to 128 ng/L. Short-chain PFAS dominated effluent and influent, whereas long-chain compounds were predominant in WWTP sludge. The TOP assay indicated the existence of unspecified PFAS precursors in both the influent and effluent samples. Notably, the variation of oxidizable PFAS precursors with season indicated a potential influence of temperature or season on microbial-mediated PFAS precursor transformation. These findings offer insights into PFAS transformation dynamics in New England municipal WWTP during different seasons (Tavasoli et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR83\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The efficiency of PFAS removal during wastewater treatment processes demonstrates its possible significance in meeting the environmental quality standard (EQS) established for PFOS under the Water Framework Directive. The findings highlight that effluents frequently surpass the annual average EQS for PFOS and PFOA by factors ranging from 1.1-fold to 40-fold and 2-fold to 22-fold, respectively. However, many individual effluents reduce fluorocarbon concentrations downstream from the discharge location. Elevated concentrations upstream indicate widespread inputs of these perfluoro compounds into aquatic ecosystems, posing regulatory challenges through individual WWTP permits (Comber et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Focusing on the chlorinated polyfluorinated ether sulfonates (Cl-PFESA) fate in wastewater originating from electroplating and textile printing and dyeing procedures, Liu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e compared the behavior of different PFAS. The research conducted in the southeast region of China revealed that the total PFAS concentrations at the WWTP for textile printing and dyeing processes were 520 ± 30 ng/L. At the same time, the electroplating WWTP effluents had 4200 ± 270 ng/L concentrations. 6:2 Cl-PFESA (18%) and 8:2 Cl-PFESA (0.7%) predominated within electroplating wastewater. Trace levels of Cl-PFESA were also identified in textile printing and dyeing wastewater, likely originating from diffuse emissions. The study observed consistent mass flows of dissolved-phase Cl-PFESA and PFAS through the WWTPs, with sludge sedimentation predominantly capturing Cl-PFESA. Nevertheless, specific treatment processes may induce fluctuations in wastewater concentrations and lead to the relative enrichment of Cl-PFESAs, as evidenced by the 6:2/8:2 Cl-PFESA \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht29216696-c42e-4f00-932a-aea34347df6a\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"rat*\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003eratios.\u003c/em\u003e The findings emphasize that Cl-PFESA and PFSAs are more susceptible to the examined treatment processes' influences than PFCA (S. Y. Liu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Constructed wetlands in Tianjin, China, identified PFOS, PFOA, and PFBS as major PFAS (Xu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR99\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eLandfills, often considered the final resting place for discarded materials, have become inadvertent breeding grounds for PFAS contamination. The consequences of improper disposal of PFAS-containing products as these substances leach into the surrounding environment, endangering both surface and groundwater (Gallen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Y. L. Liu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). In landfilling processes, PFAS transform precursor states in fresh vehicle leachates to PFAAs in aged landfill leachates, indicating precursor conversion. Various PFAS, such as 8Cl-PFOS, PFPrS, 8:2 Cl-PFESAs, 6:2, PFECHS, and NaDONA, have been detected, suggesting potential degradation pathways (Y. L. Liu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Street sweeping samples from diverse locations, including Gainesville, Florida, reveal a range of PFAS compositions, with the identification of previously unreported compounds like hexadecafluorosebacic acid and perfluoro-3,6,9-trioxaundecane-1,11-dioic acid, indicating unique contamination patterns (Ahmadireskety et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Analysis of stormwater pond sediment, encompassing 51 PFAS, highlights PFCA as the most prevalent class, with correlations between PFAS concentrations and land-use indicators, particularly road-type functional classification, suggesting its utility in predicting PFAS contamination in stormwater ponds and emphasizing the need for further monitoring prioritization (Olmsted et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The atmospheric transport of PFAS introduces a global dimension to the issue. Airborne PFAS, borne by rain, snow, and dust, can traverse vast distances, infiltrating even remote areas far from industrial hotspots (Bastow et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Du et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Madronich et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Agricultural practices also contribute significantly to PFAS contamination. Using PFAS-containing pesticides and fertilizers and applying biosolids introduce PFAS into the soil (Costello \u0026amp; Lee, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). For instance, using sulfurated-based ant baits in \u003cem class=\"Highlight htf42ccfb9-5a20-4c00-a242-49e5af408730\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"bra*\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003eBrazil\u003c/em\u003e and exporting them to other countries likely plays a role in the global release of PFOS (Guida et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Once PFAS are in the soil, they can persist and migrate, potentially reaching water bodies such as groundwater and surface water. Runoff from agricultural lands can transport PFAS to nearby streams and rivers, amplifying the dispersion of these chemicals in aquatic ecosystems. Irrigation with PFAS-contaminated water makes it challenging for plants to avoid PFAS uptake (Mroczko et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Studies have attributed PFAS sources wastewater irrigation to crops and groundwater (Canez et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Mroczko et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). The extent of PFAS uptake by plants is influenced by factors such as the length of the PFAS chain, the type of functional group, and the specific plant \u003cem class=\"Highlight htf340ff0d-a602-4893-ae8d-b60ea075e112\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"species\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003especies\u003c/em\u003e and organs involved (Ghisi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). The aerial transfer of volatile chemicals, which can subsequently be absorbed and metabolized by plant leaves, is an alternate mechanism for plant PFAS occurrence (Ghisi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). However, many processes that influence the subsequent transport of PFAS from soil to crops are yet unknown (Ghisi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). PFAS chemicals in agricultural products originate from plant PFAS uptake from polluted soils (Lesmeister et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Livestock may be exposed to PFAS through drinking PFAS-contaminated water or consuming feed, or grass produced in PFAS-contaminated soil (Death et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eChina's Yangtze River and Taihu Lake displayed elevated levels of PFHxA and PFOA during water diversion projects (T. Liu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), with increased PFOS concentrations observed in surface water during hurricanes in Florida, USA (Martinez et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Taiwan detected significant PFAS concentrations in upstream river water, and PFAS concentration decreased with the increase in salinity (Shiu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). River basins in Alabama, USA, exhibited high PFBS concentrations from various sources (Viticoski et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR92\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). The South China Sea demonstrated heightened PFOA levels in both water and sediment from numerous unknown sources (S. K. Xiao et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR96\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePFAS concentrations range, source, number of samples, location of study, \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht2ecd8aa4-09dc-4ddc-8bb0-28c2efee0ea2\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"sample\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003eSample\u003c/em\u003e collected periods, Abundance PFAS highest/Average concentration, and number of PFAS tested Data/Quantified PFAS: A Global Overview.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLocation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumber of samples\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumber of PFAS tested Data/Quantified PFAS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSources\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAbundance PFAS highest/Avg. Concentration (unit)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eΣPFAS Data Range\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem class=\"Highlight ht2ecd8aa4-09dc-4ddc-8bb0-28c2efee0ea2\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"sample\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003eSample\u003c/em\u003e Collection Period\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArticle\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFlorida, United States\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e117\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37/26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStreet sweeping\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKey West N-EtFOSAA had highest concentration 18.16 ng/g\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eΣPFAS 0.01 to 41.24 ng/g\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eApril to May, 2020\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAhmadireskety et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJiulong River and Xiamen Bay regions, China\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e56 Water \u0026amp; 22 Sediment\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25/25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eManufacturing machinery, paper packaging, wastewater treatment plant discharge, airport operations, and dock activities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJiulong River PFPeA had the highest concentration 65.57 ng/L. The mean concentrations of PFPeA, PFOS, PFBA, and PFOA were 11.13, 5.65, 4.03, and 2.50 ng/L.