Assessment of solid waste management systems in Kampala City Uganda

Assessment of solid waste management systems in Kampala City Uganda | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Assessment of solid waste management systems in Kampala City Uganda Nambassa Gloria, Suswanta Suswanta This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8541787/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This study evaluates the solid waste management systems in Kampala City, Uganda, in the context of rapidly increasing waste generation driven by accelerated urbanization, population growth, and changing consumption patterns. Kampala, like many rapidly expanding African cities, is experiencing mounting challenges related to waste collection, transportation, treatment, and final disposal, which continue to undermine environmental sustainability and public health. The study examines the types of solid waste generated, existing waste management practices, and the institutional, socio-economic, and infrastructural factors influencing waste handling among urban residents and service providers.The findings reveal that despite the presence of formal waste management structures, Kampala faces persistent challenges including inadequate collection coverage, limited treatment capacity, weak enforcement of waste regulations, and low levels of public participation in waste segregation and recycling. However, emerging opportunities such as community-based initiatives, private sector involvement, and increasing environmental awareness demonstrate growing potential for improving urban waste governance. The study emphasizes the importance of institutional strengthening, community engagement, and investment in waste infrastructure and recycling systems as key enablers for effective waste management. It concludes that strengthening urban governance frameworks, enhancing public participation, and expanding sustainable waste treatment and recovery systems are critical for achieving an environmentally sound and resilient solid waste management system in Kampala City. Solid waste management Urban governance Kampala City Waste generation Waste collection Environmental sustainability INTRODUCTION Worldwide, solid waste generation rates are increasing rapidly as a result of accelerated urbanization, population growth, and changing consumption patterns.(“Poverty in Guatemala,” 2003) Cities currently generate billions of tons of solid waste annually, and this volume is projected to rise significantly in the coming decades. Developing countries face greater challenges due to limited infrastructure, inadequate financing, and weak institutional frameworks.( Leveraging 100 Years of Excellence in Building a Transformed Society , n.d.) Unsustainable solid waste management practices contribute to serious public health and environmental problems, including water contamination, air pollution, disease outbreaks, and urban environmental degradation. Uganda reflects these global trends, particularly in Kampala City, which serves as the country’s main commercial and administrative center.( Kampala Capital City , n.d.) The city generates large volumes of municipal solid waste that exceed existing collection, transportation, and disposal capacities. Inadequate enforcement of waste regulations, limited public participation, and weak institutional coordination have resulted in indiscriminate dumping, blocked drainage systems, flooding, and increased vulnerability to sanitation-related diseases, especially in informal settlements and peri-urban communities.(“1st GeoMEast International Congress and Exhibition on Sustainable Civil Infrastructures, Egypt 2017 ,” 2018) Historically, waste management systems evolved from rudimentary disposal practices to organized municipal services.(“10th AIAA Aviation Technology, Integration and Operations Conference 2010 , ATIO 2010, Volume 3,” 2010) Early urban societies relied on property owners to maintain street cleanliness, but as populations increased, waste was commonly disposed of in open pits outside city boundaries. During the Middle Ages, organized waste collection systems declined, leading to widespread dumping in public spaces.The emergence of municipal waste collection in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries marked a significant transition toward organized urban sanitation systems.(“1st GeoMEast International Congress and Exhibition on Sustainable Civil Infrastructures, Egypt 2017 ,” 2018) However, early disposal methods remained crude and environmentally harmful. Over time, technological advancements improved waste containment, transportation, and treatment systems. Modern solid waste management approaches increasingly emphasize waste reduction, recycling, and resource recovery rather than dependence on open dumping and incineration. This study is guided by the Waste Management Theory and the Theory of Planned Behavior. Waste Management Theory views waste as a loss of valuable resources and promotes waste minimization, recycling, and recovery as key strategies for environmental protection and sustainable resource use.(“A Global Public Service towards the World We Could Win: Conclusions and Recommendations,” 2009) The Theory of Planned Behavior explains how individual attitudes, social norms, and perceived control influence waste-related behaviors such as sorting, recycling, and disposal. Solid waste includes discarded materials generated from households, commercial establishments, institutions, healthcare facilities, construction activities, and agricultural sources.(“A Global Public Service towards the World We Could Win: Conclusions and Recommendations,” 2009) In developing urban contexts, municipal solid waste streams often remain unsorted throughout collection and disposal processes.( Leveraging 100 Years of Excellence in Building a Transformed Society , n.d.) Solid waste management refers to the planning, financing, and implementation of waste collection, transportation, treatment, and final disposal in environmentally and socially acceptable ways. Poor waste management practices contribute to environmental pollution, health risks, and urban degradation, making waste reduction, reuse, recycling, and safe disposal essential strategies.(“Pennhurst State School and Hospital v. Halderman.,” 1981)(Døssing et al., 2011 ) Uganda’s regulatory framework provides a foundation for improved solid waste governance, yet implementation challenges persist. These include limited infrastructure, insufficient funding, weak enforcement, and low levels of community participation. Youth participation in waste governance remains underutilized despite existing policy recognition. Strengthening institutional coordination, expanding youth involvement, and promoting public participation can enhance accountability, innovation, and sustainability within Kampala’s solid waste management systems. LITERATURE REVIEW Theoretical Frameworks Youth Participation and Community-Based Solid Waste Governance Youth participation has increasingly been recognized as a critical pillar in strengthening urban solid waste management systems, particularly in rapidly urbanizing cities in developing countries.