“The Ties that Bind and Regulate”: Social Organisation in Yam Flour Production and Distribution

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Among the vital foods Nigerians, particularly the Yoruba, have found nutritious, delicious and gourmet is Yam flour paste, popularly known as ‘ Amala ’. Unlike previous studies that focused more on the economic, nutritional and consumption dimensions, this paper is grounded in qualitative methods of data collection and actor-network theory to explore the social organisation and dynamics in the production processes of yam flour. Findings from this study reveal that, unlike the Western food system, which has a more systematised food system, indigenous yam flour production is grounded in cultural notions of mutual respect, association, and collective responsibility among actors. Farmer empowerment through the provision of subsidised loans, proper education and enlightenment of farmers and merchants on food preservation are among the recommendations put forward. Yam Flour Production-Distribution Chain Social Organisation Food System Behavioural Norms Figures Figure 1 Introduction Food is a fundamental necessity for humans. Food not only provides health and nourishment, but it also defines geographical and cultural connections among people (Bessière, 1998; Ellis et al., 2018; Hsu and Scott, 2020; Lee, 2023; Sims, 2009). The imperative role of food encompasses not only the essential aspect of healthy living but also reflects the sociocultural identity of a people, offering a sense of communality, ownership, and pathways into a community's culture (Lee, 2022). According to Germov and Williams (2017), food is essential to social life, and this relative importance has led to its decisive symbolic role in vital social events. For decades, economic thought, such as that of Robert Malthus, has acknowledged the aftermath of food shortages on a growing population. In a similar vein, a report published by the United Nations (2025) highlighted the persistent surge in hunger and food insecurity, driven by a complex interplay of factors and emphasising the need for prompt actions and coordinated global efforts to create a world free of hunger by 2030. Even though the strategy put in place to achieve this aim, particularly in Global South countries, appears bleak due to various social, economic, and political factors, the importance of ‘good food’ cannot be overstated. The United Nations (2023) defines "good food" as nutritious, healthful, palatable, sustainably produced by farmers, fishers, or food producers, and offered at a reasonable price. What is termed ‘good food’ is subjective, laden with emotions and sentiments, and varies across different cultures and individuals (Abarca and Colby, 2016; Sutton, 2001; Hanser, 2021; Beck, 2022). Among the vital foods Nigerians, particularly the Yoruba, have found nutritious, delicious and gourmet is Yam flour paste, popularly known as ‘ Amala ’. Yam flour is a staple food among the Yoruba-speaking people of south-western Nigeria and also an integral part of the people’s culture and economy. It represents both a cultural food and gives a cultural identity to the people of the region. While it is a secondary product of yams, processed through various methods, a pertinent point is that the consumption of ‘ Amala ’ plays a crucial role in the Yoruba heritage pride. Despite the imperative role of this food, particularly to the people of southwestern Nigeria and perhaps beyond, studies have not sufficiently addressed the social dynamics that exist within its production processes. Over a decade, literature has predominantly focused on the social, economy, dimensions, and consumption in Western context; predominantly focusing on cooperation in food production in the United Kingdom, Russia, Canada, and Bolivia (Emery et al. 2017), food sharing networks in lowland Nicaragua (Koster and Leckie, 2014), nature of urban and rural Irish consumers and Danish perception of local foods (Carroll and Fahy, 2014; Sundbo, 2013), implications of environmental sustainability and equitable social development of quality oriented food economy (Otsuki, 2013), relationship to farm-to-institution (FTI) in Michigan (Buckley et al. 2013), and production-consumption networks and agric-food research in Australian sugar and beef sectors (Lockie and Kitto, 2000). In addition, there is a body of works in the areas of yam flour production in Nigeria. Instances of studies that reflect more profound scholarship in the mentioned areas revolve around the quality improvement of yam flour (Dioscorea alata) through the fermentation process (Wanita et al. 2021), analysis of yam flour marketing (Olufemi and Folayimi, 2022), proximate, pasting and functional properties of yam flour (Kanu and Ogunka 2023), nutritional value, physio-chemical and functional properties of yam flour (Lolge et al.2022). However, studies that dealt with the social organisation and dynamism eminently inherent in the production processes of yam flour remain elusive. In recent times, non-human resources and modern technological approaches have increasingly been emphasised for quality food production and distribution globally. However, little attention has been given to the role of human interactions involved in food production processes. Moreover, studies that focus on regulation, administration, behavioural norms and values of operations in the yam flour production-distribution chain have not been adequately conceptualised and contextualised within the Global South, particularly Southwestern Nigeria, where yam flour is held in high esteem. To fill the identified gap, the general objective of this study is to explore the social organisation in yam flour production and distribution. The specific objectives of this study are to examine: Document the various actors in yam flour production and distribution Explore the leadership and associational role in yam flour production and distribution Examine the behavioural norms and values of operations in yam flour production and distribution. Through the pursuit of these objectives, this study offers a crucial insight into the socio-cultural discourse on food studies from a Global South perspective, thereby contributing to ongoing discussions on patterns of social relations in local food production. Bringing the importance of social ties among food production and distribution actors to the forefront is highly timely, especially at a time like this, when the global community craves an end to hunger through an adequate food supply and reduced inequality among nations/states. In light of this, the findings of this study will inform future local policy formulation in areas such as harnessing local food processing chains, mitigating post-harvest losses, and promoting sustainable rural development in Nigeria. Methodology - Study Design and Study Area The study was exploratory in nature. An exploratory research design was adopted due to the limited empirical information available on the subject matter and the need to uncover local nuances and provide deeper insight into the norms, values, beliefs, and social relations in the yam flour production and distribution process—an area that has been insufficiently addressed in academic discourse. The study area was Oyo and Lagos states in Southwestern Nigeria. Oyo state is divided into 33 (thirty-three) local government areas and three senatorial zones: Oyo South, Oyo North and Oyo Central. Saki is one of the thirty-three (33) local government units within the Oyo North senatorial district. The local council is bordered to the north by Oorelope local government, to the south by Atisbo and Olorunsogo, to the east by Saki-West, and to the west by Oke-Ogun. It is referred to as the food basket of Oyo State due to its significant agricultural activities. This study collected data from Saki, Ibadan, and Lagos state, respectively. The choice of Saki was informed by the area's vast agrarian activities, and it is also the hub of yam flour production. Ibadan is an ancient city in Oyo State, which the Yoruba-speaking people of Nigeria primarily dominate, and a large consumption of local food items characterises this environment. The Bodija and Orita-Merin markets in Ibadan North are renowned for selling yam flour and other food items, which informed the choice of these markets in Ibadan. Lagos state, on the other hand, is an urban centre with a heterogeneous population characterised by large consumption of finished products. The state comprises twenty (20) local government and thirty-seven (37) local council development areas with over 18million inhabitants (NPC, 2006). Lagos state markets are popular for their speciality, with the sales of specific wares. The Alasalatu market in Mushin and the Irepodun market in Mile 12 are the major yam flour markets, which informed the selection choice. Lagos and Ibadan were purposively selected because both markets are recognised as large buyers of yam flour from the Saki axis. - Study Population The study population consisted of all actors in the yam flour production and distribution chain. They include the farmers, peelers, loaders, transporters, farm landlords, association heads, and merchants. Their tremendous role and the need to capture all actors in the production and distribution chain informed the decision to select these participants. In addition, 33 participants (see Table 1 below), comprising the mentioned study participants, were selected using purposive and snowball sampling techniques. The purposive sampling technique was adopted due to the nature of the study and the need to ensure that each participant aligned perfectly with the study objective. Considering the nature of the study objectives and the need to achieve adequate data coverage, the snowballing method/referral methods were adopted to reach farmers in remote areas and association heads who are challenging to contact. The inclusion criteria used in selecting participants are as follows: - Must be someone who has been in the yam production business for a minimum period of 1 year. - Must have dwelt in the study area for a minimum period of 1 year - Must have more profound knowledge of the subject matter of the research. To provide easy access to key stakeholders in the value chain, snowball sampling techniques were employed through the use of referral and community guides. Beyond easy access to key stakeholders in the value chain, a community guide also emerged from the need to establish a congenial relationship between the researcher and the participants. - Methods of Data Collection and Analysis Qualitative methods of data collection, including In-Depth Interviews (IDIs), Key Informant Interviews (KIIs), and Focus Group Discussions (FGDs), were used to elicit information from the participants. Thirty In-depth interview (IDI) sessions were held with various actors along the chain, and three Focus Group Discussion (FGD) sessions were conducted with farmers, farm landlords, and merchant clusters (See Table 1 for reference). The sample size for this study was based on the concept of saturation, which was supported by rigour and aligned with Creswell and Creswell's (2018) prescription of 30–50 participants to attain saturation. To provide a frictionless exchange that allows participants to express themselves without any hindrance, interviews were conducted in the participants' local language. At the analysis level, data elicited were transcribed, translated, back-translated, cleaned, and uploaded to computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software. Specifically, data from the study were content-analysed, based on themes derived from the study concepts and objectives, using NVivo. Verbatim quotes from the analysed data were used as the empirical basis for the inferences made in the study. This also informs the research's conclusions, recommendations, and other practical utilities. - Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate This research did not require formal approval from an institutional ethics committee, as it involved minimal risk and focused on non-sensitive sociocultural practices. Ethical procedures were nevertheless observed in accordance with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki (2013 revision). Participants were informed about the purpose of the study, their rights, and the voluntary nature of participation. Verbal informed consent was obtained from each participant before data collection. - Clinical Trial Number: Not applicable. - Human Ethics and Consent to Participate Declarations: Not applicable. Theoretical Perspective This part is grounded in Actor Network Theory (ANT), which emphasises examining science and knowledge (Knorr-Cetina, 2013). ANT ab initio originated as a methodology for investigating science and scientific endeavours in Latour and Woolgar's Laboratory Life, published in 1976, and in Latour's examination of Science in Action (1987). A fundamental aspect of the ANT approach is the assertion that each actor is inherently interconnected with many others operating in a similar direction. The evolution of Actor-Network Theory (ANT) was influenced by British sociologist David Bloor's promotion of examining science and knowledge, positing that failure and success should be analysed similarly, rather than attributing scientific accomplishments solely to inherent scientific advancement. Conversely, failure is ascribed to social causes. The development and elaboration of the idea were conducted by Michel Callon in 1980 during his examination of a project aimed at creating the first French electric vehicle (Irzik and Kurtulmus, 2013). The core principle of ANT highlights that ostensibly unified and rational actants are shaped by the temporary equilibrium formed by other individuals, who are inherently diverse. Action is fundamentally based on an agent's capacity to respond to the activities of others. Lantour (1996) asserts that when an individual takes action, others are inclined to emulate that behaviour. A fundamental aspect of ANT is its definitive position regarding the characteristics or attributes that constitute or influence the actant's composition and agency. ANT's premise acknowledges the network's heterogeneity, emphasising that researchers must be diligent in avoiding assumptions regarding the nature and identity of individuals and entities that may significantly influence any specific event or social setting, as well as their purported "intentionality." The ANT views the social and technological as inseparable. Consequently, comprehending the nexus necessitates an examination of the interactions between human and nonhuman components. In pragmatic terms, ANT emphasised that scholars should refrain from altering theories based on the facets of reality they depict; instead, they ought to "follow the actors," whose social reality is an incessant amalgamation of social, technical, natural, and other components (Bencherki, 2017). The researcher’s discretion involves recognising the diverse parts of an actor-network that constitute the selection dilemma. The idea posits that both human and nonhuman actors are essential to the stability of a social network, which arises from the seamless flow of actor-networks. A network disruption transpires when a particular actor is isolated (Plesner, 2009). The idea posits that all entities, encompassing both physical and social components within a relational network, exist solely inside these relationships (Bencherki, 2017). All elements in a