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eΣPFAS 10.48 to 149.29\u0026nbsp;ng/L\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJanuary, April, and July, 2022\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAn et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoutheast Alaska, United States\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27 Drinking water \u0026amp; 3 Field Blank, 40 \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht29216696-c42e-4f00-932a-aea34347df6a\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"human*\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003eHuman\u003c/em\u003e serum \u0026amp; 4 Field Blank\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39/14 water, 39/17 serum\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAirport operations and fire training sites\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePFOS had the highest concentration 20.77 ng/L.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWater ΣPFAS not detected to 120 ng/L \u0026amp; Serum 0.017 to 13.1 ng/mL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNovember 2019.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBabayev et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMassachusetts, United States\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e105 Minnows (Pimephales promelas), 37 Mussels (Ligumia subrostrata), 13 polar organic chemical integrative samplers (POCIS) \u0026amp; 10 polyethylene tube samplers (PETS)/ 26 groundwater\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29/24 groundwater, 31/26 \u003cem class=\"Highlight htf340ff0d-a602-4893-ae8d-b60ea075e112\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"fish\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003efish\u003c/em\u003e, and 31/24 mussel, 31/23 POCIS, 31/24 PETS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFire training activities, WWTP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReference groundwater most abundant PFHxS 83 ± 5.9 ng/L, \u0026amp; contaminated groundwater PFHxS 15,000 ng/L.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReference Groundwater ΣPFAS 120 to 140 ng/L \u0026amp; 6100 to 15,000 ng/L Contaminated Groundwater\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2015 and 2018\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBarber et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSvalbard \u0026amp; Jan Mayen, Arctic Norway\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32 Surface snow\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7/7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAtmospheric deposition\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe highest observed flux for Trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) spanning between 22 and 1800 ng/m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e. Highest TFA 270 ng/L.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eΣPFAS 7.48 to 270.04 ng/L\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJanuary to August, 2019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBjörnsdotter et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArizona, United States\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e104 Well Water\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16/8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWastewater Irrigation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHighest PFOS 340 ng/L\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eΣPFAS not detected to 471.8 ng/L\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJuly 2016 to December 2019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCáñez et al., 2021\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem class=\"Highlight htf42ccfb9-5a20-4c00-a242-49e5af408730\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"military\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003eMilitary\u003c/em\u003e Bases, United States\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5 \u003cem class=\"Highlight htf42ccfb9-5a20-4c00-a242-49e5af408730\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"military\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003eMilitary\u003c/em\u003e bases, 17 light NAPL Groundwater \u0026amp; 2 Field Blank\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51/ 16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResidual light NAPLs at AFFF-impacted field sites\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFhxSA occurred at the highest 67600 ng/L.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eΣPFAS not detected to 75247 ng/L\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo Mentioned\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChristie et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFlorida, United States\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45 Surface water\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51/21 detected three or more samples\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem class=\"Highlight htf42ccfb9-5a20-4c00-a242-49e5af408730\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"military\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003eMilitary\u003c/em\u003e bases, airports, and industries\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePFOS \u0026amp; PFPeA highest concentration 269 ng/L \u0026amp; 51.9 ng/L, respectively\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eΣPFAS 2.96 to 676.6 ng/L\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFebruary, 2020\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eda Silva et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCalifornia, United States\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16 Central and Southern California WWTPs, 198 Surface water\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18/13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWastewater\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSan Bernardino site’s highest concentration PFHxA 249 ng/L\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eΣPFAS 42.11 to 4466.9 ng/L\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeptember 2020 to June 2022\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDesgens-Martin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eShandong province, Northern China\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8 Surface water, 27 Groundwater, 36 Dust, 9 Soil and 49 Tree leaf and Bark\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18/16 surface Water\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFluorochemical industry\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDuring 2021, the large-scale fluorochemical industrial complex in Shandong, China, released up to 1026 kg and 5040kg of HFPO into air and water respectively. Furthermore, 1890 kg and 7560 kg of PFOA were discharged into air and water correspondingly.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSurface Water ΣPFAS 9529.95 to 777187.6 ng/L. Groundwater ΣPFAS 10.6–6520 ng/L.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJuly, 2019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFeng et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFlorida, United States\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8 Locations, 150 Aquatic vegetable (Seagrasses, freshwater plant, green macroalgae, red macroalgae, floating aquatic plant, and the sedge)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e92/ 12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumerous unknown sources\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLake Okeechobee L-PFOS 41.1 ng/L\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eΣPFAS 0.18 to 70 ng/g\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJanuary to March 2022\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGriffin et al., 2023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNorthern Germany\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41 Sampling sites, 41 Sediments \u0026amp; 1 suspended solids\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43/26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumerous unknown sources\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Sediments highest concentration of PFOS 39.44 ng/g\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eΣPFAS 0.14 to 44 ng/g\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2018, 2019, \u0026amp; 2020\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGuckert et al., 2022\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHeilongjiang Province, Northeast China\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39 \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht29216696-c42e-4f00-932a-aea34347df6a\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"female*\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003eFemales,\u003c/em\u003e 52 \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht29216696-c42e-4f00-932a-aea34347df6a\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"male*\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003eMales\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26/26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDaily eating habits and environmental factors\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigher concentrations 6:2 FTSA 255 pg/mL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eΣPFAS 34.0 to 12900 pg/mL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJanuary to October, 2018\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRhode Island, United States\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9 Surface water\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24/11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAFFF deployment\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHighest concentration observed 6:2-FTS 310.88 ng/L\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eΣPFAS 21.67 to 332.43 ng/L\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJuly to December, 2018\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKatz et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCentral river system, Pakistan\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26 Surface water, 26 sediments\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17/12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe release of wastewater from industrial or municipal sources, runoff from agricultural fields, and urban areas\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSurface water highest concentration observed PFHxA 46.32 ng/L. Sediment highest concentration observed PFHxA 10.16 ng/g dw\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSurface water ∑PFAA 2.28 to 221.75 ng/L \u0026amp; Sediment ∑PFAA 0.78 to 29.19 ng/g dw\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJanuary to February 2018\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKhan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnited States\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e164 Urban River sites \u0026amp; 682 total \u003cem class=\"Highlight htf340ff0d-a602-4893-ae8d-b60ea075e112\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"fish\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003efish\u003c/em\u003e (25 \u003cem class=\"Highlight htf340ff0d-a602-4893-ae8d-b60ea075e112\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"species\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003especies\u003c/em\u003e), 157 Great Lake sites \u0026amp; 423 total \u003cem class=\"Highlight htf340ff0d-a602-4893-ae8d-b60ea075e112\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"fish\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003efish\u003c/em\u003e (18 \u003cem class=\"Highlight htf340ff0d-a602-4893-ae8d-b60ea075e112\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"species\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003especies\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrban River sites 13/13 and Great Lake sites 13/12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConsumer products, precursors, fluoropolymer manufacture and processing, notably polyvinylidene fluoride manufacture, metal plating.