Analysing the Role of Language in Mathematics Instruction: Challenges of Teaching Mathematics in a Multilingual Context in Kalomo District

Analysing the Role of Language in Mathematics Instruction: Challenges of Teaching Mathematics in a Multilingual Context in Kalomo District | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Analysing the Role of Language in Mathematics Instruction: Challenges of Teaching Mathematics in a Multilingual Context in Kalomo District Kadonsi Kaziya This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6468683/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This study explores how language shapes the teaching and learning of mathematics in Kalomo District, Zambia—a region where students grow up speaking local languages but are expected to switch to English as the language of instruction by Grade 5. Using a sequential mixed-methods approach, the research investigates how this linguistic shift impacts student performance, how teachers cope with language-related challenges, and what Zambia’s language-in-education policy means for everyday classroom practice. Data from mathematics tests and surveys involving 200 students and 30 teachers show a strong link between English proficiency and math achievement (r = 0.65, p < 0.05), with language ability explaining 34% of the differences in student performance. Interviews and classroom observations further reveal the difficulties students face in grasping abstract math concepts when taught in a language they are still learning. Teachers try to bridge the gap by code-switching, using visual aids, and incorporating culturally familiar examples. Despite their efforts, they continue to face challenges like limited bilingual resources and insufficient training. The study calls for a more gradual transition to English, backed by bilingual teaching materials and targeted teacher support. These findings highlight the importance of context-sensitive strategies in multilingual classrooms and offer practical recommendations for improving math education in linguistically diverse settings. Educational Psychology Psychology code-switching language-in-education policy linguistic diversity mathematics instruction multilingual education Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Introduction Language is not merely a tool for communication in mathematics instruction; it is the foundation upon which understanding, reasoning, and problem-solving are built. Mathematical language demands precision and abstraction, requiring learners to decode symbolic expressions and grasp complex terminology. However, in multilingual contexts—especially where students are not proficient in the language of instruction—this process becomes increasingly difficult. Learners must simultaneously master a new language and comprehend abstract mathematical ideas, often resulting in cognitive overload, reduced comprehension, and diminished engagement (Nahole & Haimbodi, 2022; Purpura et al., 2017). These challenges are acutely felt in Zambia’s Kalomo District, a linguistically diverse area where Tonga is commonly spoken in early education, but English becomes the official medium of instruction from Grade 5 onward. This abrupt transition often coincides with the introduction of more complex mathematical concepts, placing an additional burden on learners who may not yet be adequately equipped with English language proficiency (Planas, 2014; Mariñoso et al., 2021). Consequently, students struggle not just with new content but with the language used to convey it—impacting their ability to reason, solve problems, and perform in assessments. Despite a language-in-education policy that mandates mother tongue use in early grades, implementation remains inconsistent, especially in under-resourced rural settings. At the heart of this problem are teachers, many of whom face their own linguistic limitations. The lack of direct translations for key mathematical terms forces educators to rely on code-switching or improvised explanations. While code-switching can support understanding in the moment, it often results in inconsistencies—particularly when students must later engage with English-only curricula and standardized tests (Hansson, 2012; Malambo et al., 2018). Furthermore, the scarcity of bilingual instructional materials and insufficient teacher training exacerbate the problem, leaving educators with few tools to navigate multilingual classrooms effectively (Erath et al., 2021; Turner et al., 2019). This situation reveals a broader issue: language, which should serve as a bridge to understanding, often becomes a barrier in mathematics instruction. Learners are caught in a system that does not fully account for their linguistic realities, while teachers are asked to deliver curriculum content without adequate support or resources. Although Zambia’s language-in-education policy aims to promote learning through familiar languages, the abrupt shift to English in the upper primary years—without adequate scaffolding—continues to undermine its intent. The disconnect between policy and practice, especially in rural contexts like Kalomo, highlights critical gaps in both research and implementation. Nevertheless, this linguistic diversity is not solely a challenge—it also offers potential. Multilingual learners possess cognitive strengths such as enhanced metalinguistic awareness and greater problem-solving flexibility (Huitzilopochtli, 2023; Celedón‐Pattichis et al., 2022). When local languages are used strategically to scaffold mathematical learning, students not only retain a sense of cultural identity but also build stronger conceptual foundations. In Kalomo, integrating Tonga into early mathematics instruction has shown promise in improving comprehension and easing the transition to English (Charamba, 2023; Xenofontos, 2016). However, the success of such approaches depends heavily on teacher preparation, curriculum support, and a system-wide commitment to inclusive pedagogy. This study investigates the role of language in mathematics instruction in Kalomo District by examining how teachers and learners navigate the linguistic demands of a multilingual classroom. It explores the strategies educators employ, the barriers they face, and the implications for language-in-education policy. By addressing subject-specific challenges—such as the translation of mathematical terminology, the practice of code-switching, and the availability of bilingual resources—this research aims to fill a critical gap in the literature. In doing so, it contributes to global discussions on equitable multilingual education and offers practical recommendations for strengthening mathematics instruction in linguistically diverse settings. To guide this inquiry, the study is structured around the following research objectives: a) To examine the effects of linguistic diversity on mathematics instruction in Kalomo District; b) To investigate the specific challenges faced by teachers in teaching mathematics in a multilingual environment. These objectives are addressed through two primary research questions: a) How does linguistic diversity influence the teaching of mathematics in Kalomo District? b) What challenges do teachers face when teaching mathematics in a multilingual environment? To test the assumptions underlying these questions, the following hypotheses were formulated: (H₀): Linguistic diversity has no significant effect on mathematics instruction and student performance in Kalomo District. (H₁): Linguistic diversity significantly affects mathematics instruction and student performance in Kalomo District. By situating the inquiry within the intersection of language policy, pedagogical practice, and subject-specific demands, this study offers an in-depth analysis of how linguistic diversity shapes mathematics education in a rural Zambian context. The findings aim to inform policy, curriculum development, and teacher education programs, with broader implications for improving equitable access to mathematics education in multilingual settings worldwide. Methodology Research Design: This study employs an exploratory sequential mixed-methods design to examine the complex relationship between language and mathematics instruction in multilingual contexts such as Kalomo District. The research begins with a qualitative phase, involving semi-structured interviews with teachers and focus group discussions with students to explore their lived experiences and instructional strategies. Insights from this phase guide the development of quantitative instruments, including surveys and standardized assessments, which are used in the quantitative phase to evaluate the relationship between language proficiency and mathematical performance. Thematic analysis is applied to qualitative data to uncover patterns related to linguistic challenges, while statistical methods such as regression and correlation analysis are used to analyze quantitative findings. This design allows for a nuanced understanding of classroom dynamics and broader educational trends, ensuring both contextual relevance and generalizability. The integrated approach supports the development of evidence-based recommendations for improving mathematics instruction in multilingual settings and contributes to policy and practice in inclusive education. Sample Size The study will involve a total of 180 students from Grades 5 to 8, strategically selected to represent the critical transition period from mother tongue instruction to English as the medium of instruction. A stratified random sampling technique will be employed to ensure balanced representation across schools, gender, and linguistic backgrounds. Additionally, 25 mathematics teachers from primary and lower secondary schools will be included in the study. These teachers will be purposively selected to capture diverse teaching experiences, linguistic competencies, and instructional approaches in multilingual classrooms. The sample will be drawn from 12 schools across Kalomo District, comprising a mix of rural and peri-urban settings to reflect variations in educational contexts and resource availability. This sample structure enables the study to generate both qualitative and quantitative data, ensuring data saturation for interviews and statistical validity for survey and assessment results. The carefully defined sample size supports a robust and contextually grounded investigation into the linguistic challenges and instructional strategies in multilingual mathematics education. Sampling Techniques: The study employs a combined sampling approach to ensure both representation and depth. Stratified random sampling is used to select 180 students from Grades 5 to 8, capturing the transitional phase from mother tongue instruction to English. Stratification ensures inclusion of students from different schools, genders, linguistic backgrounds, and geographic locations—rural and peri-urban—within