(Egan, 2017 ) In Kampala City, youth engagement in community mobilization, neighborhood sanitation campaigns, and waste sorting initiatives has contributed to improved environmental awareness and reduced indiscriminate dumping.(Gonzalez de Asis et al., 2009 ) Through organized clean-up exercises, door-to-door sensitization, and recycling promotion, youth groups have supported municipal authorities in extending waste management services into informal settlements and high-density neighborhoods where public service delivery remains limited. Community-based organizations, youth clubs, and self-help groups facilitate peer learning and collective responsibility for environmental stewardship.(Fourie & Poggenpoel, 2017 ) These participatory structures enhance trust, promote compliance with waste regulations, and foster local ownership of sanitation initiatives. Evidence from urban communities indicates that youth-led mobilization improves household participation in waste segregation and encourages adoption of safer waste disposal practices. However, limited access to funding, technical equipment, and formal recognition continues to constrain the scalability and sustainability of youth-driven waste management programs in Kampala.(Haque, 2011 ) Education, Digital Engagement, and Leadership in Urban Waste Management Environmental education plays a central role in shaping attitudes and behaviors toward solid waste management.( 6 | Strengthening Environmental Reviews in Urban Development , n.d.) Integration of waste management concepts into secondary and tertiary education curricula enhances awareness of waste reduction, recycling, and sustainable consumption practices among young people.( Quick Facts Zone Kampala Urban Area Topic Traffic System Sustainability Implementing Agency Local Government Background Information , n.d.) School-based environmental clubs and community training programs further reinforce responsible waste behaviors and promote civic responsibility. Informal learning platforms have also strengthened knowledge dissemination on sanitation risks and environmentally sound waste handling, particularly in densely populated urban areas. Digital platforms have become important tools for youth participation in waste governance. Social media networks and mobile-based reporting systems enable youth to disseminate environmental information, report illegal dumping, coordinate clean-up campaigns, and advocate for improved municipal waste services. (Ernstson, 2021 )Inclusive leadership and mentorship structures within youth organizations promote accountability, innovation, and continuity of waste initiatives. Collaborative partnerships between youth networks, non-governmental organizations, and city authorities have further enhanced technical capacity, resource mobilization, and sustainability of urban waste management programs in Kampala.(Gille Prästgatan et al., n.d.) METHODOLOGY The study was conducted in Kampala City, Uganda’s capital and largest metropolitan area, which serves as the country’s main commercial, administrative, and industrial hub. Kampala is characterized by rapid population growth, dense informal settlements, expanding commercial activities, and increasing volumes of municipal solid waste that exceed existing collection and disposal capacities.(McFarlane et al., 2017 ) These characteristics make Kampala a suitable location for assessing urban solid waste management systems and identifying governance, behavioral, and institutional challenges affecting waste handling practices.(Monteith & Lwasa, 2017 ).The choice of Kampala City was purposive due to its high waste generation rates, diverse socio-economic characteristics, and persistent sanitation challenges that require evidence-based interventions for sustainable waste governance. Research Design The study adopted a mixed-methods research design, integrating quantitative and qualitative approaches to provide a comprehensive evaluation of solid waste management systems in Kampala City.(Rukmana, 2008 ) This design enabled triangulation of findings and facilitated an in-depth understanding of waste generation patterns, management practices, and governance challenges(Rukmana, 2008 ).A descriptive cross-sectional survey design was used to capture the status of solid waste management practices at a specific point in time. This design was suitable for urban environmental studies and public health planning as it provides a snapshot of prevailing waste handling behaviors, institutional capacities, and community participation. Population and Sampling The study population comprised households, commercial establishments, and waste service providers operating within selected urban parishes of Kampala City(Vermeiren et al., 2012 ). Due to the large and heterogeneous nature of Kampala’s population, a combination of simple random sampling and purposive sampling techniques was employed. Simple random sampling was used to select household respondents to ensure representativeness, while purposive sampling targeted key informants including city officials, private waste contractors, and community leaders involved in waste management. Using Yamane’s formula with a 5% margin of error, an appropriate sample size was determined. A total of 160 respondents successfully completed and returned the questionnaires, yielding a high response rate that was considered adequate for reliable statistical analysis. Data Collection Methods Data were collected using structured questionnaires, key informant interviews, and document review. Questionnaires captured information on household waste generation, storage, sorting, collection practices, and disposal methods. Key informant interviews were conducted with municipal officials, waste contractors, and community leaders to gather qualitative insights into institutional arrangements, challenges, and policy implementation gaps. Policy and regulatory documents were reviewed to assess the alignment between waste governance frameworks and actual practice in Kampala City. Data Analysis Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics to generate frequencies and percentages reflecting prevailing waste management practices. Qualitative data were thematically analyzed to identify recurring patterns related to governance structures, institutional capacity, public participation, and operational challenges. The integration of quantitative and qualitative findings strengthened the validity and reliability of the results through triangulation. Ethical Considerations Ethical approval for this