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHighest PFOS concentrations were 80 and 127\u0026nbsp;ng/g in Great Lakes and urban river samples\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrban river ∑PFAS 2.5 to 139.1 ng/g \u0026amp; Great Lakes ∑PFAS 3.39 to 88.10 ng/g\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMay 2008 to November 2010\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStahl et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR80\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e \u0026amp; Lin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eShandong Province, Eastern China\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24 Lakes and Reservoirs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17/7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe manufacture of fluoropolymers, textile and fabric industries, food packaging, metal plating, and deposition from the atmosphere.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHighest PFOA 92.7 ng/L\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e∑PFAA 1.0 to 107.0 ng/L\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAugust 2021 to January 2022\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLiu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCentral and Eastern Canada\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45 Surface Soil \u0026amp; 70 Groundwater\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e93/66 soils, 93/58 Groundwater\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAFFF Impacted sites\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePFOS most abundant compounds in soil median: 754 ng/g dw and groundwater median: 171 ng/L\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil ∑PFAS 0.03 to 9198.5 ng/g dw \u0026amp; Not Detected to 10,800 ng/L in Groundwater.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeptember 2016 to February 2017\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLiu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoutheast China\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEntire treatment processes of the two different WWTP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25/17 EP WWTP, 25/15 in PD WWTP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eElectroplating, textile printing and dyeing industries\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn EP wastewater, PFOS exhibited the highest levels at 1300 ± 98 ng/L, subsequently 6:2 Cl-PFESA at 220 ± 23 ng/L and PFHxS at 460 ± 18 ng/L, while 6:2 Cl-PFAES indicated PD-wastewater, and other PFAS showed varying influent and effluent concentrations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEffluent ∑PFAS 520 ± 30 to 4200 ± 270 ng/L \u0026amp; 590 ± 39 to 2100 ± 130 ng/L Influent\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNovember, 2019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLiu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYangtze River and Taihu Lake, China\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14 Sites, 28 surface water\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18/10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWater diversion projects\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMaximum PFHxA 325.96 ng/L during the diversion project \u0026amp; during flooding in July highest PFOA 170.23 ng/L.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJanuary ∑PFAA 117.77 ng/L to 543.3 ng/L \u0026amp; July 19.13 to 231.35 ng/L\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJanuary to July, 2020\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLiu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNorth central Florida, United States\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9 Landfill Leachate, 9 commercial, 9 residential waste collection vehicles \u0026amp; 4 Field Blank\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51/38 landfill leachates, 51/36 commercial, and 51/48 residential vehicles\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSolid waste\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe highest PFHxS concentration, at 1900 ng/L, was observed in landfill leachate, PFPrS reached its peak of 95 ng/L in commercial vehicle leachate. In residential vehicle leachate, PFHxS concentration peaked at 150 ng/L.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLandfill ∑PFAS 9700 ng/L, Residential 3400 ng/L, \u0026amp; Commercial 3300 ng/L\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2018\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLiu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJiangsu and Zhejiang Provinces, China\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21 overlying waters, 21 pore water, 21 suspended particulate matter (SPM), 21 Sediments\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13/12 overlaying water, 13/10 pore water, 13/13 in SPM, 13/9 in sediments\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eShip navigation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMaximum concentration overlying surface water PFHpA 616.78 ng/L, Pore water PFOA 56676 ng/L, SPM PFHpA 3320.63 ng/g \u0026amp; Sediment PFOS 26.07 ng/g\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverlying surface water ∑PFAA 502.52 to 1937.65 ng/L, Pore water 2627.17 to 97467.6 ng/L, SPM 1069.15 to 9048.52 ng/g \u0026amp; Sediment 29.95 to 67.16 ng/g\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAugust, 2020\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMa et al., 2021\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNunavut, Canada\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e82 Permafrost thaw and snowmelt Freshwater\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19/16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAtmospheric deposition\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHighest concentration observed PFBA 3.8 ng/L\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e∑PFAS ranged of 2.5 to 21 ng/L\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJune 2012 to August 2015\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMacInnis et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFlorida, United States\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e49 Surface water\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51/17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHurricane increase exposure\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDuring the \u003cem class=\"Highlight htf42ccfb9-5a20-4c00-a242-49e5af408730\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"storm\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003estorm\u003c/em\u003e Peak concentration of PFOS 4.998 ng/L\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e∑PFAS 0.762 to 13.66 ng/L\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMarch 2019 to March 2020\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMartinez et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEastern United States\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e254 Drinking water, 40 Field Blank\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24/14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConcentrations of tritium, fire training site, urban land usage, and levels of VOC and DOC.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHighest concentration of PFOS 1500 ng/L\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e∑PFAS Not detected to 1645.5 ng/L\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMcMahon et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUppsala \u0026amp; Stockholm, Sweden\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e67 River water\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFire-fighting training areas and\u0026nbsp;Wastewater\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe highest concentration observed PFOS 357 ng/L\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e∑PFAS 0.56 to 644 ng/L\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFebruary 2013 to March 2014\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNguyen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem class=\"Highlight htf42ccfb9-5a20-4c00-a242-49e5af408730\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"military\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003eMilitary\u003c/em\u003e installation located, United States\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e105 Soil \u0026amp; 58 Groundwater\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e197/152 soil, 69/40 groundwater\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAFFF impacted site\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePerfluorohexane sulfonamide potential transformation product was high concentrations of 448 ng/g in soil, groundwater 3.4 mg/L\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGroundwater total PFAS 164463 to 6954052 ng/L \u0026amp; Soil 23.013 to 29663.36 ng/g dw\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2017\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNickerson et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFlorida, United States\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e54 samples in total, comprising 9 sites with 2 locations per site and triplicate samples for each location.