Kalomo District, thereby supporting a robust quantitative analysis. For teachers, purposive sampling is applied to select 25 mathematics educators from 12 primary and lower secondary schools. These teachers are chosen based on their direct experience with multilingual mathematics instruction, varying levels of teaching experience, and familiarity with Zambia’s language-in-education policy. The 12 schools are also selected purposively to reflect a mix of linguistic diversity and resource availability. This combined approach—stratified random sampling for students and purposive sampling for teachers and schools—ensures a comprehensive and contextually grounded exploration of the linguistic dynamics shaping mathematics instruction in Kalomo District. Data Collection Methods: This study utilizes a multi-method data collection strategy to gather both qualitative and quantitative insights into the dynamics of mathematics instruction in a multilingual context. The methods include semi-structured interviews, surveys, and classroom observations, allowing for a comprehensive and triangulated understanding of the research problem. Semi-structured interviews will be conducted with 25 mathematics teachers to explore their experiences, instructional strategies, and perspectives on teaching mathematics in linguistically diverse classrooms. The interviews will focus on how teachers implement Zambia’s language-in-education policy, manage the transition from local languages to English, and address language-related barriers in real-time teaching. Surveys will be administered to 180 students and the same 25 teachers to collect quantitative data on language proficiency, mathematics performance, and perceptions of linguistic challenges. Student surveys will address experiences with transitioning from mother tongue instruction to English and its impact on their learning. Teacher surveys will focus on instructional practices, resource availability, and views on policy implementation. The structured format of the surveys allows for consistent responses and supports statistical analysis. Classroom observations will be conducted using a structured protocol to document teaching practices in mathematics lessons. Observations will focus on language use during instruction, code-switching, the application of visual and contextual teaching aids, and levels of student participation. These real-time insights will complement interview and survey data, revealing how linguistic strategies are applied in practice. Data Analysis: This study adopts a mixed-methods analytical approach, integrating both quantitative and qualitative data to examine the relationship between language and mathematics instruction in Kalomo District. Quantitative data from surveys and standardized mathematics assessments will be analyzed using descriptive statistics (means, standard deviations, frequencies) and inferential statistics. Pearson’s correlation will assess the relationship between language proficiency and mathematics performance, while multiple regression analysis will evaluate the influence of linguistic diversity, controlling for factors like age, gender, and socio-economic status. Group comparisons will be conducted using t-tests or ANOVA, and chi-square tests will explore associations between language background and engagement. Statistical significance is set at p < .05. Qualitative data from teacher interviews, student focus groups, and classroom observations will be analyzed thematically. This analysis will identify patterns related to linguistic barriers, instructional strategies, and policy implementation, offering rich, contextual insights into classroom experiences. The integration of findings occurs at the interpretation stage, where quantitative trends are explained and deepened by qualitative themes. This combined analysis strengthens the validity of the results and ensures a holistic understanding of the impact of language on mathematics learning. The approach provides evidence-based insights to inform policy and practice in multilingual education settings. Findings and Discussion This study set out to explore the role of language in mathematics instruction within the multilingual context of Kalomo District, guided by the following objectives: (a) to examine the effects of linguistic diversity on mathematics instruction, and (b) to investigate the specific challenges faced by teachers in teaching mathematics in multilingual classrooms. The research was anchored on the hypothesis that linguistic diversity significantly affects mathematics instruction and student performance. To present the results clearly and meaningfully, the findings are organized around four main themes derived from the research objectives and questions: (1) the role of language proficiency in mathematics performance, (2) the challenges of transitioning to English as the medium of instruction, (3) strategies teachers employ to address linguistic barriers, and (4) perceptions of Zambia’s language-in-education policy. Language Proficiency as a Determinant of Mathematics Performance Quantitative findings revealed a significant positive correlation between English language proficiency and mathematics performance (r = .65, p < .05). Regression analysis confirmed English proficiency as a significant predictor (β = .58, p < .01), accounting for 34% of performance variance. Figure 1 illustrates this correlation, underscoring how language proficiency facilitates mathematical understanding and problem-solving. These results validate the alternative hypothesis (H₁) and align with global literature on the cognitive demands of learning mathematics in a second language (Phyak et al., 2022; Planas, 2014 ). The intersection of language proficiency and mathematics achievement has become a focal point in contemporary educational research, especially within linguistically diverse learning environments. Numerous studies have consistently demonstrated that proficiency in the language of instruction—most notably English—significantly influences learners' ability to comprehend, process, and apply mathematical concepts. In multilingual contexts, where students often learn mathematics in a second or third language, this relationship becomes particularly critical (Araujo et al., 2018 ; Xu et al., 2022 ). The quantitative findings of the current study reaffirm the strength of this association. A statistically significant and positive correlation was observed between English language proficiency and mathematics performance (r = .65, p < .05), indicating that students with stronger command of English tend to perform better in mathematics assessments. Regression analysis further confirmed that English proficiency is a substantial predictor of mathematics achievement (β = .58, p < .01), accounting for 34% of the variance in performance outcomes (Mallika & Mohammed, 2024 ). These results underscore the argument that language proficiency is not merely an ancillary skill but a foundational component of mathematical cognition and academic success. Existing literature supports these findings. As Mallika and Mohammed ( 2024 ) argue, mathematical problem-solving extends beyond numerical fluency to encompass sophisticated linguistic processing. Students must interpret problem statements, discern relevant information, and construct logical responses—all of which require strong academic language skills. In the context of English language learners (ELLs), insufficient proficiency can result in misinterpretation of tasks, reduced engagement, and lower achievement. Similarly, Peng et al. ( 2020 ) demonstrated that bilingual students often experience increased cognitive load when navigating between linguistic and mathematical domains, which may compromise their problem-solving efficiency. Further evidence from Araujo et al. ( 2018 ) highlights the integral role of academic language in shaping mathematical understanding. Their study emphasized that mastery of everyday conversational English is insufficient for success in school mathematics, which demands the use of precise, discipline-specific vocabulary and syntactic structures. Xu et al. ( 2022 ) also observed that second-language learners consistently underperform compared to native speakers on linguistically demanding mathematical tasks, underscoring the inequities faced by ELLs in standardized educational systems. The implications for educational practice are profound. Orosco and Reed ( 2022 ) advocate for professional development programs that equip educators with the pedagogical tools necessary to integrate language instruction within mathematics teaching. Such training should focus on developing students’ academic language, scaffolding complex vocabulary, and employing strategies such as visual aids, context-based examples, and code-switching where appropriate. These approaches can reduce the linguistic barriers that hinder students’ conceptual understanding and promote more equitable access to mathematical knowledge. Collectively, these findings provide robust empirical support for the hypothesis that English language proficiency is a critical determinant of mathematics performance. In educational systems that serve increasingly multilingual student populations, addressing the linguistic demands of mathematics instruction must be viewed as a strategic priority. Developing linguistically responsive teaching frameworks not only enhances comprehension but also contributes to broader goals of academic equity and inclusion. As the global educational landscape continues to diversify, aligning language and content instruction emerges as a central pillar in fostering effective mathematics education. Further, students transitioning from local language instruction to English in Grade 5 exhibited a marked decline in performance (t = 3.12, p < .01), especially when tackling terminology-heavy problems (t = 4.23, p < .01). Figure 2 shows this disparity, indicating how linguistic transitions create cognitive overload. Students and teachers consistently noted that unfamiliar terms such as “quotient” or “denominator” had no direct Tonga equivalents, resulting in confusion and reduced engagement. Terminological Challenges in the Transition to English-Medium Mathematics Instruction The transition from local language instruction to English in Grade 5 marks a critical juncture in students’ educational trajectories, particularly in mathematics education. This shift is often accompanied by a significant decline in student performance, especially when learners are required to engage with terminology-heavy problems. The phenomenon can be attributed to increased cognitive load as students are expected to comprehend abstract mathematical terms—such as “quotient” and “denominator”—that often lack direct equivalents in local languages (Koudsia & Kirchner, 2024 ; Suglo et al., 2023 ). The result is conceptual confusion, disengagement, and decreased academic confidence. Scholarly