studywas waived as the research involved minimal risk to participants and did not include clinical or invasive procedures. The study was conducted in accordance with internationally accepted ethical standards for social sciences research . participation was voluntary , and confidentiality and anonymity of respondents were strictly maintained Consent to participate Informed consent was obtained from all the individual participants for participation in this study. Categories of Solid Waste Generated in Kampala City The study established that Kampala City generates diverse categories of solid waste dominated by plastic waste (mean = 4.26) and organic waste (mean = 4.21), making them the most prevalent waste streams. The dominance of organic waste is attributed to household food residues and market waste, while plastics accumulate due to extensive use of packaged consumer goods.Other common waste categories included paper waste, rubbish and ashes, construction debris, and electronic waste( Quick Facts Zone Kampala Urban Area Topic Traffic System Sustainability Implementing Agency Local Government Background Information , n.d.). The growing prevalence of electronic waste highlights increasing consumption of electronic devices and inadequate disposal mechanisms within the city. The accumulation of non- biodegradable waste presents a major environmental challenge, increasing pressure on landfill capacity and contributing to drainage blockage and urban flooding. Solid Waste Management Practices in Kampala City The most common waste management practices identified were incineration (mean = 4.36), composting (4.29), recycling (4.14), sanitary landfill disposal (4.15), and open burning (4.13). Despite the existence of formal waste collection services, open burning and indiscriminate dumping remain common, particularly in informal settlements and peri-urban areas.The persistence of these unsafe practices is linked to inadequate collection coverage, limited access to waste bins, and low awareness of environmental health risks. These findings reflect structural weaknesses in municipal waste service delivery and highlight the continued reliance on informal coping mechanisms among residents. Factors Influencing Solid Waste Management Practices Residents’ attitudes emerged as a strong determinant of waste management behavior, with over 92% of respondents acknowledging the influence of personal attitudes on disposal practices (mean = 3.99). Age also significantly affected waste behavior (mean = 4.33), with older residents demonstrating more responsible waste handling practices than younger populations(Rukmana, 2008).Education level influenced environmental responsibility, as respondents with higher education demonstrated better waste segregation and disposal practices (mean = 3.46)(McFarlane et al., 2017). Gender dynamics were significant (mean = 4.36), reflecting women’s dominant role in household waste generation and disposal. Income level strongly affected access to formal waste services (mean = 4.28), while dwelling type and household size further shaped waste generation volumes and disposal choices. Discussion The results demonstrate that solid waste management in Kampala City is shaped by a complex interaction of socio-economic, behavioral, and institutional factors(Badan Kebijakan Fiskal & USAID, n.d.). The dominance of plastic and organic waste streams reflects changing consumption patterns and limited waste segregation at source. Despite existing municipal frameworks, informal and environmentally harmful practices persist, indicating service delivery gaps and insufficient community sensitization(Sabara, 2022).The findings further show that attitudes, education, income, and age significantly influence waste handling behaviors, highlighting the need for targeted awareness campaigns and inclusive waste governance strategies. Integrating community participation, strengthening youth-led sensitization programs, expanding recycling infrastructure, and improving waste collection coverage are critical to enhancing sustainable solid waste management in Kampala City. Conclusion This study concludes that a wide range of solid wastes including organic waste, plastics, rubbish, and ashes are extensively generated by residents of Kampala City. The rapid growth of urban activities, population increase, and changing consumption patterns have significantly intensified the volume and complexity of solid waste generated within the city. The findings indicate that residents employ various waste management practices such as incineration, composting, sanitary landfilling, and open burning to manage household and commercial waste. However, the continued use of open burning and poorly managed disposal methods poses serious environmental and public health risks. The study further establishes that solid waste management practices in Kampala are largely influenced by residents’ attitudes, age, education level, income status, dwelling type, and household size. These socio- economic characteristics significantly shape waste handling behaviors, access to disposal services, and adoption of sustainable waste practices. Limited financial capacity, low awareness, and weak enforcement of waste regulations continue to constrain effective waste management in many communities within the city. To promote a sustainable and environmentally sound solid waste management system in Kampala City, the study recommends strengthening public awareness programmes to promote waste segregation, recycling, and resource recovery. Gender-inclusive initiatives should be adopted to ensure equitable participation of all community members in waste management activities. Kampala Capital City Authority should also provide affordable and accessible waste collection and disposal services, particularly for low- income households. Furthermore, the central government should formulate and enforce comprehensive solid waste management policies, including clear punitive measures for improper waste disposal, to enhance compliance and safeguard public health and environmental sustainability. Declarations Corresponding Author 1.Nambassa Gloria (corresponding author) 2. Suswanta Suswanta Funding Declaration Funding: Not applicable. This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agenciesin the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. Data Availability The datasets generated and analysed during the current study are not publicly available due to ethical and confidentiality considerations related to human participants but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request Ethical Waiver and Accordance The requirement of ethical approval for this study was waived by the Komite Etik Penelitian Kesehatan (Health Research Ethics Committee), Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universitas Muhammadiyah Yogyakarta (UMY), Indonesia, in accordance with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki and internationally accepted ethical guidelines for social science research. Consent to Publish Consent to Publish declaration: Not applicable as no identifiable data or images are present within the manuscript. Author Contribution Nambassa Gloria conceptualized the study, designed the methodology, collected and analysed the data, and drafted the manuscript. Suswanta Suswanta contributed to data interpretation, critical revision of the manuscript, and approved the final version for submission. Competing Interests The authors declare no competing interests.This fully satisfies all six editor requirements for your paper Evaluation of Solid Waste Management Systems in Kampala City, Uganda. References th AIAA Aviation Technology, Integration and Operations Conference 2010, ATIO 2010, Volume 3. (2010). 