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51/28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNearest roadway\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe highest concentration observed PFDoA 4779 ng/kg\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e∑PFAS 7.2 to 4800 ng/kg\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2018\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOlmsted et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNorth Carolina, United States\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e78 Groundwater \u0026amp; 22 Surface Water\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29/21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePFAS Manufacturing Facility\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGroundwater peak perfluoro-2-(perfluoromethoxy) propanoic acid (PMPA) 1365 ng/L. Highest surface water PMPA 1190 ng/L.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGroundwater ∑PFAS 20–4773 ng/L \u0026amp; Surface water 426–3617 ng/L\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2018 to 2019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePétré et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinland\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e72 Surface Water, 5 wastewater, 26 groundwater, 3 earthworms, 7 \u003cem class=\"Highlight htf340ff0d-a602-4893-ae8d-b60ea075e112\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"fish\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003eFish\u003c/em\u003e, 2 sediments, 27 Soil\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23/23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAFFF-impacted sites\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGroundwater PFOS 3500 ng/L, Surface water PFHxS 13000 \u0026amp; PFOS 42000 ng/L, Wastewater PFOS 250 ng/L, Sediment PFTrDA 235 ng/g dw, Soil PFOS 1530 ng/g dw, \u003cem class=\"Highlight htf340ff0d-a602-4893-ae8d-b60ea075e112\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"fish\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003eFish\u003c/em\u003e PFDA 1.57 ng/g fw, Earthworm PFOS 104, \u0026amp; PFHxS 77.8 ng/g fw\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGroundwater ∑PFAS 20 to 3997.27 ng/L, Surface water 0.6 to 73336 ng/L, Wastewater 93 to 326.7 ng/L, Sediment 145.102 to 507.67 ng/g dw, Soil 0.364 to 878.69 ng/g dw, \u003cem class=\"Highlight htf340ff0d-a602-4893-ae8d-b60ea075e112\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"fish\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003eFish\u003c/em\u003e 7.4 to 26.87 ng/g fw, Earthworm 135.15 to 184.19 ng/g fw\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2016 to 2019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReinikainen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMexico City, Mexico\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e54 Wastewater, 15 Field Blank\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5/5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWastewater\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe highest concentration observed PFBA 186.6 ng/L\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e∑PFAS 482.6–724.8 ng/L\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eApril to October, 2019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRodríguez-Varela et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGermany\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50 Wild boar livers, 50 Soil, 26 \u003cem class=\"Highlight htf340ff0d-a602-4893-ae8d-b60ea075e112\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"fish\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003eFish\u003c/em\u003e, 20 Sediments\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e66/31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePaper sludges, industrial emissions, and atmospheric deposition\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePFOS in areas paper sludge and industrial emission 426 and 82 ng/g, respectively and PFOA in area industrial emission 650 ng/g\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil ∑PFAS Not detected to 6.76 ng/g, Sediments 1.42 to 33.58 ng/g, European Chub liver 4.8 to 90.54 ng/g \u0026amp; Wild boar liver 4.8 to 876.95 ng/g\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2019 to 2020\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRupp et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGlobal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41 \u003cem class=\"Highlight htf42ccfb9-5a20-4c00-a242-49e5af408730\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"ambien*\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003eAmbient\u003c/em\u003e Air\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24/22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumerous unknown sources\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe highest Arauca, Colombia concentration observed 6:2 FTOH 143 pg/m3.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIonic + Neutral ∑PFAS 4.33-1291.35 pg/m3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2017\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSaini et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOhio, United States\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4 Influent, 12 effluent, 4 \u003cem class=\"Highlight htf42ccfb9-5a20-4c00-a242-49e5af408730\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"ambien*\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003eAmbient\u003c/em\u003e Air, 12 Potable water, 12 Sludge, 12 Tray scrubber water, 12 Mercury scrubber water, 4 Stack gas, 12 Wet ash slurry, 4 Grit\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19/9 potable water, 29/20 non-potable water, 29/15 Solids, 31/30 \u003cem class=\"Highlight htf42ccfb9-5a20-4c00-a242-49e5af408730\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"ambien*\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003eAmbient\u003c/em\u003e Air, 32/13 Stack gas\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWastewater\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInfluent to effluent increases PFBA (19.6 ± 29.8 ng/L to 72.0 ± 75.9 ng/L) and smaller increase HFPO-DA (7.5 ± 2.5 ng/L to 18.6 ± 6.9 ng/L), Ionic PFAS air PFBA (22.5 ± 6.6 pg/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e) and PFOA (26.3 ± 31.9 pg/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean ∑PFAS concentrations influent (117\u0026nbsp;±\u0026nbsp;39\u0026nbsp;ng/L), effluent (167 ± 83 ng/L), Venturi/Tray Scrubber (86.9 ±\u0026nbsp;17.9 ng/L), Ash Slurry (136 ±\u0026nbsp;44.7 ng/L), Potable Water (9.89 ±\u0026nbsp;0.64 ng/L), Mercury Scrubber (84.8 ±\u0026nbsp;82.9 ng/L), Grit (1.32 ±\u0026nbsp;2.46 ng/g), Sludge (31.3 ±\u0026nbsp;3.72 ng/g), stack gas (523 ±\u0026nbsp;869 ng/m3), \u003cem class=\"Highlight htf42ccfb9-5a20-4c00-a242-49e5af408730\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"ambien*\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003eambient\u003c/em\u003e air ionic + neutral (836.32 ±\u0026nbsp;66.3 ng/m3).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAugust, 2019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeay et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAndaya and Birkenes, Norway\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2 locations, 115 \u003cem class=\"Highlight htf42ccfb9-5a20-4c00-a242-49e5af408730\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"ambien*\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003eAmbient\u003c/em\u003e aerosol, 16 Field Blank\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11/10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSea spray aerosols\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePFOA \u0026lt; 0.003 to 1.3 pg/m3, PFOS \u0026lt; 0.003 to 0.14 pg/m3 at Andaya. PFOS was detected in almost all samples Birkenes \u0026amp; Andaya\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAndaya ∑PFAS 0.049 to 3.56 pg/m3 \u0026amp; Birkenes 0.019 to 2.46 pg/m3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eApril 2018 to July 2020\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSha et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR75\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePearl River Delta, China\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9 locations, 3 Cities\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7/7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMeteorological conditions and \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht71194251-f7a6-4c2d-a145-3d9f25b46662\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"local\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003elocal\u003c/em\u003e emissions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8:2 FTOH \u0026amp; 10:2 FTOH were detected in all samples and their range 222–7802 pg/m3, 75.6–6542 pg/m3 respectively with averages 1642 ± 2049 pg/m3, 978 ± 1509 pg/m3 respectively.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e∑PFAS 371 pg/m3 to 18700 pg/m3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJune 2018 to June 2019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eShen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTaiwan\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7 Surface water, 4 sediments, 7 suspended particulate matter, 8 Field Blanks\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8/8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUpstream river’s industrial and residential sewages\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe highest suspended particulate matter observed PFOA 9.01 ng/g dw\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWater ∑PFAS 0.59 to 7.40 ng/L, Sediments 0.05 to 0.13 ng/g and suspended particulate matters 0.54 to 9.08 ng/g.