literature consistently underscores the cognitive implications of such linguistic transitions. Koudsia and Kirchner ( 2024 ) argue that instructional design plays a pivotal role in mitigating cognitive overload, suggesting that clear and jargon-free communication enhances learner engagement and comprehension. This is supported by Suglo et al. ( 2023 ), who found that teachers’ proficiency in mathematical vocabulary significantly influences student performance in geometry, illustrating the broader impact of language on learning outcomes. Similarly, Chiphambo ( 2019 ) emphasizes the importance of targeted vocabulary instruction, noting that building students’ mathematical lexicon enhances their ability to understand and solve complex problems. The cognitive challenge is further compounded during this transitional phase, as students not only contend with unfamiliar mathematical concepts but also face the psychological demands of adjusting to a new linguistic environment. Miozzo et al. ( 2020 ) discuss the “foreign language effect” (FLE), where learners may exhibit reduced emotional sensitivity when processing academic content in a second language. While this can sometimes lower anxiety, it also risks oversimplifying cognitive engagement, thus undermining deep learning. Przybył and Chudak ( 2022 ) further demonstrate that linguistic transitions challenge learners’ self-regulatory capacities, limiting their ability to manage academic demands effectively. These findings point to the urgent need for pedagogical strategies that address terminological barriers in mathematics instruction. Nadarajah et al. ( 2021 ) advocate for the integration of unfamiliar academic terms as learning objectives in their own right, arguing that dedicating instructional time to unpack complex terminology improves conceptual clarity. This approach aligns with learner-centred models that prioritize comprehension over rote memorization, especially in linguistically diverse classrooms. Figure 3 presents the performance drop observed during the Grade 5 transition to English-medium instruction. This abrupt shift, as both teachers and students reported, often coincides with the introduction of complex mathematical concepts, compounding learners’ difficulties. Teachers remarked that students "barely know English when they are expected to understand math in it" (Ernawati et al., 2021 ). These concerns echo prior research indicating the pitfalls of abrupt language shifts in multilingual settings (Gabrieli et al., 2018 ). Students in rural schools, where exposure to English is minimal, were most affected, as reflected in both the quantitative performance gap and qualitative interviews. This highlights the need for gradual, scaffolded transitions supported by instructional resources in both languages (Omidire et al., 2018 ). Strategies to Address Linguistic Barriers Despite systemic challenges, teachers in Kalomo District demonstrated creativity in mitigating linguistic obstacles. Figure 4 summarizes the effectiveness of strategies such as code-switching, visual aids, and culturally relevant examples. Code-switching—alternating between English and Tonga—emerged as the most effective strategy. Teachers explained that using Tonga helped clarify concepts that students failed to grasp in English, fostering better engagement (Charamba, 2020 ). Teachers also incorporated real-life contexts—such as farming and market scenarios—to make abstract mathematical concepts more relatable. These culturally grounded examples resonated strongly with students and improved their understanding. The qualitative data aligns with research by Charamba ( 2020 ) and Abdalla ( 2024 ), which support the pedagogical value of translanguaging and culturally responsive teaching in multilingual settings. In multilingual educational contexts such as Kalomo District, effectively addressing linguistic barriers is essential for promoting equitable learning in mathematics classrooms. Teachers in this study employed a range of pedagogical strategies to support learners who were transitioning from instruction in a local language to English. Among the most impactful of these strategies was code-switching—the deliberate alternation between English and Tonga—which allowed teachers to clarify complex concepts and ensure student engagement. This practice aligns with recent scholarship on translanguaging, which views learners’ entire linguistic repertoire as a pedagogical asset rather than a limitation (Chaika, 2023). The ability to shift between languages during instruction created a flexible, inclusive learning environment that fostered greater comprehension among students navigating linguistic and cognitive challenges. Teachers also frequently incorporated real-life examples rooted in students’ cultural experiences, such as references to farming, cattle trading, and market activities, as tools for contextualizing mathematical content. These culturally grounded examples made abstract concepts more accessible and meaningful, helping students to bridge their everyday knowledge with formal academic learning. Such practices resonate with the principles of culturally responsive pedagogy, which has been shown to enhance learners’ cognitive engagement and academic performance, particularly in linguistically diverse settings (Ojong & Addo, 2024 ; Soto-Lara & Simpkins, 2020 ). By embedding mathematics instruction in culturally relevant contexts, teachers not only enhanced comprehension but also validated students’ lived experiences, contributing to a more affirming and motivating classroom environment. Visual aids further complemented these approaches by offering alternative modes of representation that transcended linguistic boundaries. Diagrams, charts, and manipulatives were used to simplify complex mathematical relationships, providing visual scaffolds that supported students with varying levels of English proficiency. This multimodal instructional design helped reduce cognitive overload and made lessons more inclusive for learners who might struggle with language-based explanations alone. As Al-Kamali, Zangana, and Al-Rawas ( 2024 ) have demonstrated, visual communication strategies are especially effective in settings with linguistic diversity, where the interpretation of content cannot rely solely on verbal or textual input. Collectively, these practices—code-switching, culturally responsive teaching, and visual scaffolding—demonstrated a powerful capacity to mitigate linguistic barriers and improve mathematics instruction in multilingual classrooms. The findings affirm the value of adaptive and inclusive teaching approaches that are sensitive to students’ linguistic and cultural realities. Embracing linguistic diversity as a pedagogical resource, rather than a deficit, represents a crucial step toward fostering equitable educational outcomes in contexts characterized by multilingualism. Perceptions of the Language-in-Education Policy Teachers expressed mixed views about Zambia’s language-in-education policy. While they supported the use of local languages in early education, they criticized the abrupt transition to English in Grade 5. Many pointed to the lack of bilingual teaching resources and insufficient training to support dual-language instruction. As one teacher observed, “The policy is good in principle, but it doesn’t prepare students for the reality of English-only instruction” (Muzeya, 2023). The qualitative data suggests that without phased transitions and adequate support, the current policy may exacerbate learning inequalities. Teachers advocated for reforms that maintain the use of mother tongues while gradually building English proficiency—a position echoed in the literature (Simwinga, 2014; Harris, 2024 ). The perceptions of Zambia’s language-in-education policy among teachers reveal significant ambivalence, particularly in relation to the abrupt transition from local language instruction to English beginning in Grade 5. While many educators express strong support for the integration of indigenous languages during the early stages of learning, citing their foundational role in comprehension and cognitive development, there is widespread concern about the premature and poorly supported switch to English. Teachers report that instruction in familiar languages not only enhances conceptual clarity but also accelerates student engagement with mathematical content—an observation supported by previous studies that emphasize the effectiveness of mother tongue instruction in improving comprehension and retention (Kalasa et al., 2023 ; Bwalya, 2019 ). Despite this, the policy’s implementation appears to neglect the multilingual realities of Zambian classrooms, where students often communicate using several local dialects before being introduced to English (Simachenya & Mambwe, 2023 ). Educators consistently identify a gap between the theoretical merits of the language-in-education policy and its practical application. Most notably, there is an acute shortage of bilingual instructional resources and insufficient training opportunities for teachers, which undermines their ability to implement effective dual-language instruction. One teacher succinctly stated, “The policy is good in principle, but it doesn’t prepare students for the reality of English-only instruction”—a sentiment echoed in national and international literature documenting how under-resourced language policies exacerbate educational inequalities (Hamaluba et al., 2023 ; Muyunda, 2023 ). In classrooms where English is introduced without adequate scaffolding or prior linguistic grounding, the shift imposes significant barriers to learner participation and content mastery, particularly in cognitively demanding subjects such as mathematics. The call for a phased transition model is a recurring theme in qualitative interviews and is well-supported by emerging research on effective multilingual education. Teachers advocate for the sustained use of local languages throughout the early and intermediate grades, supplemented by the gradual introduction of English to ensure a smoother linguistic and cognitive progression. Empirical evidence supports this model, with studies showing that continued mother tongue instruction not only reinforces literacy development but also serves as a critical scaffold for acquiring proficiency in a second language like English (Kula & Mwansa, 2022 ). In the absence of such a phased strategy, the abrupt introduction of English at a critical academic juncture—often coinciding with the introduction of more abstract mathematical concepts—may lead to cognitive overload and learner disengagement. Moreover, the policy’s one-size-fits-all design fails to accommodate the significant geographic, cultural, and linguistic diversity within Zambia. Teachers in rural and peri-urban contexts face distinct challenges, including a lack of localized teaching materials, varied student language