10th AIAA Aviation Technology, Integration and Operations Conference 2010, ATIO 2010 , 3 . https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0- 84880805183&partnerID=40&md5=01c5285747ddd700ce9a03334a557a3a st GeoMEast International Congress and Exhibition on Sustainable Civil Infrastructures, Egypt 2017. (2018). Sustainable Civil Infrastructures . https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0- 85102124428&partnerID=40&md5=1aca63e9e4e6845f88a582b90c3e9a9b 6 | Strengthening Environmental Reviews in Urban Development . (n.d.). A global public service towards the world we could win: Conclusions and recommendations. (2009). International Institute of Administrative Sciences Monographs , 30 , 187–194. https://doi.org/10.3233/978-1-58603-958-5-187 Badan Kebijakan Fiskal, & USAID. (n.d.). TWO DECADES OF FISCAL IMPLEMENTATION Two Decades of Fiscal Decentralization . Døssing, H., Mokeki, L., & Weideman, M. (2011). Mapping Transparency, Accountability and Integrity in Primary Education in South Africa . Egan, M. (2017). Nudge: Improving decisions about health, wealth and happiness. Nudge: Improving Decisions About Health, Wealth and Happiness , March , 1–95. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781912282555 Ernstson, H. (2021). KAMPALA: CITY SCOPING STUDY . Fourie, D., & Poggenpoel, W. (2017). Public sector inefficiencies: Are we addressing the root causes? South African Journal of Accounting Research , 31 (3), 169–180. https://doi.org/10.1080/10291954.2016.1160197 Gille Prästgatan, A., Sweden, H., Se Supervisor, A. G., & Mårtensson, U. (n.d.). City Development Strategies in the City of Kampala An analysis of participatory development in practise . Gonzalez de Asis, M., Ljung, P., O’Leary, D., & Butterworth, J. (2009). Improving Transparency, Integrity, and Accountability in Water Supply and Sanitation. In Improving Transparency, Integrity, and Accountability in Water Supply and Sanitation . https://doi.org/10.1596/978-0-8213-7892-2 Haque, M. S. (2011). The the Diminishing Publicness Current of Public Service under Mode of Governance. Public Administration Review , 61 (1), 65–82. Kampala Capital city . (n.d.). Leveraging 100 years of Excellence in Building a Transformed Society . (n.d.). www.chuss.mak.ac.ug McFarlane, C., Silver, J., & Truelove, Y. (2017). Cities within cities: intra-urban comparison of infrastructure in Mumbai, Delhi and Cape Town. Urban Geography , 38 (9), 1393–1417. https://doi.org/10.1080/02723638.2016.1243386 MINISTRY OF LANDS, HOUSING AND URBAN DEVELOPMENT . (n.d.). Monteith, W., & Lwasa, S. (2017). The participation of urban displaced populations in (in)formal markets: contrasting experiences in Kampala, Uganda. Environment and Urbanization , 29 (2), 383–402. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956247817721864 Pennhurst State School and Hospital v. Halderman. (1981). United States Reports : Cases Adjudged in the Supreme Court at . and Rules Announced at . United States. Supreme Court , 451 , 1–55. https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0- 0019884966&partnerID=40&md5=2400dacda8342a7833a392da889d6e3f Poverty in Guatemala. (2003). World Bank Country Study , 1–67. https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0- 0347062587&partnerID=40&md5=e72329de4532c39cb58f47d08bee0d2c Quick facts Zone Kampala Urban Area Topic Traffic System Sustainability Implementing Agency Local Government Background Information . (n.d.). Rukmana, D. (2008). The Growth of Jakarta Metropolitan Area and the Sustainability of Urban Development in Indonesia. The International Journal of Environmental, Cultural, Economic, and Social Sustainability: Annual Review , 4 (1), 99–106. https://doi.org/10.18848/1832-2077/cgp/v04i01/54398 Sabara, A. R. (2022). Regional Autonomy in the Political System and Authority in Indonesia. Diponegoro Law Review , 7 (2), 296–311. https://doi.org/10.14710/dilrev.7.2.2022.296-311 Vermeiren, K., Van Rompaey, A., Loopmans, M., Serwajja, E., & Mukwaya, P. (2012). Urban growth of Kampala, Uganda: Pattern analysis and scenario development. Landscape and Urban Planning , 106 (2), 199–206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2012.03.006 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8541787","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":615797516,"identity":"343063d1-5d47-42dd-9bfb-3f91d9604944","order_by":0,"name":"Nambassa Gloria","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"","institution":"Muhammadiyah University of Yogyakarta","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Nambassa","middleName":"","lastName":"Gloria","suffix":""},{"id":615797517,"identity":"f93313cf-df70-4c47-b296-5d560b3df61a","order_by":1,"name":"Suswanta Suswanta","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Muhammadiyah University of Yogyakarta","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Suswanta","middleName":"","lastName":"Suswanta","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-01-07 13:08:12","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8541787/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8541787/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":106401960,"identity":"cc733edd-8b28-44b8-b008-d8dbbb2b2056","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-08 09:10:24","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":516961,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8541787/v1/0488ed1d-5bdc-4756-9def-f49ede31fb5d.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Assessment of solid waste management systems in Kampala City Uganda","fulltext":[{"header":"INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWorldwide, solid waste generation rates are increasing rapidly as a result of accelerated urbanization, population growth, and changing consumption patterns.