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJanuary 2021\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eShiu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoyang Lake, China\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10 Sites, 51 Surface water \u0026amp; 10 sediments\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35/31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFood packaging, textile treatments and\u0026nbsp;fluoropolymer\u0026nbsp;manufacturing\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSurface water the highest PFBA 530 ng/L. Sediments highest sodium p-perfluorous nonenoxybenzene sulfonate 1.1 ng/g dw\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSurface Water total PFAS 23 to 1000 ng/L, suspended particulate matters1.3–9.8 ng/L, Sediments 0.26–2.9 ng/g dw\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJuly 2019 to December 2019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR82\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNew Hampshire, United States\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6 WWTP, 32 Influent \u0026amp; Effluents, 4 sludge, 5 surface water, 2 Field Blank\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24/15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWastewater\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInfluent PFHxS 94 ng/L Precursor PFPeA 11210 ng/L, Effluent PFPeA 73 ng/L \u0026amp; PFHxA 65 ng/L, Sludge PFOS 98 ng/g, Surface Water PFBA 13 ng/L\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInfluent ∑PFAS 31 to 132 ng/L, Effluent 30 to 198 ng/L, Sludge 0.54 to 26.3 ng/g, Surface Water 6.1 to 51 ng/L\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTavasoli et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR83\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMichigan, United States\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMunicipal Influent 94 influent, 71 effluent, and 49 biosolids, \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht2ecd8aa4-09dc-4ddc-8bb0-28c2efee0ea2\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"primary\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003eprimary\u003c/em\u003e sludge 29, \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht2ecd8aa4-09dc-4ddc-8bb0-28c2efee0ea2\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"secondary\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003eSecondary\u003c/em\u003e sludge 30, Kalamazoo River water 4, Sanitary Sewer Manholes 13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28/21 Influents, 28/14 Effluent\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAFFF Spill\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe influent highest PFOS concentrations at 24,000 and 33,100 ng/l in the first two samples taken 4- and 6-hours post-spill, respectively. Meanwhile, the effluent reached its peak PFOS levels at around 1.16 and 1.25 days, registering concentrations of 2850 and 2410 ng/l, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eManhole Sewer ∑PFAS 35.03 to 1925.56 ng/L, influent 34.96 to 46573.5 ng/L, effluent 73.72 to 6372.4 ng/L, sludge 20.05 to 2100.85 ng/g, biosolids 21.34 to 2180.3 ng/g dw, surface water\u0026nbsp;4.5 to 27.4 ng/L\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBackground sampling May 2020 to March 29, 2021 \u0026amp; After the spill sampling March 30 to June 4, 2021,\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVitale et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR91\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlabama, United States\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10 River basins, 74 Surface water\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17/6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumerous unknown sources\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHighest PFBS concentration of 79.4 ng/L.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e∑PFAS Not detected to 108 ng/L\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJune to August, 2020\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eViticoski et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR92\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNorthern China\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2 regions \u0026amp; 3 North Shelter Forest 16 Air, 8 Soil, and 18 Leaf\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27/16 soil \u0026amp; Air, 27/13 leaf\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAtmospheric deposition\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAir Σi-PFAS, PFOA 1.57 ± 0.76 pg/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e and PFBA, 2.31 ± 0.82 pg/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e, Σn-PFAS 8:2 FTOH 8.13 to 21.2 pg/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e (mean: 14.5 ± 4.2 pg/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAir ΣPFAS 1.09 to 44.9 pg/m3, soil 98.0 to 707 pg/g dw \u0026amp; Leaf 105 to 993 pg/g dw\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2017 to 2018\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR94\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSouth China Sea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31 Sites, 31 Water \u0026amp; 26 Sediment\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21/14 water, 21/7 sediments\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumerous unknown sources\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWater highest PFOA 1.46 ng/L and in sediment with highest PFOA 0.19 ng/g\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWater ∑PFAS 0.98 to 2.64 ng/L \u0026amp; Sediments 0.19 to 0.66 ng/g, dw\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eApril, 2019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eXiao et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR96\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTianjin, China\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5 Sites, 15 Water, 15 Sediments\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20/ 9 water, 20/7 sediments\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSurrounding WWTP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePFOS, PFBS and PFOA were dominant in water and sediment in the Constructed Wetlands\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWater ∑PFAS 38.94 to 81.65 ng/L \u0026amp; Sediments 1.23–4.31 ng/g, dw\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJuly, 2019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eXu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR99\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Fate and Occurrence of PFAS","content":"\u003cp\u003ePFAS are renowned for their remarkable chemical stability and resilience against degradation processes, which enables them to persist in the environment for extended periods. They accumulate in various environmental compartments such as soil, water, sediment, and biota. This persistence raises concerns about the long-term environmental impact of PFAS contamination. The degree to which PFAS binds to particles substantially impacts their fate, bioavailability, and toxicity (Costello \u0026amp; Lee, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Understanding the potential environmental pathways that PFAS affect \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht29216696-c42e-4f00-932a-aea34347df6a\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"human*\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003ehuman\u003c/em\u003e health is essential to protect \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht29216696-c42e-4f00-932a-aea34347df6a\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"human*\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003ehuman\u003c/em\u003e health and the environment. Direct PFAS release to the environment, such as urban runoff, industrial air emission or atmospheric deposition, discharge of treated wastewater effluent, disposal of solid waste in landfills, industrial processing discharge, and disposal of PFAS-containing waste from firefighting activities are the key sources of PFAS contamination (An et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Barton et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e; Costello \u0026amp; Lee, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Ghisi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Liu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). PFAS fate is governed by abiotic and biotic degradation, adsorption to organic matter, and volatilization in aquatic and terrestrial systems (S. Y. Liu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Xu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR99\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Yan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR100\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Several researchers have shown that PFAS are ordinary in the aquatic environment and are more prevalent in surface water upstream of WWTPs (Desgens-Martin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Tavasoli et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR83\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Aquatic and terrestrial systems determine PFAS fate by abiotic and biotic degradation, adsorption to organic matter, and volatilization. The PFAS are known to be difficult to break down in aerobic and anaerobic conditions (Awad et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Zhou et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR101\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). PFAS fates are also influenced by the characteristics of PFAS, such as the length of the alkyl chain, and environmental conditions, such as pH, temperature, and other chemicals or contaminants in the surrounding ecosystem. Additionally, factors like soil or sediment type and composition and microbial communities' presence can play significant roles in determining PFAS persistence and behavior. Furthermore, the transport mechanisms within aquatic and terrestrial systems, such as groundwater movement and surface water flow, can affect the distribution and dispersion of PFAS contaminants over time.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFluorotelomer sulfonates (FTS) and fluorotelomer alcohols (FOTH), which have been demonstrated to convert to stable PFAA by aeration and oxygenation processes in WWTP, have been attributed to the increase of PFAA in WWTP. The PFAS compounds that convert to statable PFAS are considered PFAS precursors. Several recent studies have suggested that precursor chemicals could be transformed during wastewater treatment. However, it does not seem feasible for them to biodegrade during the wastewater treatment. The solubility of the plasticizer plays a critical role in determining the fate of PFAS within plastics, influencing factors such as the extent of leaching from plastic products, the mobility of PFAS, and their fate within the plastic matrix (Martin et al., 2022). PFAS can be hazardous to aquatic creatures at high concentrations, and their solubility influences their toxicity in aquatic \u003cem class=\"Highlight htf340ff0d-a602-4893-ae8d-b60ea075e112\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"species\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003especies\u003c/em\u003e. PFAS are used in metal plating for their unique properties and incorporated into various consumer products for functionalities like water and stain resistance. Rodríguez-Varela et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e employed liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry to validate an analytical method for quantifying five PFCA in wastewater from a megacity of Mexico. Monthly sampling in the underground sewerage system and the \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht2ecd8aa4-09dc-4ddc-8bb0-28c2efee0ea2\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"primary\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003eprimary\u003c/em\u003e open-air canal consistently indicated levels of the target PFCA, totaling 591.1 ± 39 ng/L in the open-air canal and 419.4 ± 24.3 ng/L in underground sewage. Short-chain PFCA (PFHxA, PFHpA, and PFBA) predominated; however, concentrations of PFUnA and PFOA were comparatively lower. Along the open-air canal, discrete sampling points revealed elevated levels of short-chain PFCA attributed to clandestine discharges of industrial and municipal wastewater, accompanied by reduced levels of PFOA and PFUnA. Notably, 60 km downstream, where