social context are equally significant, as no social forces operate in isolation. While ANT has been heavily criticised as being narrow, amoral, and incapable of explaining power structures and key social elements like Eurocentrism, racism, patriarchy, and oligarchy, we firmly believe that the tenets of this theory can best describe the interrelationships and interdependencies that exist in the yam flour production cycle. Literature Review - The Interconnectedness of Food Systems and Social Relationships Food systems are complex, interrelated, and adaptive systems that encompass every individual and every process involved in the aggregation of activities, ranging from production to consumption and disposal of food (Germov and Williams, 2017). It also encompasses the broader environmental, political, social, economic, and organisational contexts in which these activities are deployed (Germov and Williams, 2017). While the desire to eradicate hunger and malnutrition is one of the cogent reasons that birth the rise of the food system, it is pertinent to note that there is more to the food system than the production and consumption, or perhaps the satisfaction of physiological needs. For decades, emphasis has been placed on the technological and environmental factors that shape the food system, with little or no attention to the social drivers and relations that are woven around organisational, cultural, religious, economic, and political factors affecting the availability and consumption of food (Germov and Williams, 2017). This implies that even when humans tend to share similar physiological needs, food habits are not universal, natural, or inevitable; they are socially, culturally, and historically constructed, and significant variations exist (Germov and Williams, 2017; Beardsworth and Keil, 2013; Lupton, 1996). McIntosh (1996) posited that individuals consume food rather than nutrients. They typically interpret the substances within the framework of culture and social ties (Neely et al. 2014). Fischler (1988) asserts that food acts as a connection between nature and culture, with dietary practices shaped by culturally defined standards of acceptable and unacceptable food, alongside cultural techniques of preparation and consumption, irrespective of the nutritional merit of these foods and practices. In addition to cultural influences on food, social relationships have a significant impact on food production and consumption. Social relationships constitute the cornerstone of local food systems and are pivotal in the social transformation pursued by numerous proponents of these systems (Buckley et al., 2013). The conceptual importance of local food systems and their capacity for social transformation is attributed to the intimate, value-rich connections inherent in interpersonal interactions (Kloppenburg et al. 2000). Research worldwide has predominantly concentrated on farmers' markets and community-supported agriculture (direct markets), where physical encounters foster interpersonal bonds (Sage, 2003; Hinrichs, 2000). These relationships may foster and enhance trust and goodwill in market transactions, diminish the significance of economic elements such as price, and promote the collaborative creation of value and community-oriented food networks (Kneafsey et al., 2008; Kneen, 1993). Izumi et al. (2010) and Conner et al. (2012) discovered in their research on farm-to-school initiatives (FTI) that social and economic incentives are interdependent and cannot be examined in isolation. According to these experts, foodservice providers who establish ties with farmers obtain high-quality food and lower prices by capitalising on surplus and premium items (Izumi et al. 2010; Conner et al. 2012). Effective interactions cultivate creative and adaptive problem-solving resilience as participants collaborate to address the complexities and scales of FTI. Peterson (2009) emphasised the significance of connections in managing " learning " and international supply chains. Contemporary supply chain models are crucial for addressing challenges and enhancing sustainability in the current agricultural and food system (Peterson, 2009). Relationships serve multiple roles beyond market transactions by helping local food practitioners develop innovative and adaptive problem-solving skills (Bagdonis et al., 2009; Schafft et al., 2010). The connections formed between farmers and institutional personnel mitigate logistical issues by addressing the requirements, limitations, and working methods of all parties involved (Buckley et al. 2013). Although studies highlight the crucial importance of relationships in the food supply system and agricultural initiatives, the social dynamics within the indigenous food supply chain, particularly in yam flour production, remain inadequately examined in the literature. This established the foundation upon which this study is based. - Social Organisation in Food Supply Chain Social organisations in food chains are social arrangements that pursue the collective goals of food actors within their various existing contexts. Social organisation refers to the interdependence of arts and is a crucial feature of all enduring groups, communities, and societies (Mitchell, 1968). Social organisations represent one of the key and vital structures that are both functional and essential for sustaining resilient food chains. Food chains consist of both men and women, saddled with varying responsibilities in producing and distributing food products. Before colonialism, various societies of the Global South adopted indigenous forms of social organisation in the food supply chain. Available evidence, as averred by Seriki (2025), reveals that precolonial administration witnessed an era where different ethnic groups and traditional societies had a fairly well-organised manner of harnessing the various factors of production. During this era, men, women, and children across various age groups used homemade, simple farm implements to produce and distribute food at the local level in multiple regions (Seriki, 2025). These different arrangements were functional even when they were not usually formally arranged or documented. In this era, local food chains typically consist of various informal arrangements based on age, gender, and affinity. These arrangements are also guided by written and unwritten codes of conduct that guide the actions and activities of those involved (Seriki, 2025). These codes are known as social norms that influence or guide the behavioural patterns of people in various social contexts (Cialdini and Trost, 1998). They are rules and standards that are inherently understood by group members and serve to guide social relations (Cialdini and Trost, 1998). These norms inform and influence the actions of individuals by defining and communicating what is socially accepted and expected of members in the society (Cialdini et al. 1991). Previous studies have shown that when people internalise social norms, a good level of conformity can be maintained (Cialdini and Jacobson, 2021). This means that when a group of people understands the guiding norms in various contexts, there is bound to be continued growth and development. Hence, an effective and working social organisation is characterised by consensual social norms. The role of social norms in regulating social behaviours has been articulated in various contexts, particularly how social norms influence climate change-related behaviours (Jorg and Alexander, 2022; Cialdini and Jacobson, 2021), and the role of social norms in experimental economics and normative decision-making processes (Kritik, 2020). Findings from these studies reveal the indispensability of social norms in various spheres of human endeavours and interactions. However, empirical evidence that explores how compliance with stipulated rules of conduct is implemented in food chain associations falls short of the scholarly margin. Notably, these associations play a vital role in indigenous food production, such as yam flour production, by curbing the exploitation of consumers by food producers and distributors. With stipulated rules and regulations, efforts are made to ensure the availability of food for immediate consumption and continuous supply. Presentation of Findings Actors in Yam Flour Production and Distribution This section explores the social organisation of yam flour production and distribution. It provides insight into the diverse actors involved in yam flour production processes and how these actors organise activities in food production and distribution chains. Available findings from the fieldwork reveal diverse actors executing different roles in the production and distribution of yam flour. In addition, relations are mutually inclusive, as actors are dependent on one another to complete the chain of production and distribution of yam flour (see the diagram below). As shown above, the chain consists of the farmers, merchants, peelers, loaders, farm landlords and transporters. These actors can be classified into two major groups: the producers (farmers and peelers) and the marketers (Loaders, farm landlords, merchants, and transporters). The farmers are the first set of actors in the chain, as they are responsible for planting (the basic raw material for yam flour production) and harvesting yams. After harvesting, the next step is the peeling process. The peelers are responsible for peeling the yams to facilitate further processing and transformation into yam flour. After production, the next stage is the post-production processes, where the marketing process emerges. At this stage, the role of farm landlords becomes imperative, as they primarily serve as intermediaries between farmers and potential buyers (merchants). Merchants are the financiers on the chain; they mostly dictate the market activities, as most farmers are at their mercy. Additionally, on the chain are the transporters who help convey goods from various farms to different markets. Some extracts elicited from the participants to support the above view are as follows: The farmers are the first set of people in the chain because they farm yams. The chain activities start with the farmers (FGD/Merchant/Saki/2019) One of the players in the value chain has this to say: Peelers are labourers; we are called upon when there is work to do. We peelers are associated with particular mountains, and someone cannot just go to other mountains; we know ourselves. In the trade, we have both men and women; what matters is the business itself, not whether someone is a man or a woman. Most of us peelers are women and children (KII/Peelers/F/Saki/2019) One of the participants narrated the mutually exclusive relationships that exist in the yam flour production business and how dysfunction in one actor can affect the entire value chain as follows: We all depend on one another. The farmer is the primary determinant of our own business. So, if the farmer does not sell, we won’t have business to do either (IDI/Peelers/F/Saki/2019). Loaders are also a set of labourers who work with both farmers and merchants. They are natively called ‘ eledi ’ and are charged with the responsibility of filling the sack with yam chips from the point of purchase (farmers). An extract that speaks to the above information is as follows: Loaders are labourers; we are called upon when there is work to do. We have standard pricing, and most of the time, it is strictly business between us, the loaders and the merchants. Farm landlords, too, can be loaders, but not for the farmers or merchants they bring to buy goods (IDI/Loaders/M/Saki/2019). Building on the above view, one participant described the role of farm landlords and how they serve as a gateway for easy access to farmers. When we arrive at the farms, we also take adequate recognition of the farm landlords, because you cannot simply reach the farms and see the farmers without the farm landlords. After the farm landlord takes us to the farmer who has yam chips to sell, they also help with the loading or call loaders, and each bag size has its price. We must also be nice to the farm landlords. Also, during the days of staying on the farm, you must remain with the farm landlord till you finish buying your goods. This is to show them some love. This makes them happy and feel loved, and this also makes them sell well for you. When they know where there is a good market, they give us preference because of the love shown to them (FGD/ Merchants/ Saki/2019). Along the value chain are yet another key player, who are the merchants popularly referred to as “momero” or “ olowo ”[1]. They are usually hyped with the business aphorism “ olówó lò lowò ’’ (trade terms are dictated by the one who owns the money). The merchants dictate trading activities on the value chain and help bridge the distribution gap between rural farmers and rural and urban consumers. Some verbatim responses to support the above view are as follows: Haa, momero are very important in the trade. Who will buy our goods if we do not have the momero . We don’t joke with them o. We all need ourselves, but I can say the merchants are essential, they are the ones who turn our efforts into money (IDI/Farmer/M/Saki/2019) Another interviewee stated: All actors on the chain are important, but Olowo remains the most crucial . We are the ones who deliver the goods to consumers who will eat and pay for them. Abi, how many consumers will go to the rural farms to buy yam chips themselves? We are essential, so other actors listen when we propose an idea or raise an issue (KII/Merchant/F/Itamerin, 2019). Aside from the merchant, who plays a crucial role in the value chain, the transporter also plays a vital role in transporting the final goods from producers to the market, where these goods will be purchased by wholesalers, retailers, or final consumers. When we buy our goods from the farm, we need transporters to take them to the market for us, so we cannot do without them either. (IDI/Merchant/Bodija/F/2019) Another participant corroborated the above view as follows: Haa, we don’t joke with the transporters like we don’t joke with the farmers. I recall that there were sometimes issues with pricing between merchants and transporters. It was severe. The transporters insisted on not taking our goods from the farms and were not allowed to call in other transporters who are not members of the association. Many goods got spoiled by rain (C/study/Merchant/F/2019). Leadership and Associational Role in Yam Flour Production and Distribution The production and distribution activities of yam flour ( elubo ) are regulated and coordinated by an established association. The association serves as an umbrella body for the various actors in the trade. Two major associations are open to the actors in the trade. The two associations are the United Yam Flour Sellers Association of Nigeria and ‘ Bọluyo’ [2] Yam flour and the Foodstuff Sellers Association of Nigeria. These two associations are headquartered in different towns, with ‘ Bọluyo’ in Ilorin and “United” in Saki. Members of both associations, however, are spread across various cities in Southwest Nigeria, where actors are present. Some information obtained from the participants that speaks to the above themes relative to the criteria for membership and the governing of the association is discussed below: We have two associations: ‘Boluyo’, with its headquarters in Ilorin, and ‘United’, located here in Saki. They are both open to anyone who wants