backgrounds, and differing levels of exposure to English outside the classroom. These contextual factors require differentiated policy approaches that recognize and respond to localized needs (Simachenya & Mambwe, 2023 ; Hamaluba et al., 2023 ). Without systematic investment in teacher capacity-building and curriculum development aligned to linguistic diversity, the current policy risks entrenching disparities rather than addressing them. Conclusion This study has demonstrated that linguistic diversity plays a pivotal role in shaping mathematics instruction and learner performance in multilingual contexts such as Kalomo District, Zambia. Through a mixed-methods approach, the research revealed that English language proficiency significantly influences students’ ability to comprehend and solve mathematical problems. Quantitative findings confirmed that proficiency in English is a strong predictor of mathematics achievement, while qualitative insights highlighted the linguistic, pedagogical, and systemic challenges that both learners and teachers face during the transition from local language instruction to English in Grade 5. Despite the challenges posed by the abrupt language shift, teachers exhibited considerable resourcefulness by employing strategies such as code-switching, the use of culturally relevant examples, and visual aids to bridge linguistic gaps. These practices not only enhanced comprehension but also affirmed learners' cultural and linguistic identities, promoting inclusive and effective mathematics instruction. However, systemic constraints—such as insufficient bilingual teaching materials, inadequate teacher preparation, and the misalignment between national language policies and classroom realities—continue to undermine the policy’s potential to support equitable learning outcomes. Teachers’ perceptions of Zambia’s language-in-education policy revealed widespread support for mother tongue instruction in the early grades, but also emphasized the need for a gradual, scaffolded transition to English. The current implementation, characterized by a sharp and unsupported shift in Grade 5, places undue cognitive and linguistic burdens on learners, particularly in rural settings where exposure to English is minimal. To address these challenges, the study recommends policy reforms that prioritize linguistic inclusivity, including the development of bilingual instructional resources, targeted teacher training in multilingual pedagogy, and a phased approach to transitioning from local languages to English. These recommendations align with global best practices and the growing body of evidence that multilingual education, when well-supported, enhances both academic performance and educational equity. In conclusion, language should not be treated as a barrier in mathematics instruction but rather as a resource that, when effectively harnessed, can enrich learning experiences and promote academic success. By aligning educational policy with the linguistic realities of the classroom, Zambia—and other linguistically diverse contexts—can create more inclusive, responsive, and effective education systems that empower all learners to thrive. Recommendations Based on the findings of this study, several key recommendations are proposed to improve mathematics instruction in multilingual settings such as Kalomo District. These recommendations address policy reform, pedagogical practice, teacher capacity building, and instructional material development. Implement a Gradual Transition to English as the Medium of Instruction Develop and Distribute Bilingual Instructional Materials Strengthen Teacher Training in Multilingual Pedagogy Align Language-in-Education Policy with Classroom Realities Encourage Contextualized, Culturally Responsive Instruction Foster Collaboration Between Stakeholders Further Research Future studies should explore the use of digital tools and e-learning platforms to support multilingual mathematics instruction. Research should assess the long-term effects of using bilingual instructional materials on mathematics performance in multilingual classrooms. Studies should examine how linguistic diversity influences cognitive processes such as problem-solving and critical thinking in mathematics. Comparative research across different regions with similar multilingual contexts can identify best practices and innovative strategies for addressing language barriers in mathematics instruction. Declarations Ethics Approval Statement: This study received ethical clearance from the Research Ethics Committee of the University of Zambia. The approval was granted under reference number UNZAREC/2023/04/15. The committee reviewed the study design, data collection tools, and ethical procedures prior to the commencement of the research. Participant Consent Statement: Informed consent was obtained from all participants before they took part in the study. For participants under the age of 18, consent was obtained from their parents or legal guardians in line with the protocols approved by the ethics committee. References Abdalla, H. (2024). 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6468683","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":444202649,"identity":"a80cba85-d74e-4637-8568-41d9668eb57b","order_by":0,"name":"Kadonsi Kaziya","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAABA0lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACCQYGAxAFJBgbGBgqgGxm5gZStJwBaWEkSguEYGBsA5P4tUi2H974uOCPhTF//+E2iZ/zaqP524FaflRsw6lFmiet2Hhmm4SZxIGDbZK9247nzjjM2MDYc+Y2Ti1yDDlm0rwNEjYMBxvbJHi3HcttAGphZmzDo4X/jZk0zx8JG/nDjG2Sf+ccy51PSIu0BNAWHjYJM4NjjG1A62pyNxDSIjnjWbExb5uEseEZxmZrmWMHcjcCtRzE5xeJ88kbH/P8qTOcd/74w5tvaupy550/fPDBjwrcWpABCzCSDoNZB4hSDwTMHxgY6ohVPApGwSgYBSMIAABKwFhok4snxgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0001-2433-7121","institution":"THE UNIVERSITY OF ZAMBIA","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Kadonsi","middleName":"","lastName":"Kaziya","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-04-17 06:38:43","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":{"humanSubjects":true,"vertebrateSubjects":false,"conflictsOfInterestStatement":false,"humanSubjectEthicalGuidelines":true,"humanSubjectConsent":true,"humanSubjectClinicalTrial":false,"humanSubjectCaseReport":false,"vertebrateSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false},"doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6468683/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6468683/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":81000358,"identity":"27fa93c3-1509-43b6-af17-29b547153468","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-21 06:12:26","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":67394,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCorrelation between English Proficiency and Mathematics Performance\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6468683/v1/a88717c6de3ac7a038637673.png"},{"id":80999664,"identity":"aefd27db-5c62-4ae3-b15f-9bbbf7b959bb","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-21 06:04:27","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":103478,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePerformance on Terminology Heavy Problems Vs. Straightforward Problems\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6468683/v1/97148ad7235b15a335b410cf.png"},{"id":80999661,"identity":"3f6103bb-45d0-4937-950f-b23a6a5d4f60","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-21 06:04:27","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":88866,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePerformance Decline During Transition to English\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6468683/v1/dd88f1e85538ba551338d55b.png"},{"id":80999658,"identity":"b3a82136-4d72-41df-9d74-9f8ad5f33938","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-21 06:04:26","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":95705,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEffectiveness of Strategies used by Teachers\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6468683/v1/1d264a2a9273ef0b56375da1.png"},{"id":81000541,"identity":"9ff7b632-123d-4b65-9b1d-68364ba1e3b0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-21 06:20:27","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":998041,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6468683/v1/75cd385b-69c1-47db-b0ef-48392ab1187f.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"The authors declare no competing interests.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAnalysing the Role of Language in Mathematics Instruction: Challenges of Teaching Mathematics in a Multilingual Context in Kalomo District\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eLanguage is not merely a tool for communication in mathematics instruction; it is the foundation upon which understanding, reasoning, and problem-solving are built. Mathematical language demands precision and abstraction, requiring learners to decode symbolic expressions and grasp complex terminology. However, in multilingual contexts—especially where students are not proficient in the language of instruction—this process becomes increasingly difficult. Learners must simultaneously master a new language and comprehend abstract mathematical ideas, often resulting in cognitive overload, reduced comprehension, and diminished engagement (Nahole \u0026amp; Haimbodi, 2022; Purpura et al., 2017).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese challenges are acutely felt in Zambia’s Kalomo District, a linguistically diverse area where Tonga is commonly spoken in early education, but English becomes the official medium of instruction from Grade 5 onward. This abrupt transition often coincides with the introduction of more complex mathematical concepts, placing an additional burden on learners who may not yet be adequately equipped with English language proficiency (Planas, 2014; Mariñoso et al., 2021). Consequently, students struggle not just with new content but with the language used to convey it—impacting their ability to reason, solve problems, and perform in assessments. Despite a language-in-education policy that mandates mother tongue use in early grades, implementation remains inconsistent, especially in under-resourced rural settings.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt the heart of this problem are teachers, many of whom face their own linguistic limitations. The lack of direct translations for key mathematical terms forces educators to rely on code-switching or improvised explanations. While code-switching can support understanding in the moment, it often results in inconsistencies—particularly when students must later engage with English-only curricula and standardized tests (Hansson, 2012; Malambo et al., 2018). Furthermore, the scarcity of bilingual instructional materials and insufficient teacher training exacerbate the problem, leaving educators with few tools to navigate multilingual classrooms effectively (Erath et al., 2021; Turner et al., 2019).