canal water was used for irrigation, significant concentrations of PFCA were found, underscoring the environmental impact of short-chain PFCA, especially in treated sewage effluent. Atmospheric deposition has been identified as the predominant source of PFAS in Nunavut, Canada (MacInnis et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), mirroring findings in northern China, where it emerged as a notable contributor to PFAS contamination in both soils, leave, and air (Wang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR94\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). In the Three-North Shelter Forest in northern China, Wang et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR94\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) examined the influence of forests on PFAS transport and fate. Sampling during 2017–2018 revealed higher PFAS concentrations inside forests than outside, with mean \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht29216696-c42e-4f00-932a-aea34347df6a\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"rat*\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003eratios\u003c/em\u003e ranging from 10.6 ± 3.1pg/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e to 2.83 ± 0.78 pg/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e. A positive correlation between individual PFAS n-octanol − air partition coefficient and air concentration (Qair) was observed, particularly noting higher Qair values for ionic PFAS in broad-leaved forests than coniferous ones. Leaf samples displayed significantly greater 8:2 FTS levels, suggesting potential differences in PFAS behavior related to surface activity (Wang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR94\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). In Arctic Norway's Svalbard \u0026amp; Jan Mayen region, trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) primarily enters the environment through atmospheric deposition, emerging as the predominant PFAS contamination pathway (Björnsdotter et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Arauca, Colombia, experiences high concentrations of FTOH in \u003cem class=\"Highlight htf42ccfb9-5a20-4c00-a242-49e5af408730\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"ambien*\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003eambient\u003c/em\u003e air (Saini et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), while PFOS and PFOA are detected in sea spray aerosols in Andøya and Birkenes, Norway (Sha et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR75\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Similarly, elevated FTOH concentrations are observed in \u003cem class=\"Highlight htf42ccfb9-5a20-4c00-a242-49e5af408730\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"ambien*\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003eambient\u003c/em\u003e aerosols in the Pearl River Delta, China (Shen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). The extended \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht2ecd8aa4-09dc-4ddc-8bb0-28c2efee0ea2\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"model*\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003emodel\u003c/em\u003e is designed to predict various parameters such as solubility, Koc, Kow, Kd, and critical \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht29216696-c42e-4f00-932a-aea34347df6a\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"cell*\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003emicelle\u003c/em\u003e concentration (CMC), all of which are essential for forecasting the environmental fate of PFAS. These forecasts are crucial for understanding the long-distance transport of PFAS and can be applied in multimedia \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht2ecd8aa4-09dc-4ddc-8bb0-28c2efee0ea2\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"model*\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003emodels.\u003c/em\u003e The proposed \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht2ecd8aa4-09dc-4ddc-8bb0-28c2efee0ea2\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"model*\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003emodel\u003c/em\u003e also predicts how pH and speciation influence the extent of PFAS interfacial partitioning, which is vital for comprehending the behavior of ionizable PFAS, such as fluorinated carboxylic acids (Le et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e-SM illustrates the average distribution of six PFAS compounds, including PFOA, PFOS, PFNA, PFHxS, PFBS, and HFPO-DA/GenX, measured in ng/L across diverse studies aimed at meeting USEPA standards for MCL and MCLG in drinking water. The data encompassed surface water samples collected from various global locations such as China, the United States, and Norway, along with groundwater and drinking water samples. The findings reveal notable disparities in PFAS levels across different regions and types of samples. For instance, PFOA concentrations in Massachusetts groundwater were strikingly high at 608.88 ng/L (Barber et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), whereas they were markedly lower in Arizona groundwater at 0.02 ng/L (Canez et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). PFOS concentrations exhibited wide-ranging values, from 0.14 ng/L in the South China Sea to 1342.33 ng/L in Massachusetts groundwater (Barber et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; S. K. Xiao et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR96\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, instances where certain PFAS substances were not detected (ND) underscored the varying degrees of contamination and global concerns regarding PFAS pollution in water sources. This dataset emphasizes the urgent need for comprehensive monitoring initiatives and regulatory interventions to address PFAS contamination on a global scale.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"PFAS Exposure","content":"\u003cp\u003ePFOS, PFOA, PFHxS, and n-methylperfluorooctane sulfonamidoacetic acid (N-MeFOSAA) are the most frequently detected PFAS in \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht29216696-c42e-4f00-932a-aea34347df6a\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"human*\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003ehuman\u003c/em\u003e blood congeners, with a detection frequency exceeding 90% (Hu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Hu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e reported PFOS and PFOA, as the predominant congeners, accounted for 14.5% and 27.7% of ΣPFAS, with average concentrations of 115 pgm/L and 221 pgm/L, respectively. Interestingly, the total concentration of PFAS in cerebrospinal fluid was usually lower in \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht29216696-c42e-4f00-932a-aea34347df6a\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"female*\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003efemales\u003c/em\u003e than \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht29216696-c42e-4f00-932a-aea34347df6a\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"male*\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003emales,\u003c/em\u003e potentially linked to variations in the half-lives of PFAS between \u003cem class=\"Highlight htf42ccfb9-5a20-4c00-a242-49e5af408730\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"sex*\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003esexes.\u003c/em\u003e Notably, concentrations of ΣPFAS and specific congeners (e.g., PFHxA, PFDA, PFNA, PFHxS, and PFOS) increased with age, reaching the highest levels in older \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht29216696-c42e-4f00-932a-aea34347df6a\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"adult*\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003eadults.\u003c/em\u003e This age-related trend might be attributed to a decline in cerebrospinal fluid output as individuals age, offering valuable insights into the age-dependent dynamics of PFAS exposure in the studied population (Hu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Reinikainen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e conducted a comprehensive assessment of PFAS impact at firefighting and industrial sites in Finland, focusing on key elements for \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht2ecd8aa4-09dc-4ddc-8bb0-28c2efee0ea2\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"retrospective*\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003eretrospective\u003c/em\u003e risk analysis. The study proposes that conventional approaches, centering on PFOS and relevant PFAS, can effectively evaluate risks, even in \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht2ecd8aa4-09dc-4ddc-8bb0-28c2efee0ea2\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"case*\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003ecases\u003c/em\u003e where regulatory values are surpassed. Even with these instances of surpassing limits, the specific environmental and \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht29216696-c42e-4f00-932a-aea34347df6a\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"human*\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003ehuman\u003c/em\u003e health risks at individual sites might be relatively minor (Reinikainen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). PFOS emissions in Guangzhou, Dongguan, and Foshan using regional numerical environmental multimedia \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht2ecd8aa4-09dc-4ddc-8bb0-28c2efee0ea2\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"model*\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003emodeling\u003c/em\u003e (RNEMM) to study PFOS distribution in soil, water, air, and \u003cem class=\"Highlight htf340ff0d-a602-4893-ae8d-b60ea075e112\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"fish\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003efish\u003c/em\u003e by Chen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e. The \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht2ecd8aa4-09dc-4ddc-8bb0-28c2efee0ea2\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"model*\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003emodel's\u003c/em\u003e results closely matched observed data, with errors below 40% for water and sediment and below 5% for air. The health risk assessment indicated low risk for \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht29216696-c42e-4f00-932a-aea34347df6a\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"child*\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003echildren\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht29216696-c42e-4f00-932a-aea34347df6a\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"adult*\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003eadults,\u003c/em\u003e demonstrating RNEMM's effectiveness in managing