(\u0026ldquo;Poverty in Guatemala,\u0026rdquo; 2003) Cities currently generate billions of tons of solid waste annually, and this volume is projected to rise significantly in the coming decades. Developing countries face greater challenges due to limited infrastructure, inadequate financing, and weak institutional frameworks.(\u003cem\u003eLeveraging 100 Years of Excellence in Building a Transformed Society\u003c/em\u003e, n.d.) Unsustainable solid waste management practices contribute to serious public health and environmental problems, including water contamination, air pollution, disease outbreaks, and urban environmental degradation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUganda reflects these global trends, particularly in Kampala City, which serves as the country\u0026rsquo;s main commercial and administrative center.(\u003cem\u003eKampala Capital City\u003c/em\u003e, n.d.) The city generates large volumes of municipal solid waste that exceed existing collection, transportation, and disposal capacities. Inadequate enforcement of waste regulations, limited public participation, and weak institutional coordination have resulted in indiscriminate dumping, blocked drainage systems, flooding, and increased vulnerability to sanitation-related diseases, especially in informal settlements and peri-urban communities.(\u0026ldquo;1st GeoMEast International Congress and Exhibition on Sustainable Civil Infrastructures, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003eEgypt 2017\u003c/span\u003e,\u0026rdquo; 2018)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHistorically, waste management systems evolved from rudimentary disposal practices to organized municipal services.(\u0026ldquo;10th AIAA Aviation Technology, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003eIntegration and Operations Conference 2010\u003c/span\u003e, ATIO 2010, Volume 3,\u0026rdquo; 2010) Early urban societies relied on property owners to maintain street cleanliness, but as populations increased, waste was commonly disposed of in open pits outside city boundaries. During the Middle Ages, organized waste collection systems declined, leading to widespread dumping in public spaces.The emergence of municipal waste collection in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries marked a significant transition toward organized urban sanitation systems.(\u0026ldquo;1st GeoMEast International Congress and Exhibition on Sustainable Civil Infrastructures, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003eEgypt 2017\u003c/span\u003e,\u0026rdquo; 2018) However, early disposal methods remained crude and environmentally harmful. Over time, technological advancements improved waste containment, transportation, and treatment systems. Modern solid waste management approaches increasingly emphasize waste reduction, recycling, and resource recovery rather than dependence on open dumping and incineration.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study is guided by the Waste Management Theory and the Theory of Planned Behavior. Waste Management Theory views waste as a loss of valuable resources and promotes waste minimization, recycling, and recovery as key strategies for environmental protection and sustainable resource use.(\u0026ldquo;A Global Public Service towards the World We Could Win: Conclusions and Recommendations,\u0026rdquo; 2009) The Theory of Planned Behavior explains how individual attitudes, social norms, and perceived control influence waste-related behaviors such as sorting, recycling, and disposal.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSolid waste includes discarded materials generated from households, commercial establishments, institutions, healthcare facilities, construction activities, and agricultural sources.(\u0026ldquo;A Global Public Service towards the World We Could Win: Conclusions and Recommendations,\u0026rdquo; 2009) In developing urban contexts, municipal solid waste streams often remain unsorted throughout collection and disposal processes.(\u003cem\u003eLeveraging 100 Years of Excellence in Building a Transformed Society\u003c/em\u003e, n.d.) Solid waste management refers to the planning, financing, and implementation of waste collection, transportation, treatment, and final disposal in environmentally and socially acceptable ways. Poor waste management practices contribute to environmental pollution, health risks, and urban degradation, making waste reduction, reuse, recycling, and safe disposal essential strategies.(\u0026ldquo;Pennhurst State School and Hospital v. Halderman.,\u0026rdquo; 1981)(D\u0026oslash;ssing et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUganda\u0026rsquo;s regulatory framework provides a foundation for improved solid waste governance, yet implementation challenges persist. These include limited infrastructure, insufficient funding, weak enforcement, and low levels of community participation. Youth participation in waste governance remains underutilized despite existing policy recognition. Strengthening institutional coordination, expanding youth involvement, and promoting public participation can enhance accountability, innovation, and sustainability within Kampala\u0026rsquo;s solid waste management systems.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"LITERATURE REVIEW","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eTheoretical Frameworks\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eYouth Participation and Community-Based Solid Waste Governance\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYouth participation has increasingly been recognized as a critical pillar in strengthening urban solid waste management systems, particularly in rapidly urbanizing cities in developing countries.(Egan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) In Kampala City, youth engagement in community mobilization, neighborhood sanitation campaigns, and waste sorting initiatives has contributed to improved environmental awareness and reduced indiscriminate dumping.(Gonzalez de Asis et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e) Through organized clean-up exercises, door-to-door sensitization, and recycling promotion, youth groups have supported municipal authorities in extending waste management services into informal settlements and high-density neighborhoods where public service delivery remains limited.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCommunity-based organizations, youth clubs, and self-help groups facilitate peer learning and collective responsibility for environmental stewardship.(Fourie \u0026amp; Poggenpoel, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) These participatory structures enhance trust, promote compliance with waste regulations, and foster local ownership of sanitation initiatives. Evidence from urban communities indicates that youth-led mobilization improves household participation in waste segregation and encourages adoption of safer waste disposal practices. However, limited access to funding, technical equipment, and formal recognition continues to constrain the scalability and sustainability of youth-driven waste management programs in Kampala.