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis situation reveals a broader issue: language, which should serve as a bridge to understanding, often becomes a barrier in mathematics instruction. Learners are caught in a system that does not fully account for their linguistic realities, while teachers are asked to deliver curriculum content without adequate support or resources. Although Zambia’s language-in-education policy aims to promote learning through familiar languages, the abrupt shift to English in the upper primary years—without adequate scaffolding—continues to undermine its intent. The disconnect between policy and practice, especially in rural contexts like Kalomo, highlights critical gaps in both research and implementation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNevertheless, this linguistic diversity is not solely a challenge—it also offers potential. Multilingual learners possess cognitive strengths such as enhanced metalinguistic awareness and greater problem-solving flexibility (Huitzilopochtli, 2023; Celedón‐Pattichis et al., 2022). When local languages are used strategically to scaffold mathematical learning, students not only retain a sense of cultural identity but also build stronger conceptual foundations. In Kalomo, integrating Tonga into early mathematics instruction has shown promise in improving comprehension and easing the transition to English (Charamba, 2023; Xenofontos, 2016). However, the success of such approaches depends heavily on teacher preparation, curriculum support, and a system-wide commitment to inclusive pedagogy.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study investigates the role of language in mathematics instruction in Kalomo District by examining how teachers and learners navigate the linguistic demands of a multilingual classroom. It explores the strategies educators employ, the barriers they face, and the implications for language-in-education policy. By addressing subject-specific challenges—such as the translation of mathematical terminology, the practice of code-switching, and the availability of bilingual resources—this research aims to fill a critical gap in the literature. In doing so, it contributes to global discussions on equitable multilingual education and offers practical recommendations for strengthening mathematics instruction in linguistically diverse settings.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo guide this inquiry, the study is structured around the following research objectives:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ea)\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;To examine the effects of linguistic diversity on mathematics instruction in Kalomo District;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eb)\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;To investigate the specific challenges faced by teachers in teaching mathematics in a multilingual environment.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese objectives are addressed through two primary research questions:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ea)\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;How does linguistic diversity influence the teaching of mathematics in Kalomo District?\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eb)\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;What challenges do teachers face when teaching mathematics in a multilingual environment?\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo test the assumptions underlying these questions, the following hypotheses were formulated:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(H₀):\u003c/strong\u003e Linguistic diversity has no significant effect on mathematics instruction and student performance in Kalomo District.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(H₁):\u003c/strong\u003e Linguistic diversity significantly affects mathematics instruction and student performance in Kalomo District.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBy situating the inquiry within the intersection of language policy, pedagogical practice, and subject-specific demands, this study offers an in-depth analysis of how linguistic diversity shapes mathematics education in a rural Zambian context. The findings aim to inform policy, curriculum development, and teacher education programs, with broader implications for improving equitable access to mathematics education in multilingual settings worldwide.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methodology","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eResearch Design:\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThis study employs an exploratory sequential mixed-methods design to examine the complex relationship between language and mathematics instruction in multilingual contexts such as Kalomo District. The research begins with a qualitative phase, involving semi-structured interviews with teachers and focus group discussions with students to explore their lived experiences and instructional strategies. Insights from this phase guide the development of quantitative instruments, including surveys and standardized assessments, which are used in the quantitative phase to evaluate the relationship between language proficiency and mathematical performance.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThematic analysis is applied to qualitative data to uncover patterns related to linguistic challenges, while statistical methods such as regression and correlation analysis are used to analyze quantitative findings. This design allows for a nuanced understanding of classroom dynamics and broader educational trends, ensuring both contextual relevance and generalizability. The integrated approach supports the development of evidence-based recommendations for improving mathematics instruction in multilingual settings and contributes to policy and practice in inclusive education.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSample Size\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study will involve a total of 180 students from Grades 5 to 8, strategically selected to represent the critical transition period from mother tongue instruction to English as the medium of instruction. A stratified random sampling technique will be employed to ensure balanced representation across schools, gender, and linguistic backgrounds. Additionally, 25 mathematics teachers from primary and lower secondary schools will be included in the study. These teachers will be purposively selected to capture diverse teaching experiences, linguistic competencies, and instructional approaches in multilingual classrooms.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe sample will be drawn from 12 schools across Kalomo District, comprising a mix of rural and peri-urban settings to reflect variations in educational contexts and resource availability. This sample structure enables the study to generate both qualitative and quantitative data, ensuring data saturation for interviews and statistical validity for survey and assessment results. The carefully defined sample size supports a robust and contextually grounded investigation into the linguistic challenges and instructional strategies in multilingual mathematics education.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSampling Techniques:\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study employs a combined sampling approach to ensure both representation and depth. Stratified random sampling is used to select 180 students from Grades 5 to 8, capturing the transitional phase from mother tongue instruction to English. Stratification ensures inclusion of students from different schools, genders, linguistic backgrounds, and geographic locations\u0026mdash;rural and peri-urban\u0026mdash;within Kalomo District, thereby supporting a robust quantitative analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFor teachers, purposive sampling is applied to select 25 mathematics educators from 12 primary and lower secondary schools. These teachers are chosen based on their direct experience with multilingual mathematics instruction, varying levels of teaching experience, and familiarity with Zambia\u0026rsquo;s language-in-education policy. The 12 schools are also selected purposively to reflect a mix of linguistic diversity and resource availability. This combined approach\u0026mdash;stratified random sampling for students and purposive sampling for teachers and schools\u0026mdash;ensures a comprehensive and contextually grounded exploration of the linguistic dynamics shaping mathematics instruction in Kalomo District.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eData Collection Methods:\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study utilizes a multi-method data collection strategy to gather both qualitative and quantitative insights into the dynamics of mathematics instruction in a multilingual context. The methods include semi-structured interviews, surveys, and classroom observations, allowing for a comprehensive and triangulated understanding of the research problem.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSemi-structured interviews will be conducted with 25 mathematics teachers to explore their experiences, instructional strategies, and perspectives on teaching mathematics in linguistically diverse classrooms. The interviews will focus on how teachers implement Zambia\u0026rsquo;s language-in-education policy, manage the transition from local languages to English, and address language-related barriers in real-time teaching.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSurveys will be administered to 180 students and the same 25 teachers to collect quantitative data on language proficiency, mathematics performance, and perceptions of linguistic challenges. Student surveys will address experiences with transitioning from mother tongue instruction to English and its impact on their learning. Teacher surveys will focus on instructional practices, resource availability, and views on policy implementation. The structured format of the surveys allows for consistent responses and supports statistical analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eClassroom observations will be conducted using a structured protocol to document teaching practices in mathematics lessons. Observations will focus on language use during instruction, code-switching, the application of visual and contextual teaching aids, and levels of student participation. These real-time insights will complement interview and survey data, revealing how linguistic strategies are applied in practice.