to trade in products that are bagged (sacks), mostly foodstuffs, such as yam chips, yam flour, grains, and nuts . (IDI/Farm landlord /Male/Saki/2019). The association president chairs the association. They are popularly known as ‘ Are Egbe’ (president). The association head governs trade activities by regulating them at various local levels. They are often the final arbiter in times of unresolved disputes among traders. Other members of the executive also assist him in the effective running of trade activities. We have our president, ‘ Are Egbe’, who is always present in our secretariat to attend to issues related to the trade as a whole. We also have other executives who work closely with the president . We have the various state chairmen. We also have secretaries (‘akowe egbe’), P.RO (‘alukoro egbe’), treasurer (‘akapo’), financial secretary, and the security officers, whom we call (‘ olopa egbe’) (IDI /Merchant/Male/Saki/2019). - Underlying Factors Responsible for the Formation of an Association Participants were further asked about the underlying factors responsible for the birth of the association. The association is responsible for numerous tasks, ranging from dispute resolution to trade regulations among its members. As stated by various interviewees, the importance of the association's multiple functions cannot be overstated. These were alluded to by numerous participants as follows. Creating the association has helped more than we can put into words. The association performs numerous functions to support traders and the trade (IDI/Merchant/Male/Mushin/2019). One of the interviewees who narrated how population increase is associated with diversity and the dynamic nature of population composition, accounted for the creation of an association geared toward achieving proper coordination of activities in the chain. The size of the trade necessitated the need for coordination, so to coordinate ourselves and the various trade activities, we require an association (IDI/Merchant/Male/Bodija/2019). Aside from the apparent effects of population increase, as stated by some interviewees, it was also noted that an increase in human greed and the need to curtail exploitation and fraudulent behaviour is another reason for the need for an association. Hmm, there is so much exposure. ‘Greed is maturing and knowledge is moving forward.’ The idea of not letting them cheat us is the idea behind association formation. The buyers caused us to organise ourselves too. Before they buy from the farmers, they meet in their own association (IDI/Farmer /Male/Saki/2019). Yam flour production and distribution are economic activities that imply actors are engaged in trade to generate profits. The quest for profit-making may sometimes result in subtle or even noticeable competition among the actors. This competition is noted to be a struggle for rewards that are limited in supply. To curb unhealthy and harmful competition in the trade, an effective dispute resolution mechanism must be in place. The association then serves as a mechanism of dispute resolution for the actors. Some extracts to support the stated view are as follows; Alare o san, elebi o san (both the defaulter and the complainant pay at the court), so we always prefer that we do our dispute resolutions at the association level. This is a significant function of the association, so the importance of the association cannot be overemphasised (IDI/Farm landlord/Male/Saki/2019). One of the FGD participants also corroborated the above view as follows: The creation of the association facilitates dispute resolution among the actors and helps monitor their activities. It has helped in sustaining the trade. We cannot fully discuss the importance of the association (FGD/Merchant/Female/Saki/2019). Another benefit of forming associations in yam flour production and distribution is the unity it fosters among actors and the social capital generated from the constant interactions with one another. This relationship among actors also allows for smooth transactions, as actors, through the associations, have agreements on how business is to be conducted. One participant stated thus: It helps unite us and cement love among us. We also celebrate children’s weddings, weddings and burials with one another based on our membership in the association. The association also facilitates buying and selling among us, as transactions are monitored among actors as agreed (IDI/Merchant/Female/Ita-Merin/2019). - Criterion for Regulating Entry into Yam Flour Production Business To regulate and monitor the activities of traders in the trade, the association has some stipulated measures that guide entry into the profession. The available evidence gathered from the participants reveals that entry into either Boluyo or United is achieved through either apprenticeship or succession, with conformity to the association's norms and values serving as the criterion for admitting prospective members. Entry through the apprenticeship route provides ample opportunities for training and affords actors a solid foundation of knowledge in the trade before they venture into it. It is believed that learning the trade will pave the way for trade sustainability. Some extracts to support the above view are as follows: An apprentice must be prepared to be truthful and adhere to rules and regulations. Those who did not enter through apprenticeship will only be able to trade through members who joined the association through apprenticeship (KII/Merchant/Female/Mushin/2019). Another participant said: Apprenticeship is also essential in the relationship and trading of yam flour. In the course of learning the trade, new entrants gradually learn the norms that guide our activities in the trade to understand how the trade has been sustained over time (FGD/Merchants/Female/Saki/2019) - Disciplinary Measures Among Yam Flour Production and Distribution Actors Regarding disciplinary measures implemented by the association to curb deviations, available information gathered reveals that the sanctions to be applied to deviant members depend on the severity of the offences committed and whether the offender is a first-time offender or a repeat offender. These sanctions range from a fine to suspension and outright expulsion from the trade. When an offence involves non-attendance at meetings or lateness to meetings, fines are typically the penalty. In contrast, stricter penalties, such as suspension and outright expulsion, are primarily implemented for fraudulent and other inappropriate behaviours that can tarnish the association's image. The recourse for this sanction occurs when an actor becomes incorrigible despite having received several warnings. The various grounds for sanctions are alluded to by multiple participants as follows: The punishment depends on the kind of offence committed by a trader or others. When it comes to meetings, most of the time it's fine. It is not always a considerable amount. But when it comes to stealing from others, it is usually suspension . (IDI/Merchant/Male/Saki/2019) One participant stated thus: For transporters, in cases where inappropriate behaviour, such as theft, occurs despite repeated warnings and the driver's refusal to change. The person is called to the association meeting and informed of the reason for dismissal . (IDI/Transporter/Male/Saki/2019). Behavioural Norms and Values of Operations in Yam Flour Production and Distribution In the social organisation of Yam flour producers and distributors, norms and values exist to ensure smooth relationships among members. Trust, fairness, integrity, and respect are found to be among the most essential norms and values among actors in the Yam flour production and distribution chain. Some findings elicited from the participants to support the above view are as follows: We believe in fairness so strongly because, in many transactions, traders rarely interact with one another; instead, people often send their money to others to purchase goods and services. Fairness is of great importance to us. We don’t like fraudulent acts. (FGD/farmer/Male/Saki/2019) Another participant said: The binding norm is to behave towards others the way you want them to act towards you, so love is the ultimate. We must love ourselves, because all of us (the farmers, traders, farm landlords, and transporters) need each other in this trade. (IDI/Merchant Female/Bodija/ 2019). One of the participants articulated the culturally acceptable norms of the association as follows: We are aware of established rules and cultural practices among actors, but we tend to follow culturally acceptable norms rather than regulations. For instance, when we visit the farms to buy goods, we ask the farm owners before entering the farm to purchase yam chips. We also mandatorily compensate farm landlords for their roles as intermediaries between yam flour merchants and farmers. We must not be dubious in our activities. (IDI/Merchant /Male/Saki/2019) A farm landlord agrees in a focus group discussion that: We should respect ourselves; for instance, merchants know that they must not go directly to the farmers. We expect them to reckon with us as necessary (FGD/Farm landlord Male/Saki/2019). Beyond norms that serve as the modus operandi of how actors are expected to behave, values rooted in cultural context also play a fundamental role in assessing what is right or wrong among actors in the value chain. Some of the upheld values among the actors are stated thus; Trustworthiness is significant. We must be truthful to one another. Many times, some of us merchants may not even visit the farms to see what we want to buy; instead, we send money and trust that our goods will be sent to us. We are against deceit; we don’t want people to be deceitful. Between the transporter, farmers, farm landlord and the merchants, we cannot do without one another, so we must be truthful to one another. (IDI/Merchant/Female/Ita-Merin/ 2019) The value of honour and respect is upheld during trade transactions and market entry by showing respect and acknowledging the head of the settlement or association, particularly in the case of a new merchant. Some verbatim responses to support the above view are as follows: In the farming profession, we know that you give honour to whom it is due; we don’t just arrive at a farm settlement without acknowledging the heads and observing how things are done. The ultimate thing we value is truth; we are expected to behave truthfully with ourselves (FGD/ Farmers /Male/Saki/2019) As stated by another participant; We must not boycott farm landlords because we think we can influence a farmer; instead, we must buy only at the agreed-upon rate and not exceed it, as we want to ensure we purchase goods at the lowest possible cost (IDI/ Merchant/Female/Mile 12/2019). [1] “momero” or “ olowo ” – They are called this name because they are the ones who source and interfere with the consumers and act as both wholesalers and retailers. [2] Bọluyo denotatively mean to feed the nation or community adequately. Discussion of Findings In agricultural food systems, food organisations can take the form of associations or institutions to facilitate effective food production and distribution. The formation of an association becomes an integral part of the trade, as the trade largely depends on the various functions of the association for trade coordination. The findings of this study reveal a strong link between social organisation in yam flour production and distribution in southwestern Nigeria. In line with Germov and Williams (2017), Beardsworth and Keil (2013), and Lupton (1996), who posited that while food systems are not unilinear in nature and not merely driven by technological factors but relatively socially, culturally, and historically constructed, this study demonstrates a stronger knit network of social relations premised on trust and behavioural conformity within the yam flour production chain. These relationships buoy the value chain and ensure that production and distribution activities are socially regulated. The study confirms the assertions of Fischler (1988) and McIntosh (1996) that food systems are embedded within the social and cultural fabric of society. As discovered among the actors in yam flour production, each role is collective in nature, as individuals in the value chain depend on one another to sustain the system. This mutual collaboration reflects the embeddedness of social and economic life, similar to the views of Buckley et al. (2013) and Kloppenburg et al. (2000), who argue that social relations within local food systems and their potential for social change lie in the close, value-laden connections enshrouded in interpersonal relationships. In addition, these findings also correspond to the position of ANT, which posits that action is predicated on an agent’s ability to act in relation to other people’s actions and that a disruption of the network occurs when a particular actor is isolated from the others. In this view, the farmer serves as the bedrock upon which other actors in the production rest. It is also worth noting that the farmer cannot single-handedly isolate themselves from the different actors in the production cycle because they need the services of other actors to make their production effective and efficient. The emphasis participants placed on love, fairness, and truthfulness as guiding norms further aligns with Kneafsey et al. (2008), who posited that interpersonal trust and moral norms help maintain cohesion within community-based food networks. However, unlike studies from the Global North, where relationships in local food systems are often structured through market contracts or market forces, the relationships observed in this study are largely semi-formal or informal, culturally rooted, and safeguarded through collective moral obligations rather than institutionalised rules. This divergence reveals a distinctive African pattern of social relations within indigenous food systems, indicating that informality and culture play regulatory roles in the absence of formal governance structures. The existence of two major associations— the United Yam Flour Sellers Association of Nigeria and the Boluyo Yam Flour and Foodstuff Sellers Association of Nigeria supports Mitchell’s (1960) view that social organisation is a mechanism through which interdependent individuals pursue collective goals. These associations, led by executives and presidents ( Are Egbe ), embody the principle of social organisation as a regulatory framework, providing dispute resolution, market coordination, and disciplinary measures. This finding corroborates Seriki (2025), who argued that precolonial African societies sustained agricultural productivity through communal governance structures and unwritten codes of conduct. The yam flour associations represent a contemporary re-enactment of such indigenous systems, demonstrating continuity in traditional social governance in food production. Moreover, the associations’ role in dispute resolution and entry regulation reinforces Cialdini et al. (1990) view that consensual social norms inform and influence the actions of individuals by defining and communicating what is socially accepted and expected of members in society. The norms and sanctions identified—ranging from fines to suspension and expulsion—mirror what Cialdini and Jacobson (2021) termed normative compliance mechanisms , where conformity is sustained through collective enforcement and social pressure rather than