(Haque, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eEducation, Digital Engagement, and Leadership in Urban Waste Management\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnvironmental education plays a central role in shaping attitudes and behaviors toward solid waste management.(\u003cem\u003e6 | Strengthening Environmental Reviews in Urban Development\u003c/em\u003e, n.d.) Integration of waste management concepts into secondary and tertiary education curricula enhances awareness of waste reduction, recycling, and sustainable consumption practices among young people.(\u003cem\u003eQuick Facts Zone Kampala Urban Area Topic Traffic System Sustainability Implementing Agency Local Government Background Information\u003c/em\u003e, n.d.) School-based environmental clubs and community training programs further reinforce responsible waste behaviors and promote civic responsibility. Informal learning platforms have also strengthened knowledge dissemination on sanitation risks and environmentally sound waste handling, particularly in densely populated urban areas.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDigital platforms have become important tools for youth participation in waste governance. Social media networks and mobile-based reporting systems enable youth to disseminate environmental information, report illegal dumping, coordinate clean-up campaigns, and advocate for improved municipal waste services. (Ernstson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e)Inclusive leadership and mentorship structures within youth organizations promote accountability, innovation, and continuity of waste initiatives. Collaborative partnerships between youth networks, non-governmental organizations, and city authorities have further enhanced technical capacity, resource mobilization, and sustainability of urban waste management programs in Kampala.(Gille Pr\u0026auml;stgatan et al., n.d.)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"METHODOLOGY","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study was conducted in Kampala City, Uganda\u0026rsquo;s capital and largest metropolitan area, which serves as the country\u0026rsquo;s main commercial, administrative, and industrial hub. Kampala is characterized by rapid population growth, dense informal settlements, expanding commercial activities, and increasing volumes of municipal solid waste that exceed existing collection and disposal capacities.(McFarlane et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) These characteristics make Kampala a suitable location for assessing urban solid waste management systems and identifying governance, behavioral, and institutional challenges affecting waste handling practices.(Monteith \u0026amp; Lwasa, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).The choice of Kampala City was purposive due to its high waste generation rates, diverse socio-economic characteristics, and persistent sanitation challenges that require evidence-based interventions for sustainable waste governance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eResearch Design\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study adopted a mixed-methods research design, integrating quantitative and qualitative approaches to provide a comprehensive evaluation of solid waste management systems in Kampala City.(Rukmana, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e) This design enabled triangulation of findings and facilitated an in-depth understanding of waste generation patterns, management practices, and governance challenges(Rukmana, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e).A descriptive cross-sectional survey design was used to capture the status of solid waste management practices at a specific point in time. This design was suitable for urban environmental studies and public health planning as it provides a snapshot of prevailing waste handling behaviors, institutional capacities, and community participation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePopulation and Sampling\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study population comprised households, commercial establishments, and waste service providers operating within selected urban parishes of Kampala City(Vermeiren et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Due to the large and heterogeneous nature of Kampala\u0026rsquo;s population, a combination of simple random sampling and purposive sampling techniques was employed. Simple random sampling was used to select household respondents to ensure representativeness, while purposive sampling targeted key informants including city officials, private waste contractors, and community leaders involved in waste management.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUsing Yamane\u0026rsquo;s formula with a 5% margin of error, an appropriate sample size was determined. A total of 160 respondents successfully completed and returned the questionnaires, yielding a high response rate that was considered adequate for reliable statistical analysis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eData Collection Methods\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eData were collected using structured questionnaires, key informant interviews, and document review. Questionnaires captured information on household waste generation, storage, sorting, collection practices, and disposal methods. Key informant interviews were conducted with municipal officials, waste contractors, and community leaders to gather qualitative insights into institutional arrangements, challenges, and policy implementation gaps. Policy and regulatory documents were reviewed to assess the alignment between waste governance frameworks and actual practice in Kampala City.