environmental and health risks from pollutants (Chen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePFNA was studied by Suski et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR81\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) for 42 days in mature \u003cem class=\"Highlight htf340ff0d-a602-4893-ae8d-b60ea075e112\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"fish\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003efish\u003c/em\u003e and 21 days in larval \u003cem class=\"Highlight htf340ff0d-a602-4893-ae8d-b60ea075e112\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"fish\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003efish\u003c/em\u003e. The results showed that the concentrations of ≥ 250 µg/L had the greatest impact on larval development. Ninety-five percent of freshwater \u003cem class=\"Highlight htf340ff0d-a602-4893-ae8d-b60ea075e112\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"species\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003especies\u003c/em\u003e had a protective threshold of 55 µg PFNA/L, and effective values of 100.3 µg/L (10%) and 129.5 µg/L (20%) were found. According to the study, \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht2ecd8aa4-09dc-4ddc-8bb0-28c2efee0ea2\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"ecological\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003eecological\u003c/em\u003e risk assessments must take into account a variety of stresses (Suski et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR81\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). In contrast to PCBs and BDEs, Lin et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) found increasing PFOS levels downstream from Lakes Superior and Michigan to Huron, Erie, and Ontario, confirming Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF)'s usefulness in locating PFAS sources in Great Lakes \u003cem class=\"Highlight htf340ff0d-a602-4893-ae8d-b60ea075e112\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"fish\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003efish\u003c/em\u003e. The manufacturing of PVDF and AFFF are two sources of PFAS, with larger contributions in less populous regions like Lake Superior and Huron. Due to their water solubility and endurance, PFAS accumulates downstream, which implies that air transport precursor activities are important sources of PFOS (Lin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Stahl et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR80\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Zhou et al.'s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR101\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) investigation of PFAS levels in Baiyangdian Lake, China, revealed a clear north-south spatial variation in PFAS composition and a 7–40 times increase from 2008 to 2019. In their optimized fugacity \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht2ecd8aa4-09dc-4ddc-8bb0-28c2efee0ea2\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"model*\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003emodel,\u003c/em\u003e water was found to be the \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht2ecd8aa4-09dc-4ddc-8bb0-28c2efee0ea2\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"primary\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003eprimary\u003c/em\u003e PFAS transport pathway (76.5% of the total flux), with a notable interchange between water and sediment (94 kg/year). Gathering submerged plants showed promise as a substitute for cleaning silt, which proved to be the most economical restoration method (Zhou et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR101\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Lewis et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) studied the effects of PFCA, PFSA, and FTS on three freshwater benthic macroinvertebrates, considering divalent cations' influence on PFAS partitioning. L. variegatus showed higher PFAS bioaccumulation than \u003cem\u003eP. acuta\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eE. complanata\u003c/em\u003e, particularly with higher Mg\u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003e and Ca\u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003e concentrations, which enhanced PFAS bioaccumulation factors for compounds with more than eight carbon atoms. Long-chain PFAS were the most prevalent in macroinvertebrate profiles, with divalent cations significantly increasing bioaccumulation under high cation conditions (Lewis et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Rupp et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) analyzed PFAS in 50 wild boars from areas with paper sludge, industrial emissions, and background contamination, detecting 31 PFAS with distinct site-specific profiles. Boar livers from contaminated areas had higher PFAS levels, with PFOS prevalent in paper sludge and background areas, and PFOA and its substitutes in industrial sites. The study highlighted wild boar livers as effective bioindicators of terrestrial PFAS contamination, noting legacy PFAS persistence in terrestrial versus riverine environments (Rupp et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion and Future Perspectives","content":"\u003cp\u003ePFAS presents multifaceted challenges requiring ongoing research and concerted action across scientific, regulatory, and societal fronts. Despite significant progress in understanding its environmental and health impacts, critical research needs, and future perspectives emerge, e.g.,\u003c/p\u003e\u003col\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo comprehend the implications of roadway-derived PFAS sources and the function of street cleaning in maintaining water quality, Ahmadireskety et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) advised investigating PFAS within a watershed across different land uses and numerous street cleaning cycles. Vehicle leachate primarily comprises PFAS precursors (Y. L. Liu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), and landfill leachate contains terminal and rare PFAS, suggesting potential biodegradation pathways and additional study on PFAS transformation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhile Guckert et al. (2022) suggested using high-resolution mass spectrometry to expand target analysis and TOP assay analytes to include precursor and transformation compounds, Seay et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) suggested broadening the range of compounds measured at WWTPs, quantifying PFAS volatilization, and investigating advanced analytical techniques for a thorough understanding of PFAS fate and transport as well as advising against extrapolating results to other contexts. Research shows that although PFAS can only move vertically in regions with low permeability, there is evidence of lateral transfer in surface soils. According to M. Liu et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) results are essential for revising priority analyte lists and merging targeted and non-targeted analysis of TOP for comprehensive PFAS monitoring at sites impacted by AFFF contamination.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eBarber et al.'s \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e study findings show that passive samplers can effectively screen for PFAS in \u003cem class=\"Highlight htf340ff0d-a602-4893-ae8d-b60ea075e112\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"fish\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003efish\u003c/em\u003e but not in mussels. This highlighted the difficulty of bioconcentration and the demand for specialized methods to assess the effects of the environment on aquatic \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht29216696-c42e-4f00-932a-aea34347df6a\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"animal*\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003eanimals.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTraditional WWTP cannot remove PFAS completely; in certain circumstances, the release of PFAS-by-PFAS precursors may even worsen the issue. According to Canez et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), PFAS are probably confined in the vadose zone and migrate to the alluvial aquifer during aquifer recharge episodes. This suggested that PFAS contamination assessment and remediation require a thorough mathematical \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht2ecd8aa4-09dc-4ddc-8bb0-28c2efee0ea2\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"model*\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003emodel.\u003c/em\u003e A long-term reuse facility's PFAS levels were assessed by Mroczko et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), highlighting the need for more studies on the dangers to livestock health and the consequences for meat and dairy products. Comber et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) proposed employing biota-derived quality standards as a potentially more pragmatic approach to evaluating environmental risk. They also recommended evaluating the efficacy of recently implemented controls before considering extensive end-of-pipe treatments of WWTPs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccording to Christie et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e, field evidence indicates that Light NAPLs are important PFAS reservoirs, requiring additional research and management by the US EPA's 2021 PFAS Strategic Roadmap, given their coexistence with other contaminants.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eFuture research on PFAS should map the compounds' distribution and binding drivers in sediments, as Griffin et al. (2023) suggested, and investigate the sources, fate, transport, and trophic transfer of PFAS in coastal ecosystems to determine any possible negative consequences. To ensure sustainability, studies like the ones conducted by Khan et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) and bibliometric analyses suggest that looking at the presence and behavior of PFAS in food, groundwater, and surface water throughout Asia and Africa is imperative.