external authority. The emphasis on honesty and interpersonal respect reveals that social norms not only prescribe behaviour but also create a sense of moral belonging. The study also demonstrates how local cultural beliefs and Yoruba notions of iwa-irele (humbleness)and omoluabi (moral uprightness) reinforce compliance. The actors’ insistence on respecting farm landlords and association leaders, for instance, extends the normative framework beyond market logic to cultural ethics, an aspect underexplored in existing Western-oriented food system literature. The underlying reasons for establishing associations, ranging from managing population growth to curbing greed and ensuring fairness, support the relational governance model proposed by Izumi et al. (2010) and Conner et al. (2012). These scholars found that collaborative food networks foster creative and adaptive problem-solving resilience among actors. Similarly, in the yam flour trade, associations not only regulate competition but also build social capital through mutual support, shared celebrations, and solidarity during life events. While much of the existing literature situates social relations within technologically driven or market-oriented systems (Peterson, 2008; Otsuki, 2013), this study demonstrates that, in indigenous contexts, relational and cultural mechanisms often serve as substitutes for formal governance. The associations’ informal justice system and apprenticeship-based entry stand in contrast to the bureaucratic and regulatory approaches found in industrial food systems. A possible explanation for the traders’ emphasis on apprenticeship is the necessity associated with learning the norms that regulate activities in the trade. Apprenticeship goes beyond just learning the trade; instead, business ethics, standards and values are transmitted in the course of learning the trade. It is worth noting that the skills needed for both the production and marketing of yam flour are transmitted orally and practically through apprenticeship. These findings among actors in yam flour production and distribution reflect the history of traditional knowledge transfer and oral sources, which have been a significant means of knowledge transfer within African society. Overall, findings from this study reveal that the yam flour production-distribution chain is not merely an economic enterprise but a socially coordinated system where cultural norms, collective leadership, and interpersonal trust function as the primary regulators. Conclusion and Recommendation This paper has critically examined the social organisation in the yam flour production and distribution processes. Available findings from this study reveal some of the nuances, semantics, and intricacies that exist in indigenous yam flour production processes, as well as how cultural norms and a mutual form of social responsibility are reflected in indigenous food systems. Unlike previous studies that documented food distribution and supply chain from a formalised, systemic approach rooted in institutionalised/bureaucratic forms of social relationships, this paper reveals that social organisation in yam flour production processes is rooted in culturally social norms, respect and interpersonal trust, mutually inclusive social and economic responsibilities, and social capital networks. Findings from this paper challenge the overemphasis on non-human and technological factors in contemporary food system discussions by underscoring the indispensability of human social interactions in sustaining food production and distribution. To achieve a robust and inclusive policy formulation and implementation, farmer empowerment through subsidised loans should be expanded to other areas, particularly those communities where large-scale farming is being implemented. Additional studies on local food chains are necessary to enhance food security and improve the agricultural sector in the region. In addition, it is expedient that proper education and enlightenment be provided to both farmers and merchants on food preservation, which not only mitigates resource wastage but also takes into meticulous consideration the health of consumers during food preservation. Declarations Conflicts of Interest The authors reported no possible conflicts of interest. Funding Statement No funding or grant was received for the execution of this research project. References Abarca, M. E., & Colby, J. R. (2016). Food memories seasoning the narratives of our lives. Food & Foodways , 24 (1–2), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1080/07409710.2016.1150101 Bagdonis, J. M., Hinrichs, C. C., & Schafft, K. A. (2009). The emergence and framing of farm-to-school initiatives: civic engagement, health and local agriculture. 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Earth and Environmental Science , 759 (1), 012031. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/759/1/012031 Table Table 1 MATRIX OF DATA COLLECTION Document the various actors in yam flour production and distribution LOCATION IDI KII FGD Merchants Lagos Ibadan Saki 2 2 - - - - - 1 Farmers Lagos Ibadan Saki - - - - - - - - 1 Farm landlord Lagos Ibadan Saki - - - - - - - - - Association heads Lagos Ibadan Saki - - - 1 - 1 - - - Transporter Lagos Ibadan Saki - - 1 - - - - - - Peelers Lagos Ibadan Saki - - 1 - - - - - - Loaders Lagos Ibadan Saki - - 1 - - - - - - Explore the leadership and associational role in yam flour production and distribution Merchants Lagos Ibadan Saki 2 2 1 - - - - - - Farm landlord Lagos Ibadan Saki - - 3 - - - - - - Association heads Lagos Ibadan Saki - - - 1 1 2 - - - Transporter Lagos Ibadan Saki - - - 1 - - - Peelers Lagos Ibadan Saki - - - - - - - - - Loaders Lagos Ibadan Saki - - - - - - - - - Examine the behavioural norms and values of operations in yam flour production and distribution Merchants Lagos Ibadan Saki 2 1 1 - - - - - - Farmers Lagos Ibadan Saki - - - - - - - - 1 Farm landlord Lagos Ibadan Saki - - - - - - - - - Association heads Lagos Ibadan Saki - - - 1 1 1 - - - Transporter Lagos Ibadan Saki - - 1 - - - - - - TOTAL 20 10 3 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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07:13:30","extension":"html","order_by":7,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":147023,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7982820/v1/e7579997c7fe5e3855cc62ea.html"},{"id":95893727,"identity":"f43e0a88-d550-48e9-b31f-76e6b2271795","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-14 06:55:52","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":18597,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eImage of actors in the production and distribution chain of yams.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSource: \u003c/strong\u003eAuthor Construct - Field work 2019.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7982820/v1/5f6363836cf078a8bd64fc7f.png"},{"id":96362732,"identity":"11ea9ed9-0b5b-4b4a-979f-eb862d44ccb7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-20 09:47:09","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1042260,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7982820/v1/2716a68f-975a-4535-936e-b9679dbf6161.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"“The Ties that Bind and Regulate”: Social Organisation in Yam Flour Production and Distribution","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eFood is a fundamental necessity for humans. Food not only provides health and nourishment, but it also defines geographical and cultural connections among people (Bessière, 1998; Ellis et al., 2018; Hsu and Scott, 2020; Lee, 2023; Sims, 2009). The imperative role of food encompasses not only the essential aspect of healthy living but also reflects the sociocultural identity of a people, offering a sense of communality, ownership, and pathways into a community's culture (Lee, 2022). According to Germov and Williams (2017), food is essential to social life, and this relative importance has led to its decisive symbolic role in vital social events. For decades, economic thought, such as that of Robert Malthus, has acknowledged the aftermath of food shortages on a growing population. In a similar vein, a report published by the United Nations (2025) highlighted the persistent surge in hunger and food insecurity, driven by a complex interplay of factors and emphasising the need for prompt actions and coordinated global efforts to create a world free of hunger by 2030.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEven though the strategy put in place to achieve this aim, particularly in Global South countries, appears bleak due to various social, economic, and political factors, the importance of ‘good food’ cannot be overstated. The United Nations (2023) defines \"good food\" as nutritious, healthful, palatable, sustainably produced by farmers, fishers, or food producers, and offered at a reasonable price. What is termed ‘good food’ is subjective, laden with emotions and sentiments, and varies across different cultures and individuals (Abarca and Colby, 2016; Sutton, 2001; Hanser, 2021; Beck, 2022). Among the vital foods Nigerians, particularly the Yoruba, have found nutritious, delicious and gourmet is Yam flour paste, popularly known as ‘\u003cem\u003eAmala\u003c/em\u003e’. Yam flour is a staple food among the Yoruba-speaking people of south-western Nigeria and also an integral part of the people’s culture and economy. It represents both a cultural food and gives a cultural identity to the people of the region. While it is a secondary product of yams, processed through various methods, a pertinent point is that the consumption of ‘\u003cem\u003eAmala\u003c/em\u003e’ plays a crucial role in the Yoruba heritage pride.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDespite the imperative role of this food, particularly to the people of southwestern Nigeria and perhaps beyond, studies have not sufficiently addressed the social dynamics that exist within its production processes. Over a decade, literature has predominantly focused on the social, economy, dimensions, and consumption in Western context; predominantly focusing on cooperation in food production in the United Kingdom, Russia, Canada, and Bolivia (Emery et al. 2017), food sharing networks in lowland Nicaragua (Koster and Leckie, 2014), nature of urban and rural Irish consumers and Danish perception of local foods (Carroll and Fahy, 2014; Sundbo, 2013), implications of environmental sustainability and equitable social development of quality oriented food economy (Otsuki, 2013), relationship to farm-to-institution (FTI) in Michigan (Buckley et al. 2013), and production-consumption networks and agric-food research in Australian sugar and beef sectors (Lockie and Kitto, 2000).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn addition, there is a body of works in the areas of yam flour production in Nigeria. Instances of studies that reflect more profound scholarship in the mentioned areas revolve around the quality improvement of yam flour (Dioscorea alata) through the fermentation process (Wanita et al. 2021), analysis of yam flour marketing (Olufemi and Folayimi, 2022), proximate, pasting and functional properties of yam flour (Kanu and Ogunka 2023), nutritional value, physio-chemical and functional properties of yam flour (Lolge et al.2022). However, studies that dealt with the social organisation and dynamism eminently inherent in the production processes of yam flour remain elusive.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn recent times, non-human resources and modern technological approaches have increasingly been emphasised for quality food production and distribution globally. However, little attention has been given to the role of human interactions involved in food production processes. Moreover, studies that focus on regulation, administration, behavioural norms and values of operations in the yam flour production-distribution chain have not been adequately conceptualised and contextualised within the Global South, particularly Southwestern Nigeria, where yam flour is held in high esteem. To fill the identified gap, the general objective of this study is to explore the social organisation in yam flour production and distribution. The specific objectives of this study are to\u0026nbsp;examine:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eDocument the various actors in yam flour production and distribution\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eExplore the leadership and associational role in yam flour production and distribution\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eExamine the behavioural norms and values of operations in yam flour production and distribution.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThrough the pursuit of these objectives, this study offers a crucial insight into the socio-cultural discourse on food studies from a Global South perspective, thereby contributing to ongoing discussions on patterns of social relations in local food production. Bringing the importance of social ties among food production and distribution actors to the forefront is highly timely, especially at a time like this, when the global community craves an end to hunger through an adequate food supply and reduced inequality among nations/states. In light of this, the findings of this study will inform future local policy formulation in areas such as harnessing local food processing chains, mitigating post-harvest losses, and promoting sustainable rural development in Nigeria.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methodology","content":"\u003cp\u003e- \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eStudy Design and Study Area\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study was exploratory in nature. An exploratory research design was adopted due to the limited empirical information available on the subject matter and the need to uncover local nuances and provide deeper insight into the norms, values, beliefs, and social relations in the yam flour production and distribution process—an area that has been insufficiently addressed in academic discourse. The study area was Oyo and Lagos states in Southwestern Nigeria. Oyo state is divided into 33 (thirty-three) local government areas and three senatorial zones: Oyo South, Oyo North and Oyo Central. Saki is one of the thirty-three (33) local government units within the Oyo North senatorial district. The local council is bordered to the north by Oorelope local government, to the south by Atisbo and Olorunsogo, to the east by Saki-West, and to the west by Oke-Ogun. It is referred to as the food basket of Oyo State due to its significant agricultural activities. This study collected data from Saki, Ibadan, and Lagos state, respectively. The choice of Saki was informed by the area's vast agrarian activities, and it is also the hub of yam flour production.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIbadan is an ancient city in Oyo State, which the Yoruba-speaking people of Nigeria primarily dominate, and a large consumption of local food items characterises this environment. The Bodija and Orita-Merin markets in Ibadan North are renowned for selling yam flour and other food items, which informed the choice of these markets in Ibadan. Lagos state, on the other hand, is an urban centre with a heterogeneous population characterised by large consumption of finished products. The state comprises twenty (20) local government and thirty-seven (37) local council development areas with over 18million inhabitants (NPC, 2006). Lagos state markets are popular for their speciality, with the sales of specific wares. The Alasalatu market in Mushin and the Irepodun market in Mile 12 are the major yam flour markets, which informed the selection choice. Lagos and Ibadan were purposively selected because both markets are recognised as large buyers of yam flour from the Saki axis.