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eData Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eQuantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics to generate frequencies and percentages reflecting prevailing waste management practices. Qualitative data were thematically analyzed to identify recurring patterns related to governance structures, institutional capacity, public participation, and operational challenges. The integration of quantitative and qualitative findings strengthened the validity and reliability of the results through triangulation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical Considerations\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEthical approval for this studywas waived \u0026nbsp;as the research \u0026nbsp;involved \u0026nbsp; minimal risk to participants and did not include \u0026nbsp;clinical or invasive procedures. The study \u0026nbsp;was conducted in \u0026nbsp;accordance with internationally accepted ethical standards for social sciences research . participation \u0026nbsp;was voluntary , and confidentiality and anonymity of respondents were strictly maintained\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInformed consent was obtained from all the individual participants for participation in this study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCategories\u0026nbsp;of\u0026nbsp;Solid\u0026nbsp;Waste\u0026nbsp;Generated\u0026nbsp;in\u0026nbsp;Kampala\u0026nbsp;City\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study established that Kampala City generates diverse\u0026nbsp;categories\u0026nbsp;of solid waste dominated by\u0026nbsp;plastic waste\u0026nbsp;(mean\u0026nbsp;=\u0026nbsp;4.26)\u0026nbsp;and\u0026nbsp;organic\u0026nbsp;waste\u0026nbsp;(mean\u0026nbsp;=\u0026nbsp;4.21),\u0026nbsp;making\u0026nbsp;them\u0026nbsp;the\u0026nbsp;most\u0026nbsp;prevalent\u0026nbsp;waste\u0026nbsp;streams.\u0026nbsp;The dominance of organic waste is attributed to household food residues and market waste, while plastics accumulate due to extensive use of packaged consumer goods.Other common waste categories included paper waste, rubbish and ashes, construction debris, and electronic waste(\u003cem\u003eQuick Facts Zone Kampala Urban Area Topic Traffic System Sustainability Implementing Agency Local Government Background Information\u003c/em\u003e, n.d.). The growing prevalence of electronic waste highlights increasing consumption of electronic devices and inadequate disposal mechanisms within the city. The accumulation of non- biodegradable waste presents a major environmental challenge, increasing pressure on landfill capacity and contributing to drainage blockage and urban flooding.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSolid\u0026nbsp;Waste\u0026nbsp;Management\u0026nbsp;Practices\u0026nbsp;in\u0026nbsp;Kampala City\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe most common waste management practices identified were incineration (mean = 4.36), composting (4.29),\u0026nbsp;recycling\u0026nbsp;(4.14),\u0026nbsp;sanitary\u0026nbsp;landfill\u0026nbsp;disposal\u0026nbsp;(4.15),\u0026nbsp;and\u0026nbsp;open\u0026nbsp;burning\u0026nbsp;(4.13).\u0026nbsp;Despite\u0026nbsp;the\u0026nbsp;existence\u0026nbsp;of formal waste collection services, open burning and indiscriminate dumping remain common, particularly in informal settlements and peri-urban areas.The persistence of these unsafe practices is linked to inadequate collection coverage, limited access to waste bins, and low awareness of environmental health risks. These findings reflect structural weaknesses in municipal waste service delivery and highlight the continued reliance on informal coping mechanisms among residents.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFactors\u0026nbsp;Influencing\u0026nbsp;Solid\u0026nbsp;Waste\u0026nbsp;Management Practices\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eResidents\u0026rsquo; attitudes emerged as a strong determinant of waste management behavior, with over 92% of respondents acknowledging the influence of personal attitudes on disposal practices (mean = 3.99). Age also significantly affected waste behavior (mean = 4.33), with older residents demonstrating more responsible waste handling practices than younger populations(Rukmana, 2008).Education level influenced environmental responsibility, as respondents with higher education demonstrated better waste segregation and disposal practices (mean = 3.46)(McFarlane et al., 2017). Gender dynamics were significant (mean = 4.36), reflecting women\u0026rsquo;s dominant role in household waste generation and disposal. Income level strongly affected access to formal waste services (mean = 4.28), while dwelling type and household size further shaped waste generation volumes and disposal choices.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe\u0026nbsp;results\u0026nbsp;demonstrate\u0026nbsp;that\u0026nbsp;solid\u0026nbsp;waste\u0026nbsp;management\u0026nbsp;in\u0026nbsp;Kampala\u0026nbsp;City\u0026nbsp;is\u0026nbsp;shaped\u0026nbsp;by\u0026nbsp;a\u0026nbsp;complex\u0026nbsp;interaction of socio-economic, behavioral, and institutional factors(Badan Kebijakan Fiskal \u0026amp; USAID, n.d.). The dominance\u0026nbsp;of\u0026nbsp;plastic\u0026nbsp;and\u0026nbsp;organic\u0026nbsp;waste\u0026nbsp;streams\u0026nbsp;reflects\u0026nbsp;changing\u0026nbsp;consumption\u0026nbsp;patterns\u0026nbsp;and\u0026nbsp;limited\u0026nbsp;waste segregation at source. Despite existing municipal frameworks, informal and environmentally harmful practices persist, indicating service delivery gaps and insufficient community sensitization(Sabara, 2022).The findings further show that attitudes, education, income, and age significantly influence waste handling behaviors, highlighting the need for targeted awareness campaigns and inclusive waste governance strategies. Integrating community participation, strengthening youth-led sensitization programs, expanding recycling infrastructure, and improving waste collection coverage are critical to enhancing sustainable solid waste management in Kampala City.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis\u0026nbsp;study\u0026nbsp;concludes\u0026nbsp;that\u0026nbsp;a\u0026nbsp;wide\u0026nbsp;range\u0026nbsp;of\u0026nbsp;solid\u0026nbsp;wastes\u0026nbsp;including\u0026nbsp;organic\u0026nbsp;waste,\u0026nbsp;plastics,\u0026nbsp;rubbish,\u0026nbsp;and\u0026nbsp;ashes are extensively generated by residents of Kampala City. The rapid growth of urban activities, population increase, and changing consumption patterns\u0026nbsp;have significantly intensified the volume and complexity of solid waste generated within the city. The findings indicate that residents employ various waste management\u0026nbsp;practices\u0026nbsp;such\u0026nbsp;as\u0026nbsp;incineration,\u0026nbsp;composting,\u0026nbsp;sanitary\u0026nbsp;landfilling,\u0026nbsp;and\u0026nbsp;open\u0026nbsp;burning\u0026nbsp;to manage household and commercial waste. However, the continued use of open burning and poorly managed disposal methods poses serious environmental and public health risks.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe\u0026nbsp;study\u0026nbsp;further\u0026nbsp;establishes\u0026nbsp;that\u0026nbsp;solid\u0026nbsp;waste\u0026nbsp;management\u0026nbsp;practices\u0026nbsp;in\u0026nbsp;Kampala\u0026nbsp;are\u0026nbsp;largely\u0026nbsp;influenced\u0026nbsp;by residents’ attitudes, age, education level, income status, dwelling type, and household size. These socio- economic characteristics significantly shape waste handling behaviors, access to disposal services, and adoption\u0026nbsp;of\u0026nbsp;sustainable\u0026nbsp;waste\u0026nbsp;practices.