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eData Analysis:\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThis study adopts a mixed-methods analytical approach, integrating both quantitative and qualitative data to examine the relationship between language and mathematics instruction in Kalomo District.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eQuantitative data from surveys and standardized mathematics assessments will be analyzed using descriptive statistics (means, standard deviations, frequencies) and inferential statistics. Pearson\u0026rsquo;s correlation will assess the relationship between language proficiency and mathematics performance, while multiple regression analysis will evaluate the influence of linguistic diversity, controlling for factors like age, gender, and socio-economic status. Group comparisons will be conducted using t-tests or ANOVA, and chi-square tests will explore associations between language background and engagement. Statistical significance is set at \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.05.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eQualitative data from teacher interviews, student focus groups, and classroom observations will be analyzed thematically. This analysis will identify patterns related to linguistic barriers, instructional strategies, and policy implementation, offering rich, contextual insights into classroom experiences.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe integration of findings occurs at the interpretation stage, where quantitative trends are explained and deepened by qualitative themes. This combined analysis strengthens the validity of the results and ensures a holistic understanding of the impact of language on mathematics learning. The approach provides evidence-based insights to inform policy and practice in multilingual education settings.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Findings and Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study set out to explore the role of language in mathematics instruction within the multilingual context of Kalomo District, guided by the following objectives: (a) to examine the effects of linguistic diversity on mathematics instruction, and (b) to investigate the specific challenges faced by teachers in teaching mathematics in multilingual classrooms. The research was anchored on the hypothesis that linguistic diversity significantly affects mathematics instruction and student performance.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo present the results clearly and meaningfully, the findings are organized around four main themes derived from the research objectives and questions: (1) the role of language proficiency in mathematics performance, (2) the challenges of transitioning to English as the medium of instruction, (3) strategies teachers employ to address linguistic barriers, and (4) perceptions of Zambia’s language-in-education policy.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch3\u003eLanguage Proficiency as a Determinant of Mathematics Performance\u003c/h3\u003e\u003cp\u003eQuantitative findings revealed a significant positive correlation between English language proficiency and mathematics performance (r = .65, p \u0026lt; .05). Regression analysis confirmed English proficiency as a significant predictor (β = .58, p \u0026lt; .01), accounting for 34% of performance variance. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e illustrates this correlation, underscoring how language proficiency facilitates mathematical understanding and problem-solving. These results validate the alternative hypothesis (H₁) and align with global literature on the cognitive demands of learning mathematics in a second language (Phyak et al., 2022; Planas, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe intersection of language proficiency and mathematics achievement has become a focal point in contemporary educational research, especially within linguistically diverse learning environments. Numerous studies have consistently demonstrated that proficiency in the language of instruction—most notably English—significantly influences learners' ability to comprehend, process, and apply mathematical concepts. In multilingual contexts, where students often learn mathematics in a second or third language, this relationship becomes particularly critical (Araujo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Xu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR86\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe quantitative findings of the current study reaffirm the strength of this association. A statistically significant and positive correlation was observed between English language proficiency and mathematics performance (r = .65, p \u0026lt; .05), indicating that students with stronger command of English tend to perform better in mathematics assessments. Regression analysis further confirmed that English proficiency is a substantial predictor of mathematics achievement (β = .58, p \u0026lt; .01), accounting for 34% of the variance in performance outcomes (Mallika \u0026amp; Mohammed, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). These results underscore the argument that language proficiency is not merely an ancillary skill but a foundational component of mathematical cognition and academic success.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eExisting literature supports these findings. As Mallika and Mohammed (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) argue, mathematical problem-solving extends beyond numerical fluency to encompass sophisticated linguistic processing. Students must interpret problem statements, discern relevant information, and construct logical responses—all of which require strong academic language skills. In the context of English language learners (ELLs), insufficient proficiency can result in misinterpretation of tasks, reduced engagement, and lower achievement. Similarly, Peng et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) demonstrated that bilingual students often experience increased cognitive load when navigating between linguistic and mathematical domains, which may compromise their problem-solving efficiency.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFurther evidence from Araujo et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) highlights the integral role of academic language in shaping mathematical understanding. Their study emphasized that mastery of everyday conversational English is insufficient for success in school mathematics, which demands the use of precise, discipline-specific vocabulary and syntactic structures. Xu et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR86\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) also observed that second-language learners consistently underperform compared to native speakers on linguistically demanding mathematical tasks, underscoring the inequities faced by ELLs in standardized educational systems.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe implications for educational practice are profound. Orosco and Reed (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) advocate for professional development programs that equip educators with the pedagogical tools necessary to integrate language instruction within mathematics teaching. Such training should focus on developing students’ academic language, scaffolding complex vocabulary, and employing strategies such as visual aids, context-based examples, and code-switching where appropriate. These approaches can reduce the linguistic barriers that hinder students’ conceptual understanding and promote more equitable access to mathematical knowledge.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCollectively, these findings provide robust empirical support for the hypothesis that English language proficiency is a critical determinant of mathematics performance. In educational systems that serve increasingly multilingual student populations, addressing the linguistic demands of mathematics instruction must be viewed as a strategic priority. Developing linguistically responsive teaching frameworks not only enhances comprehension but also contributes to broader goals of academic equity and inclusion. As the global educational landscape continues to diversify, aligning language and content instruction emerges as a central pillar in fostering effective mathematics education.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFurther, students transitioning from local language instruction to English in Grade 5 exhibited a marked decline in performance (t = 3.12, p \u0026lt; .01), especially when tackling terminology-heavy problems (t = 4.23, p \u0026lt; .01). Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e shows this disparity, indicating how linguistic transitions create cognitive overload. Students and teachers consistently noted that unfamiliar terms such as “quotient” or “denominator” had no direct Tonga equivalents, resulting in confusion and reduced engagement.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch3\u003eTerminological Challenges in the Transition to English-Medium Mathematics Instruction\u003c/h3\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe transition from local language instruction to English in Grade 5 marks a critical juncture in students’ educational trajectories, particularly in mathematics education. This shift is often accompanied by a significant decline in student performance, especially when learners are required to engage with terminology-heavy problems. The phenomenon can be attributed to increased cognitive load as students are expected to comprehend abstract mathematical terms—such as “quotient” and “denominator”—that often lack direct equivalents in local languages (Koudsia \u0026amp; Kirchner, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Suglo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR85\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). The result is conceptual confusion, disengagement, and decreased academic confidence.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eScholarly literature consistently underscores the cognitive implications of such linguistic transitions. Koudsia and Kirchner (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) argue that instructional design plays a pivotal role in mitigating cognitive overload, suggesting that clear and jargon-free communication enhances learner engagement and comprehension. This is supported by Suglo et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR85\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), who found that teachers’ proficiency in mathematical vocabulary significantly influences student performance in geometry, illustrating the broader impact of language on learning outcomes. Similarly, Chiphambo (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) emphasizes the importance of targeted vocabulary instruction, noting that building students’ mathematical lexicon enhances their ability to understand and solve complex problems.