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e- \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eStudy Population\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study population consisted of all actors in the yam flour production and distribution chain. They include the farmers, peelers, loaders, transporters, farm landlords, association heads, and merchants. Their tremendous role and the need to capture all actors in the production and distribution chain informed the decision to select these participants. In addition, 33 participants (see Table 1 below), comprising the mentioned study participants, were selected using purposive and snowball sampling techniques. The purposive sampling technique was adopted due to the nature of the study and the need to ensure that each participant aligned perfectly with the study objective. Considering the nature of the study objectives and the need to achieve adequate data coverage, the snowballing method/referral methods were adopted to reach farmers in remote areas and association heads who are challenging to contact. The inclusion criteria used in selecting participants are as follows:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e-\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Must be someone who has been in the yam production business for a minimum period of 1 year.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e-\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Must have dwelt in the study area for a minimum period of 1 year\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e-\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Must have more profound knowledge of the subject matter of the research.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo provide easy access to key stakeholders in the value chain, snowball sampling techniques were employed through the use of referral and community guides. Beyond easy access to key stakeholders in the value chain, a community guide also emerged from the need to establish a congenial relationship between the researcher and the participants.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e- \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eMethods of Data Collection and Analysis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eQualitative methods of data collection, including In-Depth Interviews (IDIs), Key Informant Interviews (KIIs), and Focus Group Discussions (FGDs), were used to elicit information from the participants. Thirty In-depth interview (IDI) sessions were held with various actors along the chain, and three Focus Group Discussion (FGD) sessions were conducted with farmers, farm landlords, and merchant clusters (See Table 1 for reference). The sample size for this study was based on the concept of saturation, which was supported by rigour and aligned with Creswell and Creswell's (2018) prescription of 30–50 participants to attain saturation. To provide a frictionless exchange that allows participants to express themselves without any hindrance, interviews were conducted in the participants' local language.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt the analysis level, data elicited were transcribed, translated, back-translated, cleaned, and uploaded to computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software. Specifically, data from the study were content-analysed, based on themes derived from the study concepts and objectives, using NVivo. Verbatim quotes from the analysed data were used as the empirical basis for the inferences made in the study. This also informs the research's conclusions, recommendations, and other practical utilities.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e- \u003cstrong\u003eEthics Approval and Consent to Participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research did not require formal approval from an institutional ethics committee, as it involved minimal risk and focused on non-sensitive sociocultural practices. Ethical procedures were nevertheless observed in accordance with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki (2013 revision). Participants were informed about the purpose of the study, their rights, and the voluntary nature of participation. Verbal informed consent was obtained from each participant before data collection.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e- \u003cstrong\u003eClinical Trial Number:\u003c/strong\u003e Not applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e- \u003cstrong\u003eHuman Ethics and Consent to Participate Declarations:\u003c/strong\u003e Not applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTheoretical Perspective\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis part is grounded in Actor Network Theory (ANT), which emphasises examining science and knowledge (Knorr-Cetina, 2013). ANT ab initio originated as a methodology for investigating science and scientific endeavours in Latour and Woolgar's Laboratory Life, published in 1976, and in Latour's examination of Science in Action (1987). A fundamental aspect of the ANT approach is the assertion that each actor is inherently interconnected with many others operating in a similar direction. The evolution of Actor-Network Theory (ANT) was influenced by British sociologist David Bloor's promotion of examining science and knowledge, positing that failure and success should be analysed similarly, rather than attributing scientific accomplishments solely to inherent scientific advancement. Conversely, failure is ascribed to social causes. The development and elaboration of the idea were conducted by Michel Callon in 1980 during his examination of a project aimed at creating the first French electric vehicle (Irzik and Kurtulmus, 2013).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe core principle of ANT highlights that ostensibly unified and rational actants are shaped by the temporary equilibrium formed by other individuals, who are inherently diverse. Action is fundamentally based on an agent's capacity to respond to the activities of others. Lantour (1996) asserts that when an individual takes action, others are inclined to emulate that behaviour. A fundamental aspect of ANT is its definitive position regarding the characteristics or attributes that constitute or influence the actant's composition and agency. ANT's premise acknowledges the network's heterogeneity, emphasising that researchers must be diligent in avoiding assumptions regarding the nature and identity of individuals and entities that may significantly influence any specific event or social setting, as well as their purported \"intentionality.\" The ANT views the social and technological as inseparable. Consequently, comprehending the nexus necessitates an examination of the interactions between human and nonhuman components.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn pragmatic terms, ANT emphasised that scholars should refrain from altering theories based on the facets of reality they depict; instead, they ought to \"follow the actors,\" whose social reality is an incessant amalgamation of social, technical, natural, and other components (Bencherki, 2017). The researcher’s discretion involves recognising the diverse parts of an actor-network that constitute the selection dilemma. The idea posits that both human and nonhuman actors are essential to the stability of a social network, which arises from the seamless flow of actor-networks. A network disruption transpires when a particular actor is isolated (Plesner, 2009). The idea posits that all entities, encompassing both physical and social components within a relational network, exist solely inside these relationships (Bencherki, 2017). All elements in a social context are equally significant, as no social forces operate in isolation. While ANT has been heavily criticised as being narrow, amoral, and incapable of explaining power structures and key social elements like Eurocentrism, racism, patriarchy, and oligarchy, we firmly believe that the tenets of this theory can best describe the interrelationships and interdependencies that exist in the yam flour production cycle.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Literature Review","content":"\u003cp\u003e- \u003cstrong\u003eThe Interconnectedness of Food Systems and Social Relationships\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFood systems are complex, interrelated, and adaptive systems that encompass every individual and every process involved in the aggregation of activities, ranging from production to consumption and disposal of food (Germov and Williams, 2017). It also encompasses the broader environmental, political, social, economic, and organisational contexts in which these activities are deployed (Germov and Williams, 2017). While the desire to eradicate hunger and malnutrition is one of the cogent reasons that birth the rise of the food system, it is pertinent to note that there is more to the food system than the production and consumption, or perhaps the satisfaction of physiological needs. For decades, emphasis has been placed on the technological and environmental factors that shape the food system, with little or no attention to the social drivers and relations that are woven around organisational, cultural, religious, economic, and political factors affecting the availability and consumption of food (Germov and Williams, 2017). This implies that even when humans tend to share similar physiological needs, food habits are not universal, natural, or inevitable; they are socially, culturally, and historically constructed, and significant variations exist (Germov and Williams, 2017; Beardsworth and Keil, 2013; Lupton, 1996). \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMcIntosh (1996) posited that individuals consume food rather than nutrients. They typically interpret the substances within the framework of culture and social ties (Neely et al. 2014). Fischler (1988) asserts that food acts as a connection between nature and culture, with dietary practices shaped by culturally defined standards of acceptable and unacceptable food, alongside cultural techniques of preparation and consumption, irrespective of the nutritional merit of these foods and practices. In addition to cultural influences on food, social relationships have a significant impact on food production and consumption. Social relationships constitute the cornerstone of local food systems and are pivotal in the social transformation pursued by numerous proponents of these systems (Buckley et al., 2013).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe conceptual importance of local food systems and their capacity for social transformation is attributed to the intimate, value-rich connections inherent in interpersonal interactions (Kloppenburg et al. 2000). Research worldwide has predominantly concentrated on farmers\u0026apos; markets and community-supported agriculture (direct markets), where physical encounters foster interpersonal bonds (Sage, 2003; Hinrichs, 2000). These relationships may foster and enhance trust and goodwill in market transactions, diminish the significance of economic elements such as price, and promote the collaborative creation of value and community-oriented food networks (Kneafsey et al., 2008; Kneen, 1993).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIzumi et al. (2010) and Conner et al. (2012) discovered in their research on farm-to-school initiatives (FTI) that social and economic incentives are interdependent and cannot be examined in isolation. According to these experts, foodservice providers who establish ties with farmers obtain high-quality food and lower prices by capitalising on surplus and premium items (Izumi et al. 2010; Conner et al. 2012). Effective interactions cultivate creative and adaptive problem-solving resilience as participants collaborate to address the complexities and scales of FTI. Peterson (2009) emphasised the significance of connections in managing \u0026quot; learning \u0026quot; and international supply chains. Contemporary supply chain models are crucial for addressing challenges and enhancing sustainability in the current agricultural and food system (Peterson, 2009).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRelationships serve multiple roles beyond market transactions by helping local food practitioners develop innovative and adaptive problem-solving skills (Bagdonis et al., 2009; Schafft et al., 2010). The connections formed between farmers and institutional personnel mitigate logistical issues by addressing the requirements, limitations, and working methods of all parties involved (Buckley et al. 2013). Although studies highlight the crucial importance of relationships in the food supply system and agricultural initiatives, the social dynamics within the indigenous food supply chain, particularly in yam flour production, remain inadequately examined in the literature. This established the foundation upon which this study is based.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e- \u003cstrong\u003eSocial Organisation in Food Supply Chain\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSocial organisations in food chains are social arrangements that pursue the collective goals of food actors within their various existing contexts. Social organisation refers to the interdependence of arts and is a crucial feature of all enduring groups, communities, and societies (Mitchell, 1968).\u0026nbsp;Social organisations represent one of the key and vital structures that are both functional and essential for sustaining resilient food chains. Food chains consist of both men and women, saddled with varying responsibilities in producing and distributing food products. Before colonialism, various societies of the Global South adopted indigenous forms of social organisation in the food supply chain. Available evidence, as averred by Seriki (2025), reveals that precolonial administration witnessed an era where different ethnic groups and traditional societies had a fairly well-organised manner of harnessing the various factors of production.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDuring this era, men, women, and children across various age groups used homemade, simple farm implements to produce and distribute food at the local level in multiple regions (Seriki, 2025). These different arrangements were functional even when they were not usually formally arranged or documented. In this era, local food chains typically consist of various informal arrangements based on age, gender, and affinity. These arrangements are also guided by written and unwritten codes of conduct that guide the actions and activities of those involved (Seriki, 2025). These codes are known as social norms that influence or guide the behavioural patterns of people in various social contexts (Cialdini and Trost, 1998). They are rules and standards that are inherently understood by group members and serve to guide social relations (Cialdini and Trost, 1998). These norms inform and influence the actions of individuals by defining and communicating what is socially accepted and expected of members in the society (Cialdini et al. 1991).