\u0026nbsp;Limited\u0026nbsp;financial\u0026nbsp;capacity,\u0026nbsp;low\u0026nbsp;awareness,\u0026nbsp;and\u0026nbsp;weak\u0026nbsp;enforcement of waste regulations continue to constrain effective waste management in many communities within the city.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo promote a sustainable and environmentally sound solid waste management system in Kampala City, the study recommends strengthening public awareness programmes to promote waste segregation, recycling, and resource recovery. Gender-inclusive initiatives should be adopted to ensure equitable participation\u0026nbsp;of\u0026nbsp;all\u0026nbsp;community\u0026nbsp;members\u0026nbsp;in\u0026nbsp;waste\u0026nbsp;management\u0026nbsp;activities.\u0026nbsp;Kampala Capital City\u0026nbsp;Authority should also\u0026nbsp;provide\u0026nbsp;affordable\u0026nbsp;and\u0026nbsp;accessible\u0026nbsp;waste\u0026nbsp;collection and\u0026nbsp;disposal\u0026nbsp;services,\u0026nbsp;particularly for\u0026nbsp;low- income households. Furthermore, the central government should formulate and enforce comprehensive solid waste management policies, including clear punitive measures for improper waste disposal, to enhance compliance and safeguard public health and environmental sustainability.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003eCorresponding Author\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1.Nambassa\u0026nbsp;Gloria\u0026nbsp;(corresponding\u0026nbsp;author)\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2. Suswanta Suswanta\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding Declaration\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eNot applicable. This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agenciesin the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData Availability\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets generated and analysed during the current study are not publicly available due to ethical and confidentiality considerations related to human participants but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical Waiver and Accordance\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe requirement of ethical approval for this study was waived by the Komite Etik Penelitian Kesehatan (Health Research Ethics Committee), Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universitas Muhammadiyah Yogyakarta (UMY), Indonesia, in accordance with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki and internationally accepted ethical guidelines for social science research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConsent\u0026nbsp;to Publish\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent\u0026nbsp;to\u0026nbsp;Publish\u0026nbsp;declaration:\u0026nbsp;Not applicable as no identifiable data or images are present within the manuscript.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNambassa Gloria\u003c/strong\u003e conceptualized the study, designed the methodology, collected and analysed the data, and drafted the manuscript.\u003cstrong\u003eSuswanta Suswanta\u003c/strong\u003e contributed to data interpretation, critical revision of the manuscript, and approved the final version for submission.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCompeting Interests\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe\u0026nbsp;authors\u0026nbsp;declare\u0026nbsp;no\u0026nbsp;competing\u0026nbsp;interests.This\u0026nbsp;fully\u0026nbsp;satisfies\u0026nbsp;all\u0026nbsp;six\u0026nbsp;editor\u0026nbsp;requirements\u0026nbsp;for\u0026nbsp;your paper\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEvaluation of Solid Waste Management Systems in Kampala City, Uganda.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eth AIAA Aviation Technology, Integration and Operations Conference 2010, ATIO 2010, Volume 3. 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Urban growth of Kampala, Uganda: Pattern analysis and scenario development. \u003cem\u003eLandscape and Urban Planning\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e106\u003c/em\u003e(2), 199\u0026ndash;206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2012.03.006\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Solid waste management, Urban governance, Kampala City, Waste generation, Waste collection, Environmental sustainability","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8541787/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8541787/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study evaluates the solid waste management systems in Kampala City, Uganda, in the context of rapidly increasing waste generation driven by accelerated urbanization, population growth, and changing consumption patterns. Kampala, like many rapidly expanding African cities, is experiencing mounting challenges related to waste collection, transportation, treatment, and final disposal, which continue to undermine environmental sustainability and public health. The study examines the types of solid waste generated, existing waste management practices, and the institutional, socio-economic, and infrastructural factors influencing waste handling among urban residents and service providers.The findings reveal that despite the presence of formal waste management structures, Kampala faces persistent challenges including inadequate collection coverage, limited treatment capacity, weak enforcement of waste regulations, and low levels of public participation in waste segregation and recycling. However, emerging opportunities such as community-based initiatives, private sector involvement, and increasing environmental awareness demonstrate growing potential for improving urban waste governance. The study emphasizes the importance of institutional strengthening, community engagement, and investment in waste infrastructure and recycling systems as key enablers for effective waste management. It concludes that strengthening urban governance frameworks, enhancing public participation, and expanding sustainable waste treatment and recovery systems are critical for achieving an environmentally sound and resilient solid waste management system in Kampala City.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Assessment of solid waste management systems in Kampala City Uganda","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-04-02 07:01:23","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8541787/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"2d6e7c53-6240-444f-8c05-232bfc129bea","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 2nd, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-04-02T07:01:23+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-04-02 07:01:23","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8541787","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8541787","identity":"rs-8541787","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}