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eLiu et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) discovered that although AFFF-impacted soils exhibited vertical movement and recognizable antecedents, background soils containing PFASs were derived from air deposition. PFOS in the Great Lakes is largely caused by atmospheric interactions of precursors (Lin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The atmospheric transport of volatile precursors and their degradation significantly impact the global distribution of C2-C4 PFCA. The extensive presence of trifluoromethane sulfonic acid is indicated by its identification in surface snow at remote Arctic sites; nevertheless, the precise process of transit to the Arctic is yet unknown (Björnsdotter et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). According to research on atmosphere transport, detecting and examining unknown precursors and transformation products in the air mixture may be vital since they may be harmful and persistent (Liu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Saini et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Mattila et al. (2023) recommended conducting additional studies on various tube materials, sizes, kinds, and concentrations of PFAS to better understand measurement delays. They also suggested experiments on actual atmospheric conditions, such as fluctuating humidity and trace gases, to reduce measurement errors due to tubing and enable precise research into fate, environmental transport, and particulate matter emissions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo better understand the effects of significant weather events and PFAS level variations on coastal populations and \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht71194251-f7a6-4c2d-a145-3d9f25b46662\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"inform\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003einform\u003c/em\u003e mitigation plans, Martinez et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) advise continuous monitoring and \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht2ecd8aa4-09dc-4ddc-8bb0-28c2efee0ea2\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"model*\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003emodeling\u003c/em\u003e of these events, paying particular attention to PFOS behavior during storms. In 2022, da Silva et al. said that to remediate PFAS pollution effectively, more knowledge about the effects of big storms, seasonal variations, and point sources is needed. More studies on PFAS variability in stormwater ponds and applying the landscape development intensity index and categorization can improve stormwater pond monitoring and provide guidance for better design and management techniques to stop PFAS contamination in natural water bodies (Olmsted et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Shiu et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) emphasized the need for further research in river-sea systems to understand spatiotemporal variations, environmental parameters, and synergistic effects of various PFAS compounds to understand coastal pollutant transport and fate comprehensively.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003ePetre et al. (2021) suggested future study directions include soil investigations, groundwater age dating, monitoring PFAS discharge into streams, and installing gauging stations to understand aquifer dynamics better and promote water quality recovery. Although few studies on removing PFAS from WWTPs, knowledge gained from studies on drinking water treatment provides some context. Foam fractionation was reported to be inefficient against PFBA but beneficial against PFHxS, PFOA, and PFOS concentrations in groundwater (Buckley et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eMacinnis et al. (2021) identify permafrost soils as important contamination repositories, especially under \u003cem class=\"Highlight htf42ccfb9-5a20-4c00-a242-49e5af408730\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"climate change\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003eclimate change\u003c/em\u003e, and stress the need for research on PFAS sources in the Lake Hazen watershed, with an emphasis on glaciers and permafrost as potential PFAS vectors. For a better knowledge of PFAS fate and transport in vast watersheds, planned monitoring studies and possible \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht2ecd8aa4-09dc-4ddc-8bb0-28c2efee0ea2\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"model*\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003emodel\u003c/em\u003e improvements are essential. According to Rafiei and Nejadhashemi (2023), more research is required. Accurate predictions in complex hydrological systems require advanced \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht2ecd8aa4-09dc-4ddc-8bb0-28c2efee0ea2\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"model*\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003emodeling\u003c/em\u003e techniques, and systematic monitoring is urgently needed to track PFAS contamination over time and across different environmental compartments.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003c/ol\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe various research efforts contribute to a holistic grasp of PFAS, guiding effective strategies for mitigation and management. Prioritizing these research needs enhances our understanding of PFAS risks, facilitating efforts to minimize their environmental and \u003cem class=\"Highlight ht29216696-c42e-4f00-932a-aea34347df6a\" highlight=\"true\" htmatch=\"human*\" htloopnumber=\"834937465\" style=\"font-style: inherit;\"\u003ehuman\u003c/em\u003e health impacts.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch1\u003eEthical Approval\u003c/h1\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe submitted article complies with the ethical guidelines of the journal.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch1\u003eConsent to Participate\u003c/h1\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot Applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch1\u003eConsent to Publish \u003c/h1\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors consent to publish the article on acceptance.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch1\u003eAuthors Contributions\u003c/h1\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMd Shahin Alam:\u003c/strong\u003e Conceptualization, Methodology, Software, Validation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Data Curation, Writing - Original Draft, Writing - Review \u0026amp; Editing, Visualization\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGang Chen\u003c/strong\u003e: Data curation,\u0026nbsp;Writing - Review \u0026amp; Editing, Data Curation, Supervision, Project administration, Funding acquisition.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch1\u003eFunding \u0026nbsp;\u003c/h1\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe work was supported by Hinkley Center to Florida State University through Subcontract SUB00003896\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch1\u003eCompeting Interests\u003c/h1\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch1\u003eData Availability\u003c/h1\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSupplement material is included with the submission and additional information will be available on request to authors.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAhmadireskety A, Da Silva BF, Robey NM, Douglas TE, Aufmuth J, Solo-Gabriele HM, Yost RA, Townsend TG, Bowden JA (2022) Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) in Street Sweepings. 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J Hazard Mater 438:129558. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.129558\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.129558\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"PFAS, Regulatory Frameworks, Sources, Occurrence, Fate, Exposure, Global Trend","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4810454/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4810454/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003ePer- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are artificial chemicals in diverse consumer and industrial goods. They are known for their enduring presence in the environment and the potential risks they pose to human health. This meta-analysis scrutinizes the sources, occurrence, fate, exposure pathways, and regulatory frameworks of PFAS globally, spanning 2021 to 2024. Through a comprehensive review of literature and regulatory documents, this study integrates the evolving trends and prevailing concerns and identifies research gaps. The analysis also reveals a need for a more regulatory landscape characterized by diverse approaches across different regions, with variations in standards, monitoring protocols, and remediation strategies. Despite concerted efforts to mitigate PFAS contamination, significant challenges persist, including regulatory inconsistencies, limited data availability, and emerging PFAS variants not covered by existing regulations. Sources of PFAS contamination encompass a broad spectrum of industrial activities, consumer products, and legacy pollution, with emerging evidence highlighting the role of atmospheric transport in global dispersion. Moreover, PFAS persistence in the environment and their bioaccumulative nature portray the urgency of understanding fate and transport mechanisms across various environmental compartments. Exposure pathways to PFAS exhibit multifaceted routes with humans, animals, invertebrates, and biota. Furthermore, disparities in exposure patterns are evident across different geographic regions and demographic groups, accentuating the need for targeted interventions and risk mitigation strategies. This meta-analysis identifies critical research needs, including enhanced surveillance programs, standardized methodologies, and interdisciplinary approaches to address PFAS contamination’s complexities comprehensively. This study provides a holistic overview of PFAS regulatory frameworks, sources, occurrence, fate, and exposure around the globe, highlighting evolving trends, persistent concerns, and crucial knowledge gaps. By synthesizing current knowledge and identifying research priorities, this study aims to inform policy development, regulatory enforcement, and scientific endeavors to address the challenges posed by PFAS contamination effectively.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) Regulatory Frameworks, Sources, Occurrence, Fate, and Exposure: Trend, Concern, and Implication","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-08-28 15:43:04","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4810454/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"7de4e566-2432-4540-a653-e1f7ea2d1bba","owner":[],"postedDate":"August 28th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-07-29T19:16:34+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-4810454","link":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s41742-025-00851-2","journal":{"identity":"international-journal-of-environmental-research","isVorOnly":false,"title":"International Journal of Environmental Research"},"publishedOn":"2025-07-28 00:00:00","publishedOnDateReadable":"July 28th, 2025"},"versionCreatedAt":"2024-08-28 15:43:04","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1007/s41742-025-00851-2","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s41742-025-00851-2","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-4810454","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-4810454","identity":"rs-4810454","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}