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePrevious studies have shown that when people internalise social norms, a good level of conformity can be maintained (Cialdini and Jacobson, 2021). This means that when a group of people understands the guiding norms in various contexts, there is bound to be continued growth and development. Hence, an effective and working social organisation is characterised by consensual social norms. The role of social norms in regulating social behaviours has been articulated in various contexts, particularly how social norms influence climate change-related behaviours (Jorg and Alexander, 2022; Cialdini and Jacobson, 2021), and the role of social norms in experimental economics and normative decision-making processes (Kritik, 2020). Findings from these studies reveal the indispensability of social norms in various spheres of human endeavours and interactions.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHowever, empirical evidence that explores how compliance with stipulated rules of conduct is implemented in food chain associations falls short of the scholarly margin. Notably, these associations play a vital role in indigenous food production, such as yam flour production, by curbing the exploitation of consumers by food producers and distributors. With stipulated rules and regulations, efforts are made to ensure the availability of food for immediate consumption and continuous supply.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePresentation of Findings\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eActors in Yam Flour Production and Distribution\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis section explores the social organisation of yam flour production and distribution. It provides insight into the diverse actors involved in yam flour production processes and how these actors organise activities in food production and distribution chains. Available findings from the fieldwork reveal diverse actors executing different roles in the production and distribution of yam flour. In addition, relations are mutually inclusive, as actors are dependent on one another to complete the chain of production and distribution of yam flour (see the diagram below).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs shown above, the chain consists of the farmers, merchants, peelers, loaders, farm landlords and transporters. These actors can be classified into two major groups: the producers (farmers and peelers) and the marketers (Loaders, farm landlords, merchants, and transporters). The farmers are the first set of actors in the chain, as they are responsible for planting (the basic raw material for yam flour production) and harvesting yams. After harvesting, the next step is the peeling process. The peelers are responsible for peeling the yams to facilitate further processing and transformation into yam flour.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter production, the next stage is the post-production processes, where the marketing process emerges. At this stage, the role of farm landlords becomes imperative, as they primarily serve as intermediaries between farmers and potential buyers (merchants). Merchants are the financiers on the chain; they mostly dictate the market activities, as most farmers are at their mercy. Additionally, on the chain are the transporters who help convey goods from various farms to different markets. Some extracts elicited from the participants to support the above view are as follows:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe farmers are the first set of people in the chain because they farm yams. The chain activities start with the farmers (FGD/Merchant/Saki/2019)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOne of the players in the value chain has this to say:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePeelers are labourers; we are called upon when there is work to do. We peelers are associated with particular mountains, and someone cannot just go to other mountains; we know ourselves. In the trade, we have both men and women; what matters is the business itself, not whether someone is a man or a woman. Most of us peelers are women and children (KII/Peelers/F/Saki/2019)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOne of the participants narrated the mutually exclusive relationships that exist in the yam flour production business and how dysfunction in one actor can affect the entire value chain as follows:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe all depend on one another. The farmer is the primary determinant of our own business. So, if the farmer does not sell, we won\u0026rsquo;t have business to do either (IDI/Peelers/F/Saki/2019).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLoaders are also a set of labourers who work with both farmers and merchants. They are natively called \u0026lsquo;\u003cem\u003eeledi\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rsquo; and are charged with the responsibility of filling the sack with yam chips from the point of purchase (farmers). An extract that speaks to the above information is as follows:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLoaders are labourers; we are called upon when there is work to do. We have standard pricing, and most of the time, it is strictly business between us, the loaders and the merchants. Farm landlords, too, can be loaders, but not for the farmers or merchants they bring to buy goods (IDI/Loaders/M/Saki/2019).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBuilding on the above view, one participant described the role of farm landlords and how they serve as a gateway for easy access to farmers.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhen we arrive at the farms, we also take adequate recognition of the farm landlords, because you cannot simply reach the farms and see the farmers without the farm landlords. After the farm landlord takes us to the farmer who has yam chips to sell, they also help with the loading or call loaders, and each bag size has its price. We must also be nice to the farm landlords. Also, during the days of staying on the farm, you must remain with the farm landlord till you finish buying your goods. This is to show them some love. This makes them happy and feel loved, and this also makes them sell well for you. When they know where there is a good market, they give us preference because of the love shown to them (FGD/ Merchants/ Saki/2019).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlong the value chain are yet another key player, who are the merchants popularly referred to as \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;momero\u0026rdquo;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eor \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eolowo\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo;[1]. They are usually hyped with the business aphorism \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eol\u0026oacute;w\u0026oacute; l\u0026ograve; low\u0026ograve;\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rsquo;\u0026rsquo; (trade terms are dictated by the one who owns the money). The merchants dictate trading activities on the value chain and help bridge the distribution gap between rural farmers and rural and urban consumers. Some verbatim responses to support the above view are as follows:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHaa, \u003cem\u003emomero\u003c/em\u003e are very important in the trade. Who will buy our goods if we do not have the \u003cem\u003emomero\u003c/em\u003e. We don\u0026rsquo;t joke with them o. We all need ourselves, but I can say the merchants are essential, they are the ones who turn our efforts into money (IDI/Farmer/M/Saki/2019)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAnother interviewee stated:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll actors on the chain are important, but \u003cem\u003eOlowo remains the most crucial\u003c/em\u003e. We are the ones who deliver the goods to consumers who will eat and pay for them. Abi, how many consumers will go to the rural farms to buy yam chips themselves? We are essential, so other actors listen when we propose an idea or raise an issue (KII/Merchant/F/Itamerin, 2019).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAside from the merchant, who plays a crucial role in the value chain, the transporter also plays a vital role in transporting the final goods from producers to the market, where these goods will be purchased by wholesalers, retailers, or final consumers.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhen we buy our goods from the farm, we need transporters to take them to the market for us, so we cannot do without them either. (IDI/Merchant/Bodija/F/2019)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAnother participant corroborated the above view as follows:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHaa, we don\u0026rsquo;t joke with the transporters like we don\u0026rsquo;t joke with the farmers. I recall that there were sometimes issues with pricing between merchants and transporters. It was severe. The transporters insisted on not taking our goods from the farms and were not allowed to call in other transporters who are not members of the association. Many goods got spoiled by rain (C/study/Merchant/F/2019). \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLeadership and Associational Role in Yam Flour Production and Distribution\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe production and distribution activities of yam flour (\u003cem\u003eelubo\u003c/em\u003e) are regulated and coordinated by an established association. The association serves as an umbrella body for the various actors in the trade. Two major associations are open to the actors in the trade. The two associations are the United Yam Flour Sellers Association of Nigeria and \u0026lsquo;\u003cem\u003eBọluyo\u0026rsquo;\u003c/em\u003e [2] Yam flour and the Foodstuff Sellers Association of Nigeria. These two associations are headquartered in different towns, with \u0026lsquo;\u003cem\u003eBọluyo\u0026rsquo;\u003c/em\u003e in Ilorin and \u0026ldquo;United\u0026rdquo; in Saki. Members of both associations, however, are spread across various cities in Southwest Nigeria, where actors are present. Some information obtained from the participants that speaks to the above themes relative to the criteria for membership and the governing of the association is discussed below:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe have two associations: \u003cem\u003e\u0026lsquo;Boluyo\u0026rsquo;, with its headquarters in Ilorin, and \u0026lsquo;United\u0026rsquo;, located\u003c/em\u003e here in Saki. They are both open to anyone who wants to trade in products that are bagged (sacks), mostly foodstuffs, such as yam chips, yam flour, grains, and nuts\u003cstrong\u003e.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e(IDI/Farm landlord /Male/Saki/2019).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe association president chairs the association. They are popularly known as \u0026lsquo;\u003cem\u003eAre Egbe\u0026rsquo;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e(president). The association head governs trade activities by regulating them at various local levels. They are often the final arbiter in times of unresolved disputes among traders. Other members of the executive also assist him in the effective running of trade activities.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe have our president, \u0026lsquo;\u003cem\u003eAre Egbe\u0026rsquo;,\u003c/em\u003e who is always present in our secretariat to attend to issues related to the trade as a whole. We also have other executives who work closely with the president\u003cem\u003e.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eWe have the various state chairmen. We also have secretaries (\u0026lsquo;akowe egbe\u0026rsquo;), P.RO (\u0026lsquo;alukoro egbe\u0026rsquo;), treasurer (\u0026lsquo;akapo\u0026rsquo;), financial secretary, and the security officers, whom we call (\u0026lsquo;\u003cem\u003eolopa egbe\u0026rsquo;)\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e(IDI /Merchant/Male/Saki/2019).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e- \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eUnderlying Factors Responsible for the Formation of an Association\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eParticipants were further asked about the underlying factors responsible for the birth of the association. The association is responsible for numerous tasks, ranging from dispute resolution to trade regulations among its members. As stated by various interviewees, the importance of the association\u0026apos;s multiple functions cannot be overstated. These were alluded to by numerous participants as follows.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCreating the association has helped more than we can put into words. The association performs numerous functions to support traders and the trade (IDI/Merchant/Male/Mushin/2019).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOne of the interviewees who narrated how population increase is associated with diversity and the dynamic nature of population composition, accounted for the creation of an association geared toward achieving proper coordination of activities in the chain.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe size of the trade necessitated the need for coordination, so to coordinate ourselves and the various trade activities, we require an association (IDI/Merchant/Male/Bodija/2019).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAside from the apparent effects of population increase, as stated by some interviewees, it was also noted that an increase in human greed and the need to curtail exploitation and fraudulent behaviour is another reason for the need for an association.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHmm, there is so much exposure. \u0026lsquo;Greed is maturing and knowledge is moving forward.\u0026rsquo; The idea of not letting them cheat us is the idea behind association formation. The buyers caused us to organise ourselves too. Before they buy from the farmers, they meet in their own association (IDI/Farmer /Male/Saki/2019).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eYam flour production and distribution are economic activities that imply actors are engaged in trade to generate profits. The quest for profit-making may sometimes result in subtle or even noticeable competition among the actors. This competition is noted to be a struggle for rewards that are limited in supply. To curb unhealthy and harmful competition in the trade, an effective dispute resolution mechanism must be in place. The association then serves as a mechanism of dispute resolution for the actors. Some extracts to support the stated view are as follows;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAlare o san, elebi o san\u003c/em\u003e (both the defaulter and the complainant pay at the court), so we always prefer that we do our dispute resolutions at the association level. This is a significant function of the association, so the importance of the association cannot be overemphasised (IDI/Farm landlord/Male/Saki/2019).