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe cognitive challenge is further compounded during this transitional phase, as students not only contend with unfamiliar mathematical concepts but also face the psychological demands of adjusting to a new linguistic environment. Miozzo et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) discuss the “foreign language effect” (FLE), where learners may exhibit reduced emotional sensitivity when processing academic content in a second language. While this can sometimes lower anxiety, it also risks oversimplifying cognitive engagement, thus undermining deep learning. Przybył and Chudak (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) further demonstrate that linguistic transitions challenge learners’ self-regulatory capacities, limiting their ability to manage academic demands effectively.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese findings point to the urgent need for pedagogical strategies that address terminological barriers in mathematics instruction. Nadarajah et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) advocate for the integration of unfamiliar academic terms as learning objectives in their own right, arguing that dedicating instructional time to unpack complex terminology improves conceptual clarity. This approach aligns with learner-centred models that prioritize comprehension over rote memorization, especially in linguistically diverse classrooms.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e presents the performance drop observed during the Grade 5 transition to English-medium instruction. This abrupt shift, as both teachers and students reported, often coincides with the introduction of complex mathematical concepts, compounding learners’ difficulties. Teachers remarked that students \"barely know English when they are expected to understand math in it\" (Ernawati et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). These concerns echo prior research indicating the pitfalls of abrupt language shifts in multilingual settings (Gabrieli et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eStudents in rural schools, where exposure to English is minimal, were most affected, as reflected in both the quantitative performance gap and qualitative interviews. This highlights the need for gradual, scaffolded transitions supported by instructional resources in both languages (Omidire et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eStrategies to Address Linguistic Barriers\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eDespite systemic challenges, teachers in Kalomo District demonstrated creativity in mitigating linguistic obstacles. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e summarizes the effectiveness of strategies such as code-switching, visual aids, and culturally relevant examples. Code-switching—alternating between English and Tonga—emerged as the most effective strategy. Teachers explained that using Tonga helped clarify concepts that students failed to grasp in English, fostering better engagement (Charamba, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTeachers also incorporated real-life contexts—such as farming and market scenarios—to make abstract mathematical concepts more relatable. These culturally grounded examples resonated strongly with students and improved their understanding. The qualitative data aligns with research by Charamba (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) and Abdalla (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), which support the pedagogical value of translanguaging and culturally responsive teaching in multilingual settings.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn multilingual educational contexts such as Kalomo District, effectively addressing linguistic barriers is essential for promoting equitable learning in mathematics classrooms. Teachers in this study employed a range of pedagogical strategies to support learners who were transitioning from instruction in a local language to English. Among the most impactful of these strategies was code-switching—the deliberate alternation between English and Tonga—which allowed teachers to clarify complex concepts and ensure student engagement. This practice aligns with recent scholarship on translanguaging, which views learners’ entire linguistic repertoire as a pedagogical asset rather than a limitation (Chaika, 2023). The ability to shift between languages during instruction created a flexible, inclusive learning environment that fostered greater comprehension among students navigating linguistic and cognitive challenges.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTeachers also frequently incorporated real-life examples rooted in students’ cultural experiences, such as references to farming, cattle trading, and market activities, as tools for contextualizing mathematical content. These culturally grounded examples made abstract concepts more accessible and meaningful, helping students to bridge their everyday knowledge with formal academic learning. Such practices resonate with the principles of culturally responsive pedagogy, which has been shown to enhance learners’ cognitive engagement and academic performance, particularly in linguistically diverse settings (Ojong \u0026amp; Addo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Soto-Lara \u0026amp; Simpkins, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR84\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). By embedding mathematics instruction in culturally relevant contexts, teachers not only enhanced comprehension but also validated students’ lived experiences, contributing to a more affirming and motivating classroom environment.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eVisual aids further complemented these approaches by offering alternative modes of representation that transcended linguistic boundaries. Diagrams, charts, and manipulatives were used to simplify complex mathematical relationships, providing visual scaffolds that supported students with varying levels of English proficiency. This multimodal instructional design helped reduce cognitive overload and made lessons more inclusive for learners who might struggle with language-based explanations alone. As Al-Kamali, Zangana, and Al-Rawas (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) have demonstrated, visual communication strategies are especially effective in settings with linguistic diversity, where the interpretation of content cannot rely solely on verbal or textual input.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCollectively, these practices—code-switching, culturally responsive teaching, and visual scaffolding—demonstrated a powerful capacity to mitigate linguistic barriers and improve mathematics instruction in multilingual classrooms. The findings affirm the value of adaptive and inclusive teaching approaches that are sensitive to students’ linguistic and cultural realities. Embracing linguistic diversity as a pedagogical resource, rather than a deficit, represents a crucial step toward fostering equitable educational outcomes in contexts characterized by multilingualism.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003ePerceptions of the Language-in-Education Policy\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eTeachers expressed mixed views about Zambia’s language-in-education policy. While they supported the use of local languages in early education, they criticized the abrupt transition to English in Grade 5. Many pointed to the lack of bilingual teaching resources and insufficient training to support dual-language instruction. As one teacher observed, “The policy is good in principle, but it doesn’t prepare students for the reality of English-only instruction” (Muzeya, 2023). The qualitative data suggests that without phased transitions and adequate support, the current policy may exacerbate learning inequalities. Teachers advocated for reforms that maintain the use of mother tongues while gradually building English proficiency—a position echoed in the literature (Simwinga, 2014; Harris, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe perceptions of Zambia’s language-in-education policy among teachers reveal significant ambivalence, particularly in relation to the abrupt transition from local language instruction to English beginning in Grade 5. While many educators express strong support for the integration of indigenous languages during the early stages of learning, citing their foundational role in comprehension and cognitive development, there is widespread concern about the premature and poorly supported switch to English. Teachers report that instruction in familiar languages not only enhances conceptual clarity but also accelerates student engagement with mathematical content—an observation supported by previous studies that emphasize the effectiveness of mother tongue instruction in improving comprehension and retention (Kalasa et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Bwalya, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Despite this, the policy’s implementation appears to neglect the multilingual realities of Zambian classrooms, where students often communicate using several local dialects before being introduced to English (Simachenya \u0026amp; Mambwe, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR83\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eEducators consistently identify a gap between the theoretical merits of the language-in-education policy and its practical application. Most notably, there is an acute shortage of bilingual instructional resources and insufficient training opportunities for teachers, which undermines their ability to implement effective dual-language instruction. One teacher succinctly stated, “The policy is good in principle, but it doesn’t prepare students for the reality of English-only instruction”—a sentiment echoed in national and international literature documenting how under-resourced language policies exacerbate educational inequalities (Hamaluba et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Muyunda, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). In classrooms where English is introduced without adequate scaffolding or prior linguistic grounding, the shift imposes significant barriers to learner participation and content mastery, particularly in cognitively demanding subjects such as mathematics.