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOne of the FGD participants also corroborated the above view as follows:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe creation of the association facilitates dispute resolution among the actors and helps monitor their activities. It has helped in sustaining the trade. We cannot fully discuss the importance of the association (FGD/Merchant/Female/Saki/2019).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAnother benefit of forming associations in yam flour production and distribution is the unity it fosters among actors and the social capital generated from the constant interactions with one another. This relationship among actors also allows for smooth transactions, as actors, through the associations, have agreements on how business is to be conducted. One participant stated thus:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIt helps unite us and cement love among us. We also celebrate children\u0026rsquo;s weddings, weddings and burials with one another based on our membership in the association. The association also facilitates buying and selling among us, as transactions are monitored among actors as agreed (IDI/Merchant/Female/Ita-Merin/2019).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e- \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eCriterion for Regulating Entry into Yam Flour Production Business\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo regulate and monitor the activities of traders in the trade, the association has some stipulated measures that guide entry into the profession. The available evidence gathered from the participants reveals that entry into either Boluyo or United is achieved through either apprenticeship or succession, with conformity to the association\u0026apos;s norms and values serving as the criterion for admitting prospective members. Entry through the apprenticeship route provides ample opportunities for training and affords actors a solid foundation of knowledge in the trade before they venture into it. It is believed that learning the trade will pave the way for trade sustainability. Some extracts to support the above view are as follows:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAn apprentice must be prepared to be truthful and adhere to rules and regulations. Those who did not enter through apprenticeship will only be able to trade through members who joined the association through apprenticeship (KII/Merchant/Female/Mushin/2019).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAnother participant said:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eApprenticeship is also essential in the relationship and trading of yam flour. In the course of learning the trade, new entrants gradually learn the norms that guide our activities in the trade to understand how the trade has been sustained over time (FGD/Merchants/Female/Saki/2019)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e- \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eDisciplinary Measures Among Yam Flour Production and Distribution Actors\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRegarding disciplinary measures implemented by the association to curb deviations, available information gathered reveals that the sanctions to be applied to deviant members depend on the severity of the offences committed and whether the offender is a first-time offender or a repeat offender. These sanctions range from a fine to suspension and outright expulsion from the trade. When an offence involves non-attendance at meetings or lateness to meetings, fines are typically the penalty. In contrast, stricter penalties, such as suspension and outright expulsion, are primarily implemented for fraudulent and other inappropriate behaviours that can tarnish the association\u0026apos;s image. The recourse for this sanction occurs when an actor becomes incorrigible despite having received several warnings. The various grounds for sanctions are alluded to by multiple participants as follows:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe punishment depends on the kind of offence committed by a trader or others. When it comes to meetings, most of the time it\u0026apos;s fine. It is not always a considerable amount. But when it comes to stealing from others, it is usually suspension\u003cstrong\u003e.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e(IDI/Merchant/Male/Saki/2019)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOne participant stated thus:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFor transporters, in cases where inappropriate behaviour, such as theft, occurs despite repeated warnings and the driver\u0026apos;s refusal to change. The person is called to the association meeting and informed of the reason for dismissal\u003cstrong\u003e.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e(IDI/Transporter/Male/Saki/2019).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBehavioural Norms and Values of Operations in Yam Flour Production and Distribution\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the social organisation of Yam flour producers and distributors, norms and values exist to ensure smooth relationships among members. Trust, fairness, integrity, and respect are found to be among the most essential norms and values among actors in the Yam flour production and distribution chain. Some findings elicited from the participants to support the above view are as follows:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe believe in fairness so strongly because, in many transactions, traders rarely interact with one another; instead, people often send their money to others to purchase goods and services. Fairness is of great importance to us. We don\u0026rsquo;t like fraudulent acts. (FGD/farmer/Male/Saki/2019)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAnother participant said:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;The binding norm is to behave towards others the way you want them to act towards you, so love is the ultimate. We must love ourselves, because all of us (the farmers, traders, farm landlords, and transporters) need each other in this trade. (IDI/Merchant Female/Bodija/ 2019).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOne of the participants articulated the culturally acceptable norms of the association as follows:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;We are aware of established rules and cultural practices among actors, but we tend to follow culturally acceptable norms rather than regulations. For instance, when we visit the farms to buy goods, we ask the farm owners before entering the farm to purchase yam chips. We also mandatorily compensate farm landlords for their roles as intermediaries between yam flour merchants and farmers. We must not be dubious in our activities. (IDI/Merchant /Male/Saki/2019)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA farm landlord agrees in a focus group discussion that:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe should respect ourselves; for instance, merchants know that they must not go directly to the farmers. We expect them to reckon with us as necessary (FGD/Farm landlord Male/Saki/2019).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBeyond norms that serve as the modus operandi of how actors are expected to behave, values rooted in cultural context also play a fundamental role in assessing what is right or wrong among actors in the value chain. Some of the upheld values among the actors are stated thus;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTrustworthiness is significant. We must be truthful to one another. Many times, some of us merchants may not even visit the farms to see what we want to buy; instead, we send money and trust that our goods will be sent to us. We are against deceit; we don\u0026rsquo;t want people to be deceitful. Between the transporter, farmers, farm landlord and the merchants, we cannot do without one another, so we must be truthful to one another.\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e(IDI/Merchant/Female/Ita-Merin/ 2019)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe value of honour and respect is upheld during trade transactions and market entry by showing respect and acknowledging the head of the settlement or association, particularly in the case of a new merchant. Some verbatim responses to support the above view are as follows:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the farming profession, we know that you give honour to whom it is due; we don\u0026rsquo;t just arrive at a farm settlement without acknowledging the heads and observing how things are done. The ultimate thing we value is truth; we are expected to behave truthfully with ourselves (FGD/ Farmers /Male/Saki/2019)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs stated by another participant;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe must not boycott farm landlords because we think we can influence a farmer; instead, we must buy only at the agreed-upon rate and not exceed it, as we want to ensure we purchase goods at the lowest possible cost\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e(IDI/ Merchant/Female/Mile 12/2019).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e[1] \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;momero\u0026rdquo;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eor \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eolowo\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo; \u0026ndash; They are called this name because they are the ones who source and interfere with the consumers and act as both wholesalers and retailers.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e[2] \u003cem\u003eBọluyo\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003edenotatively mean to feed the nation or community adequately.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion of Findings","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn agricultural food systems, food organisations can take the form of associations or institutions to facilitate effective food production and distribution.\u0026nbsp;The formation of an association becomes an integral part of the trade, as the trade largely depends on the various functions of the association for trade coordination. The findings of this study reveal a strong link between social organisation in yam flour production and distribution in southwestern Nigeria. In line with Germov and Williams (2017), Beardsworth and Keil (2013), and Lupton (1996), who posited that while food systems are not unilinear in nature and not merely driven by technological factors but relatively socially, culturally, and historically constructed, this study demonstrates a stronger knit network of social relations premised on trust and behavioural conformity within the yam flour production chain. These relationships buoy the value chain and ensure that production and distribution activities are socially regulated.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study confirms the assertions of Fischler (1988) and McIntosh (1996) that food systems are embedded within the social and cultural fabric of society. As discovered among the actors in yam flour production, each role is collective in nature, as individuals in the value chain depend on one another to sustain the system. This mutual collaboration reflects the embeddedness of social and economic life, similar to the views of Buckley et al. (2013) and Kloppenburg et al. (2000), who argue that social relations within local food systems and their potential for social change lie in the close, value-laden connections enshrouded in interpersonal relationships. In addition, these findings also correspond to the position of ANT, which posits that action is predicated on an agent’s ability to act in relation to other people’s actions and that a disruption of the network occurs when a particular actor is isolated from the others. In this view, the farmer serves as the bedrock upon which other actors in the production rest. It is also worth noting that the farmer cannot single-handedly isolate themselves from the different actors in the production cycle because they need the services of other actors to make their production effective and efficient. The emphasis participants placed on love, fairness, and truthfulness as guiding norms further aligns with Kneafsey et al. (2008), who posited that interpersonal trust and moral norms help maintain cohesion within community-based food networks.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHowever, unlike studies from the Global North, where relationships in local food systems are often structured through market contracts or market forces, the relationships observed in this study are largely semi-formal or informal, culturally rooted, and safeguarded through collective moral obligations rather than institutionalised rules. This divergence reveals a distinctive African pattern of social relations within indigenous food systems, indicating that informality and culture play regulatory roles in the absence of formal governance structures. The existence of two major associations—\u003cem\u003ethe United Yam Flour Sellers Association of Nigeria and the Boluyo Yam Flour and Foodstuff Sellers Association of Nigeria\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003esupports Mitchell’s (1960) view that social organisation is a mechanism through which interdependent individuals pursue collective goals. These associations, led by executives and presidents (\u003cem\u003eAre Egbe\u003c/em\u003e), embody the principle of social organisation as a regulatory framework, providing dispute resolution, market coordination, and disciplinary measures.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis finding corroborates Seriki (2025), who argued that precolonial African societies sustained agricultural productivity through communal governance structures and unwritten codes of conduct. The yam flour associations represent a contemporary re-enactment of such indigenous systems, demonstrating continuity in traditional social governance in food production. Moreover, the associations’ role in dispute resolution and entry regulation reinforces Cialdini et al. (1990) view that consensual social norms inform and influence the actions of individuals by defining and communicating what is socially accepted and expected of members in society. The norms and sanctions identified—ranging from fines to suspension and expulsion—mirror what Cialdini and Jacobson (2021) termed \u003cem\u003enormative compliance mechanisms\u003c/em\u003e, where conformity is sustained through collective enforcement and social pressure rather than external authority.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe emphasis on honesty and interpersonal respect reveals that social norms not only prescribe behaviour but also create a sense of moral belonging. The study also demonstrates how local cultural beliefs and Yoruba notions of \u003cem\u003eiwa-irele\u003c/em\u003e (humbleness)and \u003cem\u003eomoluabi\u003c/em\u003e (moral uprightness) reinforce compliance. The actors’ insistence on respecting farm landlords and association leaders, for instance, extends the normative framework beyond market logic to cultural ethics, an aspect underexplored in existing Western-oriented food system literature. The underlying reasons for establishing associations, ranging from managing population growth to curbing greed and ensuring fairness, support the relational governance model proposed by Izumi et al. (2010) and Conner et al. (2012).