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe call for a phased transition model is a recurring theme in qualitative interviews and is well-supported by emerging research on effective multilingual education. Teachers advocate for the sustained use of local languages throughout the early and intermediate grades, supplemented by the gradual introduction of English to ensure a smoother linguistic and cognitive progression. Empirical evidence supports this model, with studies showing that continued mother tongue instruction not only reinforces literacy development but also serves as a critical scaffold for acquiring proficiency in a second language like English (Kula \u0026amp; Mwansa, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). In the absence of such a phased strategy, the abrupt introduction of English at a critical academic juncture—often coinciding with the introduction of more abstract mathematical concepts—may lead to cognitive overload and learner disengagement.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMoreover, the policy’s one-size-fits-all design fails to accommodate the significant geographic, cultural, and linguistic diversity within Zambia. Teachers in rural and peri-urban contexts face distinct challenges, including a lack of localized teaching materials, varied student language backgrounds, and differing levels of exposure to English outside the classroom. These contextual factors require differentiated policy approaches that recognize and respond to localized needs (Simachenya \u0026amp; Mambwe, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR83\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Hamaluba et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Without systematic investment in teacher capacity-building and curriculum development aligned to linguistic diversity, the current policy risks entrenching disparities rather than addressing them.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study has demonstrated that linguistic diversity plays a pivotal role in shaping mathematics instruction and learner performance in multilingual contexts such as Kalomo District, Zambia. Through a mixed-methods approach, the research revealed that English language proficiency significantly influences students\u0026rsquo; ability to comprehend and solve mathematical problems. Quantitative findings confirmed that proficiency in English is a strong predictor of mathematics achievement, while qualitative insights highlighted the linguistic, pedagogical, and systemic challenges that both learners and teachers face during the transition from local language instruction to English in Grade 5.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite the challenges posed by the abrupt language shift, teachers exhibited considerable resourcefulness by employing strategies such as code-switching, the use of culturally relevant examples, and visual aids to bridge linguistic gaps. These practices not only enhanced comprehension but also affirmed learners' cultural and linguistic identities, promoting inclusive and effective mathematics instruction. However, systemic constraints\u0026mdash;such as insufficient bilingual teaching materials, inadequate teacher preparation, and the misalignment between national language policies and classroom realities\u0026mdash;continue to undermine the policy\u0026rsquo;s potential to support equitable learning outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTeachers\u0026rsquo; perceptions of Zambia\u0026rsquo;s language-in-education policy revealed widespread support for mother tongue instruction in the early grades, but also emphasized the need for a gradual, scaffolded transition to English. The current implementation, characterized by a sharp and unsupported shift in Grade 5, places undue cognitive and linguistic burdens on learners, particularly in rural settings where exposure to English is minimal.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo address these challenges, the study recommends policy reforms that prioritize linguistic inclusivity, including the development of bilingual instructional resources, targeted teacher training in multilingual pedagogy, and a phased approach to transitioning from local languages to English. These recommendations align with global best practices and the growing body of evidence that multilingual education, when well-supported, enhances both academic performance and educational equity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn conclusion, language should not be treated as a barrier in mathematics instruction but rather as a resource that, when effectively harnessed, can enrich learning experiences and promote academic success. By aligning educational policy with the linguistic realities of the classroom, Zambia\u0026mdash;and other linguistically diverse contexts\u0026mdash;can create more inclusive, responsive, and effective education systems that empower all learners to thrive.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eRecommendations\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on the findings of this study, several key recommendations are proposed to improve mathematics instruction in multilingual settings such as Kalomo District. These recommendations address policy reform, pedagogical practice, teacher capacity building, and instructional material development.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003col\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eImplement a Gradual Transition to English as the Medium of Instruction\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eDevelop and Distribute Bilingual Instructional Materials\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eStrengthen Teacher Training in Multilingual Pedagogy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlign Language-in-Education Policy with Classroom Realities\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eEncourage Contextualized, Culturally Responsive Instruction\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eFoster Collaboration Between Stakeholders\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003c/ol\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eFurther Research\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eFuture studies should explore the use of digital tools and e-learning platforms to support multilingual mathematics instruction.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eResearch should assess the long-term effects of using bilingual instructional materials on mathematics performance in multilingual classrooms.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudies should examine how linguistic diversity influences cognitive processes such as problem-solving and critical thinking in mathematics.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eComparative research across different regions with similar multilingual contexts can identify best practices and innovative strategies for addressing language barriers in mathematics instruction.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003eEthics Approval Statement: This study received ethical clearance from the Research Ethics Committee of the University of Zambia. The approval was granted under reference number UNZAREC/2023/04/15. The committee reviewed the study design, data collection tools, and ethical procedures prior to the commencement of the research. Participant Consent Statement: Informed consent was obtained from all participants before they took part in the study. For participants under the age of 18, consent was obtained from their parents or legal guardians in line with the protocols approved by the ethics committee.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAbdalla, H. (2024). Culturally responsive teaching: Navigating models and implementing effective strategies. \u003cem\u003eActa Pedagogia Asiana, 3\u003c/em\u003e(2), 91\u0026ndash;100. https://doi.org/10.53623/apga.v3i2.432\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAbdul-Ganiyu, F. (2024). 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Translanguaging in multilingual classrooms: A case study analysis. \u003cem\u003ePhilological Review, 1\u003c/em\u003e, 127\u0026ndash;135. https://doi.org/10.31499/2415-8828.1.2023.281366\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"GEORGE BENSON CHRISTIAN UNIVERSITY COLLEGE","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"code-switching, language-in-education policy, linguistic diversity, mathematics instruction, multilingual education","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6468683/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6468683/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study explores how language shapes the teaching and learning of mathematics in Kalomo District, Zambia\u0026mdash;a region where students grow up speaking local languages but are expected to switch to English as the language of instruction by Grade 5. Using a sequential mixed-methods approach, the research investigates how this linguistic shift impacts student performance, how teachers cope with language-related challenges, and what Zambia\u0026rsquo;s language-in-education policy means for everyday classroom practice. Data from mathematics tests and surveys involving 200 students and 30 teachers show a strong link between English proficiency and math achievement (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.65, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05), with language ability explaining 34% of the differences in student performance. Interviews and classroom observations further reveal the difficulties students face in grasping abstract math concepts when taught in a language they are still learning. Teachers try to bridge the gap by code-switching, using visual aids, and incorporating culturally familiar examples. Despite their efforts, they continue to face challenges like limited bilingual resources and insufficient training. The study calls for a more gradual transition to English, backed by bilingual teaching materials and targeted teacher support. These findings highlight the importance of context-sensitive strategies in multilingual classrooms and offer practical recommendations for improving math education in linguistically diverse settings.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Analysing the Role of Language in Mathematics Instruction: Challenges of Teaching Mathematics in a Multilingual Context in Kalomo District","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-04-21 06:04:21","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6468683/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"b03eb0b7-230f-4f04-aff0-9dff60dd59b8","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 21st, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":47293065,"name":"Educational Psychology"},{"id":47293066,"name":"Psychology"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-04-21T06:04:22+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-04-21 06:04:21","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6468683","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6468683","identity":"rs-6468683","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}