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese scholars found that collaborative food networks foster creative and adaptive problem-solving resilience among actors. Similarly, in the yam flour trade, associations not only regulate competition but also build social capital through mutual support, shared celebrations, and solidarity during life events. While much of the existing literature situates social relations within technologically driven or market-oriented systems (Peterson, 2008; Otsuki, 2013), this study demonstrates that, in indigenous contexts, relational and cultural mechanisms often serve as substitutes for formal governance. The associations’ informal justice system and apprenticeship-based entry stand in contrast to the bureaucratic and regulatory approaches found in industrial food systems. A possible explanation for the traders’ emphasis on apprenticeship is the necessity associated with learning the norms that regulate activities in the trade.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eApprenticeship goes beyond just learning the trade; instead, business ethics, standards and values are transmitted in the course of learning the trade. It is worth noting that the skills needed for both the production and marketing of yam flour are transmitted orally and practically through apprenticeship. These findings among actors in yam flour production and distribution reflect the history of traditional knowledge transfer and oral sources, which have been a significant means of knowledge transfer within African society. \u0026nbsp;Overall, findings from this study reveal that the yam flour production-distribution chain is not merely an economic enterprise but a socially coordinated system where cultural norms, collective leadership, and interpersonal trust function as the primary regulators.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion and Recommendation","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis paper has critically examined the social organisation in the yam flour production and distribution processes. Available findings from this study reveal some of the nuances, semantics, and intricacies that exist in indigenous yam flour production processes, as well as how cultural norms and a mutual form of social responsibility are reflected in indigenous food systems. Unlike previous studies that documented food distribution and supply chain from a formalised, systemic approach rooted in institutionalised/bureaucratic forms of social relationships, this paper reveals that social organisation in yam flour production processes is rooted in culturally social norms, respect and interpersonal trust, mutually inclusive social and economic responsibilities, and social capital networks.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFindings from this paper challenge the overemphasis on non-human and technological factors in contemporary food system discussions by underscoring the indispensability of human social interactions in sustaining food production and distribution. To achieve a robust and inclusive policy formulation and implementation, farmer empowerment through subsidised loans should be expanded to other areas, particularly those communities where large-scale farming is being implemented. Additional studies on local food chains are necessary to enhance food security and improve the agricultural sector in the region. In addition, it is expedient that proper education and enlightenment be provided to both farmers and merchants on food preservation, which not only mitigates resource wastage but also takes into meticulous consideration the health of consumers during food preservation.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflicts of Interest\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors reported no possible conflicts of interest.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding Statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNo funding or grant was received for the execution of this research project.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAbarca, M. E., \u0026amp; Colby, J. R. (2016). 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The quality improvement of yam flour (Dioscorea alata) through the fermentation process. \u003cem\u003eIOP Conference Series. Earth and Environmental Science\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e759\u003c/em\u003e(1), 012031. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/759/1/012031\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Table","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 1\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"683\" class=\"fr-table-selection-hover\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"5\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 683px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMATRIX OF DATA COLLECTION\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 346px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDocument the various actors in yam flour production and distribution\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLOCATION\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIDI\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eKII\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFGD\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 346px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMerchants\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLagos\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIbadan\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSaki\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 346px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFarmers\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLagos\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIbadan\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSaki\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 346px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFarm landlord\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLagos\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIbadan\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSaki\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 346px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAssociation heads\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLagos\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIbadan\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSaki\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 346px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTransporter\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLagos\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIbadan\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSaki\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 346px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePeelers\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLagos\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIbadan\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSaki\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 346px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLoaders\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLagos\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIbadan\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSaki\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"5\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 683px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 346px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eExplore the leadership and associational role in yam flour production and distribution\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 346px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMerchants\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLagos\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIbadan\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSaki\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 346px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFarm landlord\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLagos\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIbadan\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSaki\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 346px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAssociation heads\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLagos\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIbadan\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSaki\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 346px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTransporter\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLagos\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIbadan\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSaki\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 346px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePeelers\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLagos\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIbadan\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSaki\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 346px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLoaders\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLagos\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIbadan\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSaki\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"5\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 683px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 346px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eExamine the behavioural norms and values of operations in yam flour production and distribution\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 346px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMerchants\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLagos\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIbadan\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSaki\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 346px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFarmers\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLagos\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIbadan\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSaki\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 346px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFarm landlord\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLagos\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIbadan\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSaki\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 346px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAssociation heads\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLagos\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIbadan\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSaki\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 346px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTransporter\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLagos\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIbadan\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSaki\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 465px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTOTAL\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e20\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e10\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"food-ethics","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"foet","sideBox":"Learn more about [Food Ethics](http://link.springer.com/journal/41055)","snPcode":"41055","submissionUrl":"https://submission.springernature.com/new-submission/41055/3","title":"Food Ethics","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Yam Flour Production-Distribution Chain, Social Organisation, Food System, Behavioural Norms","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7982820/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7982820/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eFood serves as a bridge between nature and culture, constituting a viable strategy through which people showcase their cultural identity. Among the vital foods Nigerians, particularly the Yoruba, have found nutritious, delicious and gourmet is Yam flour paste, popularly known as \u0026lsquo;\u003cem\u003eAmala\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rsquo;. Unlike previous studies that focused more on the economic, nutritional and consumption dimensions, this paper is grounded in qualitative methods of data collection and actor-network theory to explore the social organisation and dynamics in the production processes of yam flour. Findings from this study reveal that, unlike the Western food system, which has a more systematised food system, indigenous yam flour production is grounded in cultural notions of mutual respect, association, and collective responsibility among actors. Farmer empowerment through the provision of subsidised loans, proper education and enlightenment of farmers and merchants on food preservation are among the recommendations put forward.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"“The Ties that Bind and Regulate”: Social Organisation in Yam Flour Production and Distribution","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-11-14 06:55:47","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7982820/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-01-20T14:07:00+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-01-20T11:19:54+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-01-13T15:23:02+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"15490694671134875301449103770220199643","date":"2026-01-12T09:59:13+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"7260318020606565953849540555292747680","date":"2026-01-08T16:38:20+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"328107571884397858517936249016058264910","date":"2026-01-08T14:12:20+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"123039300879700292463065703598390608344","date":"2025-11-26T14:56:14+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-11-04T12:00:21+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-11-04T05:56:54+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-11-04T05:55:18+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Food Ethics","date":"2025-10-29T19:04:47+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"food-ethics","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"foet","sideBox":"Learn more about [Food Ethics](http://link.springer.com/journal/41055)","snPcode":"41055","submissionUrl":"https://submission.springernature.com/new-submission/41055/3","title":"Food Ethics","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"3bca251b-9cd8-4018-9bfc-d499788efc8e","owner":[],"postedDate":"November 14th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-02-10T14:38:21+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-11-14 06